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MASTERS 
OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


THE  WORLD'S  GREATEST  LEADERS 

IN  LITERATURE,  ART,  RELIGION 

PHILOSOPHY,  SCIENCE,  POLITICS 

AND  INDUSTRY 


EDITED   BY 

HENRY  W.  RUOFF,  M.  A.,  D.  C.  L. 

W 
Author  of  "The  Century  Book  of  Facts,"  "The  Capitals  of  the  World, 

"Leaders  of  Men,"  "The  Standard  Dictionary  of  Facts,"  Etc. 


FULL  Y  ILL  USTBA  TED 


THE  FRONTIER  PRESS  COMPANY 

BUFFALO,  N.  Y. 


CT/04 


Copyright,  1910, 
BY  THE  FRONTIER   PRESS   COMPANY. 

Copyright,  1911, 
BY  THE  FRONTIER  PRESS   COMPANY. 

Copyright,  1913, 
BY  THE  FRONTIER  PRESS   COMPANY. 


^ 


AU  Rights  Reserved. 


PREFATORY 


IN  point  of  genuine  human  interest  and  educative  value  the  life  stories  of 
individuals  stand  at  the  head  of  all  literature.  History  is  but  an  account  of 
the  connected  achievements  of  individuals.  Drama  and  fiction  draw  their 
fascination  from  the  created  individuals  which  people  the  realm  of  fancy.  The 
great  epics,  the  heroism,  the  romanticism  of  the  ages,  as  well  as  the  exploits  of 
everyday  life,  center  about  the  individual.  Personality,  in  other  words,  is  the 
supreme  factor  in  human  affairs,  and  is  daily  commanding  more  and  more  atten- 
tion in  the  curriculum  of  modern  life. 

These  facts  naturally  suggest  the  questions:  Who  are  the  great  characters  in 
the  drama  of  the  world  development  about  whom  we  should  know  ?  Who  are 
the  great  master  minds  that  have  contributed  most  to  the  development  of  civilized 
life  and  institutions  ?  What  have  they  accomplished  ?  These  questions  the 
following  pages  make  an  intelligent  attempt  to  answer,  by  placing  before  the 
general  reader  a  carefully  discriminated  selection  of  concise,  personal  studies  from 
the  great  mass  of  biographical  literature  of  all  ages  and  countries. 

In  carrying  out  this  plan  it  has  been  thought  best  to  divide  the  book  into 
two  parts,  the  first  part  being  devoted  to  one  hundred  of  the  greater  masters  of 
achievement,  and  the  second  part  to  several  thousand  other  persons,  whose 
achievements  entitle  them  to  distinguished  rank. 

Unfortunately  there  is  no  absolute  metric  unit  of  greatness.  Probably  it  is 
better  so.  But  the  consensus  of  judgment  has  singled  out  certain  great  individ- 
uals who  the  best  informed  minds  now  agree  should  be  placed  in  the  first  rank 
among  the  greatest  men  of  history.  Such  a  list  is  the  One  Hundred  included  in 
this  volume.  Not  only  has  the  editor  appealed  to  the  judgment  of  past  writers 
to  justify  his  selection,  but  he  has  also  been  greatly  assisted  in  the  final  determina- 
tion of  the  list  by  over  a  hundred  of  the  best  contemporary  authorities  — 
educators,  authors,  jurists,  journalists,  publicists,  and  other  specialists — who 
contributed  individual  lists  giving  the  results  of  their  best  judgment  in  respect  to 
each  group  of  names  finally  included.  This  method  has  assured  an  authoritative 
selection  by  a  board  of  personal  advisors  of  the  highest  order. 

The  sketches  themselves  are  necessarily  mosaics — drawn  from  the  most 
authoritative  sources — and  deal,  in  a  measurable  degree  of  completeness,  with 
the  lives,  personal  characteristics  and  achievements  of  those  selected.  They  are 
accompanied,  too,  by  numerous  full  page  illustrations  reproduced  from  the 
originals  of  great  artists,  and  in  the  case  of  foreign  names  or  those  of  unusual 
difficulty  the  phonetic  pronunciation  has  been  supplied.  This  unusual  combina- 
tion, it  is  believed,  will  make  an  especial  appeal  to  a  large  body  of  discriminating 
readers. 

The  second  part  of  the  volume  is  not  designed  as  an  exhaustive  dictionary  of 
biography  in  the  ordinary  sense.  It  is  rather  a  selected  list  of  distinguished 
names  each  of  which  stands  for  some  special  achievement  of  note  or  field  of 
endeavor.  Differing  judgments  would  probably  add  or  subtract  from  the  names 
here  included,  but  on  the  whole  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  well  informed  mind 
would  greatly  change  it. 

A  special  debt  of  gratitude  is  due  to  many  persons  throughout  the  country 
for  valuable  assistance  and  suggestions — particularly  to  the  body  of  distinguished 
educators  and  scholars  who  aided  in  the  selection  of  names. 

The  Editor. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


ONE  HUNDRED  GREAT  MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 

I.    IN  LITERATURE:  Poets;  Dramatists;  Historians;  Orators;  Essayists; 

Novelists. 

Homer  —  iEschylus  —  Sophocles  —  Herodotus  —  Demosthenes  —  Cicero  —  Vergil 

—  Plutarch  —  Dante  —  Montaigne  —  Cervantes  —  Shakespeare  —  Milton  — 
Moli^re  —  Montesquieu  —  Voltaire  —  Lessing  —  Gibbon  —  Goethe  —  Schiller 

—  Scott  — Wordsworth  —  Balzac  —  Carlyle  —  Hugo  —  Emerson  —  Browning,      9 


II.  IN  FINE  ARTS:  Sculptors;  Painters;  Musiclans;  Architects. 

Phidias  —  Leonardo  da  Vinci  —  Michaelangelo  —  Raphael  —  Titian  —  Rufoens 

—  Velasquez  —  Rembrandt  —  Bach  —  Handel  —  Mozart  —  Beethoven  — 
Wagner, 121 

III.  IN  RELIGION:  Oriental  Religions;  Christianity. 

Moses  —  Zoroaster  —  Confucius  —  Buddha  —  St.  Paul  —  St.  Augustine  —  Mo- 
hammed —  Gregory  VII. —  St.  Francis  of  Asgisi  —  Luther  —  Loyola  —  Calvin 

—  Wesley, 189 

IV.  IN  PHILOSOPHY:   Metaphysicians;    Psychologists;    Moralists;    Edu- 

cators ;   Logicians. 

Socrates  —  Plato  —  Aristotle  —  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  —  Bacon  —  Descartes  — 
Spinoza  —  Locke  —  Leibnitz  —  Hume  —  Kant  —  Hegel  —  Spencer, 254 

V.  IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY:  Naturalists;  Biologists;  Physicists; 

Mathematicians;  Chemists;  Inventors;  Discoverers. 

Gutenberg  —  Columbus  —  Copernicus  —  Palissy  —  Galileo  —  Kepler  —  Harvey  — 
Newton  —  Linnaeus  —  Arkwright  —  Watt  —  Lavoisier  —  Cuvier  —  Stephen- 
son—  Morse  —  Darwin  —  Heknholtz  —  Kelvin, 324 

VI.  IN  POLITICS:  Military  Leaders;  Statesmen;  Publicists. 

Alexander  the  Great  —  Csesar  —  Charlemagne  —  Alfred  the  Great  —  Charles  V.— 
Grotius  —  Cromwell  —  Peter  the  Great  —  Franklin  —  Frederick  the  Great  — 
Waslungton  —  Jefferson  —  Napoleon  I. —  Webster  —  Lincoln  —  Bismarck,     .  419 

FOUR  THOUSAND  OTHER  MASTERS 

From  the  Earliest  Times  Down  to  the  Present, 519-1038 


UST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


IN  FIRST  PART 

VAoma  HMM 

Homer, 9 

Demosthenes  Practicing  Oratory, 19 

Cicero  Denouncing  Catiline, 22 

Dante  and  Beatrice, 32 

Milton  Dictating  "  Paradise  Lost "  to  his  Daughters, 53 

Voltaire 67 

Goethe  and  Napoleon  I., 79 

Sir  Walter  Scott, 88 

Thomas  Carlyle, 103 

Ralph  Waldo  Emerson, 112 

Michaelangelo  at  Work  on  his  "Moses," 128 

The  Dying  Raphael 134 

Peter  Paul  Rubens,      144 

Rembrandt  in  his  Studio, 154 

Handel  and  George  I.  of  England, 164 

Beethoven  and  his  Friends, 175 

Richard  Wagner  at  Bayreuth, .    » 180 

Moses, 189 

St.  Paul  Preaching  to  the  Athenians, 206 

St.  Augustine, 212 

Luther,  Meianchthon,Pomeranus  and  Cruciger, 230 

Wesley  Preaching  to  the  Indians, 246 

Socrates  at  Athens,      254 

Aristotle  Teaching  Alexander  the  Great, 266 

Francis  Bacon, 278 

John  Locke, 295 

Immanuel  Kant, 306 

Herbert  Spencer, 318 

Gutenberg, 324 

Copernicus, 337 

Harvey  Demonstrating  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood  to  Charles  I., 354 

Linnseus, 367 

Lavoisier  and  his  Wife, 380 

Samuel  Finley  Breese  Morse, 397 

Helmholtz  in  his  Laboratory, 409 

Julius  Cffisar  at  the  Tomb  of  Alexander,      425 

Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.  at  St.  Denis, 438 

Cromwell  at  Whitehall, 449 

Peter  the  Great  in  Holland, 454 

Washington  and  Lafayette  at  Mt.  Vernon, 473 

Daniel  Webster, 494 

Abraham  Lincoln, 500 

Bismarck  at  Versailles, 511 

IN  SECOND  PART 

Theodore  Roosevelt  at  his  Desk, 519 

Alexander  Graham  Bell, 559 

William  Jennings  Bryan,    .    .    .    . ' 589 

Last  Moments  of  Charles  I., 610 

Cleopatra  SaiUng  on  the  Nile, 623 

Edison  in  his  Library, 664 

King  Edward  VII., 668 


•  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIOi      -CONTINUED 


rxcma  paob 


Queen  Elizabeth  Signing  the  Death  Warrant  of  M  iry,  Queen  of  Scots 672 

Queen  Esther  Before  Ahasuerus, 681 

Robert  Fulton, 709 

Cardinal  Gibbons  in  his  Study, 723 

Ulysses  Simpson  Grant, 735 

Lord  Grey,  Governor-general  of  Canada, 738 

Gustavus  Adolphus  before  the  Battle  of  Liitzen, 747 

Henry  IV.  at  Canossa, 769 

Alexander  von  Humboldt, 786 

Thomas  Henry  Hiixley, 793 

Jenner  Performing  his  First  Vaccination, 804 

Sir  Wilfred  Laurier, 832 

Robert  Edward  Lee, 836 

Queen  Louise  of  Prussia, 848 

William  McKinley, 856 

Queen  Maria  Theresa,     865 

John  Marshall, 869 

Maximilian  before  his  Execution,      875 

John  Stuart  Mill,      . 880 

Pasteur  in  his  Laboratory, 913 

William  Penn, 919 

Pestalozzi,  the  Children's  Friend, 920 

George  Rawlinson, 940 

Joseph  Ernest  Kenan, 947 

Cardinal  Richelieu, 951 

Rouget  de  Lisle  Singing  the  "Marseillaise," 961 

Sheridan's  Ride, 977 

William  Howard  Taft  at  Work, 998 

Tennyson  in  his  Library, 1005 

Emperor  William  II., 1031 

KEY  TO  PRONUNCIATION  OF  NAMES 


d,  as  in  farm,  father;  d,  as  in  ask,  fast;  i,  as  in  at,  fat;  6,  as  in  day,  fate;  A,  as  in  care,  fare; 
a  (unmarked)  represents  the  sound  as  neutral  or  obscure,  as  in  final,  infant,  i,  as  in  met,  set; 
e,  as  in  me,  see;  ?,  as  in  her,  ermine;  e  (unmarked)  represents  the  sound  as  neutral  or  obscure, 
as  in  novel.  ?,  as  in  pin,  ill;  t,  as  in  pine,  ice.  6,  as  in  not,  got;  0,  as  in  note,  old;  6,  as  in  for, 
fought;  db,  as  in  cook,  look;  6d,  as  in  moon,  spoon;  o  (unmarked)  represents  the  sound  as  neutral 
or  obscure,  as  in  combine.  H,  as  in  cup,  duck;  u,  as  in  use,  amuse;  H,  as  in  fur,  urge;  u  (im- 
marked)  represents  the  sound  as  neutral  or  obscure,  as  in  circus,    th,  as  in  the,  though. 

Foreign  Sounds 

o  cannot  be  exactly  represented  in  English.  The  English  sound  of  u  in  bum  and  burnt  is  per- 
haps the  nearest  equivalent  to  6.  u  cannot  be  exactly  represented  in  English.  The  English 
sound  of  u  in  luke  and  duke  resembles  the  original  sound  of  u.  n  represents  tne  nasal  tone  (as  in 
French)  of  the  preceding  vowel,  as  in  encore  (dN'-fcSr').     x  represents  ch  as  in  German  ich,  ach. 

Note. —  The  pronunciation  of  names  included  in  the  first  part  of  the  volimie  will  be  found 
in  regular  alphabetical  order  in  the  second  part. 


HOMER 

From  an  Artist  Portrait 


•       .      i  "^    e    '  ',  '   • 


HOMER 

The  poems  of  Homer  do  not  constitute  merely  a  great  item  of  the  splendid  literature  of  Greece,  but 
they  have  a  separate  position  which  none  other  can  approach.  They  and  the  manners  they  describe 
constitute  a  world  of  their  own  —  a  scheme  of  human  life  and  character  complete  in  all  its  parts.  We 
are  introduced  to  man  in  every  relation  of  which  he  is  capable,  in  every  one  of  his  arts,  devices,  institu- 
tions, in  the  entire  circle  of  his  experience. —  Gladstone. 


HOMER,  popularly  referred  to  as  the 
"father  of  song,"  will  always  remain 
the  greatest  and  most  typical  name  not  only 
in  ancient  poetry,  but  in  ancient  art  as  a 
whole.  His  personal  existence,  his  birthplace, 
and  his  era  have  proved  fertile  subjects  of 
discussion  among  literary  antiquaries.  Some 
of  these  have  maintained  that  the  Iliad  and 
the  Odyssey  —  the  chief  poems  attributed  to 
Homer  —  are  composed  of  a  variety  of  leg- 
endary ballads,  commemorative  of  incidents 
connected  with  the  siege  of  Troy,  which  were 
the  production  of  different  authors,  and  were 
revised  and  skillfully  interwoven  during  the 
age  of  Pisistratus;  and  that  the  name 
Homer  was  merely  the  impersonation  of  the 
genius  of  epic  poetry.  But  the  best  of  modern 
scholars  are  now  agreed  that  we  must  hold 
some  theory  as  to  the  nature  of  the  personality 
hidden  behind  the  poems  which  bear  his  name. 

Seven  cities  at  least  claimed  the  honor  of 
having  given  birth  to  the  poet ;  and  each  of 
them  seems  to  have  had  some  tradition  to 
allege  in  justification  of  its  claim.  The  dis- 
crepancies of  statement  respecting  the  date 
of  his  existence  are  not  less  remarkable;  for 
of  the  eight  different  epochs  assigned  to  him 
the  oldest  differs  from  the  most  recent  by  a 
period  of  460  years.  According  to  the  theory 
which  carries  with  it  the  greatest  probability. 
Homer  flourished  in  1100-1000  B.  C,  many 
years  after  the  Trojan  era. 

He  appears  to  have  been  an  Asiatic  Greek, 
and  a  native  of  Smyrna,  an  Ionian  city  on  the 
coast  of  Asia  Minor.  From  the  circumstance 
of  his  having  been  brought  forth  on  the  banks 
of  the  Meles,  a  river  which  ran  beside  the 
city,  he  is  said  to  have  obtained  the  name 
Melisigenes.    It   is  impossible,   however,    to 


come  to  any  satisfactory  conclusion  on  sub- 
jects concerning  which  history  has  given  us 
such  scanty  materials.  On  one  point  all  tra- 
ditions agree,  that  he  was  afflicted  with  blind- 
ness ;  and  his  descriptions  of  external  nature 
warrant  the  conclusion  that  this  misfortune 
arose  from  accident  or  disease,  and  not  from 
the  operation  of  nature  at  his  birth. 

The  writers  of  antiquity  unanimously  con- 
sidered the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  as  the  pro- 
ductions of  a  certain  individual  called  Homer ; 
and  there  is  no  evidence  that  the  question  of 
divided  authorship  was  ever  entertained  by 
them.  The  literature  and  the  poetry  of  that 
age  were  supplied  in  the  Greek  world,  sur- 
rounding the  iEgean  sea,  by  a  class  of  wan- 
dering minstrels  who  sang  or  recited  from 
place  to  place  the  stories  of  bygone  days. 
Some  of  the  minstrels,  no  doubt,  were  poets 
of  creative  power ;  others  adapted  or  repeated 
their  lays.  One  of  the  favorite  legends  among 
them  related  to  a  great  siege  of  the  city  of 
Troy,  or  Ilium,  in  Asia  Minor,  by  a  combined 
force  of  Greeks  from  every  tribe.  The  motive 
of  the  war  was  well  fitted  to  commend  the 
story  to  the  hospitable  halls  of  the  Greek 
chiefs.  It  was  revenge  for  the  abduction  of 
a  Greek  chieftain's  wife  by  a  foreign  guest  — 
Helen,  the  wife  of  Menelaus,  by  Paris  of  Troy. 
After  many  adventures  and  prolonged  delay 
the  invaders  took  the  city  and  burned  it. 

One  incident  in  this  story,  which  was  sung 
in  innumerable  lays,  was  seized  on  by  an 
imagination  stronger  than  the  rest,  and  was 
made  the  central  thought  and  connecting  link 
of  a  longer  lay.  It  told  of  the  wrath  of 
AchiUes,  the  chief  hero  of  the  Greeks,  who, 
wronged  by  Agamemnon,  another  leader, 
withdrew  for  some  time  from  the  fight.    It 


10 


.  '•/'  i  .'••*':  ^A^ASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


described  y,)i(?  ^.'Jfferingsi  of- th.6  Qreeks  in  the 
absence  of  the  hero,  arid  how,  at  length,  he 
was  induced,  by  indignation  and  grief  at  the 
loss  of  a  fallen  friend,  to  return  to  their 
assistance,  and  to  stem  the  tide  of  defeat. 

This  story  was  the  primitive  Iliad,  and 
forms  the  greater  part  of  the  present  poem. 
The  unity  of  the  motive  and  the  greatness  of 
the  poetry  made  the  lay  a  favorite  with  the 
bards;  but,  as  they  recited  it,  they  were 
tempted  by  local  interests  and  by  ambition 
to  add  fresh  episodes  celebrating  other  Greek 
chiefs,  besides  Achilles,  and  other  tribes.  In 
these  additions,  however,  they  maintained  the 
spirit  and  the  style  of  the  greater  bard,  and 
very  likely,  in  some  cases,  adopted  other  short 
poems.  We  may  thus  speak  of  the  Iliad  as 
the  work  of  Homer  in  much  the  same  sense 
in  which  we  speak  of  the  Parthenon  marbles 
as  the  work  of  Phidias,  though  we  cannot 
suppose  that  they  were  all  executed  by  his 
own  hand. 

The  other  great  poem  which  we  attribute 
to  the  same  name  embodies  another  fragment 
of  the  legend  of  Troy.  It  relates  the  adven- 
tures of  Odysseus  —  the  hero  of  counsel 
among  the  Greeks  at  Troy,  as  Achilles  was 
the  hero  of  war  —  on  his  journey  home  from 
Troy  to  Ithaca.  It  describes  the  troubles 
suffered  in  his  absence  by  his  wife,  Penelope, 
and  his  son,  Telemachus,  at  the  hands  of  a 
crowd  of  greedy  and  importunate  suitors; 
the  fortitude  and  constancy  with  which  they 
resisted  the  attacks  and  the  final  triumph  of 
the  hero  on  his  return,  who  appears  at  last 
as  great  in  action  as  in  counsel. 

That  this  poem,  the  Odyssey,  is  the  fruit 
of  the  same  genius  which  planned  the  Iliad 
there  is  no  evidence.  The  differences  in  gen- 
eral tone  and  in  detail  are  many  and  striking ; 
and  they  led  even  a  school  of  Greek  critics  to 
attribute  the  two  poems  to  different  authors. 
If  we  are  led  to  the  same  conclusion,  we  need 
not  marvel  that  the  youthful  vigor  of  a  poetic 
race,  and  the  favoring  conditions  of  an  age  of 
minstrelsy,  produced  at  least  two  poets  of 
surpassing  merit.  But  we  must  note  a  simi- 
larity of  language  and  subject  sufficient  to 
show  that  the  poet  of  the  original  Iliad  exer- 
cised a  powerful  influence  over  later  as  well 
as  contemporary  poets.  His  unique  greatness 
lies  in  this,  that  he  combined  the  strong  human 
sympathy,  the  life-like  action,  and  the  pic- 
turesque language  of  early  poetry,  in  their 
most  perfect  form,  with  the  conception  of  a 
unity  of  structure  and  a  progressive  interest 


which  belongs  naturally  to  a  later  and  literary 
age. 

When  we  come  to  consider  the  Iliad  and  the 
Odyssey  as  a  poetic  whole,  and  to  estimate 
their  importance  in  the  evolution,  first,  of  the 
Greeks,  and  then  of  humanity  as  a  whole,  the 
question  of  the  origin  of  the  poems,  and  even 
of  the  personality  of  the  poet,  becomes  com- 
paratively insignificant.  Both  the  poems, 
and  especially  the  Iliad,  were  accepted  from 
the  first  as  the  type  of  the  highest  order  of 
poetry,  the  epic.  It  is  from  Homer  that 
Aristotle  draws  his  canons  of  epic  poetry. 
An  epic  poem  must  constitute  a  united  whole. 
This  unity  in  the  Iliad  is  what  we  recognize 
as  the  trait  of  the  great  original  poet  —  that 
trait  which  impressed  itself  most  on  his  con- 
temporaries and  reappears  even  more  strongly 
marked  in  the  later  Odyssey.  An  epic  poem, 
too,  must  develop  a  progressive  interest. 
This  interest  we  feel  in  the  course  of  that 
primitive  Iliad,  free  from  inconsistent  digres- 
sions, where  reverses  press  harder  and  harder 
upon  the  Greeks  until  the  death  of  Patroclus 
touches  Achilles'  personal  feelings  and  brings 
him  back  to  the  Grecian  host.  And  in  the 
!  final  catastrophe  of  the  Odyssey  we  feel  that 
j  progressive  interest  even  more  strongly  devel- 
I  oped  as  the  recognition  of  the  hero  and  the 
'  overthrow  of  his  enemies  are  slowly  and 
I  steadily  prepared.  The  third  mark  of  the 
epic  which  Aristotle  demands  —  dignity  of 
language  and  manner  —  belongs  to  Homer  in 
an  unapproachable  degree,  and  gives  a  peculiar 
charm  and  force  to  almost  every  line  of  the 
two  poems. 

Besides  these  qualities,  which  belong  to  the 
Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  as  a  whole,  the  details 
in  every  part  are  marked  by  certain  unique 
and  consistent  features.  We  are  presented 
with  a  picture  of  everj'  typ>e  of  human  char- 
acter and  every  phase  of  human  life  possible 
in  an  early  military  society.  All  these  are 
drawn  not  with  a  subtle  psychological  analysis, 
but  in  clear  characteristic  strokes,  marking  out 
types  true  to  all  time.  And,  though  tj'pical, 
few  of  Homer's  characters  are  ideal,  but 
purely  human.  We  have  bravery  typified  in 
many  forms:  commanding  in  Agamemnon; 
generous  in  Menelaus ;  high-spirited  in  Achil- 
les. In  Nestor  we  have  the  counsellor,  wise 
in  years;  in  Odysseus,  the  man  of  cunning 
word  and  scheme ;  Andromache  is  the  tender 
wife,  fearful  of  her  husband's  danger ;  Hector, 
the  loving  husband  —  lo\'ing  honor  more ; 
Penelope,    the    matron    and    constant    wife. 


IN   LITERATURE 


11 


faithful  against  time  and  importunity ;  Achil- 
les, the  devoted  friend,  tortured  even  at  night 
by  the  loss  of  his  companions.  And  in  their 
subordinate  spheres  are  warriors,  children, 
slaves,  clearly  and  truly  drawn  to  life.  Goethe 
finds  in  liis  two  chief  characters  two  great 
fundamental  forms  of  human  nature  — 
Achilles  the  most  brave,  and  Ulysses  the  most 
prudent  of  men.  Achilles,  indeed,  is  the 
grand  pagan  hero,  the  ideal  of  antiquity. 

Homer  is  our  greatest  authority  for  what 
we  know  of  the  thought  and  life  of  primitive 
Greece.  The  main  features  of  the  society  he 
describes,  though  in  poetic  language,  are 
drawn  from  the  facts  around  him.  Here  we 
see  the  patriarch  become  the  priest  and  king 
of  his  tribe  —  the  leader  in  battle  and  in 
council  —  the  source  and  dispenser  of  justice. 
Such  are  the  chiefs  in  the  Iliad.  In  time  of 
peace  the  chieftain  lives  in  his  ancestral  house, 
and  superintends  his  herds  and  lands.  Art 
and  commerce  are  almost  entirely  of  foreign 
origin,  due  to  Phoenician  merchants.  Litera- 
ture is  unknown. 

The  morality  of  Homer  is  indicated  by  the 
types  of  character  which  are  held  up  to  admi- 
ration —  the  brave  warrior,  the  clever  coun- 
sellor, the  Uberal  host,  the  faithful  friend,  the 
constant  wife;  and  by  those  which  are  held 
up  to  reprobation  —  the  coward,  the  spiteful 
detractor,  the  greedy  and  arrogant  man.  No 
principles  are  appealed  to;  but  the  loyal 
observance  of  particular  ties,  and  especially 
those  of  a  relative  or  a  friend,  is  recognized  as 
a  duty.  Women  —  as  heads  of  households  — 
enjoy  a  high  degree  of  freedom  and  respect. 

But  it  is  in  his  theology  that  Homer  most 
perfectly  sums  up  the  thought  of  his  age,  and 
so  revolutionizes  the  hierarchy  of  pagan 
deities  as  to  influence  most  powerfully  the 
thought  of  posterity.  He  supplants  the  older 
deities  —  earth,  sun,  sea,  night  —  by  the  later 
and  perfectly  human  types  —  Zeus,  Hera, 
Apollo,  Aphrodite,  and  Poseidon  —  in  which 
the  Greeks  figured  the  deity.  To  these  deities 
Homer  gives  the  distinctive  character  and  the 
position  and  function  in  the  Pantheon  which 
they  retain  throughout  the  Greek  system. 
The  gods  become  men  and  women  of  stronger 
passions  and  larger  powers,  but  differing  from 
men  and  women  only  in  degree.  And,  al- 
though these  supernatural  beings  take  part  in 
the  action  of  the  Homeric  stories,  and  inter- 
fere with  the  course  of  natural  events,  their 
action  and  interference  are  so  defined  and 
limited  that  the  story  preserves  its  natural 


interest,  and  the  men  and  women  gain  rather 
than  lose  by  the  presence  of  the  superhuman. 

After  the  Bible,  no  book  has  been  so  uni- 
versally read  as  Homer's  Iliad.  It  has  been 
called  the  bible  of  heroes,  and  it  was  the 
bible  of  the  ancient  Greeks.  Just  as  we  read 
the  Hebrew  history  to  our  children  —  much 
more  from  a  moral  than  a  historical  attitude 
—  and  give  to  all  the  facts  a  didactic  turn, 
so  the  old  Greeks  read  Homer  as  a  moral 
work,  containing  models  of  what  they  ought 
to  be,  exhibitions  of  punished  vice  and  mean- 
ness, examples  of  fortitude,  of  temperance,  of 
justice,  and  of  wisdom. 

Homer  was  the  one  common  possession  of 
all  the  Greeks.  Their  actual  life  was  broken 
up  by  innumerable  feuds  and  jealousies;  in 
Homer,  more  than  in  any  historical  event  — 
more  even  than  in  Marathon  and  Salamis  — 
they  had  a  meeting  ground  in  the  record  of  a 
united  and  disinterested  action.  It  is  the 
charter  of  Greek  unity.  It  was  studied  by 
every  Greek  —  known  by  heart,  we  are  told, 
by  many.  The  expositor  of  Greek  theology 
appealed  to  Homer.  The  sceptic  attacked 
the  belief  of  Homer  as  the  representative  of 
the  popular  creed.  The  teacher  of  morality 
quoted  his  texts  from  Homer ;  and  those  who, 
like  Plato,  wished  to  purify  and  elevate  the 
national  morals,  found  in  Homer  the  tradi- 
tional standard. 

Homer  is  a  key  to  the  Greek  view  of  life 
and  of  the  world.  The  human  ideal  of  religion 
and  morality  which  we  find  in  him  dominates 
their  whole  conception.  The  gods  are  greater 
men,  perfect  in  those  personal  qualities  which 
were  prized  as  virtues  —  strength,  beauty, 
and  wisdom.  As  the  old  men  in  Troy  adored 
the  beauty  of  Helen  in  spite  of  the  troubles 
she  had  brought  upon  them,  so  the  Greeks 
found  in  beauty  of  every  kind  the  seal  of 
perfection,  and  connected  ugliness  with  im- 
perfection and  vice,  as  Homer  united  them 
in  Thersites.  The  ideal  of  art,  connected 
intimately  from  the  first  with  religion,  is  to 
make  the  perfect  human  form  as  an  honor 
and  an  offering  to  the  gods. 

Not  only  in  its  general  aim  and  spirit,  but 
in  every  department  and  every  detail  of 
Greek  art  —  and  thence  of  Roman  art  —  we 
find  the  influence  of  Homer.  In  sculpture 
and  painting,  the  types  of  the  gods  were  the 
types  which  Homer  had  created  —  the  Zeus 
of  Phidias  was  the  Zeus  of  Homer.  In  the 
drama,  tragedians  found  their  subjects  in  the 
Homeric  tale;    the  plays  of  iEschylus  were 


12 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


"morsels  from  the  feast  of  Homer,"  while  the 
spirit  of  Greek  tragedy  breathes  already  in 
many  Homeric  scenes  —  the  parting  of  Hec- 
tor, the  house  of  Priam  after  Hector's  death, 
the  ransoming  of  Hector's  body.  As  the  type 
of  epic  poetry,  Homer  gives  inspiration,  sub- 
ject, and  many  details  to  Vergil ;  and  through 
Vergil  we  trace  the  influence  of  Homer  in  the 
modern  epic. 

"In  conception  and  portraiture  of  char- 
acter," says  William  Mure,  "and  the  deeper 


vein  of  tragic  pathos,  Homer  may  be  equaled, 
if  not  siu'passed,  by  Shakespeare;  in  moral 
dignity  of  thought  and  expression,  by  Milton ; 
in  the  grace  and  delicacy  of  his  lighter  pic- 
tm-es,  by  Petrarch  and  Ariosto;  and  in  the 
gloomy  grandeur  of  his  supernatural  imagery, 
by  ^schylus  or  Dante.  But  no  one  of  these 
poets  has  combined,  in  a  similar  degree,  those 
various  elements  of  excellence  in  each  of 
which  they  may  separately  claim  to  compete 
with  him." 


^SCHYLIJS 

Are  .lEschylus  and  Sophocles  and  Euripides  dead?  No;  the  wondrous  three  are  still  in  constellatioa. 
Bright  are  they  as  when  they  first  shone,  thousands  of  years  ago,  in  the  heavenly  sky.  But  which  are 
they?  In  what  quarter  of  the  region  hang  their  golden  lamps?  Yonder.  You  see  the  glorious  gems, 
enclosing  as  in  a  triangle  a  deep  blue  portion  of  stainless  etner.  The  apex-«tar  is  JEachyluB  —  to  the 
east  is  Sophocles  —  to  the  west,  Euripides  1  — John  WUaon. 


7p  SCHYLUS  was  the  greatest  of  the  Greek 
■^-'--^  dramatists,  and  one  of  the  greatest 
dramatic  writers  of  any  age.  He  was  also, 
fortunately,  by  far  the  most  historic  personage, 
and  possessed  the  most  vivid  personality  of 
all  the  poets  of  Greece.  We  know  with  con- 
siderable precision  the  main  facts  of  his  life; 
but  we  know  his  inmost  spirit,  his  temper,  and 
his  aspirations  as  clearly  as  we  know  those  of 
Dante  and  Milton.  We  recognize  in  him  a 
genius  of  a  profoundly  religious  depth,  a 
character  of  Homeric  power  and  heroism;  a 
passionate  opponent  of  the  old  theocratic 
tyranny,  which  sought  to  crush  out  the  free 
life  of  the  Greek  republic,  and  a  zealous 
defender  of  the  civil  and  religious  institutions 
of  his  country. 

iEschylus,  son  of  Euphorion,  a  Greek  noble- 
man, was  born  in  the  year  525  B.  C,  in  the 
district  of  Eleusis,  in  Attica,  a  few  miles  west 
from  Athens,  on  the  borders  of  Megara.  In 
the  neighborhood  of  the  world-renowned 
sanctuary  of  Ceres,  his  youth  was  spent  under 
the  solemn  religious  influence  which  gave  so 
decided  a  tone  to  his  dramatic  works.  At  the 
age  of  twenty-five,  he  exhibited  his  first 
tragedy ;  but  did  not  gain  his  first  dramatic 
prize  until  the  year  484  B.  C,  when  he  was 
forty-one  years  of  age.  Meanwhile  the  soul 
of  Greek  nationality  had  been  roused  in  all 
its  strength  by  the  invasion  of  the  generals  of 
Darius,  ending  in  their  disgraceful  defeat  at 
Marathon  in  490  B.  C.  In  this  battle  ^schy- 
lus  fought;  and  the  ardor  of  lus  patriotism 
was  no  less  prominently  manifested  by  the 


part  which  he  took  in  the  great  naval  engage- 
ment of  Salamis,  ten  years  afterward.  He 
fought  also  with  honor  at  Artemisium  ftnd 
Plataea;  and  it  is,  with  the  heroism  of  Cer- 
vantes at  Lepanto,  one  of  the  rare  occasions 
on  which  one  of  the  great  poets  of  the  world 
took  part  in  one  of  the  decisive  campaigns  of 
history. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  lofty  tone 
of  his  poetry  is  to  be  attributed  in  no  small 
degree  to  the  impulse  which  the  whole  Greek 
mind  received  from  the  great  political  move- 
ment that  terminated  in  the  complete  over- 
throw of  the  insolent  claims  of  the  oriental 
autocrat  Darius.  But  in  ^Eschylus  there  is 
also  distinctly  visible  a  certain  soldierly  atti- 
tude, and  a  delight  in  the  pomp  and  circum- 
stance of  war,  that  is  clearly  traceable  to  the 
atmosphere  of  Marathon  and  Salamis,  which 
the  poet  had  breathed. 

The  only  other  external  event  of  any  con- 
sequence in  the  life  of  the  "father  of  trag- 
edy "  is  his  sojourn  in  Sicily,  a  country  which 
King  Hiero  had  about  that  time  rendered  an 
agreeable  place  of  residence  for  p>oets  and 
literary  men.  He  returned  to  Athens  in  later 
years,  and  his  great  play,  Agamemnon,  was 
produced  in  458  B.  C.,  when  the  poet  was 
sixty-seven.  In  the  Furies  he  shows  himself 
an  ardent  opponent  of  the  dominant  demo- 
cratic party;  and,  apparently  on  political 
grounds,  he  again  withdrew  to  Sicily,  where 
he  died  at  Gela  in  456  B,  C,  aged  sixty-nine. 
His  epitaph,  said  to  have  been  written  or 
dictated  by  himself,  ran  thus:    "iEschylus, 


IN   LITERATURE 


13 


son  of  Euphorion,  an  Athenian,  lies  beneath 
this  stone.  He  died  at  fertile  Gela.  Mara- 
thon can  tell  of  his  tried  manhood,  and  the 
Persian  who  there  felt  his  mettle."  Not  a 
word  about  poetry. 

iEschylus  produced,  it  is  said,  seventy- 
eight  plays,  of  which  but  seven  remain,  the 
Orestean  trilogy  of  the  Agamemnon,  the 
Libation-bearers,  and  the  Furies,  being  the 
sole  extant  trilogy,  or  series  of  three  grouped 
dramas.  It  is  permitted  to  hold  the  loss  of 
these  seventy-one  tragedies  to  be  the  greatest 
which  ancient  literature  has  sustained.  The 
fame  of  iEschylus,  although  at  Athens  it  was 
placed  second  to  that  of  Sophocles,  as  at 
Paris  that  of  Corneille  was  dimmed  by  the 
fame  of  Racine,  and  for  the  same  reasons, 
lasted  long  after  his  death. 

His  plays  were  often  represented  by  his  sons 
and  others  —  an  honor  extremely  rare  and 
almost  unique.  He  was  rightly  called  the 
"father  of  tragedy."  For,  in  adding  a 
second  actor  to  the  original  single  actor,  who 
recited  a  narrative  to  the  chorus,  iEschylus 
made  true  tragedy  possible;  and  when,  in 
imitation  of  Sophocles,  he  placed  a  third  actor 
on  the  stage  simultaneously  with  the  chorus, 
the  dramatic  machinery  as  conceived  in 
Greece  was  complete. 

Before  the  time  of  iEschylus  there  was  no 
real  theater.  Greek  tragedy  as  he  found  it 
was  simply  a  poem,  recited  or  chanted  by  one 
speaker;  it  was  declamation  without  action, 
scenery,  or  accessories  of  any  kind.  iEschylus 
introduced  dialogue ;  invented  the  tragic  boot, 
mask,  and  mantle;  dressed  the  speakers  in 
character;  and  turned  the  platform  into  a 
mimic  representation  of  the  place  or  scene 
where  the  event  was  supposed  to  occur. 

What  was  the  origin  of  the  drama?  Before 
there  was  such  a  thing  in  the  world  as 
"drama,"  there  existed  "chorus";  the  drama 
grew  out  of  the  improvised  recitations,  given 
in  the  intervals  of  the  Bacchic  choruses  sung 
at  the  great  festivals.  While  the  chorus 
rested,  the  leader  chanted  a  long  monologue  in 
praise  of  Bacchus ;  this  was  the  first  stage  of 
development.  In  a  later  age,  a  second  per- 
son was  brought  upon  the  platform,  who 
replied  to  the  first,  and  this  made  "  dialogue," 
and  was  the  foundation  of  tragic  art.  Finally, 
another  actor  was  added,  and  still  others ;  the 
dialogue,  which  was  at  first  but  a  recitative 
and  an  accessory,  grew  little  by  little  till  it 
usurped  the  principal  place.  In  our  day,  it 
employs  many  actors,  while  the  old  chorus. 


which  was  once  all  in  all,  has  dwindled  away, 
the  only  vestige  of  it  remaining  in  what  is  now 
called  the  orchestra.  The  greatest  step  in 
the  gradual  change  was  the  transition  from 
monologue  to  dialogue,  and  this  took  place  in 
the  time  of  iEschylus.  Thus,  this  mighty 
genius  may  be  said  to  have  conceived  full- 
grown,  and  to  have  created  in  its  complete- 
ness, one  of  the  grandest  forms  of  human  art. 

The  style  and  conception  of  iEschylus  were 
in  every  way  those  of  his  character  and  life. 
He  was  uniformly  heroic,  earnest,  profound, 
and  martial.  He  called  his  dramas  "scraps 
from  the  rich  banquet  of  Homer."  He 
carried  to  a  fault  sublimity  of  diction,  origi- 
nality of  phrase,  and  tremendous  intensity  of 
dramatic  situation.  Cicero  calls  him  a  Pythag- 
orean, meaning  thereby  his  deep  and  pure 
spiritual  earnestness.  iEschylus  was  a  stern 
and  passionate  supporter  of  the  old  aristo- 
cratic and  conservative  party,  of  the  old 
ceremonies,  and  the  ancient  institutions  of  the 
city  of  Solon.  He  is  a  stout  upholder  of  rever- 
ence for  the  gods,  the  pervading  power  of 
religion,  the  sanctity  of  oaths,  the  duties  of 
hospitality,  and  the  inviolability  of  marriage. 

Intensely  military,  his  dramas  abound  in 
terms  of  war ;  and  in  the  Persians  his  patriotic 
enthusiasm  rings  forth  like  a  trumpet.  He  is 
saturated  with  the  idea  of  the  revolt  of  the 
free  commonwealths  against  the  theocratic 
despotism  of  Asia.  In  the  Prometheus  he 
idealizes  the  revolt  of  man  from  the  pressure 
of  the  priestly  caste,  and  the  martyrdom  of 
those  who  led  the  way  to  his  emancipation. 
But,  if  the  Prometheus  be  the  first  poem  of 
iEschylus,  the  Agamemnon  must  be  counted 
as  his  first  tragedy  —  perhaps,  as  pure  tragedy 
the  finest  ever  produced,  in  massive  intensity, 
in  unity  of  impression,  and  in  statuesque  sub- 
limity of  form. 

It  may  be  doubted  if  Dante  or  Shakespeare 
has  surpassed  iEschylus,  or  even  equaled  him, 
in  the  art  of  bringing  before  us  ideal  beings  so 
imposing,  so  awful,  and  so  vivid;  or,  in  so 
completely  transporting  us  into  a  world  of  a 
weird  imagery,  real  and  yet  superhuman. 
The  occasional  monotony  of  his  stately  man- 
ner, the  harshness  of  his  compound  epithets, 
and  the  not  infrequent  tendency  to  extrava- 
gance and  even  bombast  are  slight  defects 
among  such  grand  qualities. 

Aristophanes  painted  the  poet  to  the  life, 
and  did  ample  justice  both  to  his  unequaled 
greatness  as  a  poet,  and  to  his  noble  aim  as  a 
patriot  and  a  teacher.      For  iEschylus  was 


14 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


the  great  spiritual  power  of  his  age,  the  poetic 
voice  of  Greece  in  the  one  sublime  epoch  of 
her  whole  history.  Aristophanes,  in  his  inimi- 
table comedy,  the  Frogs,  has  brought  out  the 
heroic  temper  of  the  man,  the  proud  and 
stately  self-will,  the  fiery  imagination,  the 
burning  faith  in  high  and  pure  ideals,  the 
avalanche  of  great  thoughts,  even  the  torrent 
of  superabundant  imagery  which  the  poet 
threw  into  his  work. 

uEschylus  was  more  than  poet.  His  inner 
purpose  was  that  of  Isaiah  and  Ezekiel,  of 
Dante,  and  of  Milton :  the  presentment  of  the 
great  problem  of  human  life,  the  sense  of  an 
overruling  Providence,  the  moral  greatness 
and  force  of  the  just  man,  the  ruin  and  shame 
ultimately  in  store  for  the  unjust,  the  inevi- 


table retribution  that  awaits  crime,  the  inher- 
itance of  evil,  the  grandeur  of  virtue,  courage, 
purity,  and  good  faith. 

Aristotle's  definition  of  tragedy  was  that 
it  "  purified  the  soul  by  pity  and  terror."  Its 
duty  was  to  rouse  the  spirit  from  all  that  is 
sordid,  torpid,  and  mean,  by  touching  the 
sympathies  to  the  quick,  by  calling  out  the 
dormant  feeling  of  interest  in  our  fellow  men, 
pain  at  their  sufferings,  and  enthusiasm  for 
their  heroism;  by  rousing  the  self-contented 
nature,  fattened  with  good  things,  to  a  con- 
sciousness of  the  tremendous  issues  for  good 
or  evil  with  which  human  fife  is  surrounded. 
In  this  task  it  is  doubtful  if  any  Hebrew 
prophet,  or  mediaeval  preacher,  has  ever  sur- 
passed iEschylus. 


SOPHOCLES 

Sophocles  shows  at  times  one  high  power  which  but  few  of  the  world'*  poet*  share  with  him.  He 
feels,  as  Wordsworth  does,  the  majesty  of  order  and  well-being;  sees  the  greatneaB  of  God,  as  it  were, 
in  the  troubled  things  of  life. —  Murray. 


OOPHOCLES,  the  second  great  dramatist 
^  of  Athens,  during  his  long  life,  witnessed 
the  whole  period  of  Athenian  glory.  He  saw 
the  Persian  wars  and  the  Peloponnesian  wars, 
the  whole  career  of  Themistocles,  Cimon, 
Pericles,  and  Nicias,  the  rise  and  perfection  of 
all  the  arts  of  poetry  and  form,  and  all 
the  great  Athenians  between  Aristides  and 
Plato. 

Five  years  before  Marathon,  and  fifteen 
before  Salamis,  Sophocles  was  born  at  Colonus, 
a  beautiful  village  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  Athens,  in  495  B.  C.  He  was  thus  thirty 
years  younger  than  ^Eschylus,  and  fifteen 
years  older  than  Euripides.  His  father, 
Sophilus,  a  man  of  good  family,  and  possessed 
of  considerable  wealth,  gave  him  a  liberal 
education  in  all  the  literary  and  personal 
accomplishments  of  his  age;  and  these  were 
still  further  enhanced  by  a  person  eminently 
handsome,  which  had  been  moulded  and 
trained  by  the  exercises  of  the  palaestra.  He 
was  instructed  in  poetry  and  music  by  the 
famous  Lamprus,  and  his  proficiency  is 
attested  by  the  fact  that,  when  his  country- 
men, after  the  battle  of  Salamis,  assembled  to 
celebrate  the  glorious  victory  which  they  had 
achieved,  he,  though  a  youth  of  fifteen,  was 
selected  to  play  an  accompaniment  on  the 
lyre  to  the  psean,  in  which  the  chorus  of  youths 
sang  their  country's  triimiphs.    It  is,  besides. 


probable  that  he  also  composed  the  words  of 
the  ode. 

The  commencement  of  his  career  as  a  dram- 
atist took  place  under  circumstances  pecu- 
liarly interesting.  iEschylus  had  for  thirty 
years  been  the  undoubted  master  of  the 
Athenian  stage,  and  was  now  to  contest  the 
palm  with  a  youthful  competitor  of  the  age 
of  twenty-seven,  whose  great  accomplish- 
ments and  personal  graces  had  excited  an 
xmusual  interest  in  his  favor.  The  festival  of 
the  Dionysia,  was,  on  this  occasion,  rendered 
still  more  imposing  by  the  return  of  Cimon 
from  the  island  of  Scyros,  bringing  with  him 
the  bones  of  Theseus.  Many  people  accord- 
ingly flocked  to  the  theater  of  Bacchus. 
When  Cimon  and  his  nine  colleagues  entered 
the  theater  to  offer  the  customary  libations  to 
the  god,  the  chief  archon,  instead  of  choosing 
judges  by  lot,  detained  the  ten  generals  at  the 
altar;  and,  after  administering  to  them  the 
usual  oath,  constituted  them  the  judges 
between  the  rival  tragedians.  Before  this 
tribunal  Sophocles  exhibited  his  first  tragedy, 
and  by  their  award  obtained  the  first  prize. 
His  subsequent  career  fully  justified  the 
decision  of  the  judges. 

From  this  epoch  (468  B.  C.)  he  maintained 
the  supremacy  until  441  B.  C,  when  his  for- 
midable rival,  Euripides,  was  preferred  to  him, 
and  gained  the  first  prize.    For  sixty-three 


IN  LITERATURE 


16 


years  Sophocles  continued  to  compose  and 
exhibit.  During  that  period  he  twenty  times 
obtained  the  first  prize,  still  more  frequently 
the  second,  and  never  descended  so  low  as  the 
third  —  a  degree  of  success  which  far  exceeded 
that  of  his  great  rivals.  In  440  B.  C.  he 
exhibited  the  Antigone,  the  earliest  of  his 
extant  dramas,  a  play  which  gave  such  satis- 
faction to  the  Athenians  that  they  appointed 
him  as  a  colleague  of  Pericles  and  Thucydides 
in  the  war  against  Samos.  He  seems  to  have 
won  no  laurels  in  his  military  capacity. 
Several  civic  offices  of  honor  and  respecta- 
bility, however,  were  conferred  upon  him  in 
his  old  age.  He  was  made  priest  of  Halon,  a 
native  hero;  and  after  the  disastrous  termi- 
nation of  the  Syracusan  expedition  in  413 
B.  C,  he  was,  in  his  eighty-third  year,  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  committee  of  public 
safety.  In  this  capacity  he  consented  to  the 
appointment  of  the  council  of  four  hundred 
in  411  B.  C. 

The  last  years  of  his  life  were  disturbed  by 
family  dissensions.  In  consequence  of  his 
partiality  for  a  grandson,  the  eldest  son 
endeavored  to  deprive  him  of  the  manage- 
ment of  his  property  on  the  ground  of  inca- 
pacity and  dotage.  The  only  defense  offered 
by  the  aged  dramatist  was  to  read  in  the  pres- 
ence of  his  judges  a  passage  from  the  CEdipus  at 
Colonus  which  he  had  just  written ;  on  hearing 
which  the  judges  dismissed  the  case,  and 
rebuked  his  son  for  his  undutiful  conduct. 
He  died  in  his  ninetieth  year,  just  before  the 
catastrophe  of  his  country,  having  long  been 
the  model  of  Attic  culture  at  its  highest  mark. 
He  is  famed  for  being  the  type  of  "  sweetness 
and  light,"  as  conceived  in  the  golden  age  of 
Athens,  the  man  of  "sweet  temper,"  of  con- 
summate grace,  and  of  uniform  balance  of 
mind.  His  private  character  seems  to  have 
been,  on  the  whole,  amiable;  the  blemishes 
attributed  to  it  being  those  of  the  age  rather 
than  of  the  individual. 

Sophocles  marks  the  passage  from  the 
drama  as  a  religious  institution  to  the  drama 
as  a  work  of  pure  art.  He  made  the  great 
step  in  advance  of  adding  a  third  speaker  to 
the  second  of  ^Eschylus;  and  this  was 
evidently  essential  to  the  full  development 
of  the  dramatic  ideal.  The  plot  and  the 
elaborate  evolution  of  character  and  situa- 
tion in  his  plays  are  artistically  a  great 
advance  upon  the  simple  conception  of 
iEschylus ;  and,  in  discarding  the  trilogy,  he 
was  able  to  make  each  drama  a  highly  com- 


plex and  refined  study  of  character  in  action. 
Hence,  by  his  contemporaries  at  Athens,  and 
perhaps  by  the  ancients,  Sophocles  waa 
regarded  as  the  perfection  of  the  tragic  poet. 

The  CEdipus  King  was  taken  by  Aristotle 
as  the  type  of  true  tragedy,  and  Professor 
Jebb  calls  it  "  in  one  sense,  the  masterpiece  of 
Attic  tragedy."  As  a  work  of  consummate 
art,  it  is,  perhaps,  the  most  perfect  tragedy 
extant.  In  the  same  way,  all  the  plays  of 
Sophocles  which  survive  —  CEdipus  King 
(or  CEdipus  Tyranny^),  CEdipus  at  Colonus, 
Antigone,  Philoctetes,  Ajax,  and  Maidens  of 
Trachis  —  are  examples  of  supreme  skill  in 
painting  character,  and  in  the  combination  of 
tragic  situations.  But  the  poet  is  no  longer, 
as  in  the  trilogy,  hero,  prophet,  and  preacher ; 
he  is  simply  the  faultless  artist. 

The  distinguishing  trait  of  the  compositions 
of  Sophocles  is  their  unrivaled  harmony. 
The  elements  of  his  dramas,  as  dialogue  and 
song,  the  expression  of  familiar  sentiments  or 
of  violent  passion,  are  so  artistically  gradu- 
ated as  to  pass  without  shock  from  one 
extreme  to  the  other,  in  a  manner  quite  dif- 
ferent from  the  rugged  method  of  ^schylus. 
The  latter  may  have  been  his  rival  in  inven- 
tion, and  it  is  true  that  Shakespeare  far  excels 
him  there.  He  does  not,  like  Shakespeare, 
give  a  complete  picture  of  life  in  its  manifold 
phases,  but  takes  a  single  idea,  a  typical 
character,  and  embodies  in  it  all  the  essential 
elements  of  humanity.  He  makes  tragic 
poetry  a  true  mirror  of  the  soul,  and  exhibits, 
as  has  seldom  been  done,  the  true  moral 
significance  of  human  action. 

His  later  dramas,  especially,  are  written  in 
a  most  elegant  style,  with  concise  and  vigor- 
ous dialogue,  and  rich  poetical  sentiment. 
He  is  the  Phidias  of  dramatic  art.  He  was, 
above  all,  an  Athenian  poet,  as  compared 
with  iEschylus  and  Euripides,  who  were  Hel- 
lenic, and  he  represented  the  genius  of  his 
well-loved  city  in  its  most  perfect  form. 

His  teaching  is  the  doctrine  of  fate,  as  it 
was  understood  by  the  ancients,  and  of  this 
he  is  the  best  exponent.  "  Fate,"  he  says,  " is 
a  dread  power.  If  thou  be  wealthy,  thou 
wilt  not  buy  her  ofif ;  if  thou  be  valiant,  thou 
canst  not  withstand  her;  if  thou  shut  thy- 
self within  a  tower,  she  will  find  thee  out ;  if 
thou  cross  the  sea  in  ships,  she  will  overtake 
thee  on  the  way.  Whoso  contendeth  against 
Fate,  fighteth  against  fearful  odds.  Thou 
canst  not  shake  off  what  load  Fate  shall  have 
put  on  thy  shoulders." 


16 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 

HERODOTUS 


As  the  general  father  of  prose  composition,  Herodotus  is  nearly  related  to  all  literature  whatsoever, 
modern  not  less  than  ancient.  .  .  .  We  hold  that  Herodotus  furnishes  bv  much  the  largest  basis 
for  vast  commentaries  revealing  the  archaeologies  of  the  human  race ;  whilst,  as  the  eldest  of  prose  writers, 
he  justifies  his  majestic  station  as  a  brotherly  assessor  on  the  same  throne  with  Homer. —  De  Quincey. 


LJERODOTUS,  the  earliest  of  Greek  histo- 
•*■  ■*  rians,  and  by  common  consent  called  the 
"father  of  history,"  rendered  the  same 
services  to  history  that  Thales  did  to  science. 
Before  him  there  is  no  trace  even  of  a  chronicle 
of  events  other  than  that  of  the  epic  poets, 
between  whom  and  the  philosophic  Thu- 
cydides  he  forms  the  only  link. 

The  accepted  account  of  his  life,  gleaned 
largely  from  his  own  works,  makes  Herodotus 
a  native  of  Halicarnassus,  a  Doric  colony  in 
Caria,  Asia  Minor,  where  he  was  born  probably 
about  484  B.  C.  This  province,  at  the  time, 
was  governed  by  Artemisia,  a  vassal  queen  of 
the  great  king  of  Persia.  His  father  was 
named  Lyxes;  his  mother,  Dryo,  was  sister 
of  Panyasis,  one  of  the  revivers  of  epic  poetry, 
who  was  highly  esteemed  by  the  ancients.  It 
is  supposed  that  the  poet  superintended  the 
education  of  his  nephew,  and  inspired  him 
with  that  love  of  the  beautiful  and  the  true, 
that  desire  to  know  and  to  see,  which  is  the 
essential  quality  of  a  good  historian.  Proba- 
bly Herodotus  commenced  in  early  life  that 
series  of  visits  to  distant  lands,  in  the  course  of 
which  he  amassed  those  precious  materials 
that  were  afterward  so  artistically  worked 
up  in  his  immortal  history.  Nothing  positive 
is  recorded,  however,  of  the  studies  which 
occupied  his  early  years,  or  of  the  circum- 
stances which  favored  the  development  of  his 
genius. 

When  he  was  about  thirty  years  of  age  a 
rebellion  broke  out  at  Halicarnassus.  Panya- 
sis was  put  to  death  by  Lygadmis,  grandson 
of  Artemisia,  and  Herodotus  was  compelled 
to  flee  to  Samos,  which  became  his  foster 
country.  There  he  found  devoted  and  power- 
ful allies,  who  assisted  him  in  freeing  his  com- 
patriots from  the  yoke  of  Lygadmis;  but 
after  he  had  satisfied  his  vengeance,  he  expe- 
rienced so  many  disappointments  that  he 
quitted  Greece  proper,  and  fixed  his  residence 
at  Thurii,  near  the  ancient  Sybaris,  in  Lucania, 
Italy,  where  he  continued  to  live  until  his 
death  about  424  B.  C.  There,  it  is  supposed, 
he  wrote  his  history.  Several  ancient  authors, 
indeed,  call  him  "the  Thurian,"  on  account  of 
his  prolonged  residence  in  that  city. 

The  passion  to  know,  to  see,  and  to  relate, 


appears  to  have  taken  possession  of  the  mind 
of  Herodotus  in  his  youthful  days.  He  be- 
took himself  early  in  life  to  travel,  aware  that 
a  civic  career  was  closed  to  him.  He  visited 
almost  every  city  of  Greece;  he  became  fa- 
miliar with  every  part  of  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor;  he  made  a  long  stay  in  Egypt;  and 
he  reached  even  the  distant  Scythia.  He 
penetrated  to  the  extremity  of  the  Pontus 
Euxinus,  and  sojourned  for  some  time  in 
every  place  which  contained  anything  likely 
to  gratify  his  insatiable  curiosity.  It  is  need- 
less to  say  that  if  the  great  historian  visited 
the  countries  of  the  East,  the  Greek  cities  of 
Asia,  and  the  northern  extremities  of  the 
Hellenic  world,  he  did  not  neglect  to  make 
himself  acquainted  thoroughly,  and  in  detail, 
with  all  the  localities  of  European  Greece  — 
with  the  cities,  temples,  and  battlefields  of 
the  continent  and  of  the  isles. 

Tradition  has  it  that  on  the  conclusion  of 
these  voyages  he  placed  in  order  the  infor- 
mation he  had  acquired,  and  that  when  he 
had  completed  this  great  work  he  read  it  to 
the  Greeks  who  were  assembled  for  the  Olym- 
pian games.  It  comprised  the  most  remark- 
able occurrences  within  a  period  of  240  years, 
from  the  reign  of  Cyrus,  the  first  king  of 
Persia,  to  that  of  Xerxes,  when  the  historian 
was  living.  His  auditors  were  so  charmed 
with  the  recital  that  they  gave  the  name  of 
one  of  the  nine  muses  to  each  of  the  nine 
books  into  which  his  "History"  is  divided. 
It  is  added  that  Thucydides,  then  fifteen 
years  of  age,  who  was  present  at  this  reading, 
could  not  help  shedding  tears  of  admiration, 
and  that  Herodotus,  noticing  his  tears,  pre- 
dicted for  the  young  man  a  brilliant  future. 

Criticism  has  tried  to  prove  this  pretty 
story  to  be  a  mere  invention;  but  another 
statement,  which  carries  with  it  a  greater 
appearance  of  truth,  is  that  when  thirty-eight 
years  old  Herodotus  went  to  Athens  on  the 
occasion  of  the  grand  pan-Athenian  festivals, 
and  there  read  in  public  fragments  of  his 
work,  still  incomplete,  but  certain  portions 
of  which  were  already  in  the  state  in  which 
they  have  been  handed  down  to  us.  The 
audience  received  the  work  with  enthusiastic 
applause,  and  awarded  to  the  incomparable 


DEMOSTHENES  PRACTICING  ORATORY 


IN  LITERATURE 


19 


narrator  a  prize  of  ten  talents,  besides  bestow- 
ing upon  him  by  acclamation  the  title  of 
"father  of  history." 

Up  to  that  period  the  narration  of  past 
events  had  been  undertaken  only  by  the 
logographers,  or  chroniclers,  who  merely 
described  what  had  occurred  in  their  own  or 
in  foreign  countries,  people  by  people,  and 
town  by  town,  without  any  connection. 
Herodotus  made  an  immense  advance  in  his- 
torical composition,  by  giving  unity  to  a 
multitude  of  apparently  disconnected  occur- 
rences which  had  taken  place  in  Europe  and 
in  Asia,  and  which  centered  chiefly  about  the 
Persian  invasion  of  Greece.  The  link  con- 
necting the  whole  he  sought  for  and  found, 
not  like  the  more  advanced  of  the  chroniclers 
in  the  traditional  series  of  genealogies,  but  in 
an  idea  —  the  idea,  as  profound  as  it  is  true, 
as  dramatic  as  it  is  popular  —  of  the  old 
quarrel  between  the  East  and  the  West.  He 
proposed  to  relate  the  causes  and  the  course 
of  the  war  between  the  Greeks  and  the  bar- 
barians. He  wrote  with  the  recollection  of 
the  glorious  close  of  the  struggle  still  fresh 
in  men's  minds,  in  that  brief  period  when  a 
feeling  of  security  filled  all  Greece.  The  war 
itself,  however,  is  only  the  goal  to  which  he 
moves.  As  each  nation  appears  on  the  scene, 
the  current  of  his  story  stops,  that  he  may 
pour  out  his  full  knowledge  concerning  it :  not 
merely  chronicling  the  vicissitudes  of  its 
dynasties,  but  with  a  true  instinct  dwelling 
in  curious  detail  on  its  religion,  superstitions, 
and  habits. 

Herodotus  raised  prose  narrative  to  the 
height  of  poetry.  Ancients  and  moderns 
have  alike  been  struck,  in  various  points  of 
view,  by  the  analogy  between  the  work  of 
Homer  and  that  of  the  "father  of  history." 


Homer  sang;  Herodotus  wrote;  but  both 
were  animated  with  the  same  inspiration, 
with  the  same  thought,  at  once  national  and 
poetic,  for  they  both  addressed  themselvM 
to  Greece  in  order  to  glorify  her  in  the  past, 
to  delight  and  to  instruct  her  people. 

The  veracity  of  Herodotus  has  been  some- 
times questioned,  even  by  the  ancients,  but 
the  researches  of  modern  travelers,  and  the 
discoveries  of  science,  show  that  his  detractors 
were  not  infrequently  in  the  wrong. 

As  to  his  style,  the  ablest  critics  of  antiquity 
proclaimed  it  perfection,  not  because  it  is 
entirely  free  from  irregularities  of  construc- 
tion, but  because  the  phraseology  is  alwaya 
simple,  clear,  harmonious,  and  brilliant,  dis- 
playing all  those  qualities  which  are  most 
calculated  to  captivate  the  mind.  The  author 
used  the  Ionian  dialect  in  the  composition  of 
his  "History." 

That  which  charms  the  readers  of  Herodotus 
is  that  child-like  simplicity  of  heart  which  is 
ever  the  companion  of  an  incorruptible  love 
of  truth,  and  that  happy  and  winning  style 
which  is  found  only  where  manners  are  true 
to  nature.  While  other  pleasing  discourses 
of  men  roll  along  like  torrents,  and  noisily 
hurry  through  their  short  existence,  the  silver 
stream  of  his  words  flows  on  without  concern, 
sure  of  its  immortal  source,  everywhere  pure 
and  transparent,  whether  it  be  shallow  or 
deep.  The  fear  of  ridicule,  which  too  often 
sways  the  whole  world,  never  affected  the 
sublime  simplicity  of  his  mind.  To  him,  as 
to  iEschylus,  all  experience  declared,  in  the 
life  of  nations  as  in  the  life  of  individuals, 
the  presence  of  a  power  dispensing  rigorous 
justice.  Thus  there  was  dimly  recognized  a 
continuity  in  human  events  at  the  very 
threshold  of  written  history. 


DEMOSTHENES 

His  manner  is  rapid  harmony  adjusted  to  the  sense ;  it  is  vehement  reasoning  without  any  appear- 
ance of  art;  it  is  disdain,  anger,  boldness,  freedom,  involved  in  a  continued  stream  of  argument;  and 
of  all  human  productions,  the  orations  of  Demosthenes  present  to  us  the  models  which  approach  the 
nearest  to  perfection. —  Hume. 


"PJEMOSTHENES,  the  greatest  of  the 
"*^  Greek  orators,  has  had  no  successful 
rival  in  eloquence,  either  ancient  or  modern. 
Though  his  voice  is  stilled,  the  majesty  and 
beauty  of  his  diction  are  not  hidden  from  us 
even  by  a  dead  language,  while  his  dialectical 
skill,  his  persuasiveness,  his  invective,  and, 


above  all,  the  lofty  ethical  character  of  his 
appeals  lose  nothing  by  translation. 

Demosthenes  was  born  at  Paeania,  Attica, 
about  the  year  385  B.  C,  the  son  of  a  cutler 
and  cabinet-maker  and  an  Athenian  citiien. 
Having  lost  his  father  at  the  age  of  sewn, 
the  care  of  his  youth,  as  well  as  the  manag»> 


20 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


ment  of  his  property,  amounting  to  fifteen 
talents,  devolved  upon  three  guardians  ap- 
pointed by  his  father.  At  the  end  of  his 
minority  he  commenced  a  prosecution  against 
his  guardians  to  recover  his  property,  which 
they  had  squandered,  and,  after  a  litigation 
of  two  years,  obtained  a  verdict  against  one 
of  them,  who  was  condemned  to  pay  a  fine  of 
ten  talents.  The  prosecution  was  conducted 
by  himself ;  and  the  speeches  which  he  deliv- 
ered in  support  of  his  cause  excited  the  admi- 
ration and  applause  of  the  judges. 

Encouraged  by  this  successful  beginning, 
he  ventured  to  speak  before  the  people,  but 
his  feeble  and  stammering  voice,  his  inter- 
rupted respiration,  his  ungraceful  gestures, 
and  his  ill-arranged  periods  brought  upon 
him  general  ridicule.  His  failure,  however, 
only  roused  the  energies  of  his  unconquerable 
will;  he  resolved  to  correct  the  deficiencies 
of  his  youth,  and  overcame  them  with  a  zeal 
and  perseverance  which  have  passed  into  a 
proverb.  After  a  course  of  the  most  rigorous 
discipline,  he  reappeared  in  public,  355  B.  C, 
and  pronounced  two  orations  against  Leptines 
and  Androtion,  the  former  of  which  is  con- 
sidered one  of  his  greatest  efforts.  His  fame 
as  an  orator  now  secured  for  him  general 
esteem,  and  entitled  him,  as  one  of  the  lead- 
ing statesmen  of  Athens,  to  take  an  active 
part  in  all  public  affairs.  Henceforth  his 
career  was  that  of  an  Athenian  statesman  seek- 
ing to  compel  an  almost  impossible  Greek  unity. 

Like  Hannibal  and  many  another  admirable 
champion  of  conquered  causes,  Demosthenes 
devoted  splendid  talents  and  a  grand  character 
to  resisting  a  destiny  which,  as  we  can  now 
see,  it  would  have  been  wise  to  accept.  Him- 
self animated  by  a  generous  pan-Hellenic 
patriotism,  he  could  not  endure  to  learn  the 
bitter  lesson  that  the  vices  and  defects  of 
Greek  poUtics  were  incurable,  and  that, 
though  the  advantages  of  Macedonian  leader- 
ship might  be  marred  and  nuUified  by  irrecon- 
cilable hostility,  the  thing  itself,  in  better  or 
worse  form,  could  not  be  escaped.  Accord- 
ingly, from  the  moment  when  Philip  began 
to  interfere  in  Greece,  he  found  a  vigilant  and 
unwearied  opponent  in  Demosthenes. 

The  Athenians  of  that  day,  though  coveting 
empire  as  much  as  ever,  were  not  as  ready 
for  personal  sacrifice  as  in  the  time  of  Pericles. 
Their  armies  were  oftener  composed  of  mer- 
cenaries than  of  citizens,  and  the  fimds  which 
should  have  equipped  fleets  were  lavished  on 
the  religioiis  festivals  and  artistic  displays  so 


dear  to  that  cultivated  populace.  Demos- 
thenes, at  much  risk  not  only  of  unpopularity 
but  of  punishment,  strove,  and  not  without 
some  success,  to  reform  these  abuses  and  to 
inspire  his  countrymen  with  the  ardor  and 
energy  of  other  days.  But  the  reforms  and 
the  martial  revival  came  too  late.  In  an- 
other direction  he  labored  to  compose  the 
fatal  feuds  between  the  leading  Greek  states, 
and  to  transform  their  inveterate  jealousies 
into  a  noble  emulation  for  the  defense  of  their 
common  independence,  threatened  by  Mace- 
don.  The  crowning  triumph  of  the  patriot 
orator  was  when  he  confronted  the  ambas- 
sadors of  Philip  at  Thebes,  and  by  his  glorious 
eloquence  prevailed  on  the  old  enemies  of  his 
city  to  forget  their  grudge  and  join  with 
Athens  in  striking  a  last  blow  for  the  hberties 
of  Greece. 

Side  by  side  stood  the  citizen  soldiers  of 
Athens  and  Thebes  on  the  fatal  field  of 
Chaeronea,  and  together  they  went  down 
before  the  trained  battalions  of  Macedon,  the 
genius  of  Philip,  and  the  fiery  valor  of  the 
youthful  Alexander.  The  "sacred  band"  of 
Thebes,  the  old  companions  of  Epaminondas, 
died  to  a  man,  and  one  thousand  Athenians 
lay  beside  them.  But  Demostjhenes,  who  had 
himself  served  in  the  ranks  of  that  terrible 
day,  could  proudly  aver  that  he  would  never 
repent  of  the  resolve  which  had  saved  the 
honor  of  his  beloved  city  though  all  else 
were  lost. 

The  battle  of  Charonea  left  Philip  of  Mace- 
don master  of  the  destinies  of  Greece;  and 
the  enemies  of  Demosthenes  seized  the  oppor- 
tunity of  assailing  him  by  every  form  the 
laws  allowed,  and  he  was  daily  harassed  by 
their  opposition.  To  test  the  strength  of 
public  feeling,  Ctesiphon,  a  political  friend, 
introduced  into  the  Athenian  assembly  a 
resolution  to  confer  a  golden  crown  on  Demos- 
thenes as  a  suitable  acknowledgment  of  his 
public  services.  Before  the  proposition  be- 
came a  law,  any  citizen  might  prosecute  the 
author  of  it  by  an  indictment  for  illegal  prop- 
ositions. iE^chines  accordingly  prosecuted 
Ctesiphon.  The  trial  was  finally  held  in 
330  B.  C.,  after  a  postponement  of  eight 
years.  Demosthenes  appeared  in  the  formal 
character  of  counsel  for  Ctesiphon,  but  in 
reality  in  his  own  defense.  The  orations 
delivered  by  the  rival  statesmen  are  con- 
sidered their  masterpieces;  but  Demosthenes 
far  surpassed  iEscMnes,  and  was  decreed  the 
golden  crown. 


IN  LITERATURE 


21 


On  the  accession  of  Alexander,  336  B.  C, 
Demosthenes  still  cherished  the  same  feelings 
toward  the  Macedonians;  but  the  sudden 
appearance  of  the  youthful  conqueror  over- 
awed opposition.  Even  his  great  serv- 
ices could  not  protect  him  against  an  out- 
burst of  popular  feeling.  Harpalus,  one  of 
Alexander's  generals  whom  he  had  left  at 
Babylon,  absconded  with  the  treasure  in- 
trusted to  his  care,  and,  arriving  in  Athens, 
purchased  the  protection  of  the  city  by  dis- 
tributing his  gold  among  the  popular  leaders. 
Demosthenes  was  one  of  the  suspected  recip- 
ients; and,  being  declared  guilty,  and  fined 
fifty  talents,  he  retired  to  ^gina  and  Trozene, 
where  he  remained  until  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander, 323  B.  C. 

On  the  death  of  Alexander,  Demosthenes 
again  endeavored  to  rouse  the  Greeks  against 
Macedon.  But  the  insurrection  was  soon 
suppressed.  Returning  to  Athens  for  a  short 
time,  he  was  forced  again  to  withdraw  in 
322  B.  C. ;  and,  returning  to  Calauria,  a  small 
island  opposite  Trozene,  he  took  refuge  in 
the  temple  of  Neptune.  Here  the  orator  took 
poison  that  he  might  not  fall  into  the  hands 
of  the  victors.  He  was  sixty-three  when  he 
died. 

After  the  verdict  of  centuries,  opinions 
differ  little  as  to  the  position  which  Demos- 
thenes occupies.  His  name  is  a  synonym 
for  eloquence.  His  style,  less  terse  than  that 
of  Thucydides,  surpassed  in  subtility  by  that 
of  the  dialogues  of  Plato,  was  better  adapted 
than  either  to  impress  a  popular  assembly. 
He  was  not  less  remarkable  for  the  skill  with 
which  he  ordered  his  arguments,  the  telling 
humor  and  vivacity  which  gave  them  point, 
than  for  the  majesty  of  his  more  impassioned 
appeals,  Cicero,  Quintihan,  Longinus  —  all 
the  best  critics  of  the  ancient  world  —  com- 
bine with  the  foremost  poets  and  orators  of 
modern  times  to  hold  him  forth  as  an  almost 
faultless  example  of  excellence.  If  we  con- 
sider the  total  amount  and  compass  of  his 
speeches,  we  are  at  a  loss  whether  to  wonder 
more  at  the  industry  which  made  him  master 
of  so  wide  a  range  of  subjects,  or  the  genius 
which  inspired  his  handling  of  them  all. 

As  a  Greek  statesman  he  is  second  only  to 
Pericles  and  Epaminondas,  who  united  to 
equal  constancy  and  sagacity  still  greater 
powers  of  action;  and  when  we  place  him 
after  these,  we  must  recollect  the  happier 
times  in  which  they  lived. 

In  contemplating  from  a  distance  the  game 


of  history,  we  are  wont  to  exaggerate  the 
merit  of  the  players  who  win,  and  under- 
estimate the  greatness  of  those  who  ioBt, 
Success  is  elevated  above  the  virtues;  and 
failure  degraded  below  the  crimes.  The  un- 
fairness of  this  view  has  never  been  so  well 
exposed  as  by  Demosthenes  himself  in  his 
own  immortal  defense.  The  events  of  the 
first  part  of  the  struggle  justified  his  boast, 
that  wherever  his  advice  prevailed  his  coun- 
try's ruin  was  averted.  He  might  well  con- 
fess that  he  was  responsible  only  for  that 
over  which  he  had  control ;  he  had  no  control 
over  fortune,  or  the  follies  of  his  age.  He 
did  what  he  could  to  enlighten  it;  and  even 
if  we  assume  that  the  great  results  of  history 
are  for  the  best,  and  that  Greece  had  reached 
the  natural  term  of  her  power,  we  must 
remember  that  the  efforts  of  the  brave  men 
who  fail,  have  yet  their  influence  on  those 
great  results,  and,  if  undertaken  from  high 
motives,  their  place  among  the  agencies  for 
good. 

The  great  orator  shared  perhaps  too 
largely  in  that  infirmity  which  last  besets 
noble  minds,  but  his  policy  seems  to  have 
been  dictated  throughout  by  the  purest 
patriotism.  It  is  in  view  of  his  constancy, 
his  devotedness,  and  the  single  eye  with 
which  he  pursued  the  great  purpose  of  his 
life,  that  Niebuhr  has  called  him  a  saint. 
He  was  a  hero  in  no  contracted  sense,  and 
none  the  less  a  martyr,  that  he  died  ffuthful 
to  a  cause  which  had  become  hopeless. 

Demosthenes  inherited  a  delicate  constitu- 
tion, but  he  overcame  this  weakness  by  the 
most  rigid  temperance  in  food  and  drink. 
He  had  an  impediment  in  his  speech,  which, 
for  a  long  time,  would  not  suffer  him  to  pro- 
nounce the  letter  "r."  Moreover,  ho  had  a 
weak  voice,  a  short  breath,  and  a  very  un- 
couth and  ungracious  manner;  yet,  by  dint 
of  resolution  and  infinite  pains,  he  overcame 
all  these  defects.  He  accustomed  himself  to 
climb  up  steep  and  craggy  places  to  facilitate 
his  breathing  and  strengthen  his  voice;  he 
declaimed  with  pebbles  in  his  mouth  to 
remedy  the  imperfection  in  his  speech;  he 
placed  a  looking-glass  before  him  to  correct 
the  awkwardness  of  his  gesture;  and  he 
learned  from  the  best  actors  the  proper  graces 
of  action  and  pronunciation. 

But,  whatever  stress  he  laid  upon  the  ex- 
terior part  of  speaking,  he  was  also  very 
careful  about  the  matter  and  the  style.  The 
latter  he  formed  upon  the  model  of  Thucydi- 


22 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


des,  whose  history  for  that  purpose  he  tran- 
scribed eight  times.  So  intent  was  he  upon 
his  study  that  he  would  often  retire  into  a 
cave  of  the  earth,  and  shave  half  his  head, 
so  that  he  could  not,  with  decency,  appear 
abroad  until  his  hair  was  grown  again.  He 
also  accustomed  himself  to  harangue  on  the 
seashore,  where  the  agitation  of  the  waves 
gave  him  an  idea  of  the  motions  in  a  popular 
assembly,  and  served  to  prepare  and  fortify 
him  against  them.  Doubtless  it  was  this 
energetic  application  to  study  which  led  those 
who  envied  his  success  to  say  that  his  orations 


"smelt  of  the  lamp";  but  he  would  truly 
retort  that  his  lamp  did  not  shine  on  the 
same  kind  of  works  as  theirs. 

The  orations  of  Demosthenes,  upon  which 
his  fame  as  a  statesman  chiefly  rests,  are  three 
"Philippics,"  against  Philip  of  Macedon; 
three  "Olynthiacs,"  against  Philip's  attack 
on  the  state  of  Olynthus;  "On  the  Peace," 
"On  the  Embassy,"  "On  the  Affairs  of  the 
Chersonese,"  and  "On  the  Crown."  The 
latter  contains  a  defense  of  his  career,  and  by 
many  is  regarded  as  his  masterpiece. 


CICERO 


B.  C.  AQE 

106         Bom  at  Arpinum,  Italy, 

89         Served  in  social  war, 17 

79-77  Traveled  in  Greece  and  Asia,     .    .   27-29 

75         Quaestor  in  Sicily, 31 

70         Accused  Verres, 36 

69         Mdile 37 

66         Praetor, 40 


B.  c.  Aoa 

63         Consul ;  suppressed  Catiliae's  conspiracy,  43 

58         Banished  to  Thessalonica, 48 

51-50  Proconsul  of  Cilicia 55-56 

49         Allied  himself  with  Pompey, 67 

44-43  Delivered   his   "Philippics"   againat 

Antony 62-63 

43         Proscribed  and  slain 63 


MARCUS  TULLIUS  CICERO,  the  fore- 
most orator  of  ancient  Rome,  a  leading 
statesman,  and  the  most  brilliant  of  Roman 
men  of  letters,  lived  in  the  stirring  later  days 
of  the  Roman  republic.  On  every  hand  were 
revolutions  and  civil  wars.  An  old  and  decay- 
ing order  of  things  was  passing  away.  It 
was  an  age  of  great  and  daring  spirits  — 
Catiline,  Caesar,  Pompey,  Antony — with  whose 
history  Cicero's  life  was  closely  intertwined. 
He  was  born  at  the  old  Italian  town  of 
Arpinum,  in  Latium,  of  a  good  family,  in  106 
B.  C.  He  inherited  from  his  father,  who  was 
a  man  of  considerable  culture,  a  large  estate, 
and  as  a  boy  went  to  Rome,  where  he  studied 
law,  oratory,  Greek  philosophy,  and  Greek 
literature.  He  here  acquired,  in  fact,  the 
universal  knowledge  which  he  himself  says 
in  his  essay  "  On  the  Orator  " —  De  Oratore  — 
an  orator  ought  to  possess.  At  the  age  of 
seventeen  he  served  a  few  months  as  a  soldier 
in  the  Marsic  war ;  but  the  forum  had  a  much 
stronger  appeal  for  him  than  the  career  of 
a  soldier,  and  to  this  he  devoted  his  talents. 
He  soon  became  prominent  in  the  law  courts, 
and  made  his  first  speech,  in  his  twenty- 
sixth  year,  in  a  criminal  trial  in  which  his 
client  sought  redress  against  one  of  the  favor- 
ites of  the  powerful  Sulla,  then  dictator. 
After  a  visit  to  Athens,  and  a  tour  in  Asia 
Minor,  where  he  profited  by  the  society  of 


eminent  professors  of  rhetoric  and  men  of 
letters,  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  at  thirty 
years  of  age  was  in  the  highest  repute  in 
the  Roman  courts. 

About  this  time  Cicero  was  appointed  to 
the  office  of  quaestor  in  Sicily,  his  duty  being 
to  supervise  the  corn  supply  of  Rome,  coming 
from  that  province.  Here  it  was  that  he 
discovered  the  tomb  of  Archimedes,  the  cele- 
brated natural  philosopher;  and  years  after- 
ward —  70  B.  C. —  at  the  request  of  the 
Sicilians,  undertook  the  impeachment  of  the 
infamous  Verres,  the  result  of  which  raised 
him  to  the  pinnacle  of  reputation.  In  66 
B.  C,  at  forty,  he  became  praetor,  and  sup- 
ported in  a  great  speech  the  passing  of  the 
Manilian  law,  which  constituted  Pompey 
commander  against  Mithridates,  with  extra- 
ordinary powers,  in  the  place  of  Lucullus. 

Pompey  was  at  this  period  accepted  by  the 
Roman  oligarchy  as  their  leader,  though  not 
without  reluctance  and  distrust.  Cicero  gladly 
attached  himself  to  their  cause,  and  flattered 
himself  with  the  hope  of  reconciling  the 
senate  with  the  knights  by  a  more  liberal  and 
genial  policy.  Meanwhile,  he  hoped,  by  favor 
of  the  dominant  party,  to  attain  the  consul- 
ship. He  found  himself  a  candidate  for  that 
magistracy  along  with  Catiline,  a  man  of 
ruined  character  and  already  under  suspicion 
of  plotting  against  the  state.    Cicero  obtained 


§  o 


IN  LITERATURE 


35 


the  consulship;  Catiline  was  defeated,  and 
thereupon  betook  himself  to  those  treason- 
able machinations  that  are  familiar  to  every 
student  of  Roman  history.  It  was  the  busi- 
ness of  Cicero  to  track  these  intrigues  and 
defeat  them.  In  one  of  the  greatest  philip- 
pics in  any  language,  he  mercilessly  arraigned 
Catiline  in  the  Roman  senate ;  and  the  vigor 
and  courage  with  which  he  conducted  him- 
self at  this  crisis  won  for  him,  by  popular 
acclamation,  the  title  of  "father  of  his 
country." 

But  the  nobles  ill  requited  the  service  he 
had  done  them.  They  now  felt  themselves 
serene  in  their  ascendancy.  Meanwhile,  Cic- 
ero's enemies  became  more  emboldened. 
Clodius,  a  worthless  demagogue,  assailed  him 
with  a  formal  charge  of  putting  citizens  to 
death  summarily  without  appeal  to  the  people. 
In  vain  did  he  assume  the  garb  of  mourning 
and  traverse  the  streets  as  a  suppliant.  The 
magnates  stood  coldly  aloof,  and  the  factions 
arrayed  against  him  did  not  scruple  to  menace 
his  scanty  defenders  with  violence.  Cicero 
was  obliged  to  seek  safety  in  flight,  and  with- 
drew to  Thessalonica.  Clodius  obtained  a 
decree  of  the  people  for  his  banishment  four 
hundred  miles  from  the  city,  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  his  house  on  the  Palatine,  the  site  to 
be  devoted  to  the  erection  of  a  temple  of 
liberty. 

Pompey  and  Caesar  had  suffered  Cicero  to 
undergo  this  hiuniliation  for  their  own  pur- 
poses, but  they  were  not  disposed  to  submit 
to  the  arrogance  of  the  upstart  Clodius,  who 
was  now  making  himself  generally  obnoxious. 
In  the  following  year  they  let  it  be  under- 
stood that  the  persecution  should  cease.  The 
partisans  of  Clodius  raised  tumults  in  the 
city,  but  they  were  speedily  put  down,  and 
a  resolution  for  the  exile's  recall  was  carried 
in  the  assembly  of  the  people. 

Cicero  had  betrayed  much  weakness  under 
banishment.  The  exultation  with  which  he 
triumphed  on  his  return  was  hardly  more 
dignified.  The  senate,  however,  compli- 
mented him  by  coming  forth  to  meet  him, 
and  the  state  undertook  the  restoration  of 
his  mansion.  The  armed  opposition  of 
Clodius  was  met  by  a  counter  demonstration 
on  the  part  of  Milo,  a  no  less  turbulent 
instrument  of  the  oligarchy.  But  Cicero 
now  felt  himself  powerless  in  the  presence  of 
chiefs  of  armies  and  leaders  of  factions.  He 
attached  himself  more  closely  to  Pompey, 
and  devoted  his  eloquence  to  the  defense  of 


his  patron's  creatures,  while  he  courted  more 
and  more  the  pursuit  of  literature  in  retire- 
ment. 

The  attainment  of  a  seat  in  the  college  of 
augurs  on  the  death  of  Crassus,  53  B.  C.», 
placed  him  in  a  position  of  dignity  well  suitfCd 
to  his  tastes.  But  Cffisar,  though  now  absent 
in  Gaul,  was  rapidly  becoming  a  great  power 
in  the  state,  and  Cicero  did  not  fail  to  pay 
court  to  him  also,  proposing  to  celebrate  his 
British  wars  in  an  epic  poem.  The  death  of 
Clodius,  in  52  B.  C,  whose  slayer,  Milo,  he 
defended,  relieved  him  from  the  apprehension 
he  had  never  yet  shaken  off.  He  accepted, 
though  not  without  reluctance,  the  lot  which 
assigned  him  the  government  of  Cilicia  for 
the  year  following.  His  conduct  in  this  post 
seems  to  have  been  highly  meritorious.  He 
checked  the  corruption  of  his  officials  while 
he  preserved  his  own  purity ;  and,  distasteful 
as  warlike  affairs  were  to  his  studious  and 
quiet  temper,  he  did  not  shrink  from  leading 
his  troops  against  the  restless  mountaineers. 
His  vanity  induced  him  to  pretend  to  a 
triumph  for  his  success  in  these  trifling  opera- 
tions; but  in  those  degenerate  days  greater 
victories  than  his  would  have  failed  to 
secure  such  an  honor,  unless  backed  by  the 
influence  of  the  leaders  of  party,  and  neither 
Pompey  nor  Caesar  was  disposed  to  indulge 
him. 

The  civil  war  between  these  two  rivals  was 
now  imminent.  Cicero  naturally  threw  him- 
self into  the  ranks  of  the  senatorial  or  con- 
servative party,  which  was  blindly  following 
the  lead  of  Pompey;  but  he  was  coldly 
received  by  the  violent  men  who  ruled  it, 
to  whom  his  old-fashioned  patriotism  was 
utterly  distasteful.  Reluctantly  and  with 
much  misgiving  he  quitted  Italy  in  the  train 
of  the  senate  and  consented  to  set  up  a 
shadow  of  the  commonwealth  on  a  foreign 
shore;  while  Caesar  attached  to  himself  in 
the  city,  as  dictator  and  consul,  both  the 
substance  and  forms  of  constitutional  power. 
After  the  disaster  of  Pharsalia  and  the  rout 
of  the  senatorial  forces,  Cicero  quickly  threw 
aside  his  arms  and  returned  to  Italy,  where 
Caesar  had  left  Antony  in  command.  He 
was  soon  relieved  from  apprehensions  for  his 
own  safety  by  kind  assurances  from  the 
victor,  and,  while  Caesar  was  occupied  in 
Egypt,  Africa,  and  Spain,  he  withdrew  alto- 
gether from  public  life. 

During  this  period,  however,  he  abstained 
from  making  advances  to  Caesar,   and  did 


26 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


himself  honor  by  composing  a  panegyric  upon 
Cato,  to  which  Caesar  condescended  to  make 
an  iU-tempered  reply.  But  the  conqueror's 
clemency  to  Marcellus  at  last  won  his  heart, 
and  now,  after  the  death  of  Pompey,  Cato, 
and  Scipio,  with  all  the  other  chiefs  of  his 
party,  he  could  not  refrain  from  declaring 
warmly  in  favor  of  the  new  ruler.  Csesar  felt 
the  compliment,  and  repaid  it  by  sparing,  at 
his  instance,  the  life  of  Ligarius. 

The  conduct  of  Cicero  at  this  critical 
moment  was  undoubtedly  the  most  truly 
politic.  Other  republicans,  such  as  Brutus 
and  Cassius,  who  had  espoused  the  senatorial 
cause  with  feverish  zeal  or  angry  factiousness, 
did  not  scruple  to  give  their  actual  support 
to  the  new  government,  and  to  accept  oflBce 
under  it,  while  they  secretly  chafed  against 
it  and  threw  themselves  into  a  conspiracy 
against  the  life  of  their  master.  The  differ- 
ence between  their  spirit  and  that  of  Cicero 
is  marked  by  the  fact  that,  in  the  plot  to 
murder  Caesar,  which  numbered,  it  was  said, 
as  many  as  eighty  men  of  public  note,  Cicero 
himself  was  not  included.  The  covert  assas- 
sins dared  not  consult  with  men  of  true  honor. 
So,  too,  when  the  liberators,  as  they  called 
themselves,  repaired  to  the  provinces  to 
strengthen  their  party  against  the  Caesarians, 
Cicero  declined  to  undertake  active  service. 

After  the  death  of  Caesar,  Cicero  remained 
in  Italy,  and  employed  himself  in  guiding, 
as  he  thought,  the  conduct  of  the  young 
Octavius,  the  nephew  and  heir  of  the  dictator. 
This  crafty  dissembler  promised  well,  and 
Cicero  expected  to  be  able  to  use  him  as  a 
convenient  opponent  to  Antony.  It  must  be 
confessed  that  the  veteran  statesman  was 
himself  playing  a  part,  and  dissembling  with 
the  youth  whom  he  meant  eventually  to 
throw  aside.  It  was  a  game  on  both  sides, 
and  Octavius  won  it.  He  looked  on  with 
satisfaction  while  Cicero  excited  the  passions 
of  the  citizens  against  Antony,  in  the  series 
of  orations  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
"Philippics,"  while  he  armed  the  consuls 
Hirtius  and  Pansa  to  overthrow  him. 

The  orator,  now  advanced  in  years,  showed 
at  this  crisis  all  the  vigor  with  which  he  had 
encountered  Catiline  twenty  years  earlier. 
To  him  the  people  intrusted  the  government 
of  the  city,  and  while  all  the  forces  of  the 
republic  were  concentrated  under  various 
leaders  on  the  Cisalpine,  he  might  have  fan- 
cied himself  for  a  moment  the  real  controller 
of  affairs.    But  after  the  death  of  Hirtius 


and  Pansa  in  the  battles  before  Mutina,  and 
the  discomfiture  of  the  republicans  under 
Decimus  Brutus,  the  opposing  leaders,  Octa- 
vius, Antonius,  and  Lepidus,  formed  a  com- 
pact, and  assimied  to  be  a  triumvirate,  or  a 
board  of  three  special  officers  for  the  regula- 
tion of  the  commonwealth. 

Their  arrival  at  Rome  was  followed  by 
bloody  proscriptions  of  their  pubUc  and 
private  enemies.  Antony  demanded  the  head 
of  Cicero,  and  Octavius  yielded  it.  Old  and 
feeble,  the  orator  fled  to  his  villa  at  Formiae, 
pursued  by  the  soldiers  of  Antony,  and  was 
overtaken  as  he  was  being  carried  in  a  litter. 
With  a  calm  courage  he  put  his  head  out  of 
the  litter  and  bade  the  murderers  strike; 
and  his  throat  was  cut  by  one  of  Antony's 
bravos.  His  head  and  hands  were  then  cut 
off  and  sent  to  Rome,  where  Antony  caused 
them  to  be  affixed  to  the  rostra,  and  Fulvia, 
the  widow  of  Clodius  and  the  wife  of  Antony, 
pierced  with  her  needle  the  tongue  which  had 
declaimed  against  both  her  husbands. 

Cicero  perished  at  the  close  of  the  year  43 
B.  C,  at  the  age  of  sixty-three.  Octavius,  in 
his  later  years,  as  the  emperor  Augustus, 
coolly  said  of  the  great  statesman  and  patriot 
to  whose  murder  he  had  consented,  "  He  was 
a  good  citizen,  who  really  loved  his  country." 
The  saying  was  indeed  well  deserved,  but  it 
should  have  come  from  purer  lips. 

The  character  of  Cicero  has  been  depicted 
by  panegyrists,  and  by  calumniators.  As 
usual,  the  truth  probably  lies  between  the 
extreme  views.  His  virtues  far  outnumbered 
his  vices  and  foibles.  It  is  true  he  never 
lived  happily  with  his  wife,  Terentia,  and 
that  he  repudiated  her  according  to  the  law 
of  the  times.  Nor  was  it  made  a  matter  of 
reflection  upon  him  that  he  afterward  married 
his  own  ward,  Publia,  wealthy  as  well  as 
beautiful.  The  yoimg  bride  seems,  however, 
to  have  contributed  nothing  to  his  domestic 
happiness,  and  he  soon  repudiated  her,  too, 
for  the  satisfaction  she  had  seemed  to  evince 
at  the  death  of  his  much-loved  daughter, 
TulUa. 

It  has  been  charged  against  Cicero  that  he 
was  deficient  in  prudence,  decision,  and  forti- 
tude; but  the  chief  charge  against  him  has 
been  vanity,  which  led  him  into  his  worst 
errors.  He  was  not  a  great  or  a  wise  politician ; 
but  throughout  his  whole  political  career  he 
was  a  true  patriot.  He  loved  not  only  his 
country,  but  mankind  in  general.  He  loved 
them  not  merely  from  a  kindly  nature,  but 


IN  LITERATURE 


37 


from  reflection  and  self-discipline.  As  a 
specimen  of  the  highest  culture  of  the  ancient 
world,  both  moral  and  intellectual,  he  must 
ever  stand  preeminent. 

He  was  a  wiser  if  not  a  more  sincere  patriot 
than  Cato ;  his  private  virtues  were  subjected 
to  a  severer  test  than  those  of  Marcus  Aure- 
lius.  His  intellectual  superiority  is  suffi- 
ciently attested  by  the  important  place  he 
attained  in  the  face  of  many  disadvantages, 
in  the  conduct  of  public  affairs.  As  a  man 
he  was  distinguished  by  steadfast  integrity 
and  justice,  "faithful  among  the  faithless" 
of  the  time.  Learned,  philosophic,  and  genial, 
he  won  a  host  of  friends,  and  was  singularly 
free  from  envy  and  jealousy  of  rivals. 

His  religion  was  that  of  a  theist,  emanci- 
pated from  legend  and  superstition.  He 
believed,  though  without  bigotry,  in  the 
immortality  of  the  soul.  His  ethical  system 
was  practical  and  high-toned,  as  the  third 
part  of  his  work  "On  Duties"  will  show. 
He  there  discusses  the  question,  whether  a 
man,  in  dealing  with  another,  may  conceal 
important  facts,  as,  if  bringing  com  to  a 
famine-struck  town,  the  fact  that  other  corn- 
ships  are  on  their  way.  He  decides  in  favor 
of  openness.  What  it  is  for  the  interests  of 
others  to  know,  he  in  effect  says,  should  not 
be  withheld  from  them. 

Cicero's  enduring  fame,  however,  will  rest 
on  his  philosophical  wTitings  quite  as  much, 
j)erhaps,  as  on  his  qualities  as  an  orator. 
He  was  one  of  the  principal  channels  through 
which  Greek  thought  and  culture  diffused 
itself  in  the  Roman  world.  His  philosophy 
shows  the  enlargement  of  view  that  followed 
from  the  establishment  of  the  Roman  state. 
Two  conceptions  became  much  clearer  through 
him  than  they  had  been  to  the  Greeks ;  duty 
to  coimtry,  duty  to  man  as  man.  Rome, 
which  had  stimulated  patriotism,  first  devel- 
oped the  consciousness  of  humanity.  "The 
fellowship  of  the  human  race,"  "the  citizen- 
ship of  the  world,"  are  phrases  very  promi- 
nent in  his  writings.  Notable,  too,  is  the 
influence  of  the  "Roman  peace"  in  his 
glorifications  of  human  industry,  "by  which 
a  new  nature  had  been  brought  into  the 
natural  world." 

The  great  bulk  of  Cicero's  works  may  be 
conveniently  classed  as  (1)  political,  (2) 
philosophical,  (3)  personal.  The  first  division 
comprises  a  collection  of  fifty-six  speeches 
delivered  in  the  forum  or  the  courts,  though 
some  of  them  were  written  for  publication 


and  not  actually  delivered.  Among  these  are : 
"For  the  Manilian  Law,"  "Against  Catiline,'' 
"On  the  Agrarian  Law,"  "Against  Verres," 
"For  Archias,"  "For  Milo,"  "Against  Piso," 
"For  Marcellus,"  and  the  "Philippics,"  so- 
called.  Besides  the  speeches  themselves, 
Cicero  produced  several  treatises  on  the 
subject  of  oratory,  which,  as  part  of  the 
Roman  training  for  public  life,  may  be 
regarded  as  political.  Of  these  the  principal 
are,  "  On  the  Orator  "  and  "  Brutus."  To  this 
division  belong  still  more  strictly  the  impor- 
tant works,  "On  Laws"  and  "On  the  Repub- 
lic," which  contain  valuable  references  to  the 
events  of  early  Roman  history. 

To  the  second  division  belong  the  famous 
treatises  on  philosophy,  from  which  we  derive 
most  of  our  knowledge  concerning  the  Greek 
systems  which  succeeded  to  the  schools  of 
Plato  and  Aristotle,  and  in  which  it  became 
the  fashion  to  affect  an  interest  at  Rome. 
Of  these,  "The  Academics,"  the  "Tusculan 
Disputations,"  the  "True  Ends  of  Life,"  and 
others  which  have  been  lost,  were  devoted 
to  speculative  questions;  the  works,  "On 
Divination"  and  "On  the  Nature  of  the 
Gods,"  refer  more  strictly  to  theological  tra- 
ditions; while  the  book  "On  Duties"  is  an 
elaborate  treatise  on  moral  obligations.  The 
smaller  works,  "On  Old  Age"  and  "On 
Friendship,"  may  also  be  placed  more  or  less 
definitely  under  the  head  of  practical  phi- 
losophy. 

Last  to  be  named  are  his  "Familiar  Let- 
ters," of  which  about  eight  thousand  are 
extant,  half  of  them  being  addressed  to  his 
lifelong  friend,  Atticus.  "These,"  says  Mid- 
dleton,  his  admiring  English  biographer, 
"may  justly  be  called  the  memoirs  of  the 
times,  for  they  contain  not  only  a  distinct 
account  of  every  memorable  event,  but  lay 
open  the  springs  and  motives  whence  each  of 
them  proceeded."  His  works  as  a  whole 
form  the  most  authentic  monuments  of  the 
events  of  his  age.  Moreover,  in  addition  to 
their  intrinsic  worth,  philosophical,  historical, 
and  biographical,  they  possess  the  charm  of 
consummate  literary  style,  and  present  to  us 
the  Latin  language  at  its  highest  pitch  of 
development. 

"Cicero,"  says  Dr.  Vicesimus  Knox,  "the 
world's  great  model  in  the  oratorical  and  the 
philosophical,  is  no  less  eminent  in  the  epis- 
tolary style.  He  rivaled  his  great  patterns, 
the  Greeks,  in  eloquence  and  philosophy; 
and  he  excelled  them  in  his  letters." 


28 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 

VERGIL,  OR  VIRGIL 


B.  C.  AGE 

70        Bom  near  Mantua,  Italy, 

66         Assumed  the  toga  virilis, 15 

42-37  Wrote  his  Bitcolica,  or  "Eclogues,".   2S-33 
41         Ejected  from  his  paternal  farm  by 

soldiers  of  Octavius,       29 


B.  c.  AOa 

40        Restored  to  estates, 30 

37         Settled  at  Rome, 33 

37-30  Wrote  his  Georgica, 33-40 

29-19  Wrote  the  ^neid 41-61 

19        At  Athens;  died  at  Brundisium,  Italy,      61 


pUBLIUS  VERGILIUS  MARO,  commonly 
•■■  called  Vergil,  or  Virgil,  greatest  of  the 
Roman  poets,  was  about  thirty  years  yoimger 
than  Julius  Caesar  and  Lucretius,  and  a  little 
older  than  Augustus,  Maecenas,  and  Horace. 
It  is  thought  by  critics  that  his  name  was 
written  Vergilius,  the  first  syllable  suggest- 
ing a  Gallic  descent,  and  that  he  was  not  by 
birth  a  Roman  citizen. 

Vergil  was  bom  at  Andes,  a  small  village 
near  Mantua,  in  the  first  consulate  of  Pompey 
and  Crassus,  70  B.  C.  His  father  was  a  well- 
to-do  farmer  of  the  Cisalpine  province,  and 
gave  his  son  the  best  education.  He  assumed 
the  toga  virilis  of  the  Roman  citizen  at  the 
age  of  fifteen,  and  studied  at  Cremona,  Milan, 
and  then  at  Rome.  He  studied,  also,  at 
Naples  underParthenius,  a  native  of  Bithynia, 
and  at  Rome  was  instructed  in  the  principles 
of  Epicurean  philosophy.  With  delicate 
health  and  of  nervous  temperament  the  young 
student  shrank  from  arms  and  from  oratory. 
But  he  devoted  himself  to  study  with  intense 
application,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of 
that  varied  learning,  for  which  he  was  scarcely 
less  remarkable  than  for  poetical  genius. 

It  is  uncertain  how  long  he  may  have  been 
absent  from  home,  and  merely  a  reasonable 
conjecture  that,  after  completing  his  studies, 
he  returned  to  his  paternal  farm  and  there 
wrote  some  of  the  small  pieces  which  are  attrib- 
uted to  him.  But  his  peaceful  seclusion  was 
disturbed  by  an  unexpected  event,  which  is 
believed  to  be  alluded  to  in  his  first  "Eclogue." 
Octavius  Caesar  (Augustus),  on  his  return  to 
Italy  after  the  battle  of  Phihppi,  42  B.  C, 
assigned  to  a  portion  of  his  veterans  the  lands 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Mantua,  thereby 
depriving  Vergil  of  his  patrimony,  which, 
however,  was  afterward  restored  to  him  by 
the  intercession  of  powerful  friends.  Soon 
after  this  occurrence — probably  37  B.  C. — 
Vergil  settled  at  Rome,  and  was  introduced 
to  Augustus,  and  to  his  minister,  Maecenas, 
the  munificent  patron  of  genius,  and  continued 
during  the  remainder  of  his  fife  to  enjoy  their 
friendship  and  patronage. 

In  19  B.  C.  he  visited  Greece,  intending  to 
make  a  tour  of  that  country,  and  to  revise  and 


perfect  his  Mneid;  but  having  met  the 
emperor  at  Athens  on  his  return  from  the 
East,  and  finding  his  feeble  health  fast  declin- 
ing, he  resolved  to  accompany  him  to  Italy. 
He  succeeded  in  reaching  the  shores  of  his 
native  country,  and  died  soon  after  his  arrival 
at  Brundisium  on  the  22d  of  September,  19 
B.  C,  before  completing  his  fifty-first  year. 
In  compliance  with  his  wish,  his  body  waa 
conveyed  to  Naples,  and  there  buried  at  the 
distance  of  about  two  miles  from  the  city,  at 
Posilipo,  where  a  monument,  traditionally 
said  to  be  his,  is  still  shown.  From  his  own 
time,  Posilipo  has  been  a  place  of  religious 
pilgrimage  and  superstitious  reverence. 

No  fife  recorded  offers  a  more  complete 
dedication  to  one  great  purpose,  or  a  more 
serene  and  unbroken  concentration  of  powers 
on  the  poetic  office.  The  poet  was  tall,  dark, 
and  somewhat  rustic  in  air;  modest,  shy, 
retiring  in  disposition,  and  somewhat  proud ; 
a  confirmed  invalid,  and  never  married.  His 
life  and  his  verse  were  pure  and  refined,  full 
of  a  deep  religious  melancholy ;  he  lived  apart 
from  all  the  storms  and  distractions  around 
him,  both  public  and  private.  Simplicity, 
honor,  conscientiousness,  are  the  words  by 
which  he  is  described  by  his  closest  friends. 

As  already  intimated,  Vergil  was  born  under 
the  republic  before  the  Itahans  across  the  Po 
had  received  the  Roman  citizenship.  He 
was  twenty-two  when  the  battle  of  Pharsaha 
made  JuUus  dictator  of  the  civilized  world; 
and  he  was  thirty-nine  when  the  battle  of  Ac- 
tium  made  his  friend  Augustus  supreme  ruler. 
The  poet,  deeply  sympathizing  with  the  new 
hopes  for  an  era  of  peace  and  order,  saw  in 
the  imperial  dictatorship  an  epoch  of  pros- 
perity and  stability ;  and  in  the  unification  of 
the  Roman  provinces  the  prospect  of  a  greater 
Rome  to  be.  His  whole  career  was  inspired 
by  a  mission  to  idealize  this  future  of  peaceful 
development,  with  Rome  as  the  protector  and 
leader  of  the  world.  His  works  consist  of, 
(1)  Bucolica,  or  "Eclogues,"  pastoral  poems, 
amounting  to  ten,  written  42-37  B.  C. ;  (2) 
Georgica,  "Georgics,"  an  agricultural  poem 
in  four  books,  written  37-30  B.  C. ;  (3)J?neis, 
or  the  Mneid,  a  national  epic  poem,  in  twelve 


IN  LITERATURE 


books,  written  about  29-19  B.  C,  besides 
some  minor  poems  which  are  ascribed  to  him. 
The  "Eclogues"  are  doubtless  his  earliest  pro- 
ductions, and  must,  therefore,  be  estimated 
chiefly  as  indications  of  the  future  efforts  of 
the  poet.  In  the  "Georgics"  the  powers  of 
the  poet  are  more  matured ;  freshness  and 
vigor  are  given  to  a  subject  possessing  but 
little  of  the  poetical  element;  and  the  rude 
and  rough  hexameter  of  Lucretius  is  advanced 
to  a  degree  of  perfection  which  cannot  be 
surpassed. 

But  the  jEneid  is  the  central  work  of  his  life. 
Its  form  is  found  in  the  Homeric  world  of  the 
ideal  heroes;  but  its  inner  spirit  is  a  contin- 
uous appeal  to  the  sense  of  national  dignity 
and  to  the  patriotic  hopes  of  his  countrymen. 
Thus  the  poem  is  surrounded  with  all  the  halo 
of  the  Homeric  legend ;  and,  though  being  in 
form  a  continuation  of  the  Iliad  and  the 
Odyssey,  in  substance  it  is  the  epic  of  the 
national  fortunes,  alive  with  patriotic  memo- 
ries and  hopes  in  every  part,  rousing  the 
Roman  race  to  a  sense  of  greater  glories  to 
come  and  a  new  mission  to  fulfill.  The  cen- 
ter of  this  new  epoch  was  the  dictatorship 
vested  in  the  house  of  Julius  Caesar,  which 
the  poem  is  designed  to  glorify,  and  almost  to 
deify. 

But  Vergil  was  no  court  flatterer.  He  was 
a  patriot,  and  an  enthusiast,  who  profoundly 
believed  in  a  social  and  political  revolution, 
under  which  the  transition  from  the  ancient 
world  to  the  modern  was  ultimately  effected. 
Not  in  the  ways  anticipated  by  the  poet,  who, 
like  most  of  the  greater  Romans  of  the  early 
empire,  from  Caesar  to  Marcus  Aurehus, 
believed  in  a  moral,  social,  and  religious 
regeneration  of  the  world  without  the  revolu- 
tion embodied  in  Christianity  and  Mosaism. 
It  was  an  error ;  but  it  was  a  noble  mistake. 
And  the  idea  of  this  moral,  material,  social, 
and  religious  revivification  of  the  ancient 
society  under  a  beneficent  emperor  was  never 
put  in  a  finer  and  more  religious  spirit  than  it 
was  in  the  jEneid,  under  its  peaceful,  be- 
neficient,  pious  hero,  ^neas.  Indeed,  the 
whole  epic  is  a  poetical  analogue  of  Augus- 
tine's "City  of  God,"  a  pagan  idealization 
of  the  city  of  the  deified  emperor.  And 
it  is  this  idea  of  a  religious  regeneration  of 
mankind  to  be  worked  out  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Rome,  as  prefigured  in  his  early  poem, 
the  Pollio,  or  fourth  "Eclogue,"  which  gave 
Vergil  his  vast  influence  throughout  the 
Catholic  period. 


This  vision  of  a  peaceful  reorganization  of 
the  world,  and  the  intense  social  and  religious 
earnestness  of  Vergil,  separate  the  ^neid  from 
all  the  literary  epics,  ancient  or  modem,  and 
place  it  alongside  of  the  Divina  Commcdia 
and  the  Paradise  Lost.  His  ideal  of  the 
destiny  and  mission  of  Rome  is  inferior  to 
the  ideal  of  Dante  and  Milton  —  the  destiny 
and  mission  of  humanity.  But  it  is  less 
vague  and  less  superhuman ;  it  is  more  real, 
more  definite,  and  more  true  to  fact.  The 
Augustan  age  is  often  compared  to  that  of 
Louis  XIV.,  but  it  was  far  larger  and  with  a 
grander  future  before  it.  Vergil  combines 
Comeille  and  Racine,  and  surpasses  both. 
He  displays  the  heroic  types,  the  moral  eleva- 
tion, the  massive  dignity  of  Comeille,  together 
with  the  religious  spirit,  the  leaming,  the 
pathos,  the  consummate  mastery  over  lan- 
guage of  Racine.  But  his  theme  is  far  less 
artificial,  remote,  and  literary  than  that  of 
any  of  the  French  or  the  Italian  tragic  and 
epic  poets,  save  Dante  alone.  He  was  not 
presenting  an  historical  picture,  or  dealing 
with  an  imaginary  world :  he  believed  in  the 
reality  or  the  mythology  which  he  used  as  his 
machinery;  and  his  main  object  was  to 
present  to  his  own  countrymen  the  past,  the 
future,  and  the  dignity  of  their  common  coim- 
try.  In  this  conception  of  human  progress, 
unity,  and  life,  he  makes  a  step  toward  the 
ideal  poet  of  humanity. 

Vergil  was  one  of  the  most  leamed  and  most 
serious  of  all  poets.  Like  Dante,  Milton,  and 
Racine,  he  was  profoundly  saturated  with  the 
best  culture  of  his  age.  He  lived  in  personal 
relations  with  the  great  statesmen  of  his  epoch, 
but  meditated  on  the  world  of  action  from  a 
distant  and  poetic  retirement.  Happily, 
his  life  was  free  from  the  cares  and  disap- 
pointments which  weighed  on  the  three  poets 
whom  he  most  resembles. 

Of  all  poets,  Vergil  was  perhaps  the  most 
intensely  conscientious  and  laborious.  He 
said  that  he  produced  verses  as  a  bear  does 
her  cubs,  by  licking  them  into  shape.  In 
twenty-four  years  of  incessant  labor,  he  wrote 
less  than  13,000  verses.  He  spent  seven 
years  on  the  2,188  lines  of  the  "  Georgics,"  and 
eleven  years  on  the  Mneid,  which  consists  of 
only  9,896  lines,  and  which  was  unfinished  at 
his  death.  He  gave  a  characteristic  proof  of 
his  passion  for  perfection,  when  he  directed 
his  friends  to  destroy  the  manuscript  to 
which  his  final  touches  were  still  wanting. 
Fortunately,  at  the  order  of  Augustus,  they 


30 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


disobeyed  the  poet,  and  saved  to  the  world 
the  great  Roman  masterpiece. 

Rdinan  poetry  is  less  spontaneous,  less 
imaginative,  and  more  artificial  than  that  of 
Greece ;  but,  from  the  social  point  of  view,  its 
higher  level  has  a  finer  moral  power ;  it  has  a 
nobler  personality  beneath  its  voices,  and  is 
more  fully  inspired  with  a  national  mission. 
In  all  this,  Vergil  stands  preeminent  as  the 
national  poet  of  Rome;  and  since  his  time 
he  has  always  remained  the  supreme  poet  of 
the  Latin  race.  In  the  middle  ages,  Vergil 
exerted  the  same  spell,  and  even  in  church 
hymns  was  addressed  as  poetarum  maxime. 
The  reverential  devotion  of  Dante  to  Vergil 
led  him  to  personify  the  poet  of  Italy  as 
earthly  wisdom :  "  My  master  and  my  author," 
as  he  is  invoked  in  the  "Divine  Comedy." 
And  all  through  the  mediaeval  and  renais- 
sance epochs,  and  down  to  the  rise  of  the  rev- 
olutionary and  romantic  outburst  of  the  last 
century,  Vergil  reigned  supreme.  We  can 
now  see  how  vastly  inferior  he  is  in  native 
purity  and  in  sublime  imagination  to  Homer 
and  iEschylus;  but  we  can  also  see  better 
than  ever  how  completely  he  embodied  the 
dignity  and  social  greatness  of  Rome,  as  it 
passed  from  a  turbulent  republic  into  a  world- 
wide dictatorship. 

It  is  not  necessary  here  to  enlarge  on  the 
consummate  mastery  over  language  pos- 
sessed by  Vergil,   the  majestic  roll  of  his 


matchless  hexameter,  the  symmetry  and 
perfection  of  liis  poetic  form ;  on  his  immense 
learning  and  philosophic  spirit ;  on  the  deeply 
practical  and  moral  force  of  his  appeals  to 
duty  and  heroism;  on  his  spiritual  present- 
ment of  human  hfe  and  death ;  on  his  refined 
picture  of  the  great  and  just  ruler  of  men ;  on 
his  consummate  gift  of  tenderness,  and  the 
intense  pathos  with  which  he  has  painted 
heroic  women ;  or  on  the  style  which  makes 
him  the  best  known  of  the  ancients  by  virtue 
of  his  massive  and  monumental  embodiment 
of  noble  thought.  Inferior  as  he  is  in 
spontaneous  imagination  to  the  greatest  poets 
of  Greece  —  to  Dante  and  Ariosto,  to  Shakes- 
peare and  Milton  —  he  will  always  remain, 
by  virtue  of  his  unique  historical  position,  one 
of  the  greatest  poets  of  the  world. 

The  qualities  of  the  genius  of  Vergil  have 
been  thus  summed  up  by  Saint-Beuve: 
"  Warm  love  of  nature,  love  of  poetry ;  respect 
for  the  great  poets,  and  judicious  imitation  of 
their  beauties,  the  erudition  and  science  of  the 
antiquary;  patriotism,  the  price  of  being  a 
Roman  citizen,  humanity,  piety,  sensibility, 
and  tenderness.  But,  above  all,  his  principal 
characteristic  and  perfection  is  that  sovereign 
quality  which  embraces  in  it,  and  unites  all 
the  others  —  a  quality  which  appears  also  in 
the  genius  of  Raphael  —  unity  of  tone  and 
color,  harmony,  fitness  of  parts,  proportion, 
and  sustained  good  taste." 


PLUTARCH 

Wise,  hoaest  Plutarch !  to  thy  deathless  praise 

The  sons  of  Rome  this  grateful  statue  raise; 

For  why?     Both  Greece  and  Rome  thy  fame  have  shar'd; 

Their  heroes  written,  and  their  lives  compar'd. 

But  thou  thyself  couldst  never  write  thy  own: 

Their  lives  had  parallels,  but  thine  has  none. 

—  Dryden. 


JpLUTARCH,  the  most  famous  biographer 
■*■  in  history,  and  a  moralist  as  well,  has  left 
us  a  very  imperfect  account  of  his  own  life. 
But  it  is  probably  suflScient  that  we  know 
him  as  the  author  of  the  incomparable  Ldves. 
From  his  own  writings  we  gather  that  he 
was  a  native  of  Chseronea,  in  Bceotia,  and  was 
a  youthful  student  when  Nero  visited  Delphi, 
in  66  A.  D.  He  was  probably  born  between 
the  years  45  and  50,  of  the  first  century,  A.  D. 
He  belonged  to  a  good  family,  members  of 
which  occupied  those  high  municipal  oflSces 
that  he  himself  in  turn  filled  when  he  went 


back  to  settle  at  Chseronea  after  his  long 
travels.  He  held  it  to  be  a  point  of  honor  to 
give  to  the  place  of  his  birth  some  of  the 
celebrity  he  had  himself  acquired.  "Born 
in  a  little  town,"  he  used  to  say,  with  simple 
pride,  "I  love  to  hve  there  in  order  that  it 
should  not  become  still  smaller." 

Plutarch  prosecuted  his  studies  at  Athens, 
under  Ammonius  of  Alexandria,  in  whose 
house  he  dwelt.  His  preliminary  education 
having  been  completed,  he  set  out  upon  his 
travels,  first  visiting  Egypt,  where  he  began 
to  accumulate  his  vast  stores  of  historical  and 


IN  LITERATURE 


81 


mythological  lore.  In  his  treatise  of  "  Isis  and 
Osiris"  he  has  described  the  principal  ideas 
he  entertained  of  the  Egyptian  religion,  and 
this  work  possesses  for  us  a  singular  interest. 
From  this  period,  Plutarch  systematically 
wTote  down  descriptions  of  what  he  saw,  dili- 
gently examined  public  and  private  records, 
and  composed  collections  of  memoirs  which 
eventually  were  of  the  greatest  use  to  the 
historian  and  the  moralist. 

On  his  return  to  Greece  he  visited  the  prin- 
cipal academies,  and  resided  for  some  time  at 
Sparta  for  the  express  purpose  of  studying  on 
the  spot  the  mechanism  of  its  ancient  govern- 
ment and  of  its  legislation.  Wherever  he 
went  he  gathered  facts  and  notable  sayings, 
consulting,  for  the  purpose,  books,  statues, 
medals,  inscriptions,  and  paintings.  "He 
appears,"  says  one  of  his  ancient  biographers, 
"to  have  had  his  memory  always  engaged  in 
collecting  information,  and  his  judgment 
ceaselessly  occupied  in  discerning  what  it  was 
necessary  to  reject  or  retain." 

Applying  the  same  attention  to  the  study 
of  the  positive  sciences,  and  then  to  medicine, 
to  the  laws  of  health,  and  to  other  matters  of 
a  practical  kind,  and  being  eager,  above  all 
things,  to  become  acquainted  with  the  his- 
tory and  development  of  the  philosophic 
sects,  Plutarch  apparently  remained  ignorant 
of  nothing  that  was  known  in  his  time. 

Before  repairing  to  Rome,  he  was  sent  by 
his  fellow  citizens  on  a  mission  to  the  pro- 
consul of  Achaia  —  a  circumstance  which 
attests  the  public  esteem  he  was  already 
beginning  to  enjoy.  It  was  long  beheved,  on 
the  authority  of  Suidas,  that  he  was  the  tutor 
of  Trojan,  who,  on  being  raised  to  the  impe- 
rial purple,  appointed  him  consul,  and  heaped 
honors  and  wealth  upon  him.  This  is  proba- 
bly a  mere  invention.  It  is  likely  that  Plu- 
tM"ch's  residence  in  Rome,  which  extended 
over  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  centiuy,  was 
interrupted  by  frequent  visits  to  Greece. 
During  his  long  stay  in  the  "eternal  city" 
he  did  not  find  time,  according  to  his  own 
admission,  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  Latin 
tongue.  He  learned,  indeed,  the  names  of 
ordinary  objects,  but  it  was  not  until  late  in 
life  that  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of 
Latin  literature. 

Many  celebrated  Greeks  attended  his 
courses  of  philosophy,  and  not  a  few  of  his 
auditors  belonged  to  the  Roman  aristocracy. 
He  spoke  fluently,  being  aided  by  notes  care- 
fully prepared  beforehand,  which  in  his  old 


age  he  edited,  and  gave  to  his  thoughts  the 
form  in  which  they  have  descended  to  us.  In 
the  same  way  he  has  preserved  his  "Table 
Talk,"  the  substance  of  familiar  conversations 
which  he  held,  chiefly  at  Rome,  with  men  of 
rank  and  talent;  so  that  it  is  possible  to 
follow  the  development  of  his  ideas  and  his 
doctrines  during  that  long  space  of  time. 

From  various  passages  in  his  works  it 
appears  that  while  at  Rome  he  was  also 
intrusted  by  his  fellow  citizens  with  some 
kind  of  public  office,  like  that  of  the  modern 
charge  d'affaires,  and  it  is  to  be  regretted  that 
he  has  not  more  fully  explained  the  nature 
and  the  duties  of  this  post. 

The  period  at  which  he  returned  to  estab- 
lish himself  at  Chaeronea  is  uncertain.  He 
was  there  elected  archon,  and  then  he  filled 
the  humble  post  of  inspector  of  buildings. 
His  renown  was  at  this  time  spread  over  all 
Greece.  Athens  accorded  to  him  the  right  of 
citizenship;  Corinth  and  Elis  invited  him  to 
their  grand  civic  ffeasts ;  he  was  priest  of  the 
oracle  of  Apollo  at  Delphi.  Foreigners  who 
visited  the  principal  cities  of  Greece  went  to 
see  him,  and  accounted  it  an  honor  to  be 
received  at  his  home.  His  home  was  that  of 
a  sage,  and  he  lived  in  tranquillity  in  the  midst 
of  his  family.  In  this  quiet  retirement,  Plu- 
tarch, reposing  at  the  close  of  an  extremely 
laborious  life,  put  in  order  his  voluminous 
notes  and  documents,  and  composed  the 
works  which  have  made  his  name  immortal. 

The  character  of  Plutarch  is  more  inti- 
mately known  to  us  than  the  facts  regarding 
his  Hfe.  He  was  a  well-bred,  well-trained, 
well-read,  genial,  just,  and  honorable  moralist 
of  the  old  school:  somewhat  garrulous,  sen- 
tentious, and  credulous,  but  overflowing  with 
interesting  anecdote,  a  consummate  master  of 
life-like  portraiture,  with  a  deep  foundation 
of  pure,  simple,  and  humane  morality.  He 
was  an  enlightened  and  pious  polytheist, 
verging  on  monotheism  of  the  neo-Platonic 
kind;  who,  without  much  sympathy  for 
modem  Roman  culture,  and  without  much 
knowledge  of  the  Roman  empire  at  its  highest 
grandeur,  devoted  himself  to  devising  a 
spontaneous  scheme  of  practical  ethics.  His 
ethical  writings,  called  in  Latin  Moralia,  are 
among  the  most  valuable  pictures  we  possess 
of  antique  manners  and  thoughts.  But  they 
are  surpassed  by  the  Parallel  Lives,  or  studies 
of  character  of  illustrious  Greeks  and  Romans 
in  pairs,  from  Theseus  to  his  own  age.  There 
were  in  all  some  fifty  hves,  of  which  fourteen 


32 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


are  lost,  and  unfortunately  in  that  number 
are  those  of  Epaminondas,  Scipio,  and  the 
early  Csesars. 

Plutarch  was  not  a  philosopher,  for  he  had 
no  powers  of  original  thought  and  very  little 
precision  of  reasoning;  nor  was  he  an  histo- 
rian, or  at  all  interested  in  the  evolution  of 
civilization  as  a  whole.  He  was,  as  he  justly 
describes  himself,  a  moralist,  a  student  of 
character;  and  his  Lives  are  pictures  of 
human  nature,  not  narratives  of  events. 
Like  Dr.  Johnson,  in  a  much  later  age,  Plu- 
tarch always  turns  to  the  moral  and  human 
side  of  every  incident ;  he  was  a  great  talker, 
a  keen  judge  of  moral  actions,  and  was  him- 
self the  oracle  of  a  highly  cultured  society, 
living  apart  from  the  world  of  affairs  toward 
the  latter  years  of  one  declining  epoch,  and 
profoundly  unconscious  of  the  new  epoch 
which  was  to  succeed  it.  It  is  significant  that 
Plutarch,  a  professed  student  of  morality  and 
religion,  writing  one  hundred  years  after 
Christ,  seems  never  to  have  heard  of  Chris- 
tianity. 

It  is  needless  here  to  describe  the  Parallel 
Lives,  which,  in  the  library,  follow  Herodotus 
and  Thucydides.  They  have  been  subject 
to  famous  eulogies  from  the  time  of  Montaigne 
and  Henry  IV.  down  to  that  of  Rousseau  and 
Madame  Roland  —  when  the  great  moralist 
of  antiquity  had  a  very  real  part  in  forming 
the  tone  of   the   revolutionary    movement. 


The  Lives  appeared  in  a  Latin  version  in  1470, 
at  Rome;  in  Greek,  at  Florence,  in  1517;  in 
French,  by  Amyot,  in  1559;  in  English,  by 
North,  in  1579.  The  latter  was  used  by 
Shakespeare  as  his  textbook  for  Coriolanus, 
Juliiis  Ccesar,  and  Antony  and  Cleopatra.  It 
has  been  said,  and  it  is  hardly  an  exaggeration, 
that  if  all  other  record  of  antiquity  but  Plu- 
tarch's were  lost,  we  could  still  conceive  by 
his  aid  the  general  spirit  of  those  ages.  And 
it  has  often  been  declared  that  if  we  could  save 
but  one  secular  book  in  the  world,  the  most 
valuable  to  preserve  would  be  this  unique 
record  of  antiquity  as  a  whole. 

"In  spite  of  certain  reserves  that  criticism 
might  make,"  observes  a  modern  critic,  "  the 
Lives  is  one  of  the  most  excellent  books  which 
honor  humanity.  No  known  book,  not  being 
a  work  of  devotion  or  of  imagination,  has  ever 
exerted  a  greater  influence  in  forming  the 
ideas  of  generations,  or  has  ever  been  so  well 
and  universally  read.  Though  not  a  work  of 
history  or  philosophy,  Plutarch's  Lives  still 
remain  for  the  general  public  the  source  of  all 
practical  knowledge  of  the  genius  of  antiquity. 
His  pictures  of  human  nature  under  military 
civilization  are  as  immortal  as  those  of 
Shakespeare  and  Scott  under  mediaeval  and 
modem  manners.  It  is  the  book  of  those 
who  can  nobly  think,  and  dare,  and  do.  It  is 
a  mirror  in  which  all  men  may  look  at  them- 
selves." 


A.  D. 

1265 
1289 
1290 
1294 
1300 


1301 


DANTE 

AGE  A.  D. 

Bom  at  Florence,  Italy, 1302 

At  victory  of  Guelplis  at  Campaldino,     24  1306 

Served  in  expedition  against  Pisa,  .     25  1307-09 

Wrote  Vita  Nuova, 29 

Commenced    Divina    Commedia;  1313 

elected  one  of  the  priors  of  Flor-  1317 

ence,      35 

Ambassador  to  Rome  on  behalf  of  1318 

Bianchi, 36  1321 


AOB 

Fined  and  banished, 37 

Visits  Padua, 41 

Lived  chiefly  in  Verona,  Forli,  and 

Casentino;  visited  Paris,   .    .    .   42-44 

Took  refuge  at  Pisa, 48 

Made  his  permanent  home  at  Ra- 
venna   52 

Divina  Commedia  finished,    ....  53 

Died  at  Ravenna, 56 


■pjANTE  ALIGHIERI,  the  great  Italian 
■*-^  poet  who  opened  the  roll  of  modern  litera- 
ture, was  born  in  Florence,  Italy,  in  May, 
1265.  His  father  was  a  lawyer,  and  a  member 
of  the  Guelph  party,  whose  family  was  of 
honorable  and  ancient  descent,  though  not 
on  the  roll  of  nobles.  The  son  was  baptized 
Durante,  afterward  contracted  into  Dante. 

Of  Dante's  youth  little  is  known.  The  first 
fact  of  importance  narrated  by  all  his  biogra- 
phers is  the  extraordinary  affection  he  con- 


ceived for  Beatrice  Portinari,  when  only  nine 
years  of  age.  Beatrice  was  nearly  a  year 
younger  when  they  first  met  at  a  festival  at 
the  house  of  her  father,  and  Boccaccio  says, 
that  "young  as  Dante  was,  her  image  was  at 
once  engraved  so  deeply  upon  his  heart,  that 
from  that  hour  to  the  end  of  his  life  never  was 
it  effaced  " ;  and,  when  she  died,  he  "suffered 
an  affiction  so  profound,  and  shed  so  many 
and  such  bitter  tears,  that  his  friends  believed 
they  could  end  only  in  death." 


5   > 

3    Z 


5-  2 


IN  LITERATURE 


36 


Except  this  early  love,  too  many  of  the 
facts  and  dates  connected  with  Dante's  life, 
which  have  been  the  subject  of  learned  dis- 
cussion, remain,  and  seem  destined  to  remain, 
uncertain.  The  places  where  he  studied,  his 
masters  —  among  whom  we  only  know  for  a 
certainty  of  Brunette  Latini  —  his  friends, 
if  we  except  Guido  Cavalcanti,  Giotto,  Casella ; 
Charles  Martel,  king  of  Hungary;  Forese, 
brother  of  Corso  Donato ;  his  sister  Piccarda, 
and  perhaps  one  or  two  others  whom  he 
names  in  the  poem,  are  involved  in  obscurity. 
It  is  said,  however,  that  he  studied  at  Bologna, 
Padua,  and  at  Paris.  Boccaccio  describes 
him  as  skilled  in  painting  and  music. 

Some  years  after  the  death  of  Beatrice, 
Dante  married  Gemma  Donati,  a  lady  of 
noble  family,  by  whom  he  had  five  sons,  and 
one  daughter,  named  Beatrice,  who  took  the 
veil.  Three  of  his  sons  died  young.  Pietro 
and  Jacopo  lived  to  edit  their  father's  great 
poem  and  write  a  commentary  upon  it. 

In  spite  of  opinions  to  the  contrary,  there 
seem  to  be  no  good  reasons  for  believing  the 
marriage  uncongenial. 

Dante  appears  to  have  early  taken  an  active 
part  in  public  affairs;  and  we  hear  of  him 
when  quite  young,  as  having  fought  against 
the  Ghibellines  at  Campaldino,  in  1289,  and 
also  in  the  wars  against  the  Pisans,  in  1290. 
The  fame  of  his  studies,  and  his  reputation 
for  prudence  and  inviolable  firmness  and 
honesty,  raised  him,  while  yet  in  the  prime  of 
Ufe,  to  the  highest  dignities  of  the  republic. 
In  1300  he  was  elected  one  of  the  priors  of 
Florence,  and  probably  in  the  same  year  began 
the  Divina  Commedia, 

All  Italy  was  at  that  time  divided  between 
the  factions  of  the  Guelphs  and  the  Ghibel- 
lines—the  Guelphs  the  supporters  of  the  priest- 
hood, and  the  Ghibellines  the  supporters  of  the 
empire.  Florence  was  at  the  same  time  dis- 
tracted by  the  quarrels  of  two  powerful 
families,  the  Donati  and  the  Cerchi,  and  their 
adherents.  The  discord  was  increased  by  the 
arrival  in  Florence  of  the  chiefs  of  the  Neri 
and  the  Bianchi,  two  rival  factions  of  Pistoia, 
who  came  to  submit  their  differences  to  the 
arbitration  of  the  senate.  The  Bianchi  allied 
themselves  with  the  Cerchi,  the  Neri  with  the 
Donati.  In  a  secret  assembly  held  by  the 
Neri,  it  was  resolved  to  entreat  the  pope, 
Boniface  VIII.,  to  invite  Charles  of  Valois 
to  march  against  Florence,  to  put  an  end  to 
these  discords  and  reform  the  state.  The 
step  justly  irritated  the  Bianchi ;  they  armed 


themselves,  and  hastened  to  the  priors  to 
accuse  their  adversaries  of  conspiring  against 
the  public  liberty.  The  Neri  armed  in  their 
turn,  the  whole  town  was  in  agitation,  and  a 
conflict  was  imminent,  when  the  priors,  on  the 
advice  of  Dante,  banished  the  leaders  of  both 
the  rival  factions. 

He  thus  provoked  against  himself  the 
hatred  of  both  parties,  and  that  of  Boniface 
and  the  supporters  of  Charles  of  Valois,  by 
causing  his  offered  mediation  to  be  refused. 
Boniface,  who  feared  and  disliked  the  Bianchi, 
now  urged  Charles  to  march  on  Florence. 
He  did  so,  but  only  to  take  possession  of  the 
town  on  his  own  account.  The  Neri  tri- 
umphed, and  Dante  was  the  principal  object 
of  their  vengeance.  Accused  on  the  strength 
of  a  forged  document,  of  extorting  money 
while  he  was  ambassador  to  Boniface  VIII., 
in  1301,  he  was  sentenced  the  following 
year  to  make  pecuniary  reparation,  and 
to  two  years'  banishment.  His  house  was 
given  up  to  pillage,  and  his  lands  devas- 
tated. Three  months  afterward,  he  having 
neither  paid  the  fine,  nor  sought  to  justify 
himself,  his  enemies  condemned  him  to  be 
burnt  to  death.  Then  began  for  Dante  "the 
hell  of  exile  —  that  slow,  bitter,  lingering 
death,  which  none  can  know  but  the  exile 
himself  —  that  consumption  of  the  soul, 
which  has  only  one  hope  to  console  it." 

He  seems  to  have  several  times  traversed 
the  whole  of  Italy,  and  to  have  visited  Paris. 
In  1306  we  find  him  at  Padua;  in  1307,  at 
Casentino;  and,  in  1309,  in  Paris.  In  1313 
he  seems  to  have  taken  refuge  at  Pisa,  and 
four  years  later  took  up  his  permanent  abode 
at  Ravenna,  where  he  shortly  finished  the 
Divina  Commedia. 

He  wandered,  unshaken  by  poverty  and 
suffering,  "from  province  to  province,  from 
city  to  city,  from  court  to  court,  to  see  if 
among  the  heads  of  parties,  among  warriors 
of  renown,  he  might  find  a  man  who  could  or  < 
would  save  Italy,  and  he  found  no  one."  He 
says  of  himself  that  he  was  tossed  about  like 
a  ship  without  sail  or  rudder,  driven  through 
every  port,  harbor,  and  shore,  by  the  bleak 
wind  of  grievous  poverty.  He  bore  himself 
proudly  under  his  great  adversity,  taking 
refuge  in  his  conscience  —  and  when,  some 
time  after,  he  was  offered  permission  to  return 
to  the  Florence  he  loved  so  well,  under  condi- 
tion of  publicly  asking  pardon,  he  refused  in  s 
magnificent  letter  still  extant. 

In  one  of  his  wanderings  across  the  moun- 


36 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


tains,  shortly  before  his  death,  Dante  knocked 
at  the  gate  of  the  monastery  of  Santa  Croce 
del  Corvo.  The  monk  who  opened  the  door 
to  the  pale  stranger  asked,  "What  seek  you 
here?"  Dante  gazed  aroimd  with  one  of 
those  looks  in  which  the  soul  speaks  from 
within,  and  slowly  answered,  "Peace." 
"There  is  in  this  scene,"  says  Mazzini,  "some- 
thing suggestive  of  thoughts  that  lead  up  to 
the  eternal  type  of  all  martyrs  of  genius  and 
love,  praying  to  his  Father,  the  Father  of  all, 
upon  the  mount  of  Olives,  for  peace  of  soul 
and  strength  for  the  sacrifice." 

We  last  hear  of  the  wanderer  at  Ravenna, 
at  the  house  of  Guido  Novello  da  Polenta, 
nephew  of  the  unhappy  Francesca  da  Rimini. 
Through  the  influence  of  Guido,  Dante  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  the  republic  of  Venice 
in  1321.  The  Venetian  senate  refused  him 
an  audience,  and  he  returned  to  Ravenna, 
where  he  died  on  September  14th  of  the  same 
year,  at  the  age  of  fifty-six. 

Dante  was  buried  with  great  honor,  "  in  the 
garb  of  philosopher  and  poet,"  at  the  portal 
of  Saint  Peter's  church,  in  the  spot  where  his 
tomb  is  still  shown.  The  grave  was  once 
threatened  with  desecration  by  the  papal 
party;  but  in  1483  Cardinal  Bembo  raised 
the  tomb  that  we  now  see  under  much  restora^ 
tion.  The  Florentines,  who  twenty  years  after 
his  death  again  denounced  their  great  poet  as 
a  rebel,  an  outlaw,  and  a  thief,  have  many 
times  since  in  vain  sought  for  his  bones. 
These  at  the  sixth  centenary  of  his  birth,  1865, 
were  finally  refused  by  the  city  of  Ravenna  — 
which  still  remains  the  last  "refuge  and 
resting  place  "  of  the  greatest  of  Italians. 

The  dates  and  sequence  of  his  various 
works  are  matter  of  conjecture.  Doubtless 
the  Vita  Nuova  is  the  earliest,  and  has  been 
given  the  date  1294.  It  is  an  account  of  his 
love  for  Beatrice,  written  after  her  death. 
This  exquisite  little  book  is  the  outpouring  of 
the  incense  of  Dante's  soul  in  gratitude  to 
God  for  the  joy  of  loving.  It  is  ftill  of  purity, 
gentleness,  and  delicacy;  the  prose  of  much 
of  it  has  been  declared  by  the  greatest  of 
Italian  critics  to  be  a  finished  model  of  lan- 
guage and  style,  surpassing  the  best  pages  of 
Boccaccio,  while  many  of  the  sonnets  are  far 
beyond  the  most  admired  of  Petrarch's, 
almost  untranslatable,  so  exquisite  are  they 
in  their  construction,  and  so  purely  Italian  in 
their  harmony. 

By  far  the  most  celebrated  is  the  Divina 
Commedia,  in  which  he  purposes  "to  say  to 


Beatrice  that  which  never  yet  was  said  of  any 
woman."  In  this  version  of  hell,  purgatory, 
and  heaven  we  have  an  encyclopedic  view  of 
the  highest  culture  and  knowledge  of  the  age, 
expressed  in  the  sublimest  and  most  exquisite 
poetry,  and  with  consummate  power  and 
beauty  of  language.  These  three  distinct 
poems  describe  punishment  without  end  or 
hope,  expiatory  sufferings,  and  eternal  felicity. 
The  Divina  Commedia  may  be  said  to  have 
made  the  Italian  language,  which  was  before 
so  rude  and  unformed  that  Dante  himself 
hesitated  to  employ  it  on  such  a  theme,  and 
is  said  to  have  commenced  his  poem  in  Latin. 
No  work,  probably,  in  the  world,  except  the 
Bible,  has  given  rise  to  so  vast  a  literature. 

The  limits  of  a  biographical  sketch  render 
impossible  an  adequate  description  of  a  work 
so  gigantic  as  the  Divina  Commedia,  which 
the  abb^  Lamennais  describes  as  having  been 
created  to  sum  up  and  be  the  expression  and 
monument  of  the  whole  middle  ages,  before 
they  passed  away  into  the  abyss.  "Grand, 
terrible,  and  lugubrious  is  the  immense  appa- 
rition. One  feels  as  if  witnessing  a  mighty 
funeral,  and  hearing  the  service  of  the  dead  in 
a  huge  cathedral  draped  in  black.  Yet,  mean- 
while, a  breath  of  life,  of  a  hfe  destined  to 
assume  a  higher  and  purer  development  than 
that  which  has  expired,  passes  through  the 
aisles,  and  rises  to  the  vaulted  roof  of  the 
inunense  edifice  —  the  quickening  of  a  new 
life  thrills  through  its  mighty  womb.  The 
great  poem  is  at  once  a  tomb  and  a  cradle  — 
the  splendid  tomb  of  a  world  passing  away, 
the  cradle  of  a  dawning  brighter  world  to 
come.  It  is  a  porch  that  unites  two  temples 
—  the  temple  of  the  past  and  the  temple  of 
the  future.  The  past  has  deposited  therein 
its  religion,  its  ideas,  its  science  —  as  the 
Egyptians  deposited  their  kings  and  sjonbolic 
gods  in  the  sepulchres  of  Thebes  and  Memphis. 
The  future  brings  to  it  its  born  language  of  a 
splendid  poetry.  It  is  a  mystic  infant  that 
draws  its  hfe  from  the  two  sources  of  sacred 
tradition  and  profane  fiction  —  Moses  and 
St.  Paul,  Homer  and  Vergil.  Its  glance 
tiuTied  toward  Greece  and  Rome  announces 
Petrarch,  Boccaccio,  and  a  host  to  come;  its 
thirst  for  light  and  knowledge,  its  eager 
search  into  the  mysteries  of  the  universe  and 
its  laws  and  constitution,  foretell  Galileo. 
Night  still  broods  over  the  earth,  but  the 
horizon  is  streaked  with  the  coming  dawn." 

In  the  Commedia  Dante's  pride  of  soul  is 
particularly    manifested    in    the    disdainful 


IN  LITERATURE 


87 


silence  he  preserves  as  to  his  enemies.  Not 
one,  save  Boniface  VIII.,  whom  he  deemed  it 
was  necessary  to  punish  in  the  name  of  religion 
and  Italy,  has  he  placed  in  hell.  He  seems  to 
have  applied  to  them  the  words  spoken  by 
Vergil  in  the  beginning  of  the  poem,  that  they 
were  worthy  neither  of  heaven  nor  hell. 
Equally  strong  in  love  and  hatred,  it  was  the 
love  of  right,  and  the  hatred  of  wrong  that 
inspired  him  —  not  love  of  himself,  nor 
hatred  of  other  men. 

The  poem,  which  chronicles  the  destiny  of 
the  human  race,  chronicles  also  the  poet's  own 
struggles  —  with  the  wanderings  of  his  under- 
standing, with  the  fire  of  the  poet,  with  the 
fury  of  his  passions.  It  chronicles  the  puri- 
fication of  heart  by  which  he  passed  from  the 
hell  of  struggle  to  the  heaven  of  victory  — 
his  desire  to  hve  in  the  future,  in  the  second 
life.  The  grand  thought  of  a  mutual  respon- 
sibiUty,  joining  in  one  bond  the  whole  human 
race,  was  ever  before  his  eyes.  The  connec- 
tion between  this  world  and  the  next  is 
brought  forward  every  moment  in  the  poem. 
A  feeling  of  tenderness,  engendered  by  this 
idea,  gleams  across  the  Purgatorio,  and  even 
finds  its  way  into  the  Inferno.  The  spirits 
even  there  anxiously  ask  for  tidings  of  the 
earth,  and  desire  to  send  back  news  of  them- 
selves. 

The  poem,  as  a  whole,  is  a  complete  personi- 
fication of  the  intense  religious  spirit  of  the 
middle  ages,  and  fully  justifies  the  title 
posterity  has  bestowed  upon  its  author,  of 
the  "Christian  Homer." 

The  next  most  important  work  is  the  frag- 
ment called  the  Convito,  or  "Banquet,"  which 
takes  the  form  of  a  commentary  on  some 
canzoni,  or  short  poems,  of  the  author,  of 
which  there  are  only  three,  though  the  work, 
if  completed,  would  have  contained  fourteen. 
The  De  Monarchia  (in  Latin)  expounds 
Dante's  theory  of  the  divinely  intended  gov- 
ernment of  the  world  by  a  universal  emperor 
acting  in  harmony  with  a  universal  pope. 
Another  unfinished  work,  De  Vulgari  Eloquio, 
discusses  the  origin  of  languages,  and  the 
dialects  of  Italian  in  particular.  Canzoniere 
is  a  considerable  collection  of  short  poems, 
sonnets,  and  other  forms  of  verse ;  and,  finally, 
we  have  a  dozen  epistles  addressed  mainly  to 
leading  statesmen  or  rulers.  There  are  also 
some  "Eclogues"  and  other  minor  works,  as 
well  as  several  of  doubtful  authenticity. 

It  is  difficult  to  vmderstand  Dante's  phi- 
losophy without  a  rather  intimate  acquaint- 


ance with  the  historical  background.  The 
true  meaning  of  the  struggle  between  Guelph- 
ism  and  Ghibellinism  must  be  constantly 
held  in  view.  The  names  of  Guelph  and 
Ghibelhne,  which  in  Germany  only  con- 
veyed the  idea  of  a  family  quarrel,  signified 
far  more  in  Italy.  In  the  latter,  Ghibellinism 
was  feudality,  the  noblesse  —  Guelphism  was 
the  community,  the  people.  If  it  supported 
the  pope,  it  was  because  the  pope  supported 
it.  The  people  triumphed,  the  community 
established  itself  irrevocably  free  and  equal; 
and  although,  from  wealth  or  military  skill, 
certain  noble  families  still  obtained  supreme 
power  in  some  of  the  towns,  the  nobility,  as  a 
caste,  was  completely  effaced.  The  people, 
the  conquerors,  stood  embarrassed  with  their 
victory.  The  dawning  of  the  day  for  the 
gathering  together  in  one,  all  the  people 
whose  different  races  had  crossed  and  mingled 
together  in  Italy,  had  not  yet  arisen.  A  kind 
of  anarchy,  therefore,  began  in  the  absence 
of  one  governing  principle  single  and  strong 
enough  to  bear  down  all  fractional  and  per- 
sonal aims,  aU  local  egotisms. 

This  state  of  things  was  complicated  by  the 
interference  of  the  French,  who  were  called 
in  by  the  popes.  When  Urban  IV.  called 
Charles  of  Anjou  into  Italy,  the  patricians  — 
GhibeUines  —  were  averse  to  him.  After  the 
Bianchi  and  the  Neri  parties  were  formed, 
Boniface  VIII.  called  in  Charles  of  Valois ;  the 
Bianchi,  who  were  plebians,  were  prosecuted, 
and  the  Neri,  the  patricians,  then  made  them- 
selves Guelphs,  because  they  sympathized 
with  Charles,  the  envoy  of  Boniface.  The 
Bianchi  then  allied  themselves  to  the  Ghib- 
eUines, whose  ancient  principle  of  feudalism 
had  been  irrevocably  crushed. 

Dante,  who  in  early  life  had  been  a  Guelph, 
was  thenceforth  a  Ghibelline ;  that  is  to  say, 
he  was  always  on  the  side  of  the  people,  he 
always  belonged  to  the  element  of  Italian 
futurity.  He  speaks  in  the  Paradiso  of  being 
a  party  in  himself.  Both  parties  endeavored 
to  enhst  him  in  their  ranks,  but  in  vain.  He 
viewed  both  from  the  height  of  a  superior  aim, 
an  idea  which,  perhaps,  he  alone  in  all  Italy 
at  that  day  had  conceived.  Beyond  all  the 
narrow  factions  of  the  period,  beyond  the 
emperor,  beyond  the  pope,  he  saw  the  future 
Italian  nation,  and  the  divine  mission  he 
believed  ordained  by  God  for  the  "holy 
Roman  people." 

This  idea  of  national  greatness  and  Italian 
supremacy  is  philosophically  expressed  in  the 


38 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Convito,  politically  in  De  Monorchia,  in  its 
literary  aspect  in  the  treatise  De  Vulgari  Elo- 
quio,  and  poetically  and  religiously  in  the 
Commedia.  It  is  as  we  see  him  in  the  minor 
works  that  the  man  can  best  be  comprehended, 
and  his  leading  thoughts  grasped  and  under- 
stood. Never  man  loved  his  country  with  a 
more  elevated  or  fervent  love,  never  man  had 
such  projects  of  magnificent  and  exalted 
destinies  for  her.  Relying  on  the  Convito 
and  the  treatise  De  Monarchia  for  our  author- 
ity, the  following  is  a  summary  of  what,  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  Dante  believed : 

God  is  one ;  the  universe  is  one  thought  of 
God;  the  universe,  therefore,  is  one.  All 
things  come  from  God;  they  all  participate 
more  or  less  in  the  divine  nature,  according 
to  the  end  for  which  they  are  created.  Flowers 
in  the  garden  of  God  all  merit  our  love  accord- 
ing to  the  degree  of  excellence  He  has  bestowed 
upon  each ;  of  these  man  is  the  most  eminent, 
and  on  him  God  has  bestowed  more  of  His 
own  nature  than  upon  any  other  creature.  In 
the  continuous  scale  of  being,  the  most 
degraded  man  touches  upon  the  animal,  the 
most  noble  approaches  the  angel.  Every- 
thing that  comes  from  the  hand  of  God  tends 
toward  the  perfection  of  which  it  is  suscep- 
tible. There  is  this  difference  between  man 
and  the  other  creatures,  that  his  perfecti- 
bility is  indefinite.  Issuing  from  God,  the 
human  soul  incessantly  aspires  toward  Him, 
and  seeks  by  holiness  and  knowledge  to  be 
reunited  to  Him.  The  life  of  the  individual 
man  is  too  short  and  weak  to  satisfy  this 
yearning  in  this  world,  but  before  and  around 
him  is  the  whole  human  race — of  which  he  is  a 
part  —  that  never  dies,  but  moves  onward 
through  succeeding  generations  on  the  path- 
way of  eternal  truth.  Mankind  is  one ;  God 
has  made  nothing  in  vain.  If  there  exists  a 
multitude,  a  collection  of  men,  it  is  because 
there  is  one  aim  for  them  all,  only  to  be 
accomplished  by  all.  This  aim,  then,  does 
exist;  man  must  discover  and  attain  it. 
Mankind  must  work  together  toward  their 
highest  possible  development  in  the  spheres  of 
thought  and  of  action.  Only  by  harmony 
and  association  is  this  possible.  Mankind 
.must  become  one,  even  as  God  is  one ;  it  must 
be  one  organization  as  it  is  one  in  principle. 

Unity  is  taught  by  the  manifest  design  of 
God  in  the  external  world,  and  by  the  neces- 
sity of  an  aim.  Unity  must  be  a  center  to 
which  the  general  inspiration  of  mankind 
must  ascend,  to  descend  again  in  the  form  of 


law.  There  must  be  a  power  strong  in  unity 
and  in  the  support  and  advice  of  the  highest 
intellects  —  destined  by  nature  to  rule  — 
providing  with  calm  wisdom  for  all  the  dif- 
ferent functions  which  are  to  be  fulfilled; 
itself  the  pilot,  the  supreme  chief,  in  order  to 
bring  to  the  highest  perfection  what  Dante 
calls  "  the  universal  religion  of  human  nature," 
that  is,  empire,  imperium.  It  will  maintain 
concord  among  the  rulers  of  state,  and  this 
peace  will  diffuse  itself  thence  into  towns, 
into  every  cluster  of  habitations,  into  every 
house,  into  the  bosom  of  each  man. 

And  where  is  the  seat  of  this  empire  to  be? 
Here  the  poet  quits  all  analytical  argument, 
and  takes  up  the  language  of  synthetical  and 
absolute  affirmation.  "He  is  no  longer  a 
philosopher,"  says  a  great  ItaUan  critic;  "he 
is  now  a  believer."  He  points  to  Rome,  the 
"holy  city,"  as  he  calls  it,  "the  city  whose 
very  stones  are  worthy  of  reverence." 
"There,"  he  says,  "is  the  seat  of  empire. 
There  never  was,  there  never  will  be,  a  people 
endowed  with  more  gentleness  for  the  exer- 
cise of  command,  with  more  vigor  to  maintain 
it,  and  more  capacity  to  acquire  it,  than  the 
Italian  nation,  and,  above  all,  the  holy  Roman 
people.  God  chose  Rome  from  among  the 
nations.  She  has  twice  given  unity  to  the 
world,  and  from  her  the  world  will  again 
receive  it,  and  for  ever." 

Dante  tells  us  that  there  was  a  time  when 
he  did  not  see  the  hand  of  Providence  in  the 
dominion  of  Rome,  and  his  soul  revolted  at  it 
as  a  usurpation.  Afterward  his  eyes  were 
opened;  in  the  history  of  this  people  he 
recognized  "divine  predestination";  it  waa 
necessary  that  the  world  should  be  in  some 
sort  equalized  under  the  rule  of  a  single  power, 
in  order  that  the  preaching  of  Jesus  might 
give  new  Ufe  to  the  earth;  and  God  conse- 
crated Rome  to  this  work.  When  the  work 
was  done,  Rome  rested  from  her  labors,  until 
the  second  gospel  of  unity  was  needed  by  the 
world. 

Dante  develops  this  argument  from  the 
authority  of  the  poets  to  that  of  Jesus,  who, 
he  says,  recognized  by  his  death  the  legiti- 
macy of  the  jurisdiction  exercised  by  Rome 
over  the  whole  hiunan  race.  With  this 
immense  ideal  ever  present  to  his  mind, 
Dante  looked  about  for  an  element  of  unity 
as  a  means  of  carrying  on  the  providential 
mission  he  believed  destined  to  Italy.  He 
chose  the  only  instrument  that  appeared 
ready  to  his  hand,  the  emperor.    Rome  once 


IN  LITERATURE 


recognized  as  the  living  symbol  of  the  Chris- 
tian dualism,  the  individual  called  to  represent 
her  was,  in  himself,  insignificant;  he  would 
pass  away;  his  successor  would  probably  be 
an  Italian ;  but,  whether  or  not,  the  inspira- 
tion which  he  would  echo  would  be  Italian. 

There  is  not  a  word  in  De  Monorchia  which 
concerns  Germany  or  the  emperor.  The 
Roman  nation  is  everything,  and,  indeed, 
great  care  is  taken  to  lay  every  possible 
restriction  on  the  man  who  might  endeavor  to 
substitute  his  own  ideas  to  those  of  Italy. 
"Rouse  yourselves,"  he  writes  to  his  fellow 
citizens,  "  rouse  yourselves  like  free  men,  and 
recollect  that  the  emperor  is  only  your  first 
minister.  He  is  made  for  you,  and  not  you 
for  him." 

Here,  then,  was,  in  brief,  his  philosophy. 
A  sincere  patriot,  and  frightened  at  the  symp- 
toms of  decay  visible  in  Christian  society,  he 
wished  to  save  his  compatriots,  and  he  wrote 
to  indicate  the  way  of  salvation. 

A  thorough  knowledge  of  Dante  as  a  phi- 
losopher, a  poet,  and  a  man  displays  the  unity 
of  an  imposing  figure,  which  stands  as  a  type 
of  a  whole  nation  mournful  and  grand  as 
itself.  "The  first  awakener,"  says  Shelley, 
"  of  entranced  Europe,  he  created  a  language, 
in  itself  music  and  persuasion,  out  of  a  chaos 
of  unharmonious  barbarisms.  He  was  the 
congregator  of  those  great  spirits  who  pre- 
sided over  the  resurrection  of  learning;  the 
Lucifer  of  that  starry  flock,  which,  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  shone  forth  from  republi- 


can Italy,  as  from  a  heaven,  into  the  darknon 
of  the  benighted  world." 

Boccaccio  describes  Dante  as  a  figure  of 
middle  height,  with  noble  and  well-marked 
features,  face  long,  nose  aquiline,  eyes  large, 
under  lip  projecting,  complexion  dark,  hair 
black,  thick,  and  wavy,  the  expression  of 
the  eyes  and  mouth  especially  indicating  pro- 
found and  melancholy  feeling.  In  all  his 
relations  he  was  modest  and  reserved,  speak- 
ing rarely  but  with  eloquent  force.  He  was 
fond  of  female  society,  in  which  he  showed 
much  politeness  and  gaiety.  Though  simple 
in  his  manner  of  living,  he  bestowed  consider- 
able attention  on  his  dress  and  general  appear- 
ance. 

After  Dante's  death  a  mask  was  taken,  in 
plaster,  of  the  face,  from  which  terra  cotta 
busts  were  made,  and  his  best  portrait 
obtained.  Here  Dante  appears  with  a  long 
and  pointed  nose,  slightly  curved;  the  eyes 
are  deeply  sunk  beneath  strong,  evenly  arched 
eyebrows,  with  a  deep  WTinkle  between  them ; 
the  mouth  has  a  spiritual  and  ironic  expres- 
sion, under  lip  slightly  projecting,  with  chin 
and  cheek  bones  somewhat  prominent.  The 
whole  head  expresses  intellect  and  vigor, 
strong  will,  and  habits  of  meditation.  Raphael 
painted  Dante,  after  the  mask  likeness,  in  two 
of  his  principal  works,  and  a  large  number  of 
paintings,  statues,  and  medals  have  repeated 
and  familiarized  his  face  until  it  has  become 
one  of  the  most  authentic  and  best-known 
portraits  in  existence. 


MONTAIGNE 


I 


A.  D.  AGE 

1533  Born  at  P^rigord,  France, 

1539-46  Studied  at  Bordeaux, 6-13 

1554  Municipal  councilor  of  Bordeaux,     .      21 

1566  Married 33 

1580  Traveled  in  Switzerland,  Germany, 

Italy;  his  "Essays"  published,   .     47 


A.  D.  AOB 

1581  Wrote  his  "Journal  of  Travels,".  .  48 
1586         Driven  from  his  chAteau  by  war 

of  the  league, 53 

1588         Mediated  between  Henry  of  Navmrre 

and  the  duke  of  Guise,       .    .    .    .  M 

1592         Died  at  Montaigne,  P6rigord,   ...  6© 


lyjICHEL  EYQUEM  DE  MONTAIGNE, 
^  *•  the  famous  French  essayist,  was  bom  on 
the  feudal  estate  from  which  he  took  his  name, 
in  P6rigord,  France,  February  28,  1533.  His 
father,  Pierre  Eyquem,  was  a  blimt  feudal 
noble,  of  vigorous  and  eccentric  character, 
who  had  his  son  brought  up  in  one  of  his 
peasant's  cottages,  to  inure  him  in  hardy  ways 
of  living,  and  to  give  him  a  fellow  feeling  with 
the  poor. 
As  soon  as  he  could  speak,  he  was  placed 


under  the  care  of  a  German  tutor,  selected  for 
his  ignorance  of  French,  and  intimate  ac- 
quaintance with  the  Greek  and  Latin  lan- 
guages. All  Montaigne's  intercourse  with  his 
preceptor  was  carried  on  in  Latin ;  and  even 
his  parents  made  a  rule  never  to  address  him 
except  in  that  language,  of  which  they 
picked  up  a  suflScient  number  of  words  for 
common  purposes.  The  attendants  were 
enjoined  to  follow  the  same  practice.  "They 
all  became  Latinized,"  says  Montaigne  him- 


40 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


self,  "and  even  the  villagers  around  learned 
words  in  that  language,  some  of  which  took 
root  in  the  country,  and  became  of  common 
use  among  the  people."  Thus,  without  any 
formal  course  of  scholastic  teaching,  Mon- 
taigne spoke  Latin  long  before  he  could  speak 
French,  which  he  was  afterward  obliged  to 
learn  as  if  it  had  been  a  foreign  language. 
He  studied  Greek  also  by  way  of  pastime, 
rather  than  as  a  task.  The  object  of  his 
father  was  to  make  him  learn  without  con- 
straint and  from  his  own  wish.  As  an  instance 
of  his  father's  whimsical  notions  on  education, 
be  caused  his  son  to  be  awakened  in  the  morn- 
ing to  the  sound  of  music,  that  his  nervous 
system  might  not  be  injured  by  any  sudden 
Bhock.  At  six  years  old  Montaigne  was  sent 
to  the  college  of  Guienne,  at  Bordeaux,  an 
establishment  which  then  enjoyed  a  very  high 
reputation.  He  soon  made  his  way  to  the 
higher  classes;  and  at  thirteen  years  of  age, 
had  completed  his  college  education. 

Having  no  taste  for  military  life,  which  was 
then  the  usual  career  of  young  noblemen, 
Montaigne  studied  law;  and  in  1554  was 
made  councilor  (or  judge)  in  the  parliament 
of  Bordeaux,  in  which  capacity  he  acted  for 
several  years.  He  went  several  times  to 
court,  and  enjoyed  the  favor  of  Henry  II.,  by 
whom  (or  as  some  say,  by  Charles  IX.)  he 
was  made  a  gentleman  of  the  king's  chamber 
and  knight  of  the  order  of  St.  Michel.  Among 
his  brother  councilors  at  Bordeaux  there  was 
a  young  man  of  distinguished  merit,  named 
La  Bo6tie,  for  whom  Montaigne  conceived  a 
feeling  of  the  most  romantic  friendship, 
which  soon  became  reciprocal.  The  senti- 
ments and  opinions  of  the  two  seem  to  have 
harmonized  to  an  extraordinary  degree. 
La  Boetie  died  young,  but  his  friend's  affec- 
tion long  survived.  A  chapter  of  the 
"Essays"  is  devoted  to  his  memory,  and  in 
other  parts  of  Montaigne's  writings  we  find 
frequent  recurrence  to  the  same  subject. 

Montaigne  married  Fran^oise  de  la  Chas- 
saigne  when  he  was  thirty-three  years  of  age ; 
and  this  he  did,  as  he  says,  in  consequence  of 
external  persuasions,  for  he  was  not  inclined 
to  a  married  life. 

When  he  succeeded  to  the  family  estate,  he 
took  the  management  of  it  into  his  own  hands ; 
and  although  his  father,  judging  from  his 
habits  of  abstraction  and  seeming  careless- 
ness of  worldly  objects,  had  foretold  that  he 
would  ruin  his  patrimony,  Montaigne,  at  his 
death,  left  the  property,  if  not  much  better, 


certainly  not  worse  than  he  found  it.  He  was 
not  rich,  for  we  are  told  by  Balzac  that  his 
income  did  not  exceed  six  thousand  livres, 
which  was  no  great  revenue  for  a  country 
gentleman  even  at  that  time. 

In  1569  he  translated  into  French  a  Latin 
work  of  Sebonde,  or  Sebond,  in  defense  of 
the  mysteries  and  doctrines  of  the  church  of 
Rome  against  Luther  and  other  Protestant 
writers.  France  was  at  that  time  desolated 
by  civil  and  religious  wars.  Montaigne, 
although  he  evidently  disapproved  of  the 
conduct  of  the  court  toward  the  Protestants, 
yet  remained  loyal  to  the  king.  But  the 
religious  wars  filled  him  with  distaste  for 
public  life,  and  he  retired  to  his  estates, 
resolved  to  spend  the  rest  of  his  life  in  study. 
In  his  retirement  he  took  no  part  in  public 
affairs,  except  to  exhort  both  parties  to 
moderation  and  mutual  charity.  By  this 
conduct  he  became,  as  it  generally  happens, 
obnoxious  to  both  factions,  and  he  incurred 
some  danger  in  consequence. 

The  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  plunged 
him  into  a  deep  melancholy.  He  detested 
cruelty  and  the  shedding  of  blood,  and  in 
several  passages  of  his  "Essays  "  has  animad- 
verted in  strong  terms  upon  the  atrocities 
committed  against  the  Protestants.  It  was 
about  this  dismal  epoch  of  1572,  when,  soli- 
tude and  melancholy  urging  him  to  the  task, 
he  b^an  to  write  his  celebrated  "Essays." 
They  were  first  published  in  March,  1580,  and 
had  immediate  success.  After  some  time  a 
new  edition  was  printed  with  additions,  but 
without  making  any  alterations  in  the  part 
which  had  appeared  before.  The  popularity 
of  the  book  was  such  that  in  a  few  j-'ears  there 
was  hardly  a  man  of  education  in  France  who 
had  not  read  it. 

Shortly  after  the  first  publication  of  his 
"Essays,"  Montaigne  undertook  a  journey  for 
the  sake  of  his  health.  He  went  to  Germany, 
Switzerland,  and,  lastly,  to  Italy.  In  Rome 
he  was  well  received  by  persons  of  distinction, 
and  was  introduced  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII. 
Montaigne  was  delighted  with  Rome;  he 
foimd  himself  at  home  among  those  localities 
and  monuments  which  were  connected  with 
his  earhest  studies,  and  with  the  first  impres- 
sions of  his  childhood.  His  remarks  on  what 
he  saw  in  the  course  of  his  journey  are  those 
of  a  man  of  penetration,  sincere  and  plain 
spoken,  and  written  in  his  pecuUar  antique 
style.  His  manuscript  journal  of  these 
travels,  written  in  1581,  after  lying  forgotten 


IN  LITERATURE 


41 


for  nearly  two  centuries,  was  discovered  in  an 
old  chest  in  the  chfi,teau  of  his  family,  and 
published  in  1774  under  the  title,  Journal 
du  Voyage  de  Michel  de  Montaigne.  It  is  one 
of  the  earliest  descriptions  of  Italy  in  a  modern 
language.  In  this  journey  Montaigne  re- 
ceived the  freedom  of  the  city  of  Rome,  by  a 
special  bull  of  the  pope,  which  he  valued  as 
the  proudest  distinction  of  his  life. 

While  he  was  abroad,  he  was  elected  mayor 
of  Bordeaux  by  the  votes  of  the  citizens. 
This  honor  he  would  have  declined,  but  that 
the  king,  Henry  III.,  insisted  on  his  accepting 
it.  This  was  a  mere  honorary  office,  with  no 
emolument  attached  to  it,  and  the  appoint- 
ment was  for  two  years.  But  Montaigne  was 
reelected  at  the  expiration  of  that  period, 
which  was  a  mark  of  public  favor  of  rare 
occurrence. 

On  retiring  from  this  office,  Montaigne 
returned  to  his  estate  in  1586.  The  country 
was  then  ravaged  by  the  war  of  the  league. 
He  had  great  difficulty  in  saving  his  family 
and  property  in  the  midst  of  the  contending 
parties,  and  once  narrowly  escaped  assassina- 
tion in  his  chateau.  To  add  to  the  miseries 
of  civil  war,  the  plague  broke  out  in  his  neigh- 
borhood in  the  same  year ;  and  he  then,  with 
his  family,  left  his  home  and  became  a  wan- 
derer, residing  successively  at  the  houses  of 
various  friends  in  other  parts  of  the  country. 

It  appears  from  De  Thou  that  he  went  to 
Paris  in  1588,  and  engaged  in  attempts  to 
reconcile  Henry  of  Navarre,  afterward 
Henry  IV.,  and  the  duke  of  Guise.  Here  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Mademoiselle  de 
Gournay,  whom  he  regarded  as  his  adopted 
daughter,  and  to  whom  his  widow  intrusted 
the  task  of  publishing  the  first  complete 
edition  of  his  works.  This  attachment, 
which,  though  warm  and  reciprocal,  has 
every  appearance  of  being  purely  Platonic, 
is  one  of  the  remarkable  incidents  of  Mon- 
taigne's life.  At  the  time  of  his  death,  Made- 
moiselle de  Gournay  and  her  mother  crossed 
one-half  of  France,  in  spite  of  the  civil  troubles 
and  the  insecurity  of  the  roads,  to  mingle 
their  tears  with  those  of  his  widow  and 
daughter. 

On  his  return  from  Paris,  in  the  latter  part 
of  1588,  Montaigne  stopped  at  Blois,  with 
De  Thou,  Pasquier,  and  other  friends.  The 
famous  states-general  was  then  assembled 
in  that  city,  where  the  murder  of  the  duke  of 
Guise,  and  of  his  brother,  the  cardinal,  soon 
after  took  place.    He  had  long  foreseen  that 


the  civil  dissensions  could  terminate  only  with 
the  ^eath  of  one  of  the  great  party  leaden. 
After  these  events  Montaigne  returned  to  hit 
chateau.  In  the  following  year  he  became 
acquainted  with  Pierre  Charron,  a  theological 
writer  of  considerable  reputation.  An  inti- 
mate friendship  ensued  between  the  two 
authors,  and,  by  his  will,  Montaigne  empow- 
ered Charron  to  assume  the  coat-of-arma  of 
his  family,  as  he  himself  had  no  male  issue. 

Montaigne's  health  had  been  declining  for 
some  time.  He  was  afflicted  with  gravel  and 
colic,  and  he  was  obstinately  resolve<i  against 
consulting  physicians.  In  September,  1592, 
he  fell  ill  of  a  malignant  quinsy,  which  kept 
him  speechless  for  three  days,  during  which  he 
had  recourse  to  his  pen  to  signify  to  his  wife 
his  last  intentions.  He  asked  that  several 
intimate  friends  should  be  requested  to  come 
and  take  leave  of  him.  When  they  were 
assembled  in  his  room,  a  priest  said  mass,  and, 
at  the  elevation  of  the  host,  Montaigne  half 
raised  himself  on  his  bed,  with  his  hands 
joined  together,  and  in  that  attitude  expired, 
September  13,  1592,  in  the  sixtieth  year  of  his 
age.  His  body  was  buried  at  Bordeaux,  in 
the  church  of  Feuillants,  where  a  monument 
was  erected  to  him  by  his  widow.  He  left  an 
only  daughter,  heiress  of  his  property. 

Montaigne's  "  Essays  "  are  among  the  most 
remarkable  of  literary  productions.  Abso- 
lutely without  order,  method,  or,  indeed,  any- 
thing like  specific  purpose,  they  have  yet  ex- 
ercised an  influence,  particularly  on  French  and 
English  literature,  greater,  perhaps,  than  that 
of  any  other  single  book.  Some  critics  have 
suffered  their  indignation  against  the  "con- 
fusion of  the  whole  book"  to  carry  them 
much  further  than  was  necessary ;  for,  indeed, 
it  is  partly  this  want  of  formal  arrangement 
that  gives  to  the  "Essays"  their  peculiar 
excellence.  He  is  the  very  opposite  of  the 
grave  and  "regular"  scholastics,  whom  in 
one  of  his  chapters  he  describes  with  an 
inimitable  mixture  of  drollery  and  sarcasm, 
and  from  the  tyranny  of  whose  barren  methods 
none,  save  Bacon  alone,  has  contributed  more 
toward  the  deliverance  of  the  human  mind. 
He  knows  nothing  of  rules,  he  will  be  held  to 
no  method.  "  As  things  come  into  my  head," 
he  says,  "  I  heap  them  in."  It  is  not  knowl- 
edge he  offers  to  the  reader,  merely  "fancies 
of  my  own,  by  which  I  do  not  pretend  to  dis- 
cover things,  but  to  lay  open  myself." 

One  ignorant  of  his  ways  might  come  to  the 
conclusion,  from  the  frequency  with  which  he 


42 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


asserts  it,  that  his  principal  design  was  to 
"  paint  himself  " ;  and  no  doubt  this  he  does, 
and  much  more  perfectly,  too,  than  he  con- 
ceived. But  these  touches  of  self-portraiture, 
which  are  met  with  in  almost  every  page, 
form  but  a  part,  though  a  considerable  one, 
of  the  value  of  the  "  Essays." 

It  is  quite  impossible  to  convey  an  adequate 
notion  of  their  unrestrained  vivacity,  energy, 
and  fancy,  of  their  boldness  and  attractive 
simplicity.  They  range  over  every  subject 
connected  with  human  life  and  manners; 
abound  in  observations  —  often  most  felici- 
tously expressed  —  of  great  depth  and  acute- 
ness,  and  never  fail  to  entertain  with  their 
constant  eagerness  and  gaiety.  It  is  not  too 
much  to  say  that  they  supply  the  mind  with  at 
once  the  best  stimulus  and  recreation,  which 
the  world  of  books  contains. 

On  the  whole,  Montaigne  presents  to  us  a 
state  of  mind  completely  detached  from 
ecclesiastical  dogma,  but  too  vigorous  and 
well  balanced  to  accept  the  partial  reforms  of 
Luther  and  Calvin,  which  he  thought  dearly 
purchased  by  the  long  years  of  rancor  and 
civil  strife  that  followed  them.  He  saw  that 
the  Catholic  ceremonial  stirred  men's  souls 
with  emotions  that  raised  them  to  higher 
things;  and  he  would  not  throw  away  a  cer- 
tain good  for  an  imaginary  and  very  doubtful 
better.  The  scepticism  of  Montaigne  went 
far  deeper  than  doubt  of  church  doctrines. 
It  went  almost  as  far  as  the  question  asked 
half  a  century  later  by  Descartes  —  "  What  is 
there  that  is  certain?  " —  only  that  Montaigne 
could  not,  like  Descartes,  find  an  answer. 
Science  for  him  was  as  uncertain  as  theology. 
•Copernicus,  he  said,  was  making  a  revolution 
an  astronomy,  Paracelsus  in  medicine.  But 
was  it  certain  that  these  revolutions  would 
Hot  be  themselves  upset  by  future  inquirers? 

His  merit  is  that  by  simple  observation  of 
the  facts  of  human  life,  inspired  by  honest 
and  genial  sympathy,  he  tried  to  build  up  a 
human  morality,  and  to  lead  men  into  the 
paths  of  justice,  integrity,  and  forbearance, 
without  appeal  to  supernatural  fears.  He  saw 
clearly  the  relativity  of  human  knowledge. 
The  senses,  through  which  knowledge  entered, 
were  too  imperfect  and  too  few  to  reveal  to  us 
more  than  a  fraction  of  the  truth.  Intellec- 
tual culture  was  but  a  small  part  of  life. 
There  seemed  to  him  far  more  true  philosophy 
in  the  life  and  conversation  of  the  peasant 
than  in  that  of  most  philosophers  and  teachers. 
The  first  cares  to  know  what  is  of  practical 


use  to  him :  the  professor  teaches  us  to  define 
virtue,  but  not  to  follow  it. 

Montaigne  was  under  the  middle  size,  and 
considered  his  diminutiveness  not  only  ugly, 
but  inconvenient  for  one  obliged  to  fill  offices 
of  dignity.  In  form  he  was  sturdy,  and  even 
squat.  His  face,  though  not  fat,  was  full; 
his  complexion  "varied  between  the  jovial 
and  the  melancholy,  and  his  general  tempera- 
ment was  moderately  sanguine  and  warm." 
Up  to  forty,  that  is,  during  his  active  life,  he 
was  in  excellent  health,  having  rarely  been 
afflicted  with  maladies;  but  at  forty,  "when 
he  began  to  be  old,"  perhaps  partly  in  conse- 
quence of  the  sudden  change  in  his  mode  of 
life,  he  was  no  longer  more  than  half  himself. 
He  had  never  been  proficient  in  bodily  exer- 
cise, except  in  running,  in  which  he  was 
tolerable.  He  had  tried  to  improve  in  this 
exercise  by  adopting  a  bandage  round  the 
body,  but  found  it  of  no  use.  In  dancing, 
tennis,  wrestling,  he  was  but  very  moderately 
successful ;  and  he  could  never  learn  to  swim, 
to  fence,  or  to  leap,  all  of  which  formed  part  of 
the  mihtary  education  of  his  time.  His  walk 
was  rapid  and  firm.  All  these  little  commu- 
nications suggest  the  picture  of  a  quiet  country 
gentleman,  who  would  rather  handle  a  book 
than  a  sword;  and  yet  was  fond  of  strolling 
and  riding  about,  and  might  often  be  required 
to  use  his  heels  or  his  fists  to  save  himself. 

The  conclusive  attestation  to  Montaigne's 
varied  power  is  the  fact  that  centuries  after  his 
death  the  circle  of  his  readers  widens  every 
year,  and  that  he  has  now  almost  as  large  a  fol- 
lowing of  antiquaries  as  Shakespeare  himself. 
Of  his  admirers  in  every  generation  it  has  also 
to  be  remarked  that  they  are  of  all  types  of 
mind  and  creed,  and  that  among  them  are 
found  men  hke  Pascal,  who,  while  separated 
from  him  as  by  an  abyss  on  all  the  funda- 
mental problems  of  fife,  have  acknowledged 
their  debt  to  his  fearless  and  all-questioning 
criticism.  To  have  thus  commanded  the 
attention  of  the  acutest  intellects  of  every  age 
since  his  own  by  haphazard  remarks,  devoid 
of  all  method,  and  seemingly  inspired  by  the 
mere  caprice  of  the  moment,  could  be  the 
privilege  only  of  a  mind  of  the  highest  origi- 
nality, of  the  very  broadest  sympathies,  and 
of  a  nature  capable  of  embracing  and  realizing 
the  largest  experience  of  life. 

In  achieving  this  distinction,  what  are 
reckoned  among  his  chief  defects  have  doubts 
less  stood  him  in  as  good  stead  as  his  merits. 
His  inconclusive  philosophy,  his  easy  opinions 


IN   LITERATURE 


on  many  points  of  morals,  his  imperfectly 
developed  sense  of  duty,  the  total  absence  of 
any  heroic  strain  in  his  nature,  were  but  the 
necessary  conditions  of  that  general  attitude 


43 


toward  men  and  things  which  make  him  the 
unique  figure  he  is  in  the  history  of  European 
literature. 


CERVANTES 


A.  D. 

1547 

1569 
1571 
1575 
1580 
1584 


Bom  at  AlcaW  de  Henares,  New  Cas 

tile,  Spain, 

Page  to  Carciinal  Acquaviva,  . 
Wounded  at  battle  of  Lepanto, 
Carried  to  Algiers  by  pirates,    . 

Released,      

Published  his  Galatea;  married. 


22 
24 
28 
33 
37 


1585  Settled  at  Madrid, *38 

1588  Removed  to  Seville, .  41 

1605  Finished  first  part  of  Don  Qttirotf,  '.    '.  68 

1613  Published  the  Novclas  ExemplareM,  06 

1614  Wrote  his  Viage  al  Partiaao,     ....  07 

1615  Second  part  of  Z>on  Qtiixo/r, .  08 

1616  Died  at  Madrid, .'.'.'.'.  09 


A/f  IGUEL  DE  CERVANTES  SAAVEDRA, 
•*■  *■  the  greatest  figure  in  Spanish  literature, 
was  baptized  October  9,  1547,  at  Alcalsl  de 
Henares,  a  town  of  New  Castile,  not  far  from 
Madrid.  The  exact  date  of  his  birth  does  not 
appear;  and  even  the  locality  has  been  dis- 
puted by  several  towns,  as  the  Grecian  cities 
contended  for  the  honor  due  to  the  birthplace 
of  Homer. 

Sprung  from  noble,  but  not  wealthy,  parents, 
he  was  sent  to  the  university  of  Salamanca, 
and  afterward  to  Madrid,  to  qualify  himself 
for  one  or  other  of  the  only  lucrative  profes- 
sions in  Spain  —  the  church,  the  law,  or 
medicine ;  but  his  attention  was  diverted  from 
this  object  by  a  strong  propensity  for  writing 
verses.  Juan  Lopez  de  Hoyos,  a  teacher  of 
some  note,  under  whom  he  studied  ancient 
and  modern  literature,  thought  Cervantes  the 
most  promising  of  his  pupils ;  and  inserted  an 
elegy,  and  other  verses  of  his  favorite's  com- 
position, in  an  account  of  the  funeral  of  Queen 
Isabel,  wife  of  Philip  II.  These,  like  the 
greater  number  of  Cervantes'  early  poems, 
which  are  very  numerous,  do  not  rise  above 
mediocrity;  though  the  author,  who  was  a 
long  time  in  discovering  that  his  real  talent 
lay  in  prose  writing,  seems  to  have  thought 
otherwise. 

He  was  an  indefatigable  reader,  and  used 
to  stop  before  the  bookstalls  in  the  street, 
perusing  anything  that  attracted  his  attention. 
In  this  manner  he  gained  that  intimate  knowl- 
edge of  the  old  literature  of  his  country, 
which  is  displayed  in  his  works.  He  thus 
spent  his  time  reading  and  writing  verses, 
seemingly  heedless  of  his  future  subsistence, 
until  the  pressure  of  want,  and  the  ill  success 
of  his  poetry,  drove  him  to  quit  Spain  and 
seek  his  fortune  elsewhere.     He  went  to  Rome 


in  1569,  and  entered  the  service  of  Cardinal 
Giulio  Acquaviva ;  but  soon  after  enlisted  as 
a  private  in  the  armament  which  Pope  Pius 
V.  fitted  out  in  1570,  for  the  relief  of  Cyprus, 
then  attacked  by  the  Turks.  In  1571  he 
fought  in  the  famous  battle  of  Lepanto,  when 
the  combined  squadrons  of  the  Christian 
powers,  commanded  by  Don  Juan  of  Austria, 
defeated  and  destroyed  the  Ottoman  fleet. 
On  that  memorable  day  Cervantes  received  a 
gunshot  wound,  which  for  life  deprived  him 
of  the  use  of  his  left  hand.  Far,  however, 
from  repining,  the  generous  Spaniard  always 
expressed  his  joyfulness  at  having  purchased 
the  honor  of  sharing  in  that  victory  at  that 
price. 

He  continued  in  active  service  in  Italy  and 
elsewhere  until  1575,  when  the  vessel  in  which 
he  was  returning  to  Spain  was  captured  by  the 
Moors,  and  he  was  taken  to  Algiers.  Here 
he  remained  a  prisoner  for  five  years,  making 
numerous  but  fruitless  attempts  to  escape. 
At  last  he  was  ransomed  by  his  friends  for 
five  hundred  gold  ducats.  Early  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  returned  to  Spain.  Having 
met  nothing  but  misfortunes  and  disappoint- 
ment in  his  endeavors  to  make  his  fortune  in 
the  world,  he  now  determined  to  return  to 
his  literary  pursuits. 

In  1584  he  published  his  Galatea,  a  pastoral 
novel.  At  the  end  of  that  year  he  married 
Dona  Catalina  de  Palacios  Salazar,  a  la<ly  of 
ancient  family,  of  the  town  of  Elsquivias. 
The  year  following  he  settled  in  Madrid,  and 
from  this  time  forward  he  devoted  himself  to 
Hterature.  His  first  attempts  were  dramatic. 
But  the  brilliant  genius  of  Lope  de  V^a  waa 
in  the  ascendant,  and  the  somber  tragedies  of 
Cervantes  met  with  only  fair  success. 

After  1588  Cervantes  lived  a  number  of 


44 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


years  at  Seville,  where  he  appears  to  have  been 
employed  as  a  commercial  agent,or  purveyor  to 
the  fleet.  It  is  thought  by  some  authorities 
that  his  Novelas  Exemplares,  or  "  Moral  Tales," 
were  written  here,  though  published  many 
years  after.  On  his  journeys  between  Seville 
and  Madrid,  to  which  latter  he  finally  re- 
turned, he  resided  at  intervals  in  the  province 
of  La  Mancha,  which  he  has  rendered  famous 
in  his  great  work,  Don  Quixote.  He  examined 
attentively  both  the  country  and  the  people ; 
he  saw  the  cave  of  Montesinos,  the  Lagunas 
de  Ruydera,  the  plain  of  Montiel,  Puerto 
Lapice,  the  Batanas,  and  other  places  which 
he  has  described  in  Don  Quixote.  Being 
intrusted  with  some  commission  or  warrant 
for  recovering  certain  arrears  of  tithe  due 
from  the  village  of  Argamasilla  to  the  prior  of 
St.  John  of  Consuegra,  he  incurred  the  hos- 
tility of  the  villagers,  who  disputed  his  powers, 
and  threw  him  into  prison.  He  fixed  upon 
this  village  of  Argamasilla  as  the  native  place 
of  his  hero,  without,  however,  mentioning  his 
name,  "which,"  he  says  at  the  beginning  of 
the  book,  "I  have  no  particular  wish  to 
remember." 

After  this  occurrence,  we  find  Cervantes 
living  with  his  family  at  Valladolid  in  1604-05, 
while  Philip  III.  and  his  court  were  residing 
there.  In  1605  the  first  part  of  Don  Quixote 
appeared  at  Madrid,  whither  Cervantes 
probably  removed  after  the  court  left  Valla- 
dolid. It  seems  at  once  to  have  become 
popular;  for  four  editions  were  published  in 
the  course  of  a  year.  But  it  was  assailed  with 
abuse  by  the  fanatical  admirers  of  tales  of 
chivalry,  by  several  dramatic  and  other  poets 
unfavorably  received,  and  also  by  some  of  the 
partisans  of  Lope  de  Vega,  who  thought  that 
Cervantes  had  not  done  justice  to  their  idol. 

Cervantes  did  not  publish  anything  for 
seven  years  after  the  appearance  of  the  first 
part  of  Don  Quixote.  He  spent  this  long 
period  in  studious  retirement  at  Madrid ;  and 
had,  by  this  time,  given  up  all  expectations  of 
court  favor  or  patronage,  which  it  would 
appear  that  he  at  one  time  entertained. 
Philip  III.,  although  remarkably  fond  of  Don 
Quixote,  the  perusal  of  which  was  one  of  the 
few  things  that  could  draw  a  smile  from  his 
melancholy  countenance,  was  not  a  patron  of 
literature,  and  it  did  not  occur  to  him  to 
inquire  about  the  circumstances  of  the  writer 
who  had  afforded  him  some  moments  of 
innocent  gratification. 

Cervantes,    however,    gained    two    friends 


among  the  powerful  of  the  time,  Don  Pedro 
de  Castro,  Count  de  Lemos,  and  Don  Bernardo 
de  Sandoval,  archbishop  of  Toledo.  To  the 
first  he  was  introduced  by  his  friends,  the  two 
brothers  and  poets  Argensola,  who  were 
attached  to  the  household  and  enjoyed  the 
confidence  of  the  count.  In  1610,  when  Count 
de  Lemos  went  as  viceroy  to  Naples,  Cervantes 
expected  to  go  with  him ;  but  he  was  disap- 
pointed ;  and  he  attributed  his  failure  to  the 
coldness  and  neglect  with  which  his  applica- 
tion to  that  effect  was  treated  by  the  Argen- 
solas.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  he  received 
from  Count  de  Lemos  most  substantial 
marks  of  favor,  and  among  them  a  pension 
for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  To  this  noble- 
man Cervantes  dedicated  the  second  part  of 
his  Don  Quixote,  and  other  works,  with  strong 
expressions  of  gratitude.  The  Spanish  biog- 
raphers say,  also,  that  he  received  assistance 
in  money  from  the  archbishop  of  Toledo. 
These  benefactions,  added  to  his  wife's  httle 
property  at  Esquivias,  and  the  remains  of  his 
own  small  patrimony,  kept  him  above  abso- 
lute want,  though  evidently  in  a  state  of 
penury. 

In  1613  Cervantes  published  his  Novelaa 
Exemplares,  or  "Moral  Tales,"  to  which 
reference  has  already  been  made.  They  have 
always  been  much  esteemed,  both  for  the 
purity  of  the  language  and  for  the  descriptions 
of  fife  and  character  which  they  contain.  In 
1614  he  published  his  Viage  at  Pamaso,  or 
"Journey  to  Parnassus,"  in  which  he  passes 
in  review  the  poets  of  former  ages,  as  well  as 
his  contemporaries,  and  discusses  their  merits. 
While  rendering  justice  to  the  Argensolas,  he 
alludes  to  the  above-mentioned  disappoint- 
ment which  they  had  caused  him.  He  com- 
plains of  his  own  poverty  with  poetical  exag- 
geration, and  styles  himself  "the  Adam  of 
poets." 

Cervantes  had  now  nearly  finished  the 
second  part  of  his  immortal  work ;  but  before 
he  had  time  to  send  it  to  press,  there  appeared 
a  spurious  continuation  of  Don  Quixote,  the 
author  of  which  assumed  the  fictitious  name 
of  Avellaneda.  It  was  pubhshed  at  Tarragona 
toward  the  end  of  1614.  It  is  very  inferior 
in  style  to  the  original,  which  it  strives  to 
imitate.  At  the  same  time,  its  author  did  not 
scruple  to  lavish  vulgar  abuse  on  Cervantes, 
ridicuhng  him  for  the  lameness  which  an 
honorable  wound  had  entailed  upon  him,  and 
for  his  other  misforttmes.  This  disgraceful 
production   was   deservedly   lashed   by   the 


IN  LITERATURE 


4ft 


injured  author  in  the  second  part  of  Don 
Quixote,  which  was  published  in  1615,  and 
received  with  universal  applause.  His  fame 
now  stood  at  the  highest,  and  distinguished 
strangers  arriving  at  Madrid  were  eager  to  be 
introduced  to  him.  His  pecuniary  circum- 
stances, however,  remained  at  the  same  low 
ebb  as  before.  Count  de  Lemos,  who  was 
still  at  Naples,  appears  to  have  been  his 
principal  friend. 

In  October,  1615,  Cervantes  felt  the  first 
attacks  of  dropsy.  He  bore  the  slow  progress 
of  this  oppressive  condition  with  his  usual 
serenity  of  mind,  and  occupied  himself  in 
preparing  for  the  press  his  last  production, 
Persiles  y  Sigismunda,  a  romance  of  the 
North,  and  in  imitation  of  Heliodorus' 
Ethiopian  story.  This  romance  has  ever 
enjoyed  a  high  degree  of  favor,  and  is  con- 
sidered more  elegant  in  style  than  Don 
Quixote.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that,  in  this 
respect,  the  minor  works  of  Cervantes  bear 
the  same  relation  to  his  masterpiece  that  the 
elaborate  poems  of  Shakespeare  bear  to  his 
incomparable  plays. 

In  the  preface  to  this  work,  he  tells  about 

meeting  an  admiring  student  on  a  journey 

from  Esquivias,  where  he  had  been  to  visit  a 

small  estate  of  his  wife's.    In  a  whimsical  way 

the  subject  of  his  health  was  discussed,  and  he 

represents  himself  as  saying  to  the  student, 

*"My  Ufe  is  slipping  away,  and,  by  the  diary 

[my  impulse  is  keeping,  which  at  the  latest  will 

end  its  reckoning  this  coming  Sunday,  I  have 

to   close   my   life's   account.     Your  worship 

[has  come  to  know  me  in  a  rude  moment,  since 

'there  is  no  time  for  me  to  show  my  gratitude 

for    the   good  will    you  have    shown    me." 

[After  bidding  his  companion  good-by  at  the 

ibridge  of  Toledo,  he  closes  with  a  good-by  to 

[all  else :    "  And  so  farewell  to  jesting,  farewell 

I  my  merry  humors,  farewell  my  gay  friends 

I — for  I  feel  that  I  am  dying,  and  have  no 

[^esire  but  soon  to  see  you  happy  in  the  other 

fe." 

April  2,  1616,  he  was  received  into  the  third 
[order  of  St.  Francis;  April  18th  he  was 
[annointed  for  death ;  April  19th  he  wrote  the 
[dedication  of  Persiles  y  Sigismunda  to 
iCount  de  Lemos,  full  of  gratitude  and 
I  cheerfulness,  "with  one  foot  in  the  saddle 
[waiting  for  the  call  of  Death  " ;  and  April  23d 
fhe  died  —  the  same  day  upon  which  Shakes- 
[peare  died.  He  was  buried  in  the  graveyard 
[of  the  Trinitarian  convent,  where  his  widow, 
this   daughter,    and    other    members    of   his 


family  were  afterward  laid  beside  him.  lo 
1635  the  convent  was  removed  to  another 
part  of  the  city,  and  the  remains  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  order  were  transferred  to  a  new 
burial  place;  but  as  no  distinction  of  indi- 
viduals was  preserved,  the  dust  of  Cervantes 
has  mingled  with  that  of  his  companions. 

Cervantes'  great  work  — Don  Quixole  de 
La  Mancha  —  is  too  generally  known  to 
require  extensive  notice.  It  is  one  of  those 
few  productions  which  immortalize  the  litera> 
ture  and  language  to  which  they  belong.  The 
interest  excited  by  such  a  work  never  dies, 
for  it  is  interwoven  with  the  very  nature  of 
man. 

The  particular  circumstances  which  led 
Cervantes  to  the  conception  of  Don  Quixote 
have  long  since  ceased  to  exist.  Books  of 
chivalry  have  been  forgotten,  and  their 
influence  has  died  away;  but  Quixotism, 
under  some  form  or  another,  remains  a  char- 
acteristic of  the  human  mind  in  all  ages. 
Man  is  still  the  dupe  of  fictions  and  of  his 
own  imagination,  and  it  is  for  this  that,  in 
reading  the  story  of  the  aberrations  of  the 
knight  of  La  Mancha,  and  of  the  mishaps 
that  befell  him  in  his  attempt  to  redress  all 
the  wrongs  of  the  world,  we  cannot  help 
applying  the  moral  of  the  tale  to  incidents 
that  pass  every  day  before  our  own  eyes,  and 
to  trace  similarities  between  Cervantes'  hero 
and  some  of  our  living  acquaintances. 

The  contrast  between  the  lofty,  spiritual, 
single-minded  knight  and  his  credulous, 
simple,  yet  shrewd,  and  earth-seeking  squire 
is  an  unfailing  source  of  amusement  to  the 
reader.  It  has  been  disputed  which  of  the 
two  characters,  Don  Quixote  or  Sancho,  is 
most  skillfully  drawn,  and  beat  supported 
throughout  the  story.  They  are  both  excel- 
lent; both  suited  to  each  other.  The  con- 
trast, also,  between  the  style  of  the  work  and 
its  object  affords  another  rich  vein  of  mirth. 
Cervantes'  object  was  to  extirpate  by 
ridicule  the  whole  race  of  turgid  and  servile 
imitators  of  the  older  chivalrous  tales,  which 
had  become  a  real  nuisance  in  his  time,  and 
exercised  a  very  pernicious  effect  on  the  minds 
and  taste  of  the  Spaniards.  The  perusal  of 
those  extravagant  compositions  was  the 
chief  pastime  of  people  of  every  condition. 
Even  clever  men  acknowledged  that  they  had 
wasted  whole  years  in  this  unprofitable  occu- 
pation, which  had  spoiled  their  taste  and 
perverted  their  imaginations  so  much  that 
they  could  not  for  a  long  time  after  take  up  a 


46 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


book  of  real  history  or  science  without  a 
feeling  of  weariness.  Cervantes  was  well 
acquainted  with  the  nature  and  effects  of  the 
disease.  He  had  himself  employed  much 
time  in  such  pursuits,  and  he  resolved  to  pre- 
pare a  remedy  for  the  public  mind.  That  his 
example  has  been  taken  as  a  precedent  by 
vulgar  and  groveling  persons,  for  the  purpose 
of  ridiculing  all  elevation  of  sentiment,  all 
enthusiasm  and  sense  of  honor,  forms  no 
just  ground  of  censure  on  Cervantes,  who 
waged  war  against  that  which  was  false 
and  improbable,  and  not  against  that  which 
is  noble  and  natural  in  the  human  mind. 
Nature  and  truth  have  their  sublimity; 
and  these  Cervantes  understood  and  re- 
spected. 

Shakespeare  and  Cervantes  lived  in  the 
same  age ;  they  belonged  to  the  same  order  of 
mind  —  t^e  order  of  sovereign  genius.  It  is 
rather  extraordinary  that  no  well-authenti- 
cated portrait  exists  of  either :  but  Cervantes 
did  what  Shakespeare  neglected  to  do  —  he 
left  a  very  distinct  sketch  of  his  person,  which 
was  probably  intended  to  accompany  some 


engraving  to  be  used  as  a  frontispiece  to  one 
of  his  publications. 

"Him  whom  you  see  here,"  he  says,  "with 
an  aquiline  visage,  chestnut  hair,  his  forehead 
high  and  open,  with  lively,  animated  eyes,  his 
nose  curved,  though  well  proportioned,  a  sil- 
ver beard  —  though  not  twenty  years  ago  it 
was  golden  —  large  mustachios,  a  small 
mouth,  but  few  teeth,  and  those  so  bad  and 
ill  assorted  that  they  don't  care  to  preserve 
harmony  with  each  other  —  a  body  neither 
fat  nor  lean,  neither  tall  nor  short  —  a  clear 
complexion,  rather  light  than  brown  —  a 
little  stooping  in  the  shoulders,  and  not  very 
quick  of  foot  —  that  is  the  author  of  Galatea, 
of  Don  Quixote  de  La  Mancha,  and  other  works 
which  run  through  the  streets  as  if  they  had 
lost  their  way,  and,  perhaps,  without  the 
name  of  their  master." 

The  best  epithet  ever  applied  to  Shakes- 
peare was  that  of  Ben  Jonson,  "gentle  Shakes- 
peare " ;  and  it  is  a  strange  coincidence  that 
no  more  fitting  epithet  can  be  given  to  the 
commanding  literary  genius  of  Spain.  He  is 
gentle  Cervantes. 


SHAKESPEARE 


A.  D.  AQE 

1664  Bom  at  Stratford-on-Avon,  England,. 

1682  Married, 18 

1686  Went  to  London, 22 

1689  Actor    and    playwright,  Blackfriare 

theater, 25 

1593  Venus  and  Adonis  appears, 29 

1694  Lucrece  written, 30 

1597  Purchased  "New  Place,"  Stratford,    .  33 


A.  D.  AQB 

1598  Romeo   and   Jtdiet,    and   Merchant   of 

Venice,  already  written, 34 

1601  Twelfth  Night;  Julius  Ccuar 37 

1602  HamUt, 38 

1604     Retired  to  Stratford;  OihtUo 40 

1606     King  Lear 41 

1610     The  Tempest, 46 

1616     Died  at  Stratford 62 


■Y/iriLLIAM  SHAKESPEARE,  the  greatest  I 
'^  '  of  modern  dramatists  and  first  of  English  j 
poets,  was  born  at  Stratford-on-Avon,  War- 
wickshire, England,  where  his  baptism  was 
registered  April  26,  1564.     There,  too,  he  died 
on  April  23,  1616.    The  few  facts  of  his  out- 1 
ward  life,  which  have  come  down  to  us,  are! 
mere  fragments.     Something,  perhaps,  there 
was  of  the  idyllic  in  his  early  years,  something 
of  license  in  his  youth  and  early  manhood, 
something  of  worldly  wisdom  in  his  maturity ; 
how  much,  relatively  to  other  circumstances, 
we  do  not  know.     But  it  is  certain  that  he  was 
beloved  for  his  genial  and  gentle  disposition. 
"Bom  at  Stratford-on-Avon,  married  and 
had  children  there;   went  to  London,  where 
he  commenced  as  an  actor,  and  wrote  poems 
and  plays;   returned  to  Stratford,  made  his 


will  and  died  —  this,"  says  Steevens,  "is  all 
that  is  known,  with  any  degree  of  certainty, 
about  Shakespeare." 

We  should  have  cared  very  little  about  the 
birth  and  marriage,  the  will,  or  the  death,  of 
this  native  of  a  petty  country  town  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  but  for  the  one  other  cer- 
tainty, "he  wrote  poems  and  plays."  That 
fact  renders  the  minutest  incident  in  the  life 
of  this  son  of  a  Warwickshire  yeoman  a  matter 
of  interest  to  the  whole  human  race ;  for  out 
of  the  cottage  in  which  he  was  born,  has  gone 
forth  a  voice  which  is  the  mightiest  in  modem 
literature ;  and  which,  in  connection  with  the 
higher  teaching  from  above,  is  refining  and 
humanizing  wherever  its  sound  is  heard. 
Steevens  was  in  a  great  d^ree  right,  as  far  as 
concerns  a  mere  biographical  notice  of  Shakes- 


IN  LITERATURE 


47 


peare.  His  real  biography  lies  in  a  critical 
estimate  of  his  writings,  as  compared  with 
others  of  his  time,  and  in  his  relation  to  the 
age  in  which  he  flourished. 

Shakespeare's  birthplace  was  also  the  home 
of  his  youth.  His  father  was  an  alderman  of 
Stratford,  by  occupation  a  farmer,  and  in 
rank  a  gentleman,  having  received  in  1569  a 
grant  of  arms  from  the  Herald's  college.  His 
mother,  Mary  Arden,  came  of  an  ancient  and 
honorable  family  in  the  county.  The  regis- 
ters show  that  the  father  of  the  poet  had  five 
children  who  survived  the  period  of  infancy, 
and  that  William  was  the  first  son  and  the 
third  child.  There  was  a  free  grammar 
school  at  Stratford,  and  the  probabilities  are 
strong  that  here  he  received  his  education  — 
EngUsh,  something  of  Latin,  and  less  of  Greek. 
We  have  no  trace  how  he  was  employed  in  the 
interval  between  his  school  days  and  man- 
hood. Some  hold  that  he  was  an  attorney's 
clerk.  The  tradition  is  that  he  was  a  wild 
young  fellow,  stealing  deer.  The  certainty  is 
that  he  was  treasuring  up  that  store  of  knowl- 
edge, and  cultivating  that  range  of  genius, 
which  made  him  what  he  became. 

At  Shottery,  a  pretty  village  within  a  mile 
of  Stratford,  is  an  old  farmhouse,  now  divided 
into  several  tenements,  where  dwelt  a  family 
by  the  name  of  Hathaway,  and  this  property 
remained  in  the  possession  of  their  descend- 
ants. Anne  Hathaway  became  the  wife  of 
William  Shakespeare  in  1582.  The  marriage 
bond  and  license  are  preserved  in  the  consis- 
torial  court,  at  Worcester,  England.  By  this 
marriage  there  were  three  children,  Susanna, 
Hamnet,  and  Judith.  Hamnet,  the  only  son, 
died  in  his  twelfth  year.  The  two  daughters 
survived  their  father,  and  inherited  his 
property. 

Some  years  after  his  marriage  —  1586  — 
William  Shakespeare  became  connected  with 
the  Blackfriars  theater,  in  London.  In  1589, 
when  he  was  only  twenty-five  years  of 
age,  he  was  a  joint  proprietor  of  that  theater, 
with  four  others  below  him  in  the  list.  The 
players  of  the  Blackfriars  were  the  lord 
chamberlain's  company,  those  who  acted 
under  royal  patronage.  We  know  nothing  of 
the  date  of  the  production  of  his  first  play. 

Shakespeare  became  rich  in  connection  with 
the  theaters.  He  purchased  the  principal 
house  in  Stratford  in  1597,  and  also  some 
lands  in  that  parish.  It  is  supposed  that  he 
ceased  to  be  connected  with  the  theaters  in 
1609,  for  there  is  a  valuation  of  his  property  j 


in  that  year,  for  which  he  aaked  £1,433,  Cs.  8d. 
His  father  died  in  1001 ;  and  it  is  more  than 
probable  that  the  greatest  of  poets  succeeded 
him  as  a  practical  farmer  in  his  native  place. 
He  had  his  actions,  at  any  rate,  in  the  bailiff's 
court  for  corn  sold  and  delivered. 

His  eldest  daughter,  in  1607,  niarrie<l  Dr. 
Hall,  a  prominent  physician  residing  in  Strat- 
ford. Judith  married  Thomas  Quincy,  a 
tradesman  in  good  circumstances,  in  Febru- 
ary, 1616.  The  register  of  Stratford  has 
another  record  two  months  afterward.  On 
the  25th  of  April,  William  Shakespeare  was 
buried  in  the  parish  church  —  the  church  of 
the  Holy  Trinity.  Anne,  his  wife,  survived 
until  1623.  She  was  amply  provided  for  by 
the  laws  of  her  country ;  for  the  greater  part 
of  Shakespeare's  property  was  freehold,  and 
the  widow  was  entitled,  for  life,  to  the  dower 
of  one-third.  The  bequest  to  her  of  the 
second-best  bed  was  one  of  affection,  and  not 
of  neglect.  The  best  bed  was  always  an 
heirloom.  The  eldest  daughter,  Susanna, 
died  in  1649.  Judith  died  in  1662.  Neither 
left  any  male  heir.  The  one  granddaughter 
of  Shakespeare,  Elizabeth  Hall,  inherited  the 
bulk  of  his  property.  By  her  second  mar- 
riage she  became  the  wife  of  Sir  John  Barnard. 
In  half  a  century  the  family  estates  were  all 
scattered,  and  went  to  other  owners,  with  the 
exception  of  the  two  houses  in  Henley  street, 
which  Lady  Barnard  devised  to  her  kinsman, 
Thomas  Hart,  the  grandson  of  Shakespeare's 
sister,  Joan.  These  houses  were  purchased 
by  the  British  nation  in  1847  from  the 
descendants  of  the  Harts. 

The  twenty  years  between  1590  and  1610 
were  Shakespeare's  harvest  time.  In  the  first 
decade  came  chiefly  the  histories  and  comedies ; 
in  the  second,  the  tragedies.  Some,  or  aU,  of 
them  were  performed  before  the  royal  court, 
as  well  as  elsewhere.  On  several  occasions 
his  company  appeared  before  Queen  Eliza^ 
beth.  In  1623,  his  stage  companions,  Hem- 
inge  and  Condell,  having  preserved  affection- 
ately all  his  plays  (mostly  in  manuscript), 
gave  them  to  the  world  in  what  is  known  as 
the  First  Folio.  Prefixed  was  a  half-length 
portrait  engraved  by  Droeshout.  This  en- 
graving, and  the  bust  in  the  church,  which 
was  already  in  its  place,  are  regarded  as  the 
most  authentic  likenesses  of  the  poet.  Such 
are  the  chief  facts  concerning  the  man  about 
whom  there  have  been  written  —  not  v<^ 
umes,  but  libraries. 
The  evidence  by  which  the  chronology  of 


48 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Shakespeare's  works  is  inferred  is  of  various 
kinds,  including  entries  of  publication  in  the 
stationers'  registers,  statements  about  the 
plays  and  poems  or  allusions  to  them,  or 
quotations  from  them  by  contemporary 
writers,  facts  connected  with  the  history  of 
dramatic  companies  which  presented  plays 
of  Shakespeare,  allusions  in  the  plays  to  his- 
torical events,  and  quotations  by  Shakespeare 
from  publications  of  the  day.  There  are  not 
many  instances  of  the  mention  of  Shakes- 
peare, during  his  life  time,  by  writers  of  his 
period. 

In  1593  appeared  Shakespeare's  first  work, 
the  narrative  poem,  Venus  and  Adonis,  dedi- 
cated to  the  earl  of  Southampton,  the  poet's 
patron  and  friend.  It  is  an  elaborate  piece  of 
renaissance  paganism,  setting  forth  ideals  of 
sensuous  beauty  in  the  person  of  the  amorous 
goddess  and  of  the  young  hunter,  whose 
coldness  meets  and  foils  her  passion.  Lucrece 
followed  in  1594,  also  dedicated  to  South- 
ampton ;  in  it  the  lawless  passion  of  Tarquin 
is  confronted  by  the  ardent  chastity  of  the 
Roman  wife.  Both  the  Ventis  and  the 
Lucrece  became  immediately  popular. 

Shakespeare's  earliest  dramatic  exercises 
consisted  probably  in  adapting  to  the  stage 
plays  which  had  grown  out  of  date.  Many 
critics  regard  Tiiu^  Andronicus  as  an  example 
of  such  work.  Another  of  these  plays  is  the 
First  Part  of  Henry  VI.  Love's  Labour's  Lost 
(1590)  is,  perhaps,  his  first  original  play. 
Learned  pedantry,  fantastical  extravagance 
of  speech,  the  affections  of  amorous  poetry, 
are  satirized.  The  Comedy  of  Errors  (1591), 
a  lively  tangle  of  farcical  incidents,  is  founded 
on  the  Mencechmi  of  Plautus.  The  Two  Gen- 
tlemen of  Verona  (1592),  a  romantic  love 
comedy,  exhibits  a  marked  advance  in  the 
presentation  of  character.  This  group  closes 
with  A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream  (1593-94). 
No  other  comedy  of  Shakespeare's  has  so  large 
a  lyrical  element.  Meanwhile,  Shakespeare 
was  also  engaged  on  the  English  historical 
drama.  In  the  second  and  third  parts  of 
Henry  VL  (1592)  he  worked  upon  the  basis 
of  old  plays  written  probably  by  Marlowe  and 
Greene.  In  King  Richard  IIL  (1593)  he  still 
writes  in  Marlowe's  manner,  though  the  play 
is  wholly  his  own,  his  chief  source  for  his  his- 
torical material  being  Holinshed's  Chronicle. 
The  influence  of  Marlowe  is  no  longer  supreme 
in  King  Richard  IL  (1594),  with  which  King 
John  (1595)  in  style  has  something  in  com- 
mon. 


Romeo  and  Juliet  is  founded  in  the  main 
upon  a  poem,  Rom^us  and  Juliet  (1562),  by 
Arthur  Brooks,  which  versifies  the  tale  taken 
by  the  French  Boisteau  from  the  Italian  of 
Bandello ;  it  has  a  lyrical  sweetness,  swiftness, 
and  intensity  such  as  we  do  not  find  elsewhere 
in  its  author's  writings.  Near  to  it  in  the 
chronological  order  probably  stands  The 
Merchant  of  Venice  (1596),  between  the 
earliest  comedies  and  those  which  lie  around 
the  year  1600.  The  advance  in  character- 
ization from  that  of  Shakespeare's  previous 
comedies  is  remarkable.  Shakespeare's  mas- 
tery of  comedy  aids  him  in  the  historical 
plays  which  followed  —  the  first  and  second 
parts  of  King  Henry  IV.  (1597-98)  and  King 
Henry  V.  (1599).  There  is  a  tradition,  dating 
from  1702,  that  Queen  Elizabeth  commanded 
Shakespeare  to  exhibit  FalstaflF  in  love,  and 
that  he  hastily  wrote  The  Merry  Wives  of 
Windsor  (1598-99). 

In  The  Taming  of  the  Shrew  (1597?), 
adapted  and  enlarged  from  an  old  play,  The 
Taming  of  a  Shrew,  Shakespeare's  genius 
shows  itself  chiefly  in  connection  with  the 
boisterous  heroine,  her  high-spirited  tamer, 
Petnichio,  and  the  drunken  tinker.  The 
same  animal  spirits  and  intellectual  vivacity 
appear  —  but  now  refined  and  exalted  —  in 
Much  Ado  About  Nothing  (1598-99).  About 
this  time  he  rehandled  Love's  Labour's  Lost. 
As  You  Like  It  (1599),  dramatized  from  a 
prose  tale  by  Lodge,  and  Twelfth  Night 
(1600-01)  are  the  last  of  the  wholly  joyous 
comedies  of  this  period. 

After  1600  Shakespeare  still  wrote  comedy, 
but  the  gaiety  of  the  earlier  comedies  is  gone. 
AU's  WeU  that  Ends  WeU  (1601-02)  is  least 
happy  in  its  mirthful  scenes.  Measure  for 
Measure  (1603)  hardly  deserves  the  name  of 
comedy;  it  is  a  searching  of  the  mystery  of 
self-deceit  in  the  heart  of  a  man  and  the 
exhibition  of  an  ideal  of  virginal  chastity. 
Perhaps  it  is  to  this  date  (1603)  that  Troilu^ 
and  Cressida  belongs,  in  which  certain  pas- 
sages are  probably  by  another  hand  than 
Shakespeare's. 

Before  he  ceased  for  a  time  to  write  comedy, 
Shakespeare  seems  to  have  begun  the  next 
great  series  of  tragedies.  Jxdius  Coesar  (1601 ) 
and  Hamlet  (1602)  are  tragedies  in  which 
reflection,  as  a  motive  power,  holds  its  own 
with  emotion.  Hamlet  is  perhaps  founded 
on  an  older  play,  which  produced  a  great 
impression  about  1588-89.  Shakespeare 
doubtless  read  the  story,  originally  derived 


IN  LITERATURE 


40 


from  Saxo  Grammaticus,  in  the  English  prose 
of  the  Hystorie  of  Hamlet  translated  from  the 
French  of  Belleforest.  And  now  tragedy  suc- 
ceeded tragedy,  each  of  surpassing  greatness. 
Othello  (1604),  founded  on  a  tale  in  Cinthio's 
Hecatommithi,  exhibits  a  free  and  noble  nature 
taken  in  the  toils  of  jealousy,  and  perishing  in 
the  struggle  for  deliverance.  King  Lear 
(1605),  the  story  of  which  is  derived  from  an 
old  play  on  the  same  subject  as  well  as  from 
Holinshed's  Chronicle,  is  the  most  stupendous 
tragedy  in  English  literature.  Macbeth  (1606) 
is  the  tragedy  of  criminal  ambition  —  the 
source  again  Holinshed.  In  Antony  and 
Cleopatra  (1607)  Roman  manhood  is  sapped 
by  the  sensual  witchery  of  the  East.  From 
Plutarch  also  came  the  material  for  Coriola- 
nus  (1608).  Timon  of  Athens  (1607-08)  is 
only  in  part  by  Shakespeare. 

The  last  plays  of  Shakespeare  are  comedies ; 
but  they  might  be  aptly  named  romances,  for 
romantic  beauty  presides  over  them  rather 
than  mirth.  Pericles  (1608),  or  rather  Shakes- 
peare's part  of  that  play,  might  better  be 
named  the  romance  of  Marina,  the  lost  daugh- 
ter of  Pericles.  Cymbeline  (1609)  is  also  a 
tale  of  lost  children  at  length  recovered,  and 
of  a  wife  separated  from  her  husband  but 
finally  reunited  to  him.  The  Tempest  may 
have  been  written  in  1610;  it  is  beheved  that 
a  German  play  by  Jacob  Ayrer  and  The  Tem- 
pest must  have  had  some  common  original. 
The  Winter's  Tale  (1610-11)  dramatizes  a 
novel  by  Robert  Greene.  Apart  from  the 
other  historical  English  plays,  both  in  subject 
and  in  date,  stands  King  Henry  VIII. 
(1612-13).  The  play  has  been  attributed  in 
part  to  Fletcher.  It  lacks  unity;  but  there 
is  no  lack  of  unity  in  the  king,  Wolsey,  and 
Queen  Katharine.  Whether  we  have  work 
by  Shakespeare  in  another  play  partly  written 
by  Fletcher  —  The  Two  Noble  Kinsman  —  is 
more  doubtful.  In  parts  of  Edward  III.  some 
critics  believe  that  they  can  trace  the  handi- 
work of  Shakespeare. 

We  have  far  less  difficulty  in  getting  at  the 
truth  as  regards  Shakespeare's  intellectual 
and  moral  attributes  than  we  have  in  tracing 
the  events  of  his  'fife  or  the  chronological 
order  of  his  works.  His  dramas  and  his  poems 
furnish  all  the  data  necessary  respecting  his 
mental  endowments.  The  peculiar  quality 
of  his  mind  has  been  expressed  in  three  words 
—  a  complete  imagination.  His  favorite  books 
were  those  of  Plutarch  and  Montaigne;  his 
hero  was  Julius  Cffisar ;   his  aversion  was  the 


Puritan  spirit;  his  greatest  creation  was 
Hamlet. 

In  reality,  that  which  we  think  of,  first  and 
last,  in  connection  with  Shakespeare,  is  his 
creation  of  characters.  Taine,  in  his  "  History 
of  English  Literature,"  groups  them  into  five 
classes:  brutes  and  idiots,  like  Caliban,  Ajax, 
Cloten,  Polonius,  and  the  Nurse ;  people  of  wit, 
like  Mercutio,  Beatrice,  Rosalind,  Benedict, 
the  Clown,  and  Falstaff ;  women,  Desdemona, 
JuHet,  Miranda,  Imogen,  Cordelia,  Ophelia, 
Volumnia;  villains,  lago,  and  Richard  III.; 
characters  of  an  excessive  or  diseased  imagi- 
nation, Lear,  Othello,  Cleopatra,  Coriolanus, 
Macbeth,  Hamlet.  All  these  he  finds  united 
in  their  author.  "Go  through  the  groups," 
Taine  says,"  and  you  will  only  discern  in  them 
divers  forms  and  divers  states  of  the  same 
power :  here  the  flock  of  brutes,  dotards,  and 
gossips  made  up  with  a  mechanical  imaginar 
tion ;  further  on,  the  company  of  men  of  wit, 
animated  by  a  gay  and  foolish  imagination; 
elsewhere,  the  band  of  villains,  hardened  by 
unbridled  passions,  inspired  by  the  artist's 
imagination;  in  the  center,  the  mournful 
train  of  grand  characters  whose  excited  brain 
is  filled  with  excited  or  criminal  visions,  and 
whom  an  inner  destiny  urges  to  murder,  mad- 
ness, or  death."  The  whole,  "an  opera  with- 
out music  —  a  concert  of  melancholy  and 
tender  sentiment,  which  bears  the  mind  into 
the  supernatural  world,  and  brings  before  the 
mind,  on  its  fairy-wings,  the  genius  which  has 
created  it." 

A  full  appreciation  of  Shakespeare's  extra- 
ordinary genius  was  not  reached  until  the 
century  just  past.  His  place  in  the  intellec- 
tual development  of  mankind  was  even  leas 
appreciated.  He  belonged  to  what  has  been 
called  the  modern  transition  —  that  gen- 
eral movement,  which  issued  out  of  the  decay- 
ing feudal  society,  and  led  confusedly  toward 
a  new  era  of  literary  art.  It  is  to  the  world  of 
art  that  Shakespeare  belongs  just  as  truly  as 
to  the  world  of  intellect.  For  centuries  before 
his  time  —  particularly  during  the  middle 
ages  —  whatever  there  was  of  art  belonged 
to  the  feudal  world,  and  its  dominant  notes 
were  the  church  and  chivalry. 

These  ideals  created  by  these  two  forces 
were  sacramental  ceremonies,  gracious  man- 
ners, beauty  of  costume,  and  worship  of 
women.  Catholic  worship  filled  the  general 
imagination,  and  drew  manifold  beauty  into 
its  service.  Book  poetry  was  rare,  but  almost 
all  art,  and  especially  the  arts  of  form  which 


50 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


address  the  eye,  became  confessedly  religious, 
and  found  their  chief  place  in  churches. 
There,  but  also  freely  in  civic  edifices  and 
family  dwellings,  the  artist  habitually  chose 
the  revered  Catholic  subjects,  and  strove  to 
set  them  forth  with  loyal  and  happy  energy. 
His  office,  essentially  a  public  one,  was  to 
glorify  with  human  beauty,  and  especially 
beauty  of  expression,  the  divine  and  saintly 
benefactors,  to  claim  their  continued  protec- 
tion, and  to  represent  their  adversaries,  out- 
ward or  inward,  as  vanquished  or  struggling  in 
vain,  like  the  dragon  with  Michael's  spear- 
point  in  his  mouth. 

Such  art,  therefore,  however  limited,  was  a 
priestly  or  parental  presence  in  daily  life. 
The  blood  of  contending  citizens  might  flow  in 
the  market  place,  but  the  grey  church,  built 
by  their  fathers,  with  its  pleading  figures  of 
divine  love,  was  looking  down  on  them  and 
reproving  them.  As  mediaeval  cities  still 
testify,  architecture,  sculpture,  and  painting, 
all  freely  given  to  the  public  eye,  then  occupied 
a  far  more  constant  and  beloved  place  than  in 
any  modern  experience.  Religion  was  the 
general  patroness,  and  art  was  the  religious 
adorning  of  life.  Yet  it  is  plain  that  such 
religion  and  such  art  could  not  even  then 
qualify  the  whole  field  of  action,  knowledge, 
or  even  feeling.  Public  amusement,  for 
instance,  such  as  the  theater,  had  disappeared 
hand  in  hand  wjth  worship  of  the  pagan  gods, 
as  intolerable  in  the  eyes  of  the  church. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century 
the  system  showed  signs  of  giving  way.  The 
artistic  mind  gradually  receded  from  religious 
themes,  and,  eagerly  seeking  secular  subjects, 
treated  them  for  their  special  attractions, 
often  with  surprising  skill,  but  less  and  less 
with  a  moralized  aim.  Especially  significant 
was  the  introduction  of  the  nude  into  painting. 
At  last,  when  the  arts  of  form  were  in  full- 
blown splendor,  art  and  the  church  broke 
violently  asunder.  The  systematic  struggle 
evoked  immense  rebellious  passion  and 
patriotic  ardor,  and  no  less  profound  medita- 
tions and  questionings.  Architecture,  sculp- 
ture, and  painting,  all  secularized,  were  now 
in  decline.  Shakespeare  was  the  luminous 
chief  of  a  band  of  poets  —  poets  of  the  secular 
drama  —  whose  subject  was  man.  His  com- 
positions stand  out  in  human  history  as  the 
first  poetic  work  of  the  highest  rank  in  which 
human  interest  is  obviously  and  avowedly 
paramount.  They  do  not  pretend  to  be 
rehgious,  and  no  religion  claims  or  can  claim 


them  but  the  religion  of  humanity.  His  very 
calling  —  the  stage  —  was  in  his  time  banned 
alike  by  Catholic  order  and  by  pious  Puritan- 
ism. 

In  Shakespeare's  own  words  his  "  Art  made 
tongue-tied  by  authority  "  was  forced  to  beg 
its  bread  of  spiritual  inferiors.  Such  condi- 
tions tried  Shakespeare,  but  did  not  dismay 
him.  If  he  had  to  be  silent  upon  some  very 
great  things,  on  others  he  was  free,  and  he 
might  have  his  asides.  If  he  had  to  please  his 
Blackfriars  audience,  that  he  could  do  with 
pleasure,  and  even  reverence.  Could  he  not 
give  them  of  his  best,  compel  their  laughter 
and  tears  and  wonder,  and  set  them  all  think- 
ing—  to  their  high  delight  and  to  his  own, 
and  —  so  time  has  proved  —  to  the  high 
delight  of  an  ever-welcoming  posterity?  In 
choosing  to  write  for  the  stage,  then  a  new 
profession,  this  central  figure  of  modern  poetry 
was  enabled  to  portray  human  nature  in  the 
most  living  and  varied  forms  that  language 
admits.  He  took  the  human  soul  to  be  his 
province,  and  made  it  both  web  and  woof  of 
art  and  worship,  without  rival  and  without 
disguise. 

Shakespeare  struck  with  new  might  and 
grander  meaning  the  common  chord  of  human 
fraternity.  No  poet  has  shown  such  a  love 
of  generalizing  social  and  moral  truths. 
These  commonly  appear  as  findings  of  mere 
human  experience  —  not  of  revelation.  Hu- 
manity, in  fact,  though  imperfectly  conceived, 
was  the  true  object  of  Shakespeare's  faith  and 
love.  The  free  temper  of  his  work  and  many 
particular  passages  leave  little  doubt  that  he 
largely  shared  in  the  theological  skepticism 
then  so  common  behind  the  stage.  Assuredly 
neither  Catholic  nor  Puritan,  he  was  perhaps 
not  even  at  heart  a  Christian ;  his  creed  was 
undetermined.  But  he  also  bears  interesting 
witness  to  deism,  such  as  for  centuries  after 
in  its  uncertain  way  haunted  the  mind  of 
thinkers  and  artists. 

And  so,  now,  by  the  voice  of  the  whole 
civilized  world,  Shakespeare's  name  is  the 
first  in  all  literature ;  in  imagination,  in  fancy, 
in  knowledge  of  man,  in  wisdom,  in  wit,  in 
humor,  in  pathos,  in  strength,  in  versatility, 
m  fehcity  of  language,  in  the  music  of  his 
verse,  and  in  that  mysterious  power  which 
fuses  all  these  separate  powers  into  one,  and 
makes  them  a  single  means  to  a  single  end, 
he  stands  unapproached,  and  seemingly  un- 
approachable. His  standard  is  that  of  a 
creative  genius  unique  in  hterature. 


^1 


IN  LITERATURE 

MILTON 


6S 


A.  D.  AGE 

1608         Bom  in  London,  Eni^land 

1629  B.  A.,  Cambridge  university,  ....   21 

1629  Ode  on  the  Morning  of  Chrisi's  Nativity,  21 

1634-35  Comus;  U  Allegro ;  II  Penseroso,       26-27 

1637  Lycidas  written, 29 

1638  Traveled  in  Italy, 30 

1641-44  Prose  writings, 33-36 

1643  Married  Mary  Powell,  ...    .x.,   35 


A.    U.  ^Q, 

1649  Latin  secretary  to  council  of  atate,     ,  41 

1652  Became  blind 44 

1656  Married  Catharine  Woodcock,     .    .    !  4g 

1663  MarriMl  Klieabeth  Min«ltull,    ....  55 

1665  Paradise  Lost  completed, 57 

1671  Paradise  Regained;  Samson  AgoniaUs,    63 

1673  Treatise  O/rru^j/erfH^um,    .    '  .    .    .  65 

1674  Died  in  London, 66 


JOHN  MILTON,  after  Shakespeare  the 
*^  greatest  English  poet,  was  born  in  Bread 
street,  Cheapside,  London,  on  December  9, 1608 
—  ten  years  after  the  death  of  Spenser,  and 
eight  years  before  the  death  of  Shakespeare. 
His  life  almost  exactly  coincides  with  the 
rise,  development,  and  decline  of  the  great 
outburst  of  English  Puritanism,  which  fol- 
lowed the  authorized  version  of  the  Bible  in 
1611. 

Milton's  father  was  a  man  of  good  family 
in  Oxfordshire,  had  been  educated  at  the  uni- 
versity, and  was  disinherited  for  embracing 
Protestantism.  He  then  became  a  scrivener, 
and  acquired  a  competent  fortune.  The  son's 
education,  begun  under  a  private  tutor  of 
Puritanical  opinions,  was  continued  from  his 
fifteenth  year  at  St.  Paul's  school,  London. 
He  has  himself  related  that  his  love  of  letters 
was  deeply  rooted  before  he  was  twelve  years 
old,  and  sedulously  indulged  in  spite  of  head- 
aches and  weak  eyes.  He  studied  languages, 
both  ancient  and  modern,  delighted  especially 
in  poetical  reading,  and  cultivated  the  musical 
taste  which  he  inherited  from  his  father. 

In  February,  1625,  when  he  was  a  little  over 
sixteen,  Milton  was  admitted  a  pensioner  at 
Christ's  college,  Cambridge.  In  the  same 
year  he  wrote  his  ode,  On  the  Death  of  a 
Fair  Infant,  and  in  his  nineteenth  year  he 
produced  the  verses.  At  a  Vacation  Exercise 
in  College.  In  the  interval  were  composed 
several  of  those  elegies,  and  other  poems, 
which  have  gained  for  him  the  reputation  of 
being  one  of  the  best  among  modern  writers 
of  Latin  verse.  The  Ode  on  the  Nativity,  one 
of  the  noblest  of  all  his  works,  and  perhaps 
the  finest  lyric  in  the  English  language,  was 
composed  about  December,  1629,  when  the 
poet  was  twenty-one  years  old. 

The  particulars  of  Milton's  life  at  the  uni- 
versity are  imperfectly  known.  The  tradition 
of  his  having  been  whipped  is  ill-vouched  and 
improbable;  but  the  fact  would  not  seem  to 
be  irreconcilable  with  the  ideas  of  academical 
discipline  which  were  then  prevalent.  He 
does  appear  to  have  at  first  excited  the  dis- 


pleasure of  the  authorities,  probably  for  too 
free  expression  of  opinions,  and  certainly  for 
no  serious  moral  offense ;  but  he  received  his 
degree  of  bachelor  of  arts,  1629,  in  the  regular 
course,  and  was  pressed  by  the  fellows  of  his 
college  to  remain  at  Cambridge.  He  could 
not  resolve  to  comply  with  the  wish  of  his 
parents  that  he  should  enter  the  church ;  and 
he  declined  also  the  profession  of  the  law, 
for  which,  indeed,  he  had  always  a  great 
contempt. 

Mark  Pattison,  one  of  the  poet's  most  noted 
biographers,  has  very  aptly  said  that,  "Mil- 
ton's life  is  a  drama  in  three  acts.  The  first 
discovers  him  in  the  calm  and  peaceful  retire- 
ment of  Horton,  of  which  U Allegro,  II  Pense- 
roso, and  Lycidas  are  the  expression.  In  the 
second  act  he  is  breathing  the  foul  and  heated 
atmosphere  of  party  passion  and  religious 
hate,  generating  the  lurid  fires  which  glare  in 
his  prose  pamphlets.  The  three  great  poems, 
Paradise  Lost,  Paradise  Regained,  and  Samson 
Agonistes,  are  the  utterance  of  his  final  period 
of  solitary  and  Prometheon  grandeur,  when, 
blind,  destitute,  friendless,  he  testified  of 
righteousness,  temperance,  and  judgment  to 
come,  alone  before  a  fallen  world." 

It  was  in  1632,  after  leaving  the  university, 
that  he  went  to  the  house  of  his  father  at 
Horton,  in  Buckinghamshire.  In  this  retreat 
he  lived  from  his  twenty-fourth  year  to  his 
twenty-ninth;  a  period  which  was  not  only 
very  important  in  the  development  of  his 
mind,  but  very  fertile  in  the  fruits  of  his 
genius.  He  read  the  Greek  and  Roman 
classics,  bestowing  particular  attention  on  the 
historians;  and,  while  his  study  of  Spen.ser 
and  Shakespeare,  and  their  contemporaries, 
had  probably  begun  in  boyhood,  there  is,  in 
his  own  poems  of  this  stage,  much  to  prove 
that  he  now  became  admiringly  familiar,  too, 
with  Italian  poetry.  Not  long  after  his 
retirement  to  the  country,  he  produced  the 
verses  which  he  contributed  to  the  masque  of 
Arcades.  His  exquisite  Comus,  one  of  the 
masterpieces  of  English  poetry,  was  acted  in 
Ludlow  castle  at  Michaelmas,  1634;   and  in 


54 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


1637  was  written  the  monody  of  Lycidas,  a 
refined  embodiment  of  classical  fancies  in  the 
interwoven  melodies  of  the  Italian  lyrists. 
L' Allegro  and  II  Penseroso,  probably  the  most 
beautiful  of  all  descriptive  poems,  likewise  had 
their  birth  almost  certainly  in  those  "few 
years  of  calm  and  pleasing  solitariness,  fed 
with  cheerful  and  confident  thoughts." 

Milton,  in  short,  had  already  achieved 
immortal  fame.  The  mantle  of  the  Eliza- 
bethan poet  had  fallen  on  him;  and,  though 
his  brilliant  career  had  now  been  arrested,  he 
would  have  been  illustrious  as  the  last  sur- 
vivor, and  one  of  the  most  highly  gifted,  of 
that  energetic  and  fruitful  age.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  note  how  the  dramatic  turn  which 
had  been  taken  by  poetry  in  the  latter  part 
of  Elizabeth's  reign  still  affected  one  whose 
greatness  was  to  reach  its  climax  in  works 
modeled  in  another  form,  and  breathing 
ideas  of  another  cast.  The  most  poetical 
kind  of  the  old  dramas  was  adopted  and 
ennobled  by  him  in  the  earliest  of  his  sus- 
tained efforts.  There  is  still  extant,  in  his 
own  handwriting,  a  memorandum  of  a  hun- 
dred stories,  from  scriptural  and  British 
history,  which  had  presented  themselves  to 
him  as  fit  themes  for  tragedies,  and  the  treat- 
ment of  which,  in  several  instances,  he  lays 
down  in  outlines.  The  same  paper  contains 
a  plan,  the  most  elaborate  of  all,  for  the 
working  up  into  tragedy  or  mystery  the 
incidents  which,  in  the  end,  took  an  epic 
shape  in  Paradise  Lost. 

In  1638  Milton's  father  furnished  him  with 
the  means  of  visiting  the  continent,  where  he 
remained  fifteen  months.  He  first  spent  a  few 
days  in  Paris,  and  there  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Grotius,  the  celebrated  founder  of 
international  law.  He  then  passed  two 
months  at  Florence,  Italy,  finding  his  way 
readily  into  literary  society,  to  which,  indeed, 
he  recommended  himself  by  the  remarkable 
skill  with  which  he  composed  Italian  verses; 
and  at  Arcetri,  near  that  beautiful  city,  he 
visited  the  illustrious  Gahleo.  Two  months 
more  were  spent  in  Rome;  and,  both  there 
and  in  Tuscany,  his  classical  predilections, 
and  his  sense  of  beauty  in  form,  were  richly 
nourished  by  the  ruins  and  the  scenerj',  the 
Greek  sculptiu-es,  and  the  masterpieces  of 
Italian  painting.  In  Latin  verses,  about  this 
time,  addressed  to  Manso,  the  patron  of 
Tasso,  he  hints  at  a  design  of  celebrating,  in 
an  epic  poem.  King  Arthur,  the  mythical 
hero  of  early  British  history.    Naples,  where 


Milton  became  acquainted  with  this  accom- 
plished person,  was  the  farthest  point  of  his 
travels. 

He  had  intended  to  visit  Sicily  and  Greece, 
but  the  news  reached  him  of  the  outbreak  of 
disturbances  in  England;  and  his  zeal  on 
public  questions  —  which  had  already  shown 
itself  in*  Rome  by  somewhat  rash  talk  on 
matters  of  religion  —  made  him  immediately 
resolve  to  retrace  his  steps.  Returning  to 
Rome,  and  crossing  the  Apennines  to  Bologna 
and  Ferrara,  he  passed  along  Lombardy  from 
Venice  to  Milan,  and  thence  crossed  the  Alps 
to  Geneva,  where  he  remained  a  considerable 
time.  He  reached  England  about  August, 
1639,  and  took  up  his  residence  in  London. 

The  next  twenty  years  were  the  times  of 
the  civil  war,  the  commonwealth,  and  the 
protectorate,  in  England.  During  this  stormy 
and  severe  period  the  poet's  lyre  was  mute. 
On  political  questions  his  views  passed  rapidly 
into  republicanism;  and  his  ecclesiastical 
opinions,  adverse  to  episcopacy  from  his 
youth,  were  matured  by  the  conflict  around 
him,  until  he  attached  himself  to  the  inde- 
pendents. Always  deeply  impressed  with  the 
importance  of  the  great  controversies  of  his 
time,  and  naturally  far  from  being  disinclined 
to  discussion,  he  threw  himself  promptly  and 
fearlessly  into  the  vortex  of  the  struggle. 
For  a  short  time  after  his  return  from  the 
continent,  he  occupied  himself  quietly  in 
teaching  his  nephews,  John  and  Edward 
Phillips,  and  other  boys  whom  he  received 
into  his  house. 

Very  soon,  however,  he  b^an  that  career 
as  a  controversialist,  which,  while  it  has 
exposed  him  to  much  obloquy  from  those  who 
dissent  from  his  opinions,  has  enrolled  his 
name  among  the  noblest  and  most  eloquent 
of  the  writers  of  Old  English  prose.  His 
polemical  writings  are  keen  and  sometimes 
abusive;  but  they  are  singularly  able.  His 
first  work  of  this  sort  was  a  treatise.  Of 
Reformation,  published  in  1641,  to  aid  the 
attack  then  made  on  the  English  bishops. 

He  next  engaged  in  the  famous  contro- 
versy, in  which  the  five  writers  on  the  Puri- 
tanical side  wrote  under  the  name  of  "  Smec- 
tynmuus."  To  this  he  contributed  four 
successive  treatises,  measuring  lances  with 
bishops  Gall  and  Usher.  It  is  interesting  to 
see  the  poet,  in  the  heat  of  this  fiery  contest, 
looking  back  with  r^ret  on  the  time  when 
he  had  hved  "in  the  still  and  quiet  air  of 
delightful  studies,"  and  avowing  his  design  of 


IN   LITERATURE 


55 


still  executing,  in  his  own  proper  sphere,  some 
work  worthy  of  immortality,  some  work  nour- 
ished by  observation  and  reading,  and  by 
"devout  prayer  to  the  Eternal  Spirit,  who  can 
enrich  with  all  utterance  and  all  knowledge." 

At  Whitsuntide,  in  1643,  being  then  in  his 
thirty-fifth  year,  Milton  married  Mary  Powell, 
the  daughter  of  an  Oxfordshire  squire,  and  a 
debtor  of  his  father's.  The  courtship  seems 
to  have  been  short ;  and  we  know  little  as  to 
the  circumstances  which,  a  few  weeks  after 
the  marriage,  led  his  wife  to  visit  her  father's 
house,  and  to  refuse  to  return.  Possibly  it 
was  the  shock  due  to  the  sudden  transfer  of 
the  poor  girl  from  a  jovial,  cavalier  country 
household  to  the  apartments  of  an  austere 
Puritan  scholar.  The  husband  was  vehe- 
mently indignant,  publicly  disowned  her,  and 
proceeded  to  justify  the  step  by  the  first  of 
four  treatises,  in  which  he  maintains  the  law- 
fulness of  divorce  for  disobedience  and  other 
causes  short  of  matrimonial  unfaithfulness. 
The  pubhcation  of  these  works  is  decidedly 
the  most  unpopular  as  well  as  the  most  dis- 
creditable step  in  Milton's  controversial  career. 

Before  the  last  two  appeared,  he  gave 
forth,  in  1644,  his  treatise,  0}  Education, 
expressing  views,  which,  though  tending  to 
Utopianism,  are  very  elevated  in  tone  and 
couched  in  a  strain  of  finely  ornate  eloquence. 
The  same  year  gave  to  the  public  the  grandest 
of  his  prose  works,  an  appeal  against  all 
parties  in  behalf  of  the  freedom  of  the  press. 
It  was  entitled  Areopagitica:  a  Speech  for 
the  Liberty  of  Unlicensed  Printing.  Soon 
after  this  his  wife  contrived  to  obtain  an 
interview  with  him  by  surprise,  and  entreated 
his  pardon.  A  reconciliation  ensued.  She 
lived  with  him  without  further  separation, 
and  the  three  daughters  born  to  him  were 
the  fruits  of  this  marriage.  Her  parents,  also, 
being  dispossessed  of  their  house  by  the  par- 
liamentarians, were  sheltered  by  him,  and 
his  interest  with  the  ruling  party  was  actively 
exerted  to  procure  for  his  father-in-law  a 
restoration  of  his  estates. 

In  1645  Milton  published  a  collected 
edition  of  his  poems,  Latin  and  Enghsh, 
some  of  which,  indeed,  Lycidas  being  one, 
had  not  until  now  been  acknowledged.  Before 
this  publication,  Milton's  sight  had  begun  to 
fail.  His  left  eye  was  almost  blind  in  1644, 
or  very  soon  after.  His  strong  feelings,  how- 
ever, made  him,  instead  of  sparing  himself, 
enlarge  his  field  of  controversy;  he  passed 
from  ecclesiastical  to  pohtical  questions.    In 


February,  1649,  a  few  weeks  after  the  death 
of  Charles  I.,  he  published  a  treatise,  defend- 
ing the  latter's  deposition  and  execution, 
entitled  The  Tenure  of  Kings  and  MagislratcM. 
In  March  he  accepted  an  appointment  as 
secretary  for  foreign  tongues  to  the  council 
of  state.  The  extant  order-book  of  the 
council,  and  many  letters  also  preserved, 
give  evidence  of  his  activity  and  usefulness 
in  his  office.  By  the  desire  of  the  council, 
too,  though  without  receiving  any  payment, 
beyond  his  salary,  he  composed  his  Eikono- 
klastes,  or  "Image-breaker,"  an  answer  to  the 
Eikon  Basilike,  or  "Image  of  the  King," which 
had  been  published  as  a  work  of  the  unfor- 
tunate king.  This  was  followed  by  two 
books,  written  in  Latin,  being  designed  for 
circulation  abroad:  the  "Defense  of  the 
People  of  England"  and  the  "Second  De- 
fense." In  1652,  before  the  latter  of  these 
works  was  completed,  he  had  become  totally 
bUnd.  His  first  wife  died  in  1652,  and  the 
same  fate  befell  his  second  wife,  Catharine 
Woodcock,  within  a  year  after  her  marriage, 
which  took  place  in  1656.  To  the  memory 
of  the  latter  he  dedicated  a  fine  sonnet.  His 
bhndness,  though  it  incapacitated  him  for 
regular  official  business,  left  him  able  to 
perform  important  public  duties.  In  1655 
he  drew  up  the  manifesto  of  Cromwell,  then 
protector,  in  justification  of  the  war  with 
Spain,  and  several  controversial  treatises 
came  from  his  pen  in  the  last  years  of  the 
protectorate. 

To  his  literary  employments  he  now  re- 
turned with  redoubled  ardor.  Some  progress 
was  probably  made  with  his  History  of 
England,  of  which  four  books  had  been 
written  before  his  appointment  to  the  secre- 
taryship ;  he  collected  much  material  — 
which  was  used  by  Cambridge  scholars  in 
1693  —  for  a  Latin  dictionary,  in  amendment 
of  the  Thesaurus  of  Stephens;  and  there  is 
good  reason  for  believing  that,  during  this 
period  of  honored  repose,  he  made  consider- 
able progress  in  the  composition  of  his  great 
epic. 

The  restoration  of  1660  consigned  Milton, 
for  the  last  fourteen  years  of  his  life,  to  an 
obscurity  which,  wearing  no  terrors  for  his 
firm  soul,  gave  him  full  leisure  to  execute  the 
mighty  poetical  task  he  had  undertaken.  At 
first  he  thought  it  necessary  to  conceal  him- 
self. His  friends  are  said  to  have  made  a 
mock  funeral  for  him;  and  a  proclamation 
was  actually  issued  for  his  apprehension  and 


56 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


that  of  Goodwin,  the  theologian.  The  most 
offensive  of  his  books  were  burned  and  he 
was  placed  under  arrest,  though  soon  after- 
ward released  ;  it  was  even  asserted  that  his 
former  office  was  offered  to  him,  but,  of  course, 
refused.  He  had  in  the  end  inherited  but 
little  from  his  father,  had  failed  in  getting 
the  inheritance  of  his  first  wife,  had  lost  money 
loaned,  and  accidently  his  house  was  burned. 
Accordingly,  his  circumstances  were  now  in- 
different, yet  not  very  low  for  a  man  so 
moderate  in  his  habits. 

Paradise  Lost  was  dictated  to  his  daughters, 
and  other  amanuenses,  and  completed  about 
1665.  A  sale  of  thirteen  hundred  copies 
within  two  years  seems  to  show  that  Milton's 
claim  to  a  place  among  the  great  poets  was 
admitted  from  the  first.  This  was  a  large 
sale  for  a  serious  poem  in  an  age  Hke  that 
of  the  restoration ;  and,  though  it  could  not 
meet  with  applause  from  the  fashionable 
debauchees  of  the  court,  the  hearty  and 
respectful  admiration  of  Dryden  was  not  the 
only  tribute  that  was  immediately  paid,  by 
competent  judges,  to  the  extraordinary  merit 
of  the  only  great  epic  in  the  English  language. 
Before  its  publication,  the  poet's  daughters 
were  very  impatient  at  their  heavy  task  as 
his  readers  and  amanuenses ;  and  the  history 
of  his  household  is  one  of  sordid  sadness  up 
to  his  marriage,  in  1663,  with  Elizabeth 
MinshuU,  his  third  wife.  She  restored  com- 
fort to  his  house,  but  failed  to  conciliate  his 
daughters,  who  "learned  embroidery,  left 
home,  and  set  up  for  themselves." 

The  poet  next  published  his  History  of 
England,  down  to  the  Norman  conquest; 
and  in  1671  appeared  his  Paradise  Regained, 
to  which  was  subjoined  Samson  Agonistes. 
His  second  epic  was  written  with  great 
celerity,  perhaps  altogether  during  his  retire- 
ment of  several  months  at  Chalfont,  in  Buck- 
inghamshire, on  the  breaking  out  of  the 
plague  in  London  in  1665. 

His  Uterary  labors  closed  with  a  "Treatise 
on  Logic,"  very  ably  written  in  Latin ;  a  new 
treatise  in  controversial  theology,  Of  True 
Religion,  directed  against  the  papacy;  and  a 
Latin  collection  of  his  private  letters  and 
academical  exercises,  pubUshed  in  1674.  To 
the  latest  years  of  his  life  may  have  belonged 
the  completion  of  his  Latin  treatise,  "Of 
Christian  Doctrine,"  which,  left  unpublished 
imtil  it  was  disinterred  from  the  state  papers 
in  1823,  showed  him  to  have  become  strongly 
attached  to  Arianism. 


In  July,  1674,  having  long  been  distressed 
by  gout,  and  thinking  himself  near  death,  he 
gave  his  brother  directions  as  to  the  disposal 
of  his  property.  These  throw  some  light  on 
his  domestic  relations.  The  facts  exhibit 
traces  of  those  infirmities  of  temper  with 
which  the  great  poet  is  traditionally  charged. 
They  intimated  his  intention  (which  his 
widow  unsuccessfully  attempted  to  establish 
as  a  completed  will)  of  bequeathing  all  his 
property  to  his  wife,  leaving  to  his  daughters 
only,  besides  what  he  "had  done  for  them," 
a  claim  on  their  mother's  family  for  her 
portion  still  unpaid.  He  spoke  of  them  as 
his  "unkind  children,"  and  said  they  had 
been  "very  undutiful  to  him."  On  Sunday, 
November  8,  1674,  he  died  so  calmly  that 
the  moment  was  not  perceived,  and  was 
buried  beside  his  father  in  the  chancel  of 
St.  Giles,  in  Cripplegate,  London. 

Milton  was  not  connected  with  any  church, 
but  appears  to  have  favored  the  independ- 
ents —  a  politico-religious  party.  "  He  grew 
old  without  any  visible  worship,"  says  John- 
son, who  also  adds  that  "his  studies  and 
meditations  were  an  habitual  prayer."  His 
favorite  authors  among  the  Greeks  were 
Homer  and  Euripides,  and  Shakespeare  and 
Spenser  among  the  EngUsh. 

His  stature  was  rather  below  the  middle 
height,  and  in  his  youth  he  was  so  eminently 
and  delicately  beautiful  as  to  be  called  "  the 
lady"  of  his  college,  though  his  habits  were 
far  from  effeminate.  He  had  a  fair  com- 
plexion and  auburn  hair.  In  his  later  years 
he  was  stately  and  reserved. 

Amidst  evil  men  and  evil  days  Milton  dis- 
charged the  debt  which,  he  proudly  asserted, 
he  held  himself  to  owe  to  posterity.  He  has 
enriched  the  world  of  poetry  with  a  host  of 
its  noblest  images  and  sentiments.  His  three 
chief  lyrics  —  L' Allegro,  II  Penseroso,  and 
Lycidas  —  have  almost  every  quality  of 
poetry  in  literal  perfection.  No  other  five 
hundred  lines  in  English,  perhaps,  soar  to  so 
lofty  and  faultless  a  level,  without  a  jarring 
note  or  a  feeble  phrase. 

The  Paradise  Lost  has  music  and  concep- 
tions even  more  sustained  and  enthralling, 
such  as  Shakespeare,  Dante,  and  Homer 
alone  can  match.  It  is  evident,  however, 
that  the  epic  has  not  the  incomparable  per- 
fection of  the  lyrics.  There  are  in  it  incon- 
gruities, vagueness,  monotony,  limitations  of 
human  types,  which  are  never  felt  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  three  supreme  masters,  and  seldom 


IN   LITERATURE 


67 


even  in  Vergil,  Ariosto,  Calderon,  or  Goethe. 
It  is  plain  that  Puritanism  and  an  abortive 
revolution  forced  this  consummate  poet  to 
turn  away  both  from  past  and  present,  and 
to  search  for  the  subject  and  scheme  of  his 
epic  in  his  own  meditations  on  the  Hebrew 
Bible.  He  treated  this  with  extreme  free- 
dom, and  not  without  a  disputatious  dog- 
matism; but  even  Milton  could  not  shake 
himself  free  from  its  obsolete  theology  and 
its  barren  cosmogony.  That  a  great  poet, 
under  such  conditions  and  in  such  an  age, 
should  have  done  so  much  with  the  Hebrew 
pentateuch  as  his  inspiration  is  one  of  the 
noblest  triumphs  of  human  genius. 

At  the  same  time,  this  great  citizen  and 
heroic  soul,  being  forced  back  upon  his  own 
heart  for  his  ideal  of  man  in  the  presence  of 
nature  and  its  Creator,  produced  from  the 
depths  of  his  pure  and  rich  imagination  a 
marvelous  picture  of  humanity  in  all  its 
naked  essentials,  before  history  had  loaded 
its  memories,  or  civilization  had  clothed  its 
life  with  conventions.  The  aim  of  Milton  is 
thus  analogous  to  that  of  Dante;  and,  in 
simple  majesty  and  unity  of  scheme,  for  a 
time  it  seems  even  superior.  But  the  rigid 
limits  of  scripture  and  inevitable  want  of 
varied  human  interest  compel  us  to  admit 
that  the  close  of  Paradise  Lost  is  hardly  equal 


to  its  sublime  exordium  and  the  earlier  acta 
in  the  great  drama  of  man's  cmation,  fall, 
and  salvation.  Yet  the  originality,  power, 
and  eternal  meaning  of  Milton's  poem  gain 
fresh  significance  as  civilization  advances; 
and  we  see  that  since  the  work  of  Dante 
there  has  been  no  such  approach  to  the  ideal 
epic  of  humanity. 

Like  Dante,  like  Homer,  Milton  has  given 
us  a  living,  and  not  a  literary,  epic.  It  is 
Dante  among  the  moderns,  and  Vergil  among 
the  ancients,  whom,  in  sustained  moral  pur- 
pose and  in  religious  consciousness  of  being 
the  inspired  voice  of  his  age,  Milton  most 
nearly  resembles.  He  also  resembles  theee 
in  hfelong  dedication  to  his  task  as  the 
prophet  of  a  social  regeneration  to  be.  It  is 
to  the  lasting  glory  of  English  Puritani.sm 
that  it  could  join  in  one  work  such  a  creative 
statesman  as  Cromwell  with  so  supreme  a 
poet  as  Milton. 

"It  may  be  doubted,"  says  Landor, 
"whether  the  Creator  ever  created  another 
altogether  as  great  as  Milton  —  taking  into 
one  view  his  manly  virtues,  his  superhuman 
genius,  his  zeal  for  truth,  for  true  piety,  true 
freedom,  his  eloquence  in  displaying  it,  his 
contempt  of  personal  power,  his  glory  and 
exultation  in  his  coimtry's." 


MOLli:RE 

A.  D.                                                                                                             AGE  A.  D.  AOB 

1C22         Bom  at  Paris, 1660  Resides  at  the  Palais  Royal,    ...     38 

163&-41  Studied  at  College  de  Clermont,  .    14-19  1662  Married;      L'Ecole    des    Femmea, 

1642         Attended  Louis  XIII.  to  Spain,   .    .      20  "The  School  for  Wives,"  ....     40 

1653  L'J^tourdi,     "The    Giddy-Head,"  1666  LeMtsan^Arope,  "The  Misanthrope,"    44 

produced 31  1667  Lc  rariu/e,  "The  Hypocrite,"       .    .      45 

1654  Le  DSpit  Amoureux,  "The  Loving  1670  Le  Bourgeois  G'mtilhomme,  "The 

Spite," 32  Simple  Gentleman," 48 

1658  Presented  to  Louis  XIV.,       ....      36  1673  Le  McUade  I maainaire,"  The  Tmtxe- 

1659  Les    Pricieuses    Ridicules,    "The  inary  Invalia " ;  died  at  Paris,  .    .     51 

Affected  Ladies," 37 


"V/f  OLIERE  is  the  stage  name  of  Jean  Bap- 
*■  tiste  PoqueUn,  greatest  of  French  comic 
dramatists.  The  date  of  MoU^re's  birth  and 
many  circumstances  of  his  life  rest  upon  imper- 
fect authority.  Accounts  of  his  life,  there- 
fore, differ  in  many  details.  The  more  prob- 
able facts  are  herein  adhered  to. 

Moliere  was  born  in  Paris,  January,  1622, 
son  of  Jean  Poquelin,  a  well-to-do  upholsterer, 
who  ultimately  held  an  appointment  in  the 
royal  household.  His  father  intended  him 
for  the  same  trade  and  gave  him  a  suitable 


training  for  it ;  but  having  been  early  imbued 
by  his  grandfather  with  a  passion  for  the  stage, 
the  young  Poquelin  entered,  at  fourteen,  the 
famous  Jesuit  college  at  Clermont.  Here  hia 
fellow  pupils  were  the  prince  of  Conti  and 
other  well-known  men.  He  studied  philoso- 
phy under  the  famous  Gassendi,  and  hia 
progress  was  unusually  rapid  and  honor- 
able. He  admired  much  and  commenced  a 
translation  of  Lucretius,  a  fragment  of  which  is 
found  in  his  Le  Misanthrope.  He  then  studied 
law,  and,  it  is  said,  became  an  advocate. 


58 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


His  father  becoming  infirm,  he  was  com- 
pelled to  pursue  the  family  trade  in  the  house- 
hold of  Louis  XIII.,  whom  he  followed  in  his 
journey  to  Narbonne  in  1642.  The  French 
theater  was  then  beginning  to  emerge  from 
barbarism  and  neglect,  and  to  flourish  under 
the  great  and  fostering  talents  of  Corneille, 
and  the  patronage  of  Cardinal  RicheUeu. 
Poquelin,  destined  to  become  among  the 
French  the  founder  of  true  legitimate  comedy, 
no  longer  dissembled  his  decided  preference 
for  the  stage.  He  quitted  his  employment, 
and  joined  a  society  of  young  men  like  him- 
self devoted  to  theatrical  pursuits.  It  was 
then  that  he  assumed  the  surname  of  Moli^re, 
either  from  regard  for  his  family,  or  in  com- 
pliance with  a  custom  which  generally 
prevailed  among  the  actors. 

From  1645  Moli^re's  history  is  lost  amidst 
the  wars  of  the  Fronde;  but  he  appears  to 
have  wandered  in  the  provinces  with  his 
troops,  and  to  have  composed  slight  pieces  for 
them  until  1653,  when  his  first  regular  comedy 
UEtourdi,  "The  Giddy-Head,"  was  played  at 
Lyons  with  great  success.  The  genuine  wit 
of  the  dialogue,  the  inexhaustible  address  of 
the  valet  in  repairing  the  blunders  of  his  mas- 
ter, and  the  interest  occasioned  by  this  per- 
petual contrast,  procured  the  piece  consid- 
erable success,  notwithstanding  its  numerous 
defects.  In  Languedoc,  next  year,  he  pro- 
duced Le  Depit  Amoureux,  "The  Loving 
Spite,"  and,  bent  on  his  favorite  pursuits, 
refused  to  become  the  secretary  of  his  old 
school  fellow.  Prince  de  Conti. 

In  1658  Mohere  and  his  company,  finding 
their  way  to  Paris,  received  the  patronage  of 
the  court.  He  was  by  this  time  an  actor  of 
reputation.  He  immediately  showed  that  he 
possessed  both  power  of  observation  and  of 
original  invention,  and  a  skill  in  dramatic 
construction,  much  exceeding  anything  that 
had  appeared  in  his  earlier  pieces.  He  was 
received  in  Paris  with  favor  by  the  king,  who 
permitted  the  company  of  Moli^re  to  call 
themselves  the  "king's  comedians,"  and 
bestowed  on  their  leader  a  pension  of  one 
thousand  livres.  There,  during  the  remaining 
fifteen  years  of  his  life,  he  labored  incessantly 
as  player  and  dramatist.  His  first  great 
success,  and  that  which  revealed  his  genius  to 
the  public,  was  Les  Predeuses  Ridicules,  "  The 
Affected  Ladies,"  produced  in  1659.  MoUere 
played  Mascarile,  the  impudent  valet,  a  name 
that  came  often  to  be  applied  to  himself. 

In  this  original  and  delightful  piece,  Moliere 


marked  out  his  ov*n  peculiar  fort  —  the 
satiric  comedy  of  modern  manners.  He 
proceeded  to  point  out,  analyze,  and  judge  a 
prevalent  type  of  conduct,  bringing  it  before 
the  judgment  seat  of  good  sense  and  right 
feehng.  At  that  period  people  had  been 
accustomed  only  to  plays  of  the  most  immoral 
or  insignificant  tendency,  debased  by  por- 
traitures of  low  and  improbable  intrigues. 
The  art  of  exhibiting  on  the  national  stage 
characters  and  manners  taken  from  real  life 
was  reserved  for  the  talents  of  Molidre.  Les 
PrScieuses  Ridicules  had  great  simplicity  and 
truth  of  design.  It  was  a  keen  and  delicate 
satire  on  the  rage  for  the  bel  esprit,  which  then 
prevailed ;  on  the  stiff  and  bombastic  diction 
of  the  romances  in  vogue;  the  ridiculous 
pedantry  among  the  women,  and  the  affecta- 
tion universally  observable  in  their  language, 
their  sentiments,  and  their  dress.  When 
represented  at  Paris,  it  induced  a  gradual  and 
general  alteration  of  manners.  The  specta- 
tors laughed  at  their  former  follies,  and  while 
they  applauded  the  author,  reformed  them- 
selves. 

After  the  marked  success  of  Lea  Predeuses 
Ridicules,  Moli6re  took  up  his  residence  at  the 
Palais  Royal  in  1660.  He  is  said  to  have  re- 
marked that  henceforth  he  had  no  need  to  go 
to  Plautus,  Terence,  and  Menander  for  types 
of  character :  he  had  only  to  study  the  world 
before  him.  He  fell  back  infrequently,  how- 
ever, to  please  the  groundlings,  on  farces  in 
the  Plautan  and  Italian  manner;  he  wrote 
ballads  and  extravaganzas  for  the  court ;  and 
he  failed  in  heroic  comedy.  But  these  were 
mere  interludes  in  his  career;  yet  no  year 
passed  without  at  least  one  of  the  greatest 
creations  in  their  own  line  that  the  world  has 
seen.  Altogether  we  have  nearly  thirty  of  his 
plays,  still  extant,  produced  in  the  midst  of 
incessant  labor  as  an  actor,  manager,  and 
court  fimctionary,  with  intervals  of  acute 
domestic  troubles,  and  furious  professional 
intrigues. 

His  L'Ecole  des  Maris,  "The  School  for 
Husbands, "taken  from  the Addphioi  Terence, 
but  very  superior  to  the  original,  came  out  in 
1661.  It  presents  a  comedy  of  manners, 
character,  and  intrigue  developed  with  art, 
and  great  simpUcity.  While  the  theater  yet 
resoimded  with  the  applause  which  it  so 
justly  merited,  Les  Fdcheux,  "The  Bores," 
a  piece  conceived,  written,  studied,  and  repre- 
sented in  the  space  of  a  fortnight,  was  played 
at  Vaux,  a  house  belonging  to  Fouquet,  the 


I 


IN  LITERATURE 


celebrated  superintendent  of  the  finances,  in 
the  presence  of  the  king  and  court.  The 
scenes  of  this  little  comedy  are  by  no  means 
sufficiently  connected;  but  the  attention  of 
the  spectator  is  kept  alive  by  the  variety  in 
the  characters,  the  spirit  of  its  dialogue,  and 
the  elegance  of  its  language.  This  was  fol- 
lowed the  next  year  by  L'J^cole  des  Femmes, 
"The  School  for  Wives."  Some  crudity  in 
the  style  excited  the  censure  of  the  critics, 
and  they  overlooked  the  exquisite  art  which 
prevails  throughout  the  inimitable  character 
of  Agnes,  and  the  rapid  and  natural  succession 
of  incidents.  Moliere  replied  to  this  decision 
by  an  ingenious  critique  on  his  own  perform- 
ance, and  completely  refuted  the  unjust  cavils 
it  had  occasioned. 

In  1666  Mohere  produced  Le  Misanthrope, 
"The  Misanthrope,"  one  of  his  masterpieces. 
This  admirable  play  was  little  applauded  at 
first,  through  ignorance  or  envy,  but  is  now 
considered  one  of  the  first  either  in  the  ancient 
or  modern  drama.  It  must  be  admitted,  how- 
ever, that  it  is  more  generally  admired  in  the 
closet  than  on  the  stage.  The  satire  is  con- 
ceded to  be  more  keen  and  delicate  than  that 
of  Horace,  or  Boileau ;  but  as  a  comedy  it  has 
lessinterest  than  Le  Tartufe,  "  The  Hypocrite," 
produced  in  1667.  The  latter  is  generally 
considered  the  greatest  effort  of  his  genius, 
and  presents  pictures  of  hypocrisy  that  have 
never  been  equaled.  L'Avare,  "The  Miser," 
which  appeared  in  1668,  was  admirably  calcu- 
lated for  the  amusement  of  the  lower  orders, 
who  require  satire  to  be  bold  and  strongly 
marked.  Le  Bourgeois  Gentilhomme,  or  "The 
Simple  Gentleman"  (1670),  and  Les  Four- 
beries  de  Scapin,  "The  Cheats  of  Scapin,"  are 
of  the  same  class  —  extremely  diverting,  but 
coarsely  drawn. 

Moliere  gave  himself  more  time  in  the  com- 
position of  Les  Femmes  Savantes,  "  The 
Learned  Ladies,"  in  which  he  ingeniously  sat- 
irized the  ridiculous  affectation  and  pedantic 
erudition  of  the  Hotel  de  Rambouillet.  The 
scene  of  Trissotin  and  Vadius  was  taken  from 
a  real  dispute  which  occurred  between  Cotin 
and  Menage.  Le  Malade  Imxiginaire,  "The 
Imaginary  Invalid  "  (1673),  is  a  play  of  a  dif- 
ferent description;  but  it  exposes,  with  the 
usual  sagacity  and  ingenuity  of  Moliere,  the 
pedantry  and  quackery  of  the  medical  profes- 
sion of  the  time.  It  will  be  chiefly  remembered, 
however,  as  the  last  production  of  this  illus- 
trious man,  during  the  representation  of  which 
he  was  seized  with  illness  of  which  he  died. 


He  had  been  indisposed  for  some  time ;  and 
his  friends  in  vain  exhorted  him  to  repose 
himself.  "But  what,"  said  he,  "will  become 
of  so  many  poor  workmen?  I  should  forever 
reproach  myself  for  having  missed  one  day  in 
procuring  them  bread  I"  The  exertions  he 
made  while  himself  performing  in  Le  Malade 
Imaginaire  over-powered  him,  and  a  convul- 
sion seized  him  on  the  stage.  It  was  remarked 
that  as  he  pronounced  the  word  jura,  his 
countenance  changed,  and  the  blood  imme- 
diately began  flowing  from  his  mouth.  The 
play  was  stopped.  He  was  carried  home,  and 
died  that  night  in  his  home  in  the  Rue  Riche- 
heu,  February,  1673,  having  lately  completed 
his  fifty-first  year. 

The  archbishop  of  Paris  at  first  refused  to 
permit  his  body  to  be  interred  in  consecrated 
ground  —  an  illiberal  and  unjust  prejudice 
against  comedians,  which  continued  to  prevail 
centuries  afterward.  The  wife  of  Moliere 
exclaimed,  "  They  refuse  a  tomb  to  a  man  to 
whom  aU  Greece  would  have  erected  altars  I " 
The  king,  at  length,  interfered,  and  desired 
the  prelate  to  retract  his  prohibition,  and  the 
body  was  interred  in  the  church  of  St.  Joseph 
—  and  ultimately  to  Pere  la  Chaise,  where  his 
dust  is  now  supposed  to  rest. 

As  an  actor,  though  respectable,  his  talents 
were  not  so  conspicuous  as  in  his  writings. 
Personally,  we  are  told  that  Moliere  was  of 
fine  and  graceful  figure;  with  a  serious  air, 
large  mouth,  thick  lips,  and  heavy  nose,  large 
and  marked  eyebrows,  dark  complexion  — 
and  with  wonderful  expression  as  a  comic 
actor.  In  society  he  spoke  little;  he  was 
punctual  in  all  his  habits;  an  indefatigable 
worker  and  a  most  rapid  composer.  In  all  his 
public  relations  his  conduct  was  honorable 
and  manly.  His  loyalty  and  devotion  to  hia 
professional  comrades  for  a  period  of  nearly 
thirty  years  were  interrupted  only  by  his 
death.  His  friendship  with  Comeille,  Racine, 
and  Boileau  was,  on  his  part,  at  least,  sincere 
and  generous;  and  his  country  house  at 
Anteuil  was  the  resort  of  all  the  wits  of  hia 
age.  The  Marechal  de  Vivonne  lived  with 
him  in  all  that  intimacy  which  places  genius 
and  talents  on  a  level  with  affluence  and  rank. 
The  great  Cond^  often  solicited  his  compan- 
ionship; and  would  acknowledge  that  from 
his  conversation  he  always  derived  something 


new. 


His  merit  as  a  writer  was  universally 
allowed  by  the  men  of  genius  of  all  classes  who 
adorned  that  fertile  age.    When  Louis  XIV. 


60 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


once  asked  Racine  whom  he  conceived  to  be 
the  first  of  the  authors  who  had  illustrated 
his  reign,  he  instantly  replied,  Moliere.  "I 
should  not  have  thought  so,"  said  the  king, 
"but  you  are  a  better  judge  than  I  am."  So 
many  marks  of  distinction  corrupted  neither 
his  heart  nor  his  mind  —  he  was  mild,  com- 
passionate, and  generous. 

Louis  XIV.  remained  his  firm  patron 
throughout,  and  ultimately  supported  Moliere 
in  his  long  struggle  against  the  priest  party, 
to  obtain  the  representation  of  Le  Tartuje. 
Louis  made  Moliere  his  valet  de  chambre  and 
admitted  him  to  his  privacy:  the  anecdote 
that  the  king,  to  give  a  lesson  to  his  courtiers, 
once  made  the  actor  sit  down  and  partake  of 
his  bedside  supper,  is  not  improbable ;  and  it 
is  certain  that  he  stood  godfather  to  Moli^re's 
first  child. 

Moliere,  although  he  contributed  so  largely 
to  the  amusement  of  others,  was  himself  the 
sport  and  prey  of  domestic  misfortune  and 
misery.  In  1662  he  had  married  Armande 
B6jart,  he  being  forty  and  his  wife  eighteen. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  his  old  love,  Made- 
leine B^jart,  a  provincial  actress,  through  a 
private  marriage  with  M.  de  Modene,  a  gen- 
tleman of  Avignon.  The  disparity  of  their 
ages  subjected  him  to  ridicule,  and  gave  him 
fits  of  jealousy,  which  were  by  no  means  with- 
out cause.  No  sooner  had  she  become  his 
wife  than  she  displayed  all  the  extravagance 
and  caprice  of  a  coquette.  The  miserable 
husband  lectured,  implored,  and  railed  in 
vain;  parted  from  his  giddy  wife  in  wrath; 
and  at  last  returned  to  her.  She  bore  him 
two  children,  one  of  whom,  a  daughter,  sur- 
vived his  death.  If  his  pen,  in  describing  the 
errors  and  frailties  of  the  sex,  had  such  a  glow 
of  nature  and  truth,  it  was  probably  because  a 
hving  model  of  vexation  was  in  his  own  house. 

After  his  death  his  widow  shortly  married 
an  obscure  comedian  named  Le  Grand.  She 
retained  no  respect  for  the  memory  of  her 
illustrious  husband,  and  was  so  careless  of  his 
manuscripts  that  none  of  them  have  been 
preserved.  This  culpable  indifference  ex- 
tended even  to  a  daughter  who  was  the  fruit 
of  this  inauspicious  union;  and  who,  neg- 
lected by  her  parent,  eloped  from  her  at  a  very 
early  age,  and  lived  and  died  in  obscurity. 

In  pure  comedy,  Moh^re  has  no  superior, 
not  even  Aristophanes.  He  is  marked  out, 
above  all  the  masters  of  this  art,  by  the  won- 
derfully systematic  and  profound  study  that 
he  devoted  to  every  type  of  folly,  affectation, 


hypocrisy,  quackery,  foppery,  and  grossnesa 
which  beset  his  age.  In  the  sphere  of  con- 
temporary manners,  he  is  the  zealous  censor 
morum,  almost  as  much  the  moralist  as  he  is 
the  artist.  No  poet  —  not  Wordsworth,  nor 
even  Dante  himself  —  ever  worked  more 
consciously  with  a  purpose,  as  a  moral  teacher 
and  judge  of  his  contemporaries.  But  the 
astonishing  quality  of  Moli^re's  genius  is  that 
the  purpose  never  obtrudes  itself,  never  over- 
masters the  poet,  or  ends  in  tedium  and  com- 
monplace. On  the  contrary,  some  of  Moli^re's 
happiest  lessons  in  simplicity  and  manliness 
are  worked  out  in  wild  burlesques  and  riotous 
outbursts  of  quite  famihar  farce.  In  this  he 
has  been  approached  among  modern  writers 
only  by  Fielding.  But  in  the  exquisitely 
finished  verses  of  Les  Femmes  Savantes,  the 
same  spirit  is  at  work  in  all  the  conventional 
manners  of  polished  society  and  modern 
social  culture. 

In  his  masterpiece,  Le  Tartuje,  he  boldly 
grappled  with  one  of  the  deepest  problems  of 
modern  civilization,  and  the  world-wide  popu- 
larity of  this  great  piece  is  a  proof  of  his  power 
in  the  most  difficult  sphere  of  social  ethics. 
Le  Misanthrope,  though  inferior  as  a  play,  is 
more  subtle  and  profound  as  a  study.  It  has 
earned  the  criticism  that  it  is  rather  tragic 
than  comic  in  conception.  There  can  be  little 
doubt  that  Molit^re  has  painted  in  Alceste  not 
a  little  of  his  own  noble  yearnings  and  pro- 
found weariness,  as  of  a  free  spirit  born  out  of 
time  into  a  most  artificial  and  degenerate 
society.  It  is  objected,  and  with  some  truth, 
that  Moliere  is  hardly  to  be  classed  as  a  poet, 
inasmuch  as  his  characters  are  too  typically 
intense  to  be  individuals,  because  his  por- 
traiture is  so  sharply  cut,  and  his  conceptions 
entirely  without  mystery  and  beauty.  It  is 
true  that  neither  in  Psyche,  nor  in  any  of  the 
lyric  interludes  has  he  ever  shown  a  trace  of 
the  fantastic  imagery  or  exquisite  music  of 
Shakespeare,  nor  again  of  the  phantasmagoric 
fairyland  of  Aristophanes.  Nor  does  the 
dialogue  of  Moliere  sparkle  with  wit  and 
fancy  as  do  those  of  some  English  and  some 
Greek  comedies. 

Moliere  is  always  the  Frenchman,  and  the 
Frenchman  of  the  age  of  Louis  XIV.  He  is 
always  so  measured  in  his  forms  as  to  be 
something  of  the  comic  Racine;  his  wildest 
himtior  is  courtly,  as  of  some  Rabelais  of  Ver- 
sailles. His  buffoonery  melts  into  graceful 
comedy;  his  polished  dialogue  is  easily  ex- 
tended into  practical  fun.     It  is  this  peculiar 


IN   LITERATURE 


61 


gift  which  places  him  alone.  He  has  created 
scores  of  immortal  types  of  human  character. 
They  are  not  oddities  and  individualities,  but 
classes  of  civilized  men  and  women.  And  if 
he  has  never  broken  into  Pindaric  heights  of 
fancy,  or  given  us  scenes  of  pathos,  beauty, 
and  mystery,  he  is  one  of  the  profoundest 
masters  of  human  nature,  and  one  of  the  most 
original  minds  in  creative  art. 

Critics  compare  Molifire  with  Shakespeare, 
and  find  them  not  unUke  in  position,  character, 
and  qualities.  No  modern  poet  equals  these 
two  in  knowledge  of  men  and  motives.  On 
the  other  hand,  he  is  compared  with  Dante; 
and  here  is  found  a  contrast,  yet  an  analogy. 
Dante  is  the  artistic  representative  of  tradi- 
tion and  dogma ;  Moliere  is  the  artistic  repre- 


sentative of  something  which  is  oppoaie. 
He  has  seized  everywhere  the  features  which 
serve  to  form  a  complete  picture  of  human  life. 
To  know  him  is  to  hate  hypocrisy,  fanati- 
cism, and  intolerance,  and  recognize  pedantry 
and  false  wit  at  a  glance;  to  be  above  the 
deception  of  fine-drawn  expressions  and  the 
painted  graces  of  an  artificial  style.  Hypoc- 
risy he  especially  detested,  and  lashed  it  with- 
out mercy  in  all  its  varied  forms,  wherever  ho 
found  it.  It  is  to  Moli6re,  more,  perhaps,  than 
to  any  other  writer,  that  the  French  language 
owed  its  tendency  to  run  into  apt  sayings  — 
the  small  change  of  conversation  —  which  has 
made  it  the  favorite  language  of  polite  society 
and  immortalized  it  as  the  language  of 
epigram. 


MONTESQUIEU 


A.  D.  AGE 

1689  Born  at  Chiteau  de  la  Brfede,  France,     . . 

1714  Councilor  of  the  Bordeaux  parlia- 

ment,       25 

1715  Married, 26 

1716  President  Bordeaux  parliament,       .  27 
1721  Lettres  Persanes,  "Persian  Letters,"  32 


A.  D.  AGB 

1728  Received  at  French  academy^  .  .  39 
1729-31  Visited  England;  elected  F.  R.  S.,  40-42 
1734         Considirations  sur  les  Causes  de  la 

Grandeur  des  Romains,  etc., ...  45 
1748  jE'sprt/ dcs  Lois,  "Spirit  of  Laws,"  .  69 
1755         Died  at  Paris,      66^ 


■jV/f  ONTESQUIEU,  or  Charles  de  Secon- 
^  •'•  DAT,  baron  of  Brede  and  Montesquieu, 
the  celebrated  French  writer,  was  born  of  a 
noble  family  at  the  Chateau  de  la  BrMe,  near 
Bordeaux,  France,  January  18,  1689.  It  was 
at  the  crisis  of  the  English  revolution. 
France  was  suffering  from  the  revocation  of 
the  edict  of  Nantes,  effected  four  years  earlier ; 
and  five  years  later  Voltaire,  and  with  him 
potentially  a  whole  new  world,  was  born. 

The  young  noble's  great  abilities  were  early 
apparent,  and  in  his  youth  he  devoted  himself 
passionately  to  study,  efficiently  aided  by  his 
father.  Destined  for  the  profession  of  law, 
he  accumulated  a  large  mass  of  extracts  from 
the  civil  law,  which  proved  to  be  the  first 
part  of  his  preparation  for  his  great  work. 
He  began  at  the  same  time  to  think  for  him- 
self on  some  deep  and  difficult  subjects;  and 
at  the  age  of  twenty  wrote  a  tract  to  show 
that  the  idolatry  of  the  heathen  —  he  already 
loved  Socrates  and  Plato,  Plutarch  and 
Seneca  —  did  not  deserve  eternal  punishment. 
From  prudential  motives  this  piece  was  either 
not  published  or  quickly  suppressed. 

In  1714  he  became  a  judge  in  the  parlia- 
ment of  Bordeaux,  the  very  coiu-t  in  which  a 
century  and  a  half  before  Montaigne  had  held 


the  same  office,  and  in  the  year  following  he 
married  Mademoiselle  de  Lartigues.  In  1716 
he  succeeded  his  uncle  as  president.  He  was 
an  efficient  officer,  but  by  preference  he  de- 
voted himself  to  certain  branches  of  physical 
science  which  at  this  time  was  particularly 
engaging  to  him  —  a  further  step  in  his 
necessary  culture  and  training. 

In  1721  he  astonished  his  countrymen  with 
a  small  book  entitled  Lettres  Persanes,  "Per- 
sian Letters,"  in  which,  under  the  guise  of  a 
traveled  Persian  and  a  mask  of  mirth,  he 
satirized  their  follies  and  vices,  their  levity, 
vanity,  extravagance,  and  quarrelsomeness, 
hitting  hard  and  sparing  no  one.  For  the 
sake  of  contrast,  he  held  up  the  example  of 
England,  under  the  guise  of  a  virtuous  race 
of  Troglodytes.  The  book  appeared  anony- 
mously, but  its  authorship  was  not  long  con- 
cealed. Its  success  was  immense.  Montes- 
quieu himself  records  ,that  publishers,  eager 
for  other  like  profitable  surprises,  would  catch 
hold  of  authors  as  they  passed,  and  beg  them 
to  write  some  more  "Persian  Letters."  This 
sparkling  work  was  translated  into  English 
by  Ozell  in  1730.  Its  method  was  adopted 
by  Goldsmith  in  his  Letters  from  a  Citizen  of 
the  World. 


62 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Montesquieu  did  not  relish  the  law  as  a 
profession,  his  thought  moving  in  a  wider 
sphere.  "After  leaving  college,"  he  says, 
"  they  gave  me  law  books,  but  I  was  in  search 
of  the  spirit."  Having  held  his  judicial  office 
for  ten  years,  he  sold  it  and  retired.  In  the 
following  year  he  was  candidate  for  a  seat  in 
the  French  academy;  but  Cardinal  Fleury, 
then  first  minister,  told  him  that  the  king, 
Louis  XV.,  would  never  consent  to  the  admis- 
sion of  the  ^v^iter  of  the  "Persian  Letters." 
Determined  not  to  let  slip  the  honor  of  elec- 
tion, he  altered  —  so  states  Voltaire  —  the 
offensive  passages  in  the  "  Letters,"  had  a  new 
edition  rapidly  printed,  and  himself  presented 
a  copy  to  the  minister,  who  then  took  the 
trouble  to  read  it.  The  way  was  now  opened, 
and  in  January,  1728,  Montesquieu  was 
received  as  one  of  the  forty  inrunortals. 

For  the  enlargement  of  his  knowledge  he 
now  spent  the  years  1729-31  in  foreign  travel, 
visiting  first  the  imperial  court,  then  Hun- 
gary, Italy,  Switzerland,  Germany,  Holland, 
and  England.  At  Vienna  he  met  Prince 
Eugene ;  at  Venice,  the  notorious  Law,  projec- 
tor of  the  Mississippi  scheme;  and  at  Rome 
he  associated  with  Cardinal  Polignac.  Accom- 
panying Lord  Chesterfield  to  England,  he  was 
presented  to  Queen  Caroline,  who  delighted  in 
the  society  of  the  wise  and  learned,  and  was 
the  friend  of  Butler  and  Berkeley.  He  made 
the  acquaintance  also  of  many  other  eminent 
men,  and  was  chosen  a  fellow  of  the  royal 
society  of  England.  His  travels  were  fol- 
lowed by  a  studious  retirement  of  two  years ; 
and  he  then,  in  1734,  gave  to  the  world  his 
important  work,  Considerations  sur  les  Causes 
de  la  Grandeur  des  Romains  et  de  leur  Deca- 
dence, "Considerations  on  the  Causes  of  the 
Grandeur  and  Decadence  of  the  Romans." 

Henceforth  he  devoted  himself  to  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  great  work  upon  which  he  had 
long  meditated,  and  to  the  composition  of 
which  he  gave  fourteen  years.  Like  Milton, 
he  was  in  no  hurry  to  publish,  but  was  con- 
tent to  wait  the  slow  furnishing  of  his  mind 
and  the  ripening  of  his  faculties.  After  enter- 
ing upon  his  task,  the  growing  sense  of  its 
vastness  almost  paralyzed  him,  and  he  several 
times  dropped  and  resumed  it. 

When  he  had  at  length  completed  it,  he 
sought  the  opinion  of  his  friend  Helvetius. 
This  opinion  was  unfavorable ;  and  Helvetius, 
supported  by  another  friend,  Saurin,  strongly 
advised  the  author  not  to  publish  it.  It 
would,  he  said,  be  the  ruin  of  his  reputation. 


He  did  not,  however,  alter  a  word;  and  in 
1748  the  Esprit  des  Lois,  "Spirit  of  Laws," 
appeared  in  two  quarto  volumes,  printed  at 
Geneva.  It  found  an  audience  immediately, 
ran  through  twenty-two  editions  within 
eighteen  months,  and  was  translated  into  all 
the  languages  of  Europe. 

The  purpose  of  the  Esprit  des  Lois  was  not 
to  set  forth  what  governments  ought  to  be; 
but  to  find  in  nature  and  in  history  the  expla- 
nation of  existing  maxims  and  institutions  of 
various  nations;  to  show  how  diversities  in 
physical  and  moral  circumstances  have  con- 
tributed to  produce  diversities  in  government 
and  municipal  institutions.  Its  special  interest 
is  in  its  exposition  of  relations  between  sets  of 
phenomena  apparently  unrelated  to  each 
other. 

The  largeness  of  his  conception  of  law 
appears  in  the  opening  chapters,  in  which  the 
connection  between  natural  law  and  human 
law  is  distinctly  stated.  "Laws,"  he  begins, 
"are  the  necessary  relations  following  from 
the  nature  of  things."  More  explicitly  he 
states  afterward:  "Between  two  bodies  in 
movement,  the  relations  of  mass  and  velocity 
determine  the  increase  or  diminution  of 
movement ;  throughout  every  variation  there 
is  uniformity  and  constancy.  Similar  rela- 
tions are  to  be  found  in  human  affairs.  Before 
the  beginning  of  positive  law,  there  are  natural 
relations  of  justice  to  be  sought." 

To  find  these  fixed  conditions  was  Montes- 
quieu's object.  Some  were  dependent  on  the 
form  of  government;  others  on  the  play  of 
passions  to  which  each  form,  republican, 
aristocratic,  monarchic,  or  despotic,  was 
specially  favorable.  His  work  is  divided  into 
thirty-one  books.  The  first  eight  deal  with 
the  various  forms  of  government,  the  princi- 
ples of  action  in  each,  and  the  mode  in  which 
each  underwent  corruption  and  decay.  In  a 
republic  he  considered  that  virtue  was  the 
principle  of  stabiUty;  in  a  monarchy,  honor; 
in  despotism,  fear.  The  ninth  and  tenth 
books  discuss  war,  defensive  and  offensive. 
In  the  eleventh,  twelfth,  and  thirteenth  boolcs, 
the  conditions  of  political  liberty  are  explained, 
and  their  connection  with  taxation.  In  the 
four  following  books,  Montesquieu  passes  to 
the  subject  of  cUmate  as  affecting  national 
character,  and  its  bearing  on  the  institution  of 
slavery.  Fertility  or  sterility  of  soil  as 
affecting  civilization  is  the  subject  of  the 
eighteenth  book.  The  nineteenth  deals  with 
the  bearing  of  national  character  on  law.    The 


I 


IN  LITERATURE 


68 


twentieth,  twenty-first,  and  twenty-second 
discuss  the  relations  of  law  and  commerce. 
In  the  twenty-third,  population  is  considered ; 
in  the  three  following  books,  religion;  in  the 
twenty-seventh,  inheritance.  The  work  con- 
cludes with  an  historical  review  of  the  growth 
of  French  legislation  from  its  feudal  origin. 

The  observations  of  fact  contained  in  this 
comprehensive  sociological  treatise  are  numer- 
ous and  carefully  made.  The  conception  of  a 
social  organism  held  together  by  interde- 
pendent forces,  and  dependent  on  external 
conditions,  was  more  systematically  put 
forward  than  in  any  work  which  had  appeared 
since  the  Politics  of  Aristotle.  Montesquieu's 
conception  of  biological  science  was  too 
imperfect,  and  the  possibility  of  arriving  at 
definite  laws  of  social  progress  was,  as  yet, 
too  remote  to  give  his  work  more  than  transi- 
tory value ;  but  he  is  to  be  regarded  as  one  of 
the  principal  forerunners  of  the  science  of 
sociology. 

Many  hostile  attacks  were  made  on  the 
Esprit  des  Lois;  but  only  one  of  these,  involv- 
ing a  charge  of  atheism,  provoked  any  reply. 
The  author  published  a  Defense  de  I'Esprit 
des  Lois,  "Defense  of  the  Spirit  of  Laws"; 
and  the  Sorbonne,  which  had  a  sharp  eye  on 
the  original  work,  refrained  from  the  con- 
demnation which  it  was  about  to  issue.  The 
influence  of  the  Esprit  des  Lois  is  believed  to 
have  been  more  powerful  in  Great  Britain 
than  in  France.  It  is  distinctly  traceable  in 
Adam  Smith's  epoch-making  work,  the 
Wealth  of  Nations,  which  appeared  about 
thirty  years  later,  and  otherwise  affected  the 
highest  contemporary  poUtical  thought  of  the 
times. 

Referring  to  the  Wealth  of  Nations,  Gibbon 
remarked:  "The  strong  ray  of  philosophic 
light  on  this  subject  which  broke  over  Scot- 
land in  our  times  was  but  a  reflection,  though 
with  a  far  steadier  and  more  concentrated 
force,  from  the  scattered  but  briUiant  sparks 
kindled  by  the  genius  of  Montesquieu." 
Mackintosh,  in  his  Discourse  on  the  Study  of 
the  Law  of  Nature  and  Nations,  pronounces  a 
noble  eulogy  on  the  book,  and  says  that  he 
never  names  the  author  without  reverence. 
It  was  a  favorite  handbook  of  the  lovers  of 
"regulated  Uberty,"  as  distinguished  from  the 
fanatics  of  the  revolution.  Voltaire,  though 
no  friendly  critic,  recognized  its  literary 
quality,  and  said :  "The  human  race  had  lost 
its  titles;  Montesquieu  found  and  restored 
them." 


The  sudden  blaze  of  reputation  did  not  turn 
the  head  of  so  sober  and  wise  a  man  a.s  Mon- 
tesquieu. But  he  enjoyed  his  triumph  rather 
at  La  Br6de  than  at  Paris.  He  was  becoming 
an  old  man,  and,  unlike  Fontenelle,  he  does 
not  seem  to  have  preserved  in  old  age  the 
passion  for  society  which  had  marked  his 
youth.  A  rather  dubious  description,  pub- 
lished long  after  his  death,  represents  him  as 
"  wandering  in  his  woods  from  morn  to  night 
with  a  white  cotton  nightcap  on  his  head,  and 
a  vine  prop  on  his  shoulder." 

This,  in  the  florid"  language  of  its  time  — 
republican  period  —  is,  probably,  only  an 
imaginative  expression  of  his  known  interest 
in  managing  his  estate.  But  he  certainly 
spent  much  of  his  later  years  in  the  country, 
though  he  sometimes  visited  Paris,  and  on  one 
visit  had  the  opportunity,  which  he  is  likely 
to  have  enjoyed,  of  procuring  the  release  of 
his  admirer.  La  Beaumelle,  from  an  imprison- 
ment which  La  Beaumelle  had  suffered  at  the 
instance  of  Voltaire.  He  is  said  also  to  have 
been  instrumental  in  obtaining  a  pension  for 
Piron,  the  famous  epigrammatist.  Indeed, 
indigent  or  unlucky  men  of  letters  found  in 
him  a  constant  protector,  and  that  not  merely 
at  the  royal  expense. 

Nor  did  he  by  any  means  neglect  literary 
composition.  The  curious  little  romance  of 
Arsace  et  Ismenie,  a  short  and  unfinished 
treatise  on  taste,  many  of  his  published 
Pensees,  or  "Thoughts,"  and  much  unpub- 
lished matter  date  from  the  period  subsequent 
to  the  Esprit  des  Lois.  He  did  not,  however, 
live  many  years  after  the  appearance  of  his 
great  work.  At  the  end  of  1754  he  visited 
Paris,  with  the  intention  of  getting  rid  of  the 
lease  of  his  house  there  and  finally  retiring  to 
La  Brdde.  He  was  shortly  after  taken  ill 
with  an  attack  of  fever,  which  seems  to  have 
affected  the  lungs,  and  in  less  than  a  fortnight 
he  died,  on  February  10,  1755,  aged  sixty-six. 
He  was  buried  in  the  church  of  Saint  Sulpice 
with  httle  pomp,  and  the  revolution  obliter- 
ated all  trace  of  his  remains. 

The  death  of  Montesquieu  was  considered 
a  general  calamity,  and  excited  the  regret 
of  other  countries  as  well  as  his  own.  "His 
virtues,"  said  Lord  Chesterfield,  in  announc- 
ing his  death  in  Great  Britain,  "did  honor  to 
human  nature,  his  writings  to  justice.  A 
friend  to  all  mankind,  he  asserted  their  im- 
doubted  and  unalienable  rights  with  freedom, 
even  among  his  own  countrymen,  whose  preju- 
dices, in  matters  of  religion  and  government, 


64 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


he  had  long  lamented,  and  endeavored, 
not  without  some  success,  to  remove.  He 
well  knew  and  justly  admired  the  happy 
constitution  of  this  country,  where  fixed  and 
known  laws  equally  restrain  monarchy  from 
tyranny  and  freedom  from  licentiousness. 
His  works  will  illustrate  his  name,  and  survive 
him  as  long  as  right  reason,  moral  obhgation, 
and  the  true  spirit  of  laws  shall  be  under- 
stood, respected,  and  maintained." 

It  is  on  his  three  principal  works  that  his 
fame  rests  —  the  Considerations,  the  Leltres 
Persanes,  and  the  Esprit.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  the  Leltres  Persanes  yield  at  their 
best  either  in  wit  or  in  giving  lively  pictures 
of  the  times  to  the  best  of  Voltaire's  similar 
work,  though  they  are  more  unequal.  The 
Considerations  are  noteworthy  not  only  for 
a  complete  change  of  style,  but  for  the  pro- 
fundity and  originality  of  the  views,  and  for 
the  completeness  with  which  the  author  car- 
ries out  his  plan.  The  real  importance  of  the 
Esprit  des  Lois  is  that  it  is  an  assemblage  of  the 
most  fertile,  original,  and  inspiring  views  on 
legal  and  political  subjects,  put  in  language  of 
singular  suggestiveness  and  vigor.  Nor  is  it 
less  notable  for  its  spirit  of  temperate  and 
tolerant  desire  for  human  improvement  and 
happiness.  It  has  little  ornament  of  style,  but 
its  composition  is  wholly  admirable,  and  the 
author's  wit  is  freely  used  to  lighten  its  pages. 
The  genius  of  the  author  for  generalization  is 
so  great,  his  instinct  in  political  science  so  sure, 
that  even  the  falsity  of  his  premises  at  times 
fails  to  vitiate  his  conclusions. 

Montesquieu  was  an  insatiable  reader,  and 
declared  that  he  never  felt  a  sorrow  which  an 
hour's  reading  would  not  dissipate  or  relieve. 
His  habits  of  intense  application,  however, 
seriously  threatened  his  sight,  and  at  death 
he  was  totally  blind.  Though  subject  to 
frequent  absence  of  mind,  he  was  lively  and 
cheerful  in  society,  and  his  conversation, 
abounding  in  wit  and  keenness  of  remark, 
was  not  inferior  to  his  writings.  His  expenses 
were  regulated  by  a  wise  economy,  a  certain 
portion  of  his  income  being  always  reserved 
for  charity,  and  the  numerous  acts  of  benev- 
olence which  his  death  alone  revealed. 

An  anecdote  which  is  related  of  him  has 
been  made  the  subject  of  a  drama,  under  the 
title  of  Le  Bienfait  Anonyme,  "  The  Nameless 
Benefactor."  Montesquieu,  when  at  Mar- 
seilles and  sailing  round  the  port  in  a  boat, 
was  struck  with  the  melancholy  air  of  the  man 
who    conducted    him.     Inquiring    into    the 


cause  of  so  much  dejection,  the  boatman 
informed  him  that  his  father  had  been  taken 
by  pirates,  confined  in  Algiers,  and  that  he  was 
then  struggling  to  gain  money  sufficient  to 
ransom  him.  On  the  same  day,  to  the  inex- 
pressible astonishment  of  the  young  boatman, 
the  money  that  was  required  for  his  pious 
purpose  was  paid  into  his  hands  by  persons 
unknown  to  him.  He  made  many  useless 
attempts  to  find  out  the  name  of  his  bene- 
factor; but  it  was  not  discovered  until  after 
the  death  of  Montesquieu,  when  the  inspec- 
tion of  a  paper  proved  him  to  be  the 
beneficent  doner. 

The  unaffected  modesty  of  this  illustrious 
man  would  not  permit  any  painting  or  bust 
to  be  taken  of  him.  His  aversion  to  any 
such  exhibition  of  himself  was  long  insur- 
mountable. At  length  Dassier,  a  celebrated 
medalist,  went  from  London  to  Paris  to 
endeavor  to  procure  a  likeness  of  the  great 
author  of  the  Esprit  des  Lois.  Montesquieu, 
unwilling  to  spare  the  necessary  time  for  the 
purpose,  constantly  resisted  the  pressing 
solicitations  of  the  artists,  until  Dassier, 
after  employing  many  arguments  in  vain, 
said  to  him,  "  Do  you  not  think  that  there  is 
greater  vanity  in  refusing  my  request  than 
there  would  be  in  acceding  to  it?"  This 
shrewd  question  disarmed  the  sage,  and  he 
submitted  to  the  demands  of  the  artist. 

Montesquieu's  favorite  writers  were  Plu- 
tarch and,  above  all,  Tacitus,  between  whom 
and  himself  there  was  a  singular  coincidence 
of  style  —  the  same  energy,  precision,  and 
sometimes  obscurity  of  diction.  Of  Tacitus, 
Montesquieu  was  accustomed  to  say,  "He 
abridged  everything,  because  he  saw  every- 
thing " ;  and  by  thus  describing  the  genius  of 
Tacitus,  he  has  exactly  defined  his  own. 

The  eighteenth  century  —  that  of  Montes- 
quieu —  has  often  been  disparaged  by  writers 
as  to  its  character,  products,  and  tendencies. 
It  is  true  that  it  has  given  us  no  Hamlet  or 
Lear;  no  Paradise  Lost,  nor  any  works  of 
creative  imagination  to  rank  with  or  near 
these.  But  one  fact  is  clear:  it  has  left  the 
world  the  richer  by  some  noble  monumental 
works  of  human  intellect.  Its  labors  were 
mostly  in  the  region  of  facts,  and  its  chief 
hterary  monuments  are  to  be  found  in  the  fields 
of  history,  philosophy,  science,  and  politics. 
Among  these  Montesquieu's  masterpiece,  the 
Esprit  des  Lois,  has  held,  and  probably  will 
ever  hold,  one  of  the  highest  places  in  the 
hterature  of  law,  liberty,  and  society. 


VOLTAIRE 
From  a  painting 


IN   LITERATURE 


«7 


VOLTAIRE 


A.  D. 

1694 
1717 
1718 
1722 
1724 
1726 
1726- 
1730 
1731 

1734 


Bom  at  Chdtenay,  France, 

Imprisoned  in  the  Bastille,   ....     23 

Liberated;  QSdipe, 24 

Visited  Rousseau  at  Brussels,   ...      28 

La  Henriade, 30 

Again  imprisoned  and  liberated,  .    .     32 

29  Lived  in  England, 32-35 

Histoire  de  Charles  XII. 36 

Lettrcs  sur  Ics  Anglais,  "  Letters  on 

the  English," 37 

Resided  at  Cirey,  with  Madame  du 

Chdtelet, 40 


A.  D.  AQB 

1740         Received  Invitation  to  visit  Fred- 
erick the  Great, 4A 

1740         Member  of  the  French  at'ademy,      ,  63 
1750         With  Frederick  the  Great,  at  Pot»- 

dam, 66 

1755         La  PuceUe,  "The  Maid," 61 

1758         Candide, 64 

1760         Settled  at  Ferney, m 

1764         Dictionaire   Philosophique,    "Dlc- 

tionarv  of  Philosophy,"     ....  70 

1778         Visited  fans,  where  he  died,    ...  84 


VTOLTAIRE,  probably  the  greatest  of 
'  French  writers,  and  the  world's  greatest 
critic,  was  the  literary  name  adopted  by 
Francois  Marie  Arouet.  He  was  born 
February  21,  1694,  at  Ch&tenay,  near  Paris, 
France,  the  third  son  of  a  successful  notary. 
His  mother  belonged  to  a  noble  family  of 
Poitou,  was  intelligent,  witty,  and  attractive, 
and  died  before  her  son  reached  his  twentieth 
year. 

The  godfather  and  first  teacher  of  young 
Arouet  was  Abbe  de  Chateauneuf,  whose 
morals  like  his  religion  were  anything  but 
strict ;  and  it  is  to  his  influence  that  the  pupil 
was  early  indoctrinated  in  the  skeptical  litera- 
ture which  was  then  becoming  the  fashion  in 
France.  Arouet's  further  education  was 
obtained  in  the  Jesuit  college  of  Louis-le- 
Grand,  where  his  proficiency  in  all  studies 
speedily  attracted  attention.  On  leaving  the 
college,  he  was  introduced  by  his  godfather 
to  the  friendship  of  the  celebrated  Ninon  de 
Lenclos,  with  whom  he  soon  became  a  favor- 
ite, and  who,  at  her  death,  left  him  two  thou- 
sand livres  for  the  purpose  of  purchasing  books. 

Alarmed  by  the  dissipated  life  to  which  he 
was  attracted,  his  father  sent  him  as  secretary 
to  the  Marquis  Chateauneuf,  French  ambassa- 
dor to  Holland;  but,  in  consequence  of  an 
intrigue  with  the  daughter  of  Madame  du 
Noyer,  Arouet  was  sent  home  in  disgrace. 
He  now  attracted  the  attention  of  that  por- 
tion of  the  nobility  which  aspired  to  the 
honors  of  authorship,  and  were  wont  at  all 
times  to  patronize  genius.  But  his  father 
had  destined  him  for  the  bar,  and,  at  the 
parental  command,  he  entered  an  attorney's 
office.  His  stay  in  it,  however,  was  short, 
and  he  soon  obtained  notoriety  as  the  author 
of  a  satire  on  his  successful  rival  in  the  poetic 
competition  for  an  academy  prize.  His 
father  now  withdrew  all  countenance  or  sup- 
port from  him,  and  he  requested  permission 
to  depart  for  America. 


While  these  family  troubles  were  brooding, 
a  friend  of  the  family  interceded,  and  invited 
him  to  take  up  his  residence  at  St.  Ange. 
M.  Caumartin,  his  new  protector,  had  been  a 
courtier  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  it  was 
due  to  the  literary  discussions  in  his  house- 
hold that  Voltaire  conceived  the  idea  of  La 
Henriade  and  the  Sihle  de  Louis  XIV.  He 
began  to  test  his  faculties  for  the  task  by 
writing  a  satire  upon  the  deceased  monarch, 
for  which  he  was  sent  to  the  Bastille  in  1717, 
there  with  leisure  to  make  the  most  of  his 
"thick-coming  fancies."  His  case  was  not 
hopeless,  and  his  spirits,  therefore,  suffered 
no  diminution,  as  proofs  of  which  he  sketched 
the  plan  of  La  Henriade  and  corrected  his 
poem  of  (Edipe.  He  was  soon  after  liberated 
by  the  regent  duke  of  Orleans,  to  whom  he 
expressed  his  gratitude  for  the  food  which  he 
had  received,  but  hoped  that  his  royal  high- 
ness would  not,  hereafter,  trouble  himself  by 
providing  him  with  a  lodging.  It  was  soon 
after  this  event  that  he  assumed  the  name  of 
Voltaire. 

After  some  difficulty  Voltaire's  play  was 
accepted  at  the  theater,  where  its  success  was 
instant  and  great.  The  liveliness  of  the 
dialogue,  and  the  daring  freedom  of  its  opin- 
ions, attracted  the  attention  not  only  of  liter- 
ary men,  but  seemed  to  point  him  out  to  the 
multitude  as  the  true  censor  of  the  time.  In 
some  of  his  after  works  his  attacks  upon  religion 
were  more  open,  and  the  peculiar  bent  of  his 
genius  more  strongly  defined ;  but  certain  lines 
in  the  play  formed  the  basis  of  a  warfare  which 
ceased  ocJy  with  the  death  of  their  author. 

Rank  and  beauty,  however,  were  now  eager 
to  pay  him  homage.  He  became  the  favored 
guest  and  companion  of  the  greatest  person- 
ages in  Paris.  He  was  very  graciously 
received  by  the  Marchioness  de  Villars,  with 
whom,  it  is  said,  he  fell  desperately  in  love, 
but  she  does  not  appear  to  have  given  him  the 
slightest  encouragement. 


68 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Some  political  friendships  which  procured 
him  an  order  to  quit  Paris,  and  the  composi- 
tion of  the  tragedy  of  Artemire,  were  the 
occupations  of  the  intervening  period  until 
1722,  when  he  went  to  Holland.  At  Brus- 
sels he  met  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau;  and  if 
the  twin  celebrities  had  given  the  world  any 
occasion  to  doubt  the  reality  of  the  esteem 
which  they  professed  to  feel  for  each  other  in 
absence,  the  manner  of  their  parting  left  no 
room  to  question  the  sincerity  of  their  hatred. 
They  could  not  endure  the  thought  of  each 
other's  eminence,  and,  for  the  remainder  of  his 
hfe,  Rousseau  lavished  upon  his  rival  all  the 
abuse  of  a  mind  fertile  beyond  all  others  in  its 
capacity  of  expressing  sentiments  of  dislike. 
The  immediate  cause  of  quarrel  is  said  to  have 
been  a  jest  uttered  by  Voltaire,  upon  hearing 
his  friend  recite  his  "Ode  to  Posterity,"  which 
he  said  would  never  reach  those  to  whom  it 
was  addressed.  A  less  grave  offense  has  ere 
now  been  visited  by  a  worse  punishment. 

The  pubUcationof  La  Henriadehad  attracted 
all  attention  to  his  genius  and  pursuits ;  but, 
as  before,  the  atmosphere  of  Paris  was  soon 
found  injurious  to  his  comfort.  He  had 
satirized  a  courtier,  who  took  a  very  intelli- 
gible way  of  answering  the  epigram,  by  send- 
ing his  servants  to  inflict  personal  chastise- 
ment upon  the  writer,  which  they  bestowed 
on  Voltaire  in  pubhc.  Voltaire  challenged 
the  author  of  the  outrage,  and  was  once  more 
—1726  — thrown  into  the  Bastille,  and 
liberated  only  on  the  condition  that  he  quit 
Paris.  He  accordingly  proceeded  to  England 
where  he  landed  in  May,  1726,  and  continued 
to  reside  during  the  next  three  years. 

This  visit  was  one  of  the  most  important 
events  of  Voltaire's  life.  While  in  that  coun- 
try he  was  particularly  struck  with  the  abso- 
lute freedom  of  thought  which  prevailed.  He 
was  introduced  by  Lord  Bolingbroke  to  Pope 
and  his  circle.  He  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Peterborough,  Chesterfield,  and  the  duchess 
of  Marlborough,  and  became  intimate  with 
Young,  Thomson,  and  Gay.  He  acquired 
some  knowledge  of  Shakespeare  and  Milton 
Dryden  and  Butler,  Addison's  Cato,  and  the 
restoration  dramatists.  He  was  strongly 
attracted  to  Locke's  philosophy,  and  he 
mastered  the  elements  of  Newton's  astronomi- 
cal physics.  Bolingbroke  and  the  English 
deists  furnished  him  with  many  of  his  weapons. 
Queen  Caroline  accepted  his  dedication  to  her 
of  a  new  version  of  La  Hennade,  and,  when 
permitted  to  return  to  France,  he  took  with 


him  his  "  History  of  Charles  XII.,"  and  the 
material  for  his  "Letters  on  the  English." 

On  returning  to  Paris  he  pubhshed  the 
Histoire  de  Charles  XIL  in  1730,  and  the 
Lettres  svr  les  Anglais,  or  "Letters  on  the 
English,"  in  1731,  and  shortly  thereafter  his 
tragedies  Za:ire  and  Brutus.  In  the  "  Letters  " 
he  expressed  his  admiration  for  English  insti- 
tutions; and  drew  a  long  series  of  compari- 
sons between  the  state  of  things  in  France  and 
in  England,  in  which  the  advantage  was 
always  accorded  to  the  latter  nation.  The 
dissolute  manners  of  the  French  aristocracy 
were  powerfully  contrasted  with  the  sober 
tone  of  character  everywhere  displayed  in 
England  by  both  nobility  and  churchmen. 
He  could  not  repress  his  theistical  and  liberal 
views.  His  "Letters"  were  pubhcly  burned, 
and  he  himself  was  again  threatened  with 
arrest  and  imprisonment. 

Meanwhile,  the  death  of  his  father  and 
brother,  the  sale  of  his  works,  and  some 
fortunate  speculations  in  the  proceeds 
realized  for  him  a  considerable  fortune ;  and, 
with  that  worldly  wisdom  which  distinguished 
him,  he  invested  it  safely,  and  retired  in  1734 
to  Cirey,  in  Lorraine,  to  the  chdteau  of  the 
learned  Madame  du  Ch&telet,  with  whom 
he  generally  resided  until  her  death  in  1749. 
Many  of  the  best  works  of  Voltaire  were  com- 
posed in  this  retreat.  Here  he  wrote  the  dramas 
Merope  and  Mahomet,  his  "Treatise  on  Meta- 
physics," muchof  his  "Ageof  LouisXIV.,"  and 
his  "Elements  of  the  Philosophy  of  Newton." 

After  the  appearance  of  his  "  Letters  on  the 
English"  he  had  been  out  of  favor  at  court. 
But  his  La  Princesse  de  Navarre,  performed  on 
the  occasion  of  the  dauphin's  marriage, 
pleased  Louis  XV.  by  its  adroit  adulation, 
and  he  returned  for  some  time  to  Paris. 
This,  and  the  patronage  of  Madame  de  Pom- 
padour, procured  him  the  appointments  of 
royal  historiographer  and  of  gentleman-in- 
ordinary  to  the  king,  as  well  as  his  election  to 
the  French  academy  in  1746.  To  this 
period  belong  Zadig  and  other  oriental  tales. 

Several  years  before  the  last  named  date, 
Frederick  of  Prussia  had  written  to  Voltaire 
and  expressed  his  admiration  of  the  genius 
which  was  then  dazzUng  Europe.  This  led 
to  an  intimacy  between  prince  and  poet  which 
was  kept  up  by  a  constant  exchange  of  letters. 
When  Frederick  succeeded  to  the  throne  in 
1740,  he  invited  Voltaire  to  visit  him  at 
Berlin.  But  the  latter  was  unwilling  to 
separate  himself  from  Madame  du  Chatelet. 


IN  LITERATURE 


69 


He  accepted,  however,  in  1743,  a  mis- 
sion from  the  government  to  visit  Fred- 
erick for  the  purpose  of  securing  Prussia's 
alliance  with  France,  in  which  undertaking 
he  was  successful.  The  death  of  Madame  du 
Ch&telet,  in  1749,  allowed  him  at  last  to  accept 
the  repeated  invitations  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  and  in  July,  1750,  he  found  himself  at 
Berlin,  as  king's  chamberlain,  with  a  pension 
of  twenty  thousand  francs  and  residence  in 
one  of  the  royal  palaces. 

Voltaire  was  received  by  Frederick  with 
the  most  flattering  demonstrations  of  regard. 
He  and  Frederick  studied  together  two  hours 
every  day,  and  in  the  evening  he  was  enter- 
tained at  the  king's  own  table.  But  this 
charming  life  was  destined  to  be  of  short 
duration,  "Never,"  says  Macaulay,  "had 
there  met  two  persons  so  exquisitely  fitted  to 
plague  each  other.  Each  of  them  had  exactly 
the  fault  of  which  the  other  was  most  impa- 
tient, and  they  were  in  different  ways  the  most 
impatient  of  mankind." 

Voltaire  here  completed  his  Sibcle  de  Louis 
XIV.,  and  Frederick  submitted  his  verses  and 
essays  for  criticism.  It  was  quite  impossible 
for  Voltaire  to  correct  his  majesty's  verses 
without  ridicule ;  and  their  intimacy  ended  in 
a  violent  rupture.  In  March,  1753,  they 
parted  never  to  meet  again.  On  his  way 
home  Voltaire  carried  some  of  the  king's 
poems  with  him,  and  was  arrested  at  Frank- 
fort under  circumstances  of  considerable 
annoyance  and  disgrace.  His  description  of 
Frederick's  court  is  one  of  the  most  striking 
pictures  in  literature.  About  1755  he  wrote 
the  mock-heroic  poem  La  Pucelle,  of  which 
the  history  of  Joan  of  Arc  forms  the  subject. 
This  is  regarded  as  the  masterpiece  of  his 
poetic  genius,  though  a  ribald  caricature,  and 
otherwise  marred. 

In  1760  Voltaire  established  himself  at 
Ferney,  near  Geneva,  in  Switzerland.  Here 
he  spent  perhaps  the  most  tranquil,  as  well 
as  the  most  creditable  and  useful  portion  of 
his  life.  The  village  or  town  was  greatly 
improved  and  enlarged  under  his  auspices; 
new  houses  were  built,  and  a  small  theater 
established.  He  farmed,  reclaimed  waste 
land,  planted,  and  reared  poultry  and  horses. 
He  also  established  a  watchmaking  industry, 
and,  it  is  said,  even  erected  a  church.  Certain 
it  is  he  proved  a  benefactor  to  the  inhabitants 
of  Ferney  and  the  vicinity. 

It  was  here,  too,  that  he  either  wrote  or 
finished  some  of  his  greatest  literary  works. 


among  which  the  most  valuable  and  perhaps 
the  most  original  was  his  Essai  sur  les  Moeurs 
et  I' Esprit  des  Nations,  "  Essay  on  the  Manners 
and  the  Spirit  of  Nations,"  a  philosophy  of  his- 
tory. His  Candide,  the  most  remarkable  of  his 
prose  fictions,  appeared  in  1758.  Several  years 
later  appeared  the  first  of  those  writings 
avowedly  assailing  the  Christian  faith  which 
flowed  from  his  pen  until  the  end  of  his  life. 
He  had  now  become,  in  a  sense,  the  founder 
of  a  new  sect  of  thinkers  and  writers,  who, 
under  the  lead  of  Diderot  and  D'Alembert, 
embodied  their  ideas  in  the  great  Encyclo- 
pedic, which  was,  however,  suspended  by  the 
French  government  on  account  of  its  violent 
attacks  upon  Christianity. 

The  one  aspect  of  Voltaire's  character,  which, 
at  this  distance,  can  be  viewed  with  unmin- 
gled  approbation,  was  the  deep  resentment 
with  which  he  viewed  every  flagrant  act  of 
cruelty  or  oppression,  whatever  the  motive. 
In  1762  Jean  Galas  had  been  falsely  con- 
demned of  having,  from  Protestant  zeal, 
killed  one  of  his  sons  to  keep  him  from  turning 
Catholic.  Voltaire  exerted  himself  success- 
fully to  get  the  sentence  annulled,  and  to 
rescue  the  other  members  of  the  same  family 
from  banishment.  This  and  similar  efforts  on 
behalf  of  victims  of  French  religious  fanati- 
cism brought  him  the  admiration  of  many  to 
whom  his  attacks  on  the  church  were  utterly 
repugnant.  He  also  opposed  the  atheism  of 
Baron  d'Holbach's  Systeme  de  la  Nature,  and  it 
is  only  proper  to  observe  that  the  charge  of 
atheism,  which  has  often  been  brought  against 
Voltaire  himself,  is  wholly  without  founda- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  he  was  a  decided 
theist,  and  he  rebuked  the  philosophy  of  his 
age  which  tried  to  banish  God  from  the 
universe. 

At  the  age  of  eighty-four  Voltaire  paid  a 
last  visit  to  Paris,  ostensibly  to  present  his 
new  play,  Irene,  and  was  received  as  the 
divinity  of  reason.  Incense,  such  as  is  rarely 
offered  to  mortal  man  —  for  be  it  recollected 
it  was  sincere,  if  really  undeserved  —  was 
poured  upon  him,  all  classes  of  society  holding 
the  glittering  urns.  At  the  theater  his  bust 
was  crowned  with  laurels  and  garlands  of 
roses,  amid  the  shouts  and  tears  of  the  audi- 
ence. He  exclaimed,  "You  will  make  me 
die  with  pleasure;  you  will  stifle  me  with 
roses."  The  exhaustion  produced  by  this 
great  excitement  appears  to  have  been  the 
cause  of  his  death,  which  took  place  May 
30,  1778.     His  remains  were  placed  in  the 


70 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Pantheon  in  1791,  but  were  removed  at  the 
restoration.  In  person  he  was  short  of 
stature,  and  small  even  to  attenuation. 

Voltaire's  Zaire  is  called  the  greatest  of 
French  tragedies,  and  his  La  Henriade  may  be 
said  to  be  the  only  successful  epic  in  the  French 
language.  It  is  a  masterpiece  of  clear,  elegant, 
animated,  and  rapid  narration.  His  Steele  de 
Louis  XIV.  holds  the  second  place.  Among 
the  most  noted  of  the  dramas,  besides  Zaire 
and  the  (Edipe,  may  be  named  Brutus,  Alzire, 
Merope,  Semiramis,  Oreste,  Rome  Sauvee  or 
"Catiline,"  Artemire,  and  Tancrede. 

Voltaire  was  the  sovereign  writer  of  his 
century.  He  has  been  described  as  the  man 
"whom  the  French  had  long  waited  for,  to 
produce  at  once  in  a  single  life  all  that  French 
genius  most  prized  and  most  excelled  in." 
Never  had  any  nation  produced  such  a  ter- 
rible opponent  of  shams,  and  French  existence 
was  full  of  them.  "Open  scoundrels  rode 
triumphant,  be-crowned,  be-coronetted,  be- 
mitred;  the  race  of  quacks  had  grown  nu- 
merous as  the  sands  of  the  sea."  Monarchy 
had  lost  its  authority,  aristocracy  its  strength, 
and  religion  even  its  decency.  The  founda- 
tions of  rule  were  undermined,  and  Voltaire 
ably  pointed  out  the  actual  extent  of  the 
ravages.  To  him  was  assigned  the  task  of 
pulling  down,  and  he  performed  his  work  in  a 
manner  which  has  left  no  room  for  cavil. 

The  eloquent  testimony  of  Victor  Hugo  is 
convincing  evidence  that  the  true  fame  of 
Voltaire  was  destined  to  be  sustained  by  the 
judgment  of  posterity.  "Voltaire,  so  great 
in  the  eighteenth  century,"  he  said,  "is  still 
greater  in  the  nineteenth.  The  grave  is  a 
crucible.  That  earth,  thrown  on  a  man,  sifts 
his  name,  and  allows  that  name  to  pass  forth 
only  purified.  Voltaire  has  lost  his  false 
glory  and  retained  the  true.  To  lose  the  false 
is  to  gain.  Voltaire  is  neither  a  lyric  poet, 
nor  a  comic  poet,  nor  a  tragic  poet ;  he  is  the 
indignant  yet  tender  critic  of  the  old  world; 
he  is  the  mild  reformer  of  manners ;  he  is  the 
man  who  softens  men.  Voltaire,  who  has 
lost  ground  as  a  poet,  has  risen  as  an  apostle. 
He  has  done  what  is  good,  rather  than  what 
is  beautiful.  *  *  *  Voltaire  is  common 
sense  in  a  continual  stream.  Excepting  in 
literature,  he  is  a  good  judge  in  everytliing. 
Voltaire  was,  in  spite  of  his  insulters,  almost 
adored  during  his  lifetime ;  he  is  in  our  days 
admired,  now  that  the  true  facts  of  the  case 
are  known.  The  eighteenth  century  saw  his 
mind :  we  see  his  soul." 


He  expressed,  in  language  which  no  man 
can  rival,  the  opinions  which  no  man  could 
deny.  Every  assertion  obtained  credence; 
every  brilliant  faculty  found  its  enthusiastic 
admirers,  for  the  reason  that  the  public  mind 
had  become  full,  and  needed  an  organ  of 
utterance.  Great  souls  are  always  specially 
missioned  either  directly  from  heaven  as 
teachers  of  new  truths;  or  indirectly  by 
universal  nature  as  destroyers  of  falsehood. 
It  was  the  lot  of  Voltaire  to  be  born  into  the 
latter  class.  He  saw  the  false,  but  failed  to 
discover  the  true. 

But  if  ever  a  man  was  called,  not  to  science, 
metaphysics,  theology,  or  poetry  even,  but  to 
hterature  alone,  that  man  was  Voltaire.  Lit- 
erature is  really  an  art  form,  as  distinguished 
from  those  efforts  of  the  intellect  which  strive 
to  increase  knowledge.  "  Voltaire  is  the  very 
first  man  in  the  world,"  says  a  contemporary 
of  his  day,  "at  wTiting  down  what  other  peo- 
ple have  thought";  and  after  Euler  had 
borne  away  the  prize  at  the  academy,  and 
death  had  removed  the  scientific  Madame  du 
Ch&telet,  Voltaire  succumbed  to  the  dictates 
of  his  own  reason  and  the  advice  of  friends, 
and  devoted  himself  to  literature  alone. 

"Voltaire's  ascendancy,"  says  Morley, 
"sprung  from  no  appeal  to  those  parts  of 
human  nature  in  which  ascetic  practice  has 
its  foundation.  Full  exercise  and  play  for 
every  part  was  the  key  of  all  his  teaching. 
He  had  not  Greek  serenity  and  composure  of 
spirit,  but  he  had  Greek  exiiltation  in  every 
known  form  of  intellectual  activity,  and  this 
audacious  curiosity  he  made  general.  Vol- 
tairism was  primarily  and  directly  altogether 
an  intellectual  movement  for  this  reason,  that 
it  was  primarily  and  directly  a  reaction 
against  the  subordination  of  the  intellectual 
to  the  moral  side  of  men,  carried  to  an  excess 
that  was  at  length  fraught  with  fatal  mis- 
chief." 

Voltaire's  greatest  quality,  as  well  as  his 
great  fault,  is  clearly  set  forth  by  Taine  in 
"The  Ancient  R^ime,"  and  this  judgment 
may  be  accepted  as  the  final  decision  in  a 
difficult  case. 

"An  entire  philosophy,  ten  volumes  of 
theology,  an  abstract  science,  a  special 
hbrary,  an  important  branch  of  erudition,  of 
human  experience  and  invention,  is  thus 
reduced  in  his  hands  to  a  phrase  or  to  a  stanza. 
From  the  enormous  mass  of  riven  or  compact 
scoriae  he  extracts  whatever  is  essential,  a 
grain  of  gold  or  of  copper  as  a  specimen  of  the 


IN  LITERATURE 


71 


rest,  presenting  this  to  us  in  its  most  con- 
venient and  most  manageable  form,  in  a  simile, 
in  a  metaphor,  in  an  epigram  that  becomes  a 
proverb.  In  this  no  ancient  or  modern  writer 
approaches  him ;  in  simplification  and  in  popu- 
larization he  has  not  his  equal  in  the  world. 
Without  departing  from  the  usual  conventional 
tone,  and,  as  if  in  sport,  he  puts  into  little 
portable  phrases  the  greatest  discoveries  and 
hypotheses  of  the  human  mind,  the  theories 
of  Descartes,  Malebranche,  Leibnitz,  Locke, 
and  Newton,  the  diverse  religions  of  antiquity 
and  of  modern  times,  every  known  system 
of  physics,  physiology,  geology,  morality, 
natural  law,  and  political  economy,  in  short, 
all  the  generalized  conceptions  in  every  order 


of  knowledge  to  which  humanity  had  attained 
in  the  eighteenth  century. 

"  His  tendency  in  this  direction  is  so  strong 
as  to  carry  him  too  far;  he  belittles  great 
things  by  rendering  them  accessible.  Religion, 
legend,  ancient  popular  poesy,  the  spontane- 
ous creations  of  instinct,  the  vague  visions  of 
primitive  times,  are  not  thus  to  be  converted 
into  small  current  coin ;  they  are  not  subjects 
of  amusing  and  lively  conversation.  A 
piquant  witticism  is  not  an  expression  of  all 
this,  but  simply  a  travesty." 

This  estimate  is  certainly  truer  than  that  of 
Goethe,  who  declared  that  Voltaire  was  "  the 
greatest  literary  man  of  all  time,  the  most 
astonishing  creation  of  the  Author  of  Nature." 


LESSING 


1729     Bom  at  Kamenz,  Saxony, 

1746     Entered  Leipzig  university,       ....  17 

1752     M.  A.,  Wittenberg, 23 

1754  Pope   als   Metaphysiker,    "Pope   as    a 

Metaphysician,        25 

1755  "Miss  Sara  Sampson," 26 

1757     Bibliothek  der  Schonen  Wissenschaften, 

"Library  of  the  Beautiful  Sciences,"  28 
1759     Litter aturhriefe,     "Letters    on    Litera- 
ture,"      30 


A.  D. 

1760 
1765 
1766 
1767 
1770 
1772 
1779 
1780 

1781 


Secretary  to  Prussian  general  at  Breslau,  31 

Returned  to  Berlin, .36 

Laokoon  completed 37 

Minna  von  Bamhelm  published,  ...     38 

Librarian  at  Wolfenbiittel, 41 

Emilia  Galotti 43 

Nathan  der  Weise,  "Nathan  the  Wise,"     50 
Die  Erziehung  des  MenschengeschlechU, 

"The  Education  of  the  Human  Race,"  51 
Died  at  Brunswick, 52 


/^OTTHOLD  EPHRAIM  LESSING,  cele- 
^^  brated  dramatist  and  critic,  may  prop- 
erly be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  modern 
German  literature.  The  son  of  a  Lutheran 
pastor,  he  was  born  at  Kamenz,  Saxony,  on 
January  22,  1729.  It  was  intended  by  his 
father  that  he,  likewise,  should  prepare  for  the 
ministry,  and,  accordingly,  at  the  age  of 
seventeen  he  entered  the  university  at  Leipzig. 
While  here  his  taste  for  general  literature  and 
his  fondness  for  the  theater  caused  him  to 
neglect  and  ultimately  to  abandon  the  study 
of  theology,  that  he  might  devote  himself 
wholly  to  his  favorite  pursuits.  While  in  his 
third  semester  at  the  university  in  1748,  he 
produced  his  first  comedy,  Der  Junge  Gelehrte, 
"The  Young  Scholar."  His  father  —  both  a 
poor  man  and  severely  orthodox  —  was  dis- 
satisfied with  this  course  and  called  his  son 
home.  He  went  to  Berlin,  however,  and 
finally  completed  his  academic  education  at 
Wittenberg,  and  received  his  master's  degree 
in  1752. 

After  graduation  Lessing  cast  himself 
fairly  on  the  world  as  a  man  of  letters,  and 
took  up  his  residence  at  Berlin,   where  he 


remained  for  seven  years.  Even  in  this 
opening  stage  of  his  career,  he  firmly  estab- 
lished his  position  as  the  earliest  and  most 
energetic  of  the  pioneers  who  prepared  the 
way  for  an  original  development  of  German 
literature.  His  chief  friends  and  coadjutors 
at  this  time  were  the  philosophical  Jew, 
Moses  Mendelssohn,  and  Nicolai,  the  author 
and  bookseller.  With  the  former  he  wrote 
an  essay  on  Pope  als  Metaphysiker  —  "  Pope 
as  a  Metaphysician "  —  and  cooperated  in 
laying  the  foundation  of  criticism  in  Germany, 
by  means  of  the  Bibliothek  der  Schonen  Wis- 
senschaften, or  "Library  of  the  Beautiful 
Sciences,"  a  literary  journal,  and  the  Litiera- 
turbriefe,  "Letters  on  Literature."  In  these 
he  revolted  from  the  dictatorship  of  French 
literary  taste  —  especially  in  drama  —  and 
extolled  Shakespeare. 

Not  to  mention  several  dramas  of  minor 
importance,  he  brought  out,  in  1755,  the 
prose  drama,  "Miss  Sara  Sampson,"  a 
tragedy  which  was  received  by  the  German 
public  with  extraordinary  favor,  and  was 
translated  into  other  languages.  About  this 
time,  too,  he  partly  composed,  also  in  prose. 


72 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


his  vigorous  and  impressive  tragedy  of 
Emilia  Galotti,  a  modern  adaptation  of  the 
story  of  Virginia.  To  this  period  likewise 
belong  his  fables,  which,  both  metrical  and 
prose,  are  very  striking  pieces  of  reflection, 
and,  like  all  his  other  writings,  models  of  clear 
and  symmetrical  style. 

In  1760  Lessing  lived  at  Breslau,  as  secre- 
tary to  the  commandant.  General  von  Tauent- 
zien.  Here  he  seems  to  have  been  less 
steadily  industrious  than  before,  mixing  a 
good  deal  in  society,  and  having  for  a  time  a 
strange  fondness  for  the  gaming  table.  But, 
at  Breslau,  among  his  military  acquaintances, 
he  planned  his  spirited  drama,  Minna  von 
Bamhelm.  Here  also  the  study  of  the  arts 
of  design,  to  which,  as  exhibited  in  the  master- 
pieces of  Greece,  Winckelmann  was  now 
inviting  attention,  led  him  to  begin  the  most 
valuable  of  all  his  works,  Laokoon,  or  an 
"  Essay  on  the  Limits  of  Poetry  and  Painting," 
which  was  completed  at  Berlin,  and  published 
in  1766.  The  title  of  this  admirable  work 
indicates  but  imperfectly  its  commanding 
scope.  The  comparison  instituted  is  between 
poetry  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  arts  of 
design  on  the  other ;  and  between  the  several 
fine  arts  (poetry  included),  as  contrasted 
with  each  other.  The  purpose  of  all  these 
arts  being  assumed  to  be  substantially  the 
same,  those  differences  of  process  are  indicated 
which  arise  between  the  arts  by  reason  of  the 
differences  in  their  instruments.  This,  like 
all  Lessing's  other  philosophical  speculations, 
is  merely  a  fragment,  a  collection  of  hints, 
not  the  exposition  of  a  system;  but  the 
principles,  which  he  has  here  established,  go 
further  toward  founding  a  just  theory  of 
literature  and  art  than  any  other  aesthetical 
work  that  could  be  named. 

For  some  years  after  leaving  Breslau, 
Lessing  led  a  shifting  and  uncomfortable  life. 
His  longest  residence  was  at  Hamburg,  where 
he  became  by  necessity,  not  from  choice, 
director  of  a  theater  set  on  foot  by  some  san- 
guine lovers  of  the  drama.  One  satisfactory 
fruit  of  this  abortive  undertaking  was  the 
series  of  masterly  criticism  on  celebrated 
plays,  which  he  called  the  Hamburgische 
Dramaturgic,  "Hamburg  Dramaturgy."  By 
way  of  diversion  he  accompanied  young 
Prince  Leopold  of  Brunswick  to  Italy,  where 
he  spent  eight  months,  and  upon  his  return, 
in  1770,  was  appointed  by  the  duke  of 
Brunswick  librarian  of  the  celebrated  library 
at  Wolfenbiittel,  near  Brunswick. 


Here  he  spent  the  last  eleven  years  of  his 
troubled  life,  and  completed  his  Emilia 
Galotti.  He  was,  indeed,  meritoriously  active 
and  useful  in  discharging  the  duties  of  his 
office;  but  he  became  entangled  more  hotly 
than  ever  in  those  theological  controversies, 
which  he  seems  to  have  entered  at  first  only 
as  the  champion  of  literature  and  the  drama, 
but  in  which  he  now,  in  turn,  became  the 
assailant.  His  deviations  from  orthodox 
befief  were  denounced  loudly  on  his  publish- 
ing a  piece  called  "Fragments  of  an  Anony- 
mous Writer,"  on  the  discrepancies  of  the 
gospel  narratives,  by  Reimarus,  who,  how- 
ever, at  that  time  was  not  known  as  the 
author. 

Shortly  before  taking  up  his  work  at  Wolf- 
enbiittel, Lessing  had  married  the  widow  of  a 
Hamburg  merchant.  His  wife  died  in  giving 
birth  to  his  first  child,  who  died  with  her. 
This  terrible  blow  completely  prostrated  him ; 
his  spirits  sank,  and  he  became  weary  of 
existence.  His  theological  conflicts  alone 
afforded  him  a  certain  amount  of  relief;  and 
it  was  in  his  desperate  struggle  with  what  he 
consfdered  intolerance  that  he  developed  his 
greatest  energy,  and  the  richest  resources  of 
his  intellect.  In  1779  he  gave  his  confession 
of  faith  in  a  poetical  and  dramatic  form  in  his 
Nathan  der  Weise,  "  Nathan  the  Wise,"  a  fine 
and  interesting  series  of  epic  pictures  and 
solemn  thoughts.  His  last  work  was  a  short 
treatise  on  "The  Education  of  the  Human 
Race,"  the  germ  of  Herder's  subsequent  work, 
and  of  all  later  works  on  the  education  of  the 
human  race. 

His  extraordinary  activity  and  incessant 
application  at  length  wore  out  his  physical 
constitution,  and  after  much  sickness  and  vex- 
ation he  died  at  Brunswick,  February  15, 1781, 
when  but  fifty-two  years  of  age.  So  impov- 
erished was  he  at  his  death  that  his  patron, 
the  duke  of  Brunswick,  had  to  defray  the 
expenses  of  his  funeral. 

At  the  date  of  Lessing's  birth  it  could  hardly 
be  said  that  a  national  German  literature  ex- 
isted, nor  had  those  pecuhar  philosophic  and 
critical  movements  begun  which  have  long 
inspired  its  popular  fife.  But  the  period  was 
auspicious  for  a  revival.  Frederick  the  Great 
had  just  burst  the  limits  that  restrained  the 
pohtical  influence  of  northern  Germany,  and, 
by  a  series  of  exploits  unparalleled  in  modem 
warfare,  was  evoking  the  heroic  in  Teutonic 
genius,  and  teaching  his  people  self-respect  and 
self-dependence,  by  his  vigorous  compulsion 


IN   LITERATURE 


73 


of  Europe  to  recognize  Prussia  as  one  of  her 
integrant  nations. 

Lessing  was  the  Frederick  of  thought.  By 
nature  wholly  Teutonic,  he,  too,  sounded  a 
trumpet  call;  and  with  a  restless  energy  in 
nowise  inferior  to  Frederick's,  an  activity  and 
plentitude  of  resources  that  overlooked  no 
opportunity,  he  dashed,  now  into  this  region 
of  dormant  literature,  now  into  that  unpene- 
trated  department  of  philosophy,  until  he  had 
laid  the  foundation  of  almost  every  conquest 
that  has  illustrated  the  recent  ever-memo- 
rable career  of  his  kindred.  The  earliest 
efforts  of  this  remarkable  person  lay  in  that 
direction  in  which  he  accomplished  one  of  his 
latest  and  greatest  triumphs,  viz. :  literary 
criticism  and  aesthetics.  His  "History  of 
the  Theater,"  "Letters  on  Literature,"  his 
"Life  of  Sophocles,"  his  "Dramaturgy,"  his 
"Fables,"  perhaps,  and  his  "Theory  of  the 
Apologue  "  belonged  to  a  career  which  culmi- 
nated in  the  Laokoon  —  that  great  classic 
treatise  on  the  respective  limits  and  charac- 
teristics of  painting  and  poetry. 

Without  forgetting  the  immense  debt  that 
must  ever  be  held  due  to  Winckelmann,  it 
may  be  said  with  justice,  that  in  Lessing's 
Laokoon  all  those  rich  thoughts  and  aspira- 
tions concerning  art,  which  so  enrich  modern 
Teutonic  speculation,  find  their  natural  root. 
Striking  at  once  at  the  principle  of  distinction, 
he  estabUshes  that  as  the  arts  of  design  labor 
for  the  gratification  of  the  outward  sense, 
their  proper  sphere  is  within  the  beautiful; 
whereas  poetry  and  written  thought  appeal  to 
the  imagination,  which  can  reconcile  itself 
even  to  deformity.  "The  consequences," 
says  Goethe,  "of  this  splendid  thought  were 
illumined  to  us  as  by  a  lightning  flash ;  all  the 
criticism  that  had  hitherto  passed  sentence 
was  thrown  away  like  a  wornout  garment; 
we  thought  ourselves  redeemed  from  all  evil, 
and  fancied  that  we  might  venture  to  look 
down  with  some  compassion  upon  the  other- 
wise so  splendid  sixteenth  century,  when,  in 
German  sculptures  and  poems,  they  knew  how 
to  represent  life  only  under  the  form  of  a  well- 
bedizened  fool,  death  under  the  misformed 
shape  of  a  rattling  skeleton,  and  the  necessary 
and  accredited  evils  of  the  world  xmder  the 
image  of  a  devil  in  caricatxire." 

Lessing,  however,  did  not  confine  himself 
to  precepts,  to  the  practical  revival  of  that 
highest  and  profoundest  art.  Beginning  with 
a  drama  of  common  life,  "  Miss  Sara  Samp- 
son," he  entered  a  vigorous  protest  against  i 


the  frivolities  of  the  Buper-claasic  school,  and 
asserted  the  true  function  of  the  drama. 
Next  and  far  more  perfect,  Minna  von 
Bamhelm;  then  his  still  greater  work,  Emilia 
Galotti;  and  he  crowned  his  triumph  by  the 
incomparable  Nathan  der  Weise.  Incapable  of 
their  reach  of  imagination,  and  by  no  means 
gifted  with  the  amazing  penetrating  power  of 
Shakespeare  or  Goethe,  nevertheless,  Lessing 
has  been  surpassed  by  few  in  that  species  of 
drama  named  the  moral  drama  —  that  one, 
which,  in  the  largest  sense,  aims  at  manifesting 
systematically,  through  the  dramatic  form, 
the  sphere  and  aspect  of  some  great  principle. 

His  analytic  faculty  was  of  the  first  order ; 
his  conceptions  rarely  equaled  in  definiteness; 
and  his  mode  of  expression  especially  excelled 
in  chastity,  energy,  and  precision.  Who  has 
read  Nathan,  and  can  again  lose  sight  of  him? 
Few  creations  surpass  this  hero  in  the  quali- 
ties of  repose  and  elevation ;  nor  do  some  of 
the  inferior  characters  fail  to  attract  corre- 
sponding admiration.  It  was  Lessing's  last 
great  work;  but  its  accents  have  provoked 
more  than  an  empty  and  dying  echo:  they 
have  raised  many  hearts  to  the  highest  con- 
ception we  can  form  of  the  virtues  of  charity 
and  tolerance. 

The  intellect  and  influence  of  Lessing 
extended  far  beyond  the  range  of  a^thetics 
and  the  drama.  Nor  has  his  sway  over  Ger- 
many, or  rather  his  profound  appreciation  of 
its  tendencies,  and  foresight  of  their  effects, 
more  striking  illustration  than  in  the  cele- 
brated Wolfenbiittel  "Fragments"  before- 
mentioned  —  the  work  of  Reimarus,  although 
shaped  and  annotated  by  Lessing.  These 
remarkable  writings  first  stirred  that  spirit, 
which  issued  in  the  memorable  critical  and 
rational  schools  of  Germany.  In  these 
"  Fragments  "  appears  the  first  formal  attack 
on  the  then  unquestioned  tenet  of  Prot<»tant 
churches  —  the  absolute  authority  of  the 
scriptures.  These  writings  are  declared  to  be 
mere  historical  documents,  which,  like  all  other 
such  documents,  must  be  subjected  to  the  test 
of  criticism.  It  is  asserted  that  the  foundsr 
tions  of  Christianity  are  not  solely  in  the 
gospels  —  which  may  be  modified  by  inquiry, 
their  text  altered,  and  much  of  it  repudiated 
as  spurious;  but  that  Christianity  is  in  the 
heart  of  the  reason  of  man. 

It  is,  of  course,  quite  out  of  place  to  criticise 
here,  favorably  or  imfavorably,  these  Wolfen- 
biittel propositions.  The  important  point  is, 
that    imder   the    conduct    of   Lessing   they 


74 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


foreshadowed,  for  good  or  for  evil,  so  much 
of  the  future  of  German  theological  thought, 
and  laid  the  foundation  of  modern  biblical 
criticism,  Lessing  followed  these  up  with 
his  tract  on  Die  Erziehung  des  Menschenge- 
schlechts,  in  which  he  attempted  to  shadow 
out  more  definitely  the  probable  future  rela- 
tion of  humanity  to  the  Christian  revelation. 

There  are  few  departments  of  thought  into 
which  he  did  not  penetrate,  and  none  into 
which  he  penetrated  without  leaving  the 
impress  of  his  genius  behind  him.  So  varied 
and  catholic  were  his  interests  that  to  many 
he  is  known  only  as  a  theologian,  to  others  as 
an  aesthetician,  to  others  again  as  a  dramatist, 
poet,  critic,  or  philologist.  He  polished  his 
mother  tongue  and  made  it  classical ;  and,  as 
we  have  seen,  he  initiated  several  of  the  more 
remarkable  movements  for  which  German 
thought  is  still  famous.  His  life  was  that  of  a 
brave,  unbending,  literary  man.  He  was  not 
exempt  from  all  its  errors,  but  even  amidst 
error  he  possessed  himself  —  he  did  not 
resign  the  freedom,  or  compromise  the  dignity 
of  the  thinker. 

Lessing  was  rather  above  the  middle  height, 
and  during  the  greater  part  of  his  life  main- 
tained an  appearance  of  vigor  and  elasticity. 
Luther  himself  was  not  of  a  more  fearless  and 
independent  character.  In  an  age  when  men 
of  letters  were  fond  of  grouping  themselves 
in  sects  and  coteries,  Lessing  pursued  his  own 
way,  unmoved  by  clamor,  and  indifferent  to 


popular  favor.  Yet  no  man  was  ever  more 
warmly  loved  by  friends,  and  he  had  the  satis- 
faction of  knowing  that  the  younger  genera- 
tion of  writers  looked  up  to  him  with  confi- 
dence and  reverence. 

Johann  Jacobi  wished  for  many  years  to 
make  his  acquaintance,  but  was  deterred  from 
addressing  him,  as  he  explained  to  Lessing,  by 
a  profound  consciousness  of  the  difference 
between  himself  and  one  whom  he  regarded 
as  "a  king  among  minds."  It  may  be  ques- 
tioned whether  there  is  any  other  writer  to 
whom  the  Germans  owe  a  deeper  debt  of 
gratitude.  He  was  succeeded  by  poets  and 
philosophers  who  for  a  time  gave  Germany  the 
first  place  in  the  intellectual  life  of  the  world, 
and  it  was  Lessing,  as  they  always  acknowl- 
edged, who  prepared  the  way  for  their  achieve- 
ments. Without  attaching  himself  to  any 
particular  system  of  philosophical  doctrine, 
he  fought  incessantly  against  error,  and,  in 
regard  to  art,  poetry,  the  drama,  and  religion, 
suggested  ideas  which  kindled  the  enthusiasm 
of  aspiring  minds,  and  stimulated  their  highest 
energies. 

While  his  work  was  thus  effective  in  its 
own  day,  it  has  lost  little  of  its  value  for  later 
ages.  His  great  dramas  have  imaginative 
qualities  which  appeal  to  every  generation, 
and  an  unfading  charm  is  conferred  on  his 
critical  and  theological  writings  by  the  power 
and  classical  purity  of  his  style. 


GIBBON 

AQE 

A.  D. 

1776 

.     .        15 

.    23-26 

1783 

.    .      27 

1788 

37 

1794 

A.  D. 

1737         Bom  at  Putney,  England,     . 
1752         Entered  Oxford,      ..... 
1760-63  Captain  of  Hampshire  militia, 
1764         Visited  France  and  Italy, 
1774        Member  of  parliament,  .   .    . 


■pDWARD  GIBBON,  greatest  of  English 
historians,  was  the  son  of  an  English 
country  gentleman  in  easy  circumstances, 
who  for  some  years  was  a  member  of  the  Brit- 
ish parliament.  He  was  born  at  Putney,  in 
Surrey,  England,  April  27,  1737,  and  was  the 
first  and  only  surviving  child  out  of  a  family 
of  seven,  the  others  having  died  in  infancy. 
In  early  years  his  constitution  was  so  delicate 
that  his  fife  repeatedly  trembled  in  the  bal- 
ance; but,  due  to  the  tender  nursing  of  a 
maiden  aunt,  he  safely  passed  into  manhood. 


First  volume  of  Decline  and  FaU  of 

the  Roman  Empire, 39 

Resides  at  Lausanne, 46 

Dedine  and  FaU  finished 51 

Died  at  London, 57 


When  nine  years  old  he  was  placed  in  a 
school  at  Kingston-on-Thames,  but  his  delicate 
health  prevented  his  deriving  much  instruc- 
tion during  the  period  he  resided  there.  On 
the  death  of  his  mother  in  1747  he  returned 
home,  where  he  remained  for  two  years,  after 
which  he  entered  Westminster  school.  His 
studies  were  so  frequently  interrupted  by 
illness  that  he  made  but  slow  progress;  and 
after  two  years  his  father  removed  him  to- 
Bath,  where  the  full  restoration  of  his  health 
was  eventually  attained. 


IN  LITERATURE 


76 


In  1752  Gibbon  matriculated  at  Magdalen 
college,  Oxford.  In  his  autobiographic 
memoirs  he  describes  himself  at  this  time 
to  have  had  "  a  stock  of  erudition  that  might 
have  puzzled  a  doctor,  and  a  degree  of  igno- 
rance of  which  a  schoolboy  might  have  been 
ashamed";  nor  does  his  residence  at  the 
university  appear  to  have  greatly  replenished 
his  imperfect  scholastic  attainments.  During 
his  second  year  at  Oxford  his  reading  took  a 
religious  turn,  and  the  study  of  Bossuet's 
"Variations  of  Protestantism,"  and  "Exposi- 
tion of  Catholic  Doctrine,"  effected  his  con- 
version to  the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  The 
consequence  of  this  change  was  his  expulsion 
from  the  university. 

His  father  was  indignant  at  his  son's  change 
of  religion,  and  placed  him  under  the  care  of 
M.  Pavilliard,  a  Calvinist  minister  at  Lausanne, 
in  Switzerland,  in  the  hope  of  reclaiming  him 
from  Roman  Catholicism.  In  this  his  new 
tutor  was  speedily  successful;  and  Gibbon 
publicly  renounced,  in  1754,  the  faith  which 
he  had  adopted  but  twelve  months  before. 
He  here  began  and  carried  out  those  studies 
in  French  literature  and  the  Latin  classics 
which,  aided  by  his  prodigious  memory,  made 
him  a  master  of  erudition  without  a  superior, 
and  with  hardly  an  equal. 

Here,  also,  he  fell  in  love  with  Susanne 
Curchod,  daughter  of  the  minister  of  Crassy, 
but  he  was  obliged  to  submit  to  his  father's 
disapproval  of  a  marriage  with  her.  She 
subsequently  became  the  wife  of  the  great 
French  minister,  M.  Necker,  and  mother  of 
Madame  de  Stael.  This  disappointment 
impelled  him  to  redouble  his  attention  to  his 
literary  pursuits;  and  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land in  1758,  with  the  first  pages  of  a  little 
book  written  in  French,  entitled  Essai  sur 
I'Etude  de  la  Litterature,  "  Essay  on  the  Study 
of  Literatm-e."  This  was  not  published, 
however,  until  some  three  years  afterward. 
It  received  bijt  slight  notice  in  England, 
though  on  the  continent  it  was  favorably 
viewed. 

Gibbon  now  conceived  a  taste  for  the  army, 
and  in  1760  obtained  a  commission  as  cap- 
tain in  the  Hampshire  militia.  For  two  years 
and  a  half  he  spent  what  he  describes  as  "a 
wandering  life  of  military  servitude,  which 
terminated  in  the  disbanding  of  the  regiment 
in  1763."  According  to  the  custom  of  the 
times,  it  was  considered  essential  to  the  educa- 
tion of  an  Enghsh  gentleman  to  make  the 
tour  of  the  continent,  and  accordingly  Gibbon 


started  on  his  travels,  furnished  with  letters 
of  recommendation  to  persons  of  influence 
in  France  and  elsewhere.  At  Paris  he  found 
that  the  fame  of  his  "  Essays  "  had  preceded 
him,  and  he  was  cordially  received  by  the 
great  French  litterateurs.  After  a  residence 
of  some  months  in  Paris,  he  revisited  Lau- 
sanne, and  afterward  went  to  Rome.  While 
there,  he  says  in  his  memoirs,  it  was  "  on  the 
15th  of  October,  1764,  as  I  sat  musing  amidst 
the  ruins  of  the  capital,  while  the  barefooted 
friars  were  singing  vespers  in  the  temple  of 
Jupiter,  that  the  idea  of  writing  the  decline 
and  fall  of  the  city  first  started  to  my  mind." 

In  the  following  year  Gibbon  returned 
home  to  England,  and  the  next  five  years  he 
describes  as  having  been  the  least  satisfactory 
of  his  life,  affording  few  incidents  worthy  of 
record. 

A  portion  of  each  year  he  spent  with  his 
regiment,  in  which  he  had  risen  to  the  rank 
of  lieutenant  colonel,  though  he  observes 
that  he  was  disgusted  with  "the  inn,  the 
wine,  and  the  company."  In  1767  he  pub- 
lished a  work  entitled  Memoires  Litteraires 
de  la  Grand  Bretagne,  "Literary  Memoirs 
of  Great  Britain,"  in  the  preparation  of  which 
he  was  associated  with  M.  Deyverdun,  a 
young  Swiss  gentleman  with  whom  he  had 
become  acquainted  at  Lausanne.  The  book, 
however,  received  but  little  approval.  His 
next  production.  Critical  Observations  on  the 
Sixth  Book  of  the  Mneid,  was  more  successful. 
His  father  died  in  1770,  and  left  him  in  com- 
paratively easy  circumstances.  For  the  next 
few  years  he  settled  in  London,  and  employed 
himself  in  preparing  for  his  great  historical 
account  of  the  decline  and  fall  of  the  Roman 
empire. 

In  1774  Gibbon  was  elected  to  parliament 
for  the  borough  of  Liskeard,  through  the 
influence  of  a  kinsman;  but  he  did  not  let 
his  parliamentary  duties  interfere  with  his 
literary  labors.  He  afterward,  also,  was 
elected  for  Lymington  —  altogether  for  eight 
sessions,  without  ever  summoning  courage 
to  speak.  According  to  his  own  account, 
he  had  entered  upon  a  public  career  "with- 
out patriotism  and  without  ambition,"  and 
consequently  proved  but  an  indifferent  poli- 
tician. 

Meanwhile,  after  the  labors  of  seven  years, 
the  first  volvune  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  had 
appeared  on  February  17,  1776,  and  was 
received  with  imbounded  admiration.  Its 
literary    success    was    immediate;    but    the 


76 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


public  was  not  slow  to  discern,  nor  tardy  to 
censure,  the  sceptical  tendency  of  certain 
chapters  in  which  the  historian  shadowed 
forth  his  ironical  scruples  as  to  the  truths 
of  Christianity.  The  whole  of  the  first  edition 
was  sold  in  a  few  days,  and  others  followed 
in  rapid  succession. 

The  publication  of  the  volume  created  a 
great  sensation,  and  Gibbon  found  his  repu- 
tation estabhshed  amidst  universal  applause. 
Its  vast  plan,  so  well  conceived,  and  executed 
in  polished  and  elegant  style,  gave  the  work 
a  rapid  and  brilliant  success.  Even  those 
who  might  with  justice  be  considered  his 
rivals  —  Robertson,  Ferguson,  and  Hume  — 
sent  him  warm  congratulations. 

Two  more  volumes  of  his  great  work  were 
ready  in  1781.  In  1783,  finding  it  difficult 
to  live  in  London  upon  his  income,  he  settled 
down  again  at  Lausanne.  Here,  in  a  charm- 
ing house  on  the  borders  of  Lake  Geneva, 
he  terminated  his  great  history  in  1787,  and 
immediately  started  for  England  to  arrange 
for  its  publication.  The  last  two  volumes 
were  issued  in  May,  1788.  His  profits  from 
the  entire  work  are  said  to  have  been  about 
six  thousand  pounds,  and  that  of  the  pub- 
lishers sixty  thousand  pounds.  The  spring 
of  1788  saw  him  again  settled  at  Lausanne, 
where  he  resided  until  1793,  when  he  resolved 
on  another  visit  to  England,  this  time  to 
comfort  his  old  friend  Holroyd,  who  had  lost 
his  wife. 

Though  Gibbon  was  now  feeble  in  health 
and  corpulent  to  an  extraordinary  degree, 
the  fatigue  and  dangers  even  of  the  journey 
were  nothing  to  the  affection  he  felt  for  his 
bereaved  friends,  and  he  hastened  to  mingle 
his  tears  with  theirs.  He  arrived  after  a 
rapid  journey  in  his  usual  health,  but  at  the 
end  of  six  months  Edward  Gibbon  was  no 
more.  He  died  January  16,  1794,  at  the  age 
of  fifty-seven,  of  a  disease  from  which  he 
had  suffered  for  thirty-two  years. 

In  personal  appearance  Gibbon  was  heavy 
and  dull,  his  countenance  showed  little  trace 
of  intellect,  and  his  features  were  unattrac- 
tive. He  possessed  a  short  Silenus-like  figure 
—  not  more  than  fifty-six  inches  in  height  — 
slim  legs,  large  turn-in  feet,  and  a  shrill, 
piercing  voice.  He  was  fond  of  fine  dress, 
and  his  manner  was  somewhat  pompous. 
His  brain  was  exceptionally  vigorous,  and 
he  had  a  vast  capacity  alike  for  work  and 
for  enjoyment.  This  capacity  he  never 
abused  so  as  to  burden  his  conscience   or 


depress  his  spirits.     "The  madness  of  supers 
fluous  health  I  have  never  known,"  he  says. 

To  illustrate  the  intensity  of  the  pleasure  he 
found  alike  in  the  solitude  of  his  study  and  in 
the  relaxations  of  genial  social  intercourse, 
almost  any  page  taken  at  random,  either 
from  his  memoirs  or  from  his  letters,  would 
suffice.  Many  incidental  touches  show  that 
he  was  not  a  stranger  to  the  delights  of  quiet 
contemplation  of  the  beauties  and  grandeurs 
of  nature.  His  conversation,  when  he  felt 
himself  at  home,  was  interesting  and  un- 
affected; and  that  he  was  capable  alike  of 
feeling  and  inspiring  a  very  constant  friend- 
ship, there  are  many  witnesses  to  show.  His 
temperament  was  frigid  and  comparatively 
passionless,  and  his  most  ardent  admirers 
are  constrained  to  admit  that  he  was  deficient 
in  large-hearted  benevolences.  He  possessed 
little  of  the  "enthusiasm  of  humanity,"  and, 
as  far  as  every  sort  of  religious  yearning  or 
aspiration  is  concerned,  his  poverty  was 
almost  unique.  Gibbon  was  such  a  man  as 
Horace  might  have  been,  had  the  Roman 
epicurean  been  fonder  of  hard  intellectual 
work,  and  less  prone  than  he  was  to  the 
indulgence  of  emotion. 

The  magnitude  of  Gibbon's  work  —  his 
Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  — 
has  been  attested  by  the  centuries.  In  it 
he  proposed  "to  connect  the  ancient  and 
modem  history  of  the  world."  He  divided 
it  into  three  periods:  (1)  from  Trajan  to  the 
fall  of  the  Western  empire ;  (2)  from  Justinian 
to  the  revival  of  the  empire  under  Charle- 
magne; (3)  from  Charlemagne  to  the  capture 
of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks.  It  is  virtu- 
ally a  history  of  the  civilized  world  for  thir- 
teen centuries,  during  which  paganism  was 
breaking  down,  and  Christianity  was  super- 
seding it. 

His  review  of  Roman  jurisprudence  haa, 
received  the  highest  praise  of  lawyers  and 
jurists.  Of  his  account  of  the  Christian! 
church.  Cardinal  Newman  said  that  in  spit 
of  its  Voltairian  sneers,  no  church  history 
adequate  has  been  written;  for  Gibbon  haai 
created  Catholicism,  not  as  a  body  of  doc-' 
trine,  but  as  a  social  force. 

The  history  of  Constantinople  is  his  greatest 
effort  —  his  treatment  of  Julian,  of  Justinian, 
of  the  Arabs,  and  of  the  crusades,  the  most 
splendid  single  episodes  in  all  historical  htera- 
ture.  He  has  painted  in  gorgeous  colors  all 
the  splendors  of  the  ancient  paganism,  and 
portrayed  with  matchless  force  every  figure 


IN  LITERATURE 


79 


that  crossed  the  stage  of  history  for  a  thousand 
years.  For  the  moral  beauty  of  Christianity 
alone,  Gibbon  has  no  enthusiasm  —  the 
heroism  of  its  martyr-witnesses  and  its  saints 
does  not  touch  his  imagination  nor  warm 
his  dramatic  sense  to  life. 

This  elemental  defect  set  aside,  few  faults 
of  detail  have  been  discovered  in  his  work, 
the  enduring  merit  of  which  it  may  be  per- 
mitted to  summarize  in  the  words  of  a  great 
modern  master  of  history,  whose  own  studies 
have  followed  closely  in  his  track : 

"That  Gibbon  should  ever  be  displaced," 
says  E.  A.  Freeman,  "  seems  impossible.  That 
wonderful  man  monopolized,  so  to  speak, 
the  historical  genius  and  the  historical  learn- 
ing of  a  whole  generation,  and  left  little, 
indeed,  of  either  for  his  contemporaries.  He 
remains  the  one  historian  of  the  eighteenth 
century  whom  modern  research  has  neither 
set  aside  nor  threatened  to  set  aside.  We 
may  correct  and  improve  from  the  stores 
which  have  been  opened  since  Gibbon's  time ; 


we  may  write  again  large  parts  of  his  story 
from  other  and  often  truer  and  more  whole- 
some points  of  view;  but  the  work  of  Gibbon 
as  a  whole,  as  the  encyclopedic  history  of 
thirteen  hundred  years,  as  the  grandest  of 
historical  designs,  carried  out  alike  with 
wonderful  power  and  with  wonderful  accuracy, 
must  ever  keep  its  place.  Whatever  else  is 
read,  Gibbon  must  be  read,  too." 

Perhaps  the  most  unique  merit  of  Gibbon 
is  his  supreme  and  almost  epic  power  of  mould- 
ing into  a  lucid  unity  a  bewildering  multitude 
of  details,  and  giving  life  and  sequence  to  the 
whole.  His  prodigious  memory  moved  freely 
under  a  ponderous  weight  of  learning,  which 
his  quickening  imagination  fused  into  a  glow- 
ing stream  of  continuous  narrative,  which  is 
yet,  with  all  its  detail,  a  marvel  of  condensa- 
tion. On  the  whole,  his  monumental  work  is 
probably  the  greatest  achievement  of  human 
thought  and  erudition  in  the  department  of 
history,  and  one  of  the  greatest  creations  of 
any  single  intellect. 


GOETHE 


A.   D. 

1749 
1765 
1770 
1773 
1774 


1775 

1779 

1786-88 

1787 

1788 

1790 


Bom  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  .    . 

Studied  at  Leipzig, 16 

Entered  Strassburg  university,     .    .  21 

Gotz  von  Berlichingen, 24 

Die  Leiden  des  Jungen  Werther, 
"The       Sorrows       of       Young 

Werther";  visited  Switzerland,   .  25 

Settled  at  Weimar, 26 

Privy  councilor, 30 

Traveled  in  Italy;  Egmont,  .    .    .   37-39 

Iphigenie  auf  Taurus, 38 

Met  Schiller, 39 

Again  visited  ItaJy;  Tasso,  ....  41 


A.  D.  Aoa 
1792         Accompanied   the  German  inva- 
sion of  France, 43 

1796  Wilhelm  Meisler's  Lehrjahre,  "Wil- 

hehn  Meister's  Apprenticeship,"        47 

1797  Hermann  und  Dorotliea, 48 

1806         Married 57 

1808         First  part  of  Faust  completed, ...     69 
1811         Dichtung  und  Wahrheit,  "Poetry 

and  Truth," 62 

1821  Wilhelm    Meister's    Wanderjafire, 

"Wilhelm    Meister's   Traveling 

Years," 72 

1832         Died  at  Weimar, 83 


TOHANN  WOLFGANG  VON  GOETHE, 
*'  the  most  celebrated  of  German  writers, 
and  one  of  the  most  gifted  of  men,  was  born 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Prussia,  August 
28,  1749.  His  father,  the  son  and  grandson 
of  craftsmen,  achieved  distinction  in  the 
university,  became  a  doctor  of  laws,  traveled 
much,  collected  works  of  art,  and  finally 
settled  in  his  native  city,  where  he  held  the 
rank  of  imperial  councilor.  His  mother, 
Catharine  Textor,  daughter  of  the  chief  mag- 
istrate of  the  city,  was  a  woman  of  noble 
and  wide  sympathies,  and  of  a  singularly 
bright  and  happy  disposition.  He  was  the 
eldest  child,  precocious,  handsome,  lively, 
and  sensitive.  Before  he  was  ten  years 
of  age  he  wrote  several  languages  and  had 
!  a  considerable  famiharity  with  works  of  art. 


Indeed,  the  circumstances  with  which  the 
poet  was  surrounded  in  early  life  were  emi- 
nently favorable  to  the  development  of  his 
great  and  varied  powers,  and  undoubtedly 
contributed  in  no  small  degree  to  cultivate 
that  many-sidedness  for  which  he  was  after- 
ward so  distinguished.  His  boyhood  and 
youth  came  in  the  period  when  Germany  was 
excited  by  the  seven  years*  war ;  and  when, 
in  Uterature,  the  clear  and  energetic  Lessing 
was  laying  the  foundation  of  philosophical 
criticism,  inculcating  intelligent  respect  and 
affection  for  the  arts  of  design,  and  protesting 
against  that  slavish  subservience  to  French 
taste  which  had  long  prevailed  among  Ger- 
man men  of  letters. 

Sickness  in  childhood  cherished  Goethe's 
native  precocity ;  and  his  mind  was  developed 


80 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


with  remarkable  rapidity.  Besides  the  com- 
mon branches  of  education,  he  busied  himself 
with  drawing,  music,  and  natural  history; 
and  a  boyish  poem  on  the  scriptural  history 
of  Joseph  indicated  at  once  his  poetical  incli- 
nations, and  the  serious  direction  which  his 
thoughts  then  took.  After  the  breaking  off 
of  a  youthful  love  affair,  which  gave  a  name 
to  the  heroine  of  Faust,  and  some  features  to 
Wilhelm  Meister,  he  was  sent  to  the  univer- 
sity of  Leipzig  in  1765  to  prepare  himself  for 
the  legal  profession.  Law,  however,  was 
little  attended  to ;  and  for  speculative  philoso- 
phy the  young  poet  contracted  a  disgust, 
which  he  did  not  seek  to  overcome  in  mature 
life,  even  when  Kant  had  become  the  guide  of 
almost  all  the  finer  minds  of  his  country. 
To  classical  studies,  under  the  teaching  of 
the  correct  and  tasteful  Ernesti,  he  paid  more 
attention.  To  his  early  French  reading  was 
now  added  some  acquaintance  with  English 
literature. 

The  discrepancies,  however,  between  the 
different  poetical  schools,  which  he  was 
unable  to  reconcile  by  any  critical  theory  that 
had  yet  been  presented  to  him,  almost  gave 
him  a  distaste  even  for  poetry.  His  inquisi- 
tive and  doubting  temper  found  not  less  food 
in  the  contemplation  of  the  relations  of 
society,  presented  to  him  in  no  clearer  light 
than  that  which  he  derived  from  the  French 
encyclopedists;  and  his  mind  had  already 
taken  its  earliest  steps  in  that  course  of 
thought  and  feeling,  which,  breaking  out  at 
first  in  a  rebellion  against  all  existing  systems, 
led  him  by  degrees  to  care  little  as  to  the 
truth  or  falsehood  of  any.  He  made  some 
attempts  at  play-writing;  and  the  uneasy 
state  of  mind,  which  he  thus  endeavored  to 
remove  by  giving  vent  to  it,  was  allayed  more 
effectually  by  the  diversion  of  his  thoughts 
to  the  study  of  the  fine  arts,  in  the  works  of 
Winckelmann  and  other  philosophical  anti- 
quaries. 

In  1768  Goethe  left  Leipzig,  and  resided  for 
a  while  in  the  country,  where  he  studied 
alchemy  and  chemistry,  Paracelsus  and 
Boerhaave,  and  sketched  for  himself  a  new 
religion,  resting  on  a  basis  of  mysticism  or 
neo-Platonism.  A  couple  of  years  later  he 
went  to  the  university  at  Strassburg  to  com- 
plete his  studies,  and  earnestly  devoted  him- 
self to  chemistry,  anatomy,  Hterature,  and 
antiquities,  and,  as  far  as  was  necessary,  to 
law.  Strassburg  cathedral  singularly  inter- 
ested him,  so  did  the  town,  the  Rhdne,  the 


Black  Forest,  and,  indeed,  the  whole  neigh- 
borhood, which  became,  in  his  youthful 
imagination,  a  ''poetic  paradise."  At  Strass- 
burg he  formed  the  acquaintance  of  Herder, 
who  was  already  distinguished  among  the 
great  men  of  Germany.  The  friendship  thus 
formed  had  an  important  influence  upon 
Goethe's  mind.  By  Herder  his  attention  waa 
directed  to  the  Hebrew  poets,  to  Ossian, 
Homer,  and  Shakespeare.  Goldsmith's  Vicar 
of  Wakefield  especially  delighted  him. 

At  this  time  he  met  Friederike  Brion, 
daughter  of  a  Protestant  pastor,  with  whom 
he  fell  passionately  in  love,  and  who  returned 
his  love.  This  attachment  lasted  for  eighteen 
months,  and  was  the  inspiration  of  some  of 
his  loveliest  lyrics.  But  finally  he  tore  him- 
self away  from  it,  driven  like  Dante's  Ulysses 
by  the  still  stronger  passion  for  experience  of 
life  which  an  early  and  obscure  marriage 
would  have  narrowed.  Of  other  ties  formed 
and  broken  by  Goethe  during  the  years  that 
followed,  it  is  probably  better  to  say  little 
than  to  seek,  with  his  extravagant  adorers,  a 
special  code  of  morals  for  his  failings.  Cer- 
tain it  is  that  they  will  always  tarnish  to  some 
extent  the  otherwise  fair  reputation  of  the 
poet. 

In  the  year  1771  Goethe  took  his  degree  of 
doctor  of  laws,  and  went  for  a  short  time  to 
Wetzlar,  on  the  Lahn,  the  seat  of  the  imperial 
chamber  of  the  German  empire,  which 
afforded  peculiar  facilities  for  young  men 
engaged  in  the  study  of  public  law.  Here, 
however,  knowledge  of  the  human  heart  and 
of  human  character  appealed  to  him  much 
stronger  than  his  profession;  and  Wetzlar 
became  to  him  the  scene  of  the  famous  "  Sor- 
rows of  Young  Werther,"  which  has  been  de- 
scribed as  "  a  glowing  leaf  from  the  life  of  the 
human  soul,  full  of  interest  and  beauty  at  all 
times,  but  which,  in  the  state  of  European 
thought  and  feeling  at  that  time,  stirred  the 
whole  literary  mind  of  Europe  like  a  breeze 
sweeping  over  a  forest."  The  book  was  not 
pubhshed  xmtil  1774. 

In  1772  he  returned  to  Frankfort,  and 
remained  at  home  four  years.  It  was  during 
this  interval  that  he  began  the  publication  of 
his  earliest  successful  works.  His  first  dra- 
matic effort,  Gotz  von  Berlichingen,  published 
in  1773,  drew  instant  attention  by  its  grand 
ideas,  profound  sentiments,  natural  vigor,  and 
its  bold  defiance  of  French  criticism  and  the 
three  unities.  It  was  cast  in  the  flexible  and 
irregular  mould   of   Shakespeare's  dramatic 


IN  LITERATURE 


81 


histories.  The  novelty  of  the  undertaking 
was  as  attractive  as  the  force  of  imagination 
with  which  it  was  performed;  and,  while 
everyone  was  moved  by  the  character  and 
fate  of  the  true-hearted  Gotz,  there  was  for 
reflective  minds  a  deep  significance  in  the 
picture  which  was  presented  under  the  sym- 
bolic forms  of  feudalism,  the  destruction  of 
the  reign  of  force,  and  the  rise  of  a  new  world 
ruled  by  reason  and  established  order.  Here, 
too,  the  poet,  in  the  tumultuous  excitement 
of  youth,  poured  forth  his  emotions  with 
an  unrepressed  and  infectious  enthusiasm. 

In  its  design,  "The  Sorrows  of  Young 
Werther"  was  nothing  more  than  a  senti- 
mental novel,  and,  thus  bidding  for  a  pop- 
ularity much  wider  than  Gotz,  displayed 
domestic  scenes  so  interesting,  and  described 
these  with  a  pathos  so  profound  and  an  elo- 
quence so  flowing,  that  the  hoUowness  of  the 
morality  was  overlooked,  and  the  real  signifi- 
cance of  the  events  forgotten.  The  German 
language  possessed  as  yet  nothing  comparable 
to  either  of  these  two  works.  Their  author 
himself  never  surpassed  the  Gotz;  and,  after 
the  appearance  of  Werther,  Goethe  was  not 
only  the  most  popular  writer  of  his  day,  but 
also  the  writer  from  whom  competent  judges 
most  confidently  expected  great  performances 
in  his  maturity. 

His  fame  immediately  gained  for  him  a 
position  which  enabled  him  to  devote  his 
energies,  without  interruption  or  anxiety,  to 
literary  study  and  invention.  The  opportu- 
nities were  used  with  zealous  industry  through- 
out the  remainder  of  his  long  life;  and 
his  skill  of  art  was  developed  with  a  success 
atoning  in  some  degree  for  that  narrowing  of 
his  sympathies,  which  was  caused  by  the 
artificial  atmosphere  of  a  petty  court. 

The  duchess  of  Saxe- Weimar,  left  a  widow 
during  her  son's  infancy,  the  duke  Karl 
August,  not  only  administered  wisely  the 
civil  affairs  of  his  little  sovereignty,  but  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  making  her  miniature 
capital  the  intellectual  center  of  Germany. 
In  1774,  in  the  course  of  his  travels,  the  young 
duke  made  the  acquaintance  of  Goethe ;  and, 
on  his  assuming  the  government  in  1775,  the 
poet  accepted  the  invitation  he  received  to 
attach  himself  to  the  court  of  Weimar.  The 
dowager  duchess  from  the  first  had  confidence 
in  him,  and  by  degrees  he  won  the  esteem  of 
the  yoimg  wife  of  Karl  August.  At  Wiemar 
Goethe  met  Charlotte  von  Stein,  who  became 
his  dearest  friend,  and  for  ten  years  was  his 


confidante,  his  directress,  and  the  object  of 
his  homage.  Wieland,  whose  mental  history 
was  in  some  points  not  unlike  that  of  Goethe, 
was  already  there,  having  been  the  prince's 
tutor.  Herder  was  added  to  the  band  id 
1776.  Schiller  was  afterward  one  of  its 
members  for  a  few  years;  and  other  poets, 
critics,  and  novelists  were  gathered  round 
these  chiefs. 

Goethe  was  the  leading  spirit  of  the  group, 
even  during  the  last  quarter  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  when  these  men  and  others  were 
constructing  and  guiding  the  literature  of  all 
Germany;  and  his  supremacy  became  yet 
more  absolute  afterward,  when  for  another 
generation  he  stood  alone,  the  last  survivor 
of  a  race  greater  than  the  greatest  of  their 
successors.  He  was  ennobled,  made  privy 
councilor  in  1779,  and  received  other  honored  • 
appointments,  and  had  even  some  share  in  the 
statesmanship  demanded  by  the  small  state. 
But,  in  the  most  active  period  of  his  life,  his 
most  important  oflace  was  that  of  theatrical 
director. 

In  1786  a  visit  to  Italy  gave  fresh  impetus 
to  Goethe's  literary  and  poetic  instincts.  He 
visited  Rome,  Naples,  Florence,  and  Sicily, 
drawing  inspiration  from  all  he  saw.  The 
influence  of  this  voyage  seems  impressed  en 
all  his  after  labors,  and  colored,  measurably, 
his  opinions  and  sentiments.  He  visited 
Italy  again  in  1790.  At  Rome  he  finished  his 
play,  Iphigenie  auf  Taurus,  in  1787,  that 
"marriage  between  the  religious  philosophy 
of  Germany  and  the  ancient  Greek  tragedy." 
Egmont  followed  Iphigenie,  and  Tasso  ap- 
peared in  1790.  Egmont  and  also  another 
tragedy,  Clavigo,  were  produced  at  Weimar. 
Many  plays  of  Voltaire,  Racine,  Shakespeare, 
and  Calderon  were  also  represented.  His 
Tasso  is  a  realization  of  the  fluttering  spirit 
of  romance  which  lingered  in  the  courts  and 
society  of  Italy  when  the  realities  of  the 
middle  ages  had  passed  away.  None  of 
Goethe's  works  are  so  admirable  as  the  Tasso 
and  Iphigenie  for  skill  of  art ;  none  are  more 
exquisite  in  ideal  beauty  and  imagery;  none 
are  so  characteristically  illustrative  of  the 
desire  he  always  felt  to  attain,  though  it  were 
by  the  sacrifice  of  sternly  solemn  truths,  a 
placid  and  meditative  harmony  of  feeling. 

Goethe  had  returned  to  Weimar  in  1788, 
and  at  that  time  met  Schiller.  In  the  autumn 
of  that  year  he  first  became  acquainted  with 
Christiane  Vulpius,  a  young  woman  in  humble 
life,  whom  he  afterward  married.      She  had 


82 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


presented  him  with  a  petition  entreating  him 
to  procure  some  position  for  her  brother,  a 
yoimg  author,  then  living  at  Jena.  Goethe 
was  greatly  smitten  with  her  beauty,  sim- 
plicity, and  sprightliness.  His  liaison  with 
her  gave  rise  to  much  scandal  on  account  of 
the  disparity  of  their  station  and  the  scandal 
was  not  lessened  when,  many  years  later  — 
1806  —  he  performed  a  tardy  act  of  justice 
in  marrying  her.  She  had,  in  1789,  borne 
him  a  son,  August  von  Goethe,  to  whom  the 
duke  of  Saxe-Weimar  stood  godfather. 
After  this  event  Goethe  took  Christiane,  with 
her  mother  and  sister,  to  live  with  him  in  his 
own  house;  and  he  appears  always  to  have 
regarded  the  connection  as  a  marriage.  His 
conduct  in  relation  to  this  affair  was,  however, 
a  source  of  mortification  and  deep  regret  to 
many  of  his  admirers. 

In  1792  he  accompanied  the  duke  of  Saxe- 
Weimar  when  the  Prussian  army  invaded 
France.  In  that  campaign  he  showed  that  he 
was  not  wanting  in  couvage  of  the  most  reck- 
less kind;  but  he  returned  to  Weimar  thor- 
oughly disgusted  with  the  war  and  with 
military  life. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  period  in 
Goethe's  life  is  between  1794  and  1805,  during 
his  intimacy  with  Schiller,  the  poet.  This 
friendship  proved  very  useful  to  both  —  it 
gave  a  stimulus  to  their  literary  activity. 
While  Goethe,  without  wholly  renouncing  the 
drama,  applied  himself  especially  to  romances 
and  epic  compositions,  Schiller,  during  these 
eleven  years,  composed  his  finest  tragedies. 
Wilhelm  Meister's  Lehrjahre,  a  work  Goethe 
had  commenced  long  before,  was  now  com- 
pleted in  1796.  In  the  years  1796-97,  the 
charming  epic  idyl,  Hermann  und  Dorothea, 
was  written;  so  was  much  of  the  first  part 
of  Faust,  which,  however,  still  lingered  in 
his  hands  until  1808.  In  this  Goethe 
attempted,  as  others  had  before  him,  to 
naturalize  the  classical  hexameter  in  his 
native  tongue,  and  to  give  epic  form  to  a 
narrative  of  familiar  life.  The  poet's  fame 
now  rose  to  its  zenith,  on  the  publication  of 
the  latter.  For  more  than  thirty  years  this 
work  had  been  growing  in  the  author's  mind. 
It  is  easy  to  feel,  or  rather  it  is  impossible  not 
to  feel,  the  singular  poetic  beauty  of  this 
wonderful  poem,  its  unsurpassed  felicities  of 
imagery  and  diction,  and  the  impressiveness 
of  the  despondent  melancholy  which  is  the 
ruling  temper  of  the  whole.  Philosophically  1 
considered,  Faiist  is  a  propounding  of  the] 


enigma  of  human  life,  with  a  refusal  to  accept 
from  religion  its  only  possible  solution.  A 
willing  victim  of  limitless  desire,  he  is  led, 
through  grievous  failure  and  sorrow,  by  large 
experience  of  human  destiny  lit  up  by  glimpses 
of  a  nether  and  a  higher  world,  to  rest  satis- 
fied at  the  close  of  life  with  a  little  useful 
work  honestly  done.  The  Marguerite  whom 
he  betrays,  soars,  like  the  heavenly  powers 
with  whose  choral  song  the  poem  begins,  in 
glorified  penitence  above  and  beyond  him. 

There  now  occurred  a  long  interval  in 
Goethe's  career,  marked  by  nothing  of  dis- 
tinguished note.  When  the  French  occupied 
Weimar,  he  took  refuge  in  his  books  and 
scientific  experiments,  and  exhibited  such 
impassiveness  amid  the  pohtical  disturbances 
as  to  incur  the  reproach  of  a  want  of  patri- 
otism. He  afterward  accepted  Napoleon's 
invitation  to  visit  Paris,  and  again  met  the 
great  emperor,  in  1808,  at  the  congress  of 
Erfurt.  The  appearance,  in  1809,  of  the 
notorious  novel,  "Elective  Affinities,"  while 
assuredly  it  denoted  a  falling  off  in  creative 
genius,  betrayed  as  clearly  a  settled  declen- 
sion of  moral  sentiment.  The  epicureanism, 
in  which  the  poet  now  found  repose,  was 
worse  than  the  sceptical  spirit  of  resistance 
which  had  disturbed  his  aspiring  youth. 

In  1811  he  published  his  interesting  auto- 
biography, Dichtung  und  Wahrheit,  "Poetry 
and  Truth,"  and  a  collection  of  lyrics  appeared 
in  1819,  but  seem  to  have  been  written  much 
earlier.  In  1821  Wilhelm  M eider's  Wander- 
jahre,  "Wilhelm  Meister's  Traveling  Years," 
was  completed,  and  after  this  Goethe's  only 
sustained  effort  in  poetry  was  the  second  part 
of  Faust,  which  was  finished  near  the  close  of 
his  life. 

A  deep  grief  came  to  Goethe  in  1816,  in 
the  death  of  his  wife.  The  Goethe  house 
would  have  been  desolate  but  that  in  the 
following  year  his  son,  August,  brought  a 
bright  and  sweet-tempered  wife  to  dwell 
there,  and  Goethe  erelong  found  much  joy  in 
his  three  grandchildren.  His  daughter-in- 
law,  Ottilie,  presided  over  his  household 
during  the  remainder  of  his  life,  and  a  beauti- 
ful picture  of  his  old  age  is  preserved  for  us  in 
the  conversations  recorded  by  his  friend 
Eckermann. 

About  a  year  after  the  completion  of  Faust, 
Goethe  contracted  a  severe  cold,  which  turned 
into  a  fatal  fever;  but  he  still  continued  to 
work.  His  last  writing  was  an  essay  on  the 
dispute  between  Saint-Hilaire  and  Cuvier,  on 


IN  LITERATURE 


the  question  of  the  unity  of  composition  in 
the  animal  kingdom. 

He  worked  until  the  last  hour,  and  died 
sitting  in  his  chair.  Ottilie  sat  beside  him, 
holding  his  hand  in  both  hers.  It  was  now 
observed  that  his  thoughts  began  to  wander 
incoherently.  "Seel"  he  exclaimed,  "the 
lovely  woman's  head,  with  black  curls  in 
splendid  colors,  a  dark  background."  Pres- 
ently he  saw  a  piece  of  paper  on  the  floor,  and 
asked  how  they  could  leave  Schiller's  letters 
so  carelessly  lying  about.  Then  he  slept 
softly.  The  last  words  audible  were,  "  More 
Light  I"  The  final  darkness  grew  apace, 
and  he,  whose  eternal  longings  had  been  for 
more  light,  gave  a  parting  cry  for  it  as  he  was 
passing  under  the  shadow  of  death.  He  died 
March  22,  1832,  and  was  buried  near  Schiller 
in  the  ducal  vault  at  Weimar. 

In  person,  Goethe  was  eminently  handsome 
—  tall,  graceful,  and  well  proportioned. 
"That  accordance  of  personal  appearance 
with  genius,"  says  Heine,  "which  we  ever 
desire  to  see  in  distinguished  men,  was  found 
in  perfection  in  Goethe.  His  outward  ap- 
pearance was  just  as  imposing  as  the  word 
that  hves  in  his  writings.  Even  his  form  was 
symmetrical,  expressive  of  joy,  nobly  propor- 
tioned ;  and  one  might  study  the  Grecian  art 
upon  it  as  well  as  upon  an  antique."  The 
same  writer  continues  in  a  more  extravagant 
strain,  "  His  eyes  were  calm  as  those  of  a  god ; 
and  they  remained  in  his  latest  age  just  as 
divine  as  in  youth." 

Many  varying  and  contradictory  opinions 
have  been  entertained  about  Goethe.  But 
summed  up  in  a  word,  the  aim  of  his  life  was 
culture  —  in  the  widest  and  deepest  sense. 
The  distinctive  characteristic  of  his  genius  was 
his  insatiable  curiosity  in  every  branch  of 
human  knowledge.  His  life  was  equally 
divided  between  science  and  art^ — between 
the  poetry  of  the  heart  and  the  keenly  observ- 
ant spirit  of  an  enthusiastic  lover  of  nature. 
He  was  so  versatile,  so  many-sided,  he  did  so 
many  things  well,  and  initiated  so  much,  that 
it  is  difficult  to  say  in  what  he  was  greatest. 
His  Gotz  founded  the  romantic  school; 
Werther  founded  the  sentimental  school ;  Die 
Metamorphose  der  Pflanzen,  "Metamorphosis 
of  Plants,"  is  one  of  the  pillars  of  Darwinism ; 
and  in  the  third  act  of  Fau^t  critics  have 
discovered  the  foundation  of  a  creed.  It  is 
not  possible  to  read  one  of  his  works  without 
learning  a  lesson  of  life. 

Goethe  was  a  born  poet.    To  feel,  to  realize 


what  he  felt  by  idealizing  it,  and  then  to 
express  it  in  verse,  this  was  the  natural  bent 
of  the  man,  and  the  actual  history  of  his 
poems.  This  realistic  foundation  in  personal 
experience,  while  assuring  to  his  poetry  sin- 
cerity and  human  interest,  marks  him  off 
from  Schiller  and  the  idealistic  school.  But 
what  confers  on  Goethe  a  royal  rank  among 
poets  was  the  range  and  harmony  of  his 
spiritual  faculties.  To  a  unique  personality 
and  a  boundless  force  of  self-expansion,  hB 
joined  a  marvelous  sensibility  to  impressions 
from  all  without  him,  from  men  and  women, 
whether  old  or  young ;  from  society,  solitude, 
and  external  nature;  from  books  and  from 
life ;  from  the  ancient  world  and  the  modem 
world;  from  art,  but  also  from  philosophy 
and  physical  science.  His  comic  description 
of  himself  as  Das  WeUkind  — "The  World's 
Child  "  —  was  a  true  one. 

His  audacity  of  youthful  passion  was  but 
the  prelude  to  an  all-embracing  wisdom 
strenuously  built  up  by  thought,  self-culture, 
and  self-control;  his  judgment  of  his  fellow 
men,  while  measured  and  penetrating,  was 
eminently  sympathetic.  And  so  it  came 
about  that  even  in  early  life  his  personal 
feelings  were  typical  feelings,  and  his  poems 
representative  poems.  Most  representative 
of  all  is  Faust.  Whether  as  a  secluded 
student  eager  to  discover  the  summum 
honum  in  absolute  knowledge,  or  as  a 
man  of  flesh  and  blood  turning  his  back 
in  disgust  on  this  barren  pursuit  and 
plunging  into  sensual  pleasures  in  the  vain 
hope  of  there  finding  life  and  happiness, 
Faust  is  but  a  mystical  impersonation  of  a 
transition  age  —  an  age  where  science  has 
sapped  the  ancient  faith  but  is  itself  capable 
neither  of  regulating  nor  of  being  regulated: 
where  religion  has  become  a  universal  doubt 
having  no  practical  relation  to  human  affairs, 
the  elementary  laws  of  social  conduct  are 
obscured,  and  the  individual  is  abandoned  to 
himself,  his  good  and  his  bad  instincts  alike 
running  riot. 

Of  prose  and  style  Goethe  was  a  consum- 
mate master.  In  the  fascinating  melody  of 
his  verse,  in  the  exquisite  fitness  and  lucid 
beauty  of  his  expressions,  in  his  presentar 
tions  so  vividly  realistic,  yet  so  subtly  sug- 
gestive of  what  is  mysterious  and  ideal  — 
everywhere  we  feel  the  magic  hand  of  the 
poet.  The  sunny  pastoral  of  Hermann  und 
Dorothea  and  many  of  his  ballads  and  minor 
poems  are  gems  of  art   and   most  precious 


84 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


records  of  human  feeling.  In  the  master- 
piece of  Faust  the  story  of  the  heroine  is  told 
anew  in  its  simple  beauty  and  with  unsur- 
passable pathos. 

From  the  creeds  he  stood  aside,  neither 
professing  nor  denouncing  any,  equally  re- 
moved from  negativism  and  hypocrisy.  For 
religion  he  worshiped  art  and  preached  social 
wisdom.  But  his  art  was  a  self-culture 
earnestly  addressing  itself  to  important  ele- 
rfients  of  human  life  which  theology  pro- 
scribed and  materialism  disparaged.  And  so, 
though  not  a  religion,  it  served  as  a  transition 
from  the  old  to  the  new.  It  announced  that 
to  which  the  faith  of  humanity  can  alone  give 


complete  significance  —  the  identity  of  the 
beautiful  with  the  good  and  the  true. 

"Goethe,"  observes  Madame  de  Stael, 
"  should  not  be  criticised  as  an  author  good  in 
one  kind  of  composition  and  bad  in  another. 
He  rather  resembles  nature,  which  produces  all 
and  of  all ;  and  we  can  prefer  in  him  his  climate 
of  the  South  to  his  climate  of  the  North, 
without  disregarding  in  him  the  talents  which 
harmonize  with  these  different  regions  of  the 
soul."  So,  in  whichever  of  these  regions  we 
encounter  him,  we  recognize  a  master  mind ; 
and  are  compelled  to  agree  with  Carlyle  that 
"he  was  the  master  spirit,  the  spokesman  of 
his  age." 


SCHILLER 

A.  D.  AGE  A.  D.  AOK 

1769         Born  at  Marbach.Wurttemberg,  .    .      ..  1790         Married, 31 

1780  Surgeon  in  army, 21  1792         "HiatoryofthcTbirty  Years' War,"  .      33 

1781  Die  Rduber,  "The  Robbers,"    ...      22  1799         Wallenstein, 40 

1783         Connected  with  Mannheim  theater, .      24  1799-1801  Maria  Stuart;  Die  Junnfrau  fon 

1787         Finished    Don   Carlos   at    Dresden;  Or/ran*.  "The  Maid  of  Orleans,"  40-42 

resided  at  Weimar, 28  1804         WUhdm  Tell 45 

1789         Professor  of  history  at  Jena,     ...     30  1805         Died  at  Weimar, 46 


TOHANN  CHRISTOPH  FRIEDRICHvon 
*'  SCHILLER,  the  great  German  national 
poet  and  dramatist,  was  born  at  Marbach, 
Wurttemberg,  Germany,  November  10,  1759, 
and  died  at  Weimar,  May  9,  1805.  His  father 
had  been  a  surgeon,  and  afterward  an  ensign 
and  captain  in  the  Bavarian  army.  Before 
the  poet  was  born  his  father  had  retired  from 
the  service,  but  was  still  retained  in  the  pay 
of  the  duke  of  Wurttemberg  as  the  inspector 
and  superintendent  of  his  pleasure  grounds 
at  Ludwigsburg,  his  principal  country  resi- 
dence. Both  the  father  and  the  mother  of 
Schiller  were  persons  of  great  probity  and 
good  sense ;  but  it  was  from  his  mother,  who 
was  a  woman  of  warm  affection  and  deep 
piety,  more  particularly  that  he  seems  to  have 
derived  his  poetical  sensibility  and  taste. 

Schiller's  early  education  was  subject  to 
frequent  interruption,  owing  to  the  migratory 
habits  which  the  occupation  of  his  father 
entailed  upon  the  family.  In  his  ninth  year 
he  was  sent  to  school  at  Ludwigsburg,  where 
the  family  were  now  settled;  and  whatever 
progress  he  may  have  made  in  scholarship, 
the  following  anecdote  shows  that  he  had 
begun  even  this  early,  "to  muse  on  nature 
with  a  poet's  eye."  In  his  seventh  year,  hav- 
ing disappeared  during  a  tremendous  thunder- 


storm, he  was  found,  after  an  anxious  search, 
perched  high  on  the  bough  of  a  tree,  gazing 
at  the  tempestuous  sky,  in  raptures  with  the 
beauty  of  the  lightning,  and  eager  "to  see 
where  it  was  coming  from."  He  was  at  first 
destined  for  the  clerical  profession;  but  on 
account  of  the  offer  of  the  duke  of  Wiirttem- 
berg  to  enrol  him  in  the  ducal  school  which 
he  had  established  at  Stuttgart,  and  from 
which  theology  was  excluded,  the  design  was 
abandoned,  although  not  without  reluctance 
on  the  part  both  of  Schiller  and  his  parents. 
At  the  Karlsschule  at  Stuttgart,  which 
Schiller  entered  in  his  fourteenth  year,  the 
troubles  of  his  life  began.  As  each  pupil  had 
to  choose  some  special  study  with  a  view  to 
his  future  profession,  Schiller  entered  first 
upon  the  study  of  law,  which  he  soon  after- 
ward changed  for  that  of  medicine.  Neither 
of  these  was  a  very  congenial  calling ;  but  he 
might,  perhaps,  have  reconciled  himself  to 
them,  had  it  not  been  for  the  chilling  and 
repulsive  formalism  which  pervaded  the  whole 
estabhshment.  The  school  was  regulated  on 
principles  of  the  most  inflexible  martinetism. 
"The  process  of  teaching  and  hving,"  says 
Carlyle,  "was  conducted  with  the  stiff  for- 
mahty  of  military  drilling;  everything  went 
on  by  statute  and  ordinance,  there  was  no 


IN  LITERATURE 


W 


scope  for  the  exercise  of  free  will,  no  allowance 
for  the  varieties  of  original  structure."  Here 
Schiller  spent  six  cheerless  and  vexatious 
years,  fretting  against  a  system  which  must 
have  been  irksome  to  all  the  inmates  of  this 
house  of  bondage,  and  irksome  in  a  tenfold 
degree  to  a  youth  of  his  ardent,  impetuous, 
sensitive,  and  independent  temperament. 

He  acquired,  however,  a  sufficient  knowl- 
edge of  his  profession,  for  in  1780  he  was 
appointed  by  the  duke  of  Wiirttemberg  to 
the  position  of  surgeon  in  a  regiment.  But 
the  whole  bent  of  his  inclinations  was  toward 
literature,  so  that  it  is  probable  that  even  his 
regimental  practice  was  little  more  than 
nominal.  "Schiller,"  says  Jean  Paul,  "was 
educated  for  a  surgeon ;  but  fate  said  to  him 
—  'No,  there  are  deeper  sores  than  those  of 
the  body  —  heal  thou  the  deeper!'  So  he 
became  a  poet  and  author."  In  fact,  two 
years  before  this  time  and  while  still  a  school 
boy,  he  had  prepared  a  drama,  in  which  he 
poured  forth  the  pent-up  passions  of  his  life, 
and  which  ere  long  was  to  burst  upon  the 
world  hke  a  thunderbolt.  This  was  his  cele- 
brated tragedy  Die  Rduber,  "The  Robbers," 
brought  out  in  1781.  "In  that  play,"  says 
Carlyle,  "he  wrenched  asunder  his  fetters 
with  a  force  which  was  felt  at  the  extremities 
of  Europe";  the  sensation  it  excited  spread 
through  the  mind  of  Germany,  as  Bulwer 
says,  "like  fire  through  flax." 

Symptoms  which  portended  revolution 
had  already  appeared  in  the  political  atmos- 
phere of  nations;  in  many  quarters  a  feeling 
prevailed  that  society  and  its  institutions 
had  become  hollow,  conventional,  and  anti- 
quated. To  these  symptoms  and  feelings, 
"The  Robbers"  gave  a  shape  and  a  voice, 
crude,  indeed,  and  exaggerated,  but  vivid, 
impassioned,  and  sjonpathetic.  The  piece 
was  in  the  highest  degree  revolutionary;  not 
that  it  was  directly  political,  but  it  was  a 
daring  defiance  of  the  artificial  restraints  of 
civilization  —  a  glowing  picture  of  free  and 
wild  life  in  the  woods,  led  by  a  gang  of  young 
desperadoes  who  had  thrown  off  the  conven- 
tions of  society,  and  were  determined  to  live 
according  to  the  good  old  plan,  that  they 
should  take  who  have  the  power,  and  they 
should  keep  who  can.  In  a  literary  sense, 
also,  it  was  highly  revolutionary,  inasmuch 
as  it  was  founded  on  no  foreign  models,  but 
was  a  genuine  product  of  native  German 
genius.  As  such  it  was  hailed  with  very 
general  acclamation. 


!  The  inspiration  of  "The  Robbers  "  is  to  be 
found,  doubtless,  in  the  restrictions  by  which 
Schiller  was  hampered  in  the  Karlsschule  at 
Stuttgart.  This  work  was  the  rebound  of 
his  mind  —  the  form  in  which  his  elastic 
spirit  reacted  against  the  cramping  influences 
of  the  plan.  But  if  the  drama  gave  him  fame, 
it  also  brought  him  into  serious  trouble. 
Though  free  from  the  trammels  of  school,  he 
was  not  yet  beyond  the  ducal  jurisdiction. 
His  play  was  pubUshed  in  1781.  It  gave 
great  offense  to  his  patron,  the  duke,  as  in- 
consistent both  with  good  taste  and  with 
the  duties  of  a  regimental  surgeon.  It  was 
soon  afterward  acted  at  Maimheim,  and 
Schiller  was  naturally  present  at  the  per- 
formance, although  without  leave.  The  duke 
caused  him  to  be  arrested,  and  he  was  im- 
prisoned for  fourteen  days. 

How  far  this  persecution  might  have  been 
carried,  it  is  impossible  to  say.  But  Schiller, 
fearing  that  he  might  be  doomed  to  perpetual 
imprisonment,  and  having  before  his  eyes  the 
fate  of  the  poet  Schubart,  who  for  offenses 
as  venial  had  pined  for  eight  years  in  an  Aus- 
trian dungeon,  resolved  to  escape  from  the 
dominions  of  Wiirttemberg.  He  was  invited 
by  an  old  school  fellow,  Wilhelm  von  Wol- 
zogen,  to  pay  him  a  visit  at  Bauerbach,  near 
Meiningen,  where  his  mother,  an  admirer  of 
the  poet,  resided.  Here  he  fell  in  love  with  the 
daughter  of  his  hostess,  Charlotte  von  Wolzo- 
gen,  who,  however,  did  not  reciprocate  his 
passion;  and  here,  too,  he  commenced  the 
composition  of  two  new  dramas,  Fiesco  and 
Kabale  und  Liebe,  "Cabal  and  Love."  He 
then  went  to  Mannheim.  But  Mannheim  was 
too  near  Wiirttemberg  to  be  a  safe  city  of 
refuge,  so  he  proceeded  to  Frankfort  and 
Oggersheim.  His  faithful  companion  in  these 
wanderings  was  a  musical  friend  named 
Streicher,  whose  good  himior  and  accomplish- 
ments helped  to  cheer  the  gloom  of  their 
situation.  They  could  muster  between  them 
at  the  start  only  about  fifty  florins  —  equal 
to  about  twenty-five  dollars  —  and  when 
these  were  expended,  they  were  reduced  to 
sore  straits. 

Meanwhile,  the  anger  of  the  duke  of  Wiirt- 
temberg had  subsided.  Though  quick  ten»- 
pered,  he  was  not  vindictive.  He  may  have 
felt,  too,  that  it  would  ill  become  him  to  perse- 
cute a  man  whom  all  Germany  was  uniting 
to  honor.  Accordingly,  an  intimation  waa 
conveyed  to  Schiller  that  he  might  henceforth 
reside  where  he  pleased.    So  he  returned  to 


80 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT, 


Mannheim  where  he  was  appointed  poet  to  the 
theater,  then  the  most  celebrated  in  Germany. 

He  settled  at  Mannheim  in  1783.  During 
this  period  he  acquired,  through  his  connec- 
tion with  the  theater  and  intimacy  with  Meier 
and  Dalberg,  much  insight  into  the  means  by 
which  plays  are  best  adapted  for  effective 
representation.  He  completed  his  tragedy 
of  Fiesco,  which,  although  at  first  not  so  suc- 
cessful as  "The  Robbers,"  obtained,  after  a 
time,  a  large  share  of  popularity.  This  was 
followed  by  "Cabal  and  Love,"  which  was 
also  very  favorably  received.  Both  of  these 
tragedies  are  deeply  impressive,  and  emi- 
nently original.  They  show  a  marked  im- 
provement in  the  author's  taste  and  knowl- 
edge of  human  nature  since  the  date  of  "The 
Robbers."  Though  they  still  somewhat  over- 
step the  propriety  of  nature,  their  exaggera- 
tions are  less  prominent  than  those  of  his 
earlier  composition.  The  first  of  these  plays 
has  the  advantage  of  being  historical.  It 
represents  the  conspiracy  by  which  Fiesco, 
a  man  with  many  noble  qualities,  aims  at  the 
possession  of  the  supreme  power  in  Genoa, 
and  how  he  falls  by  the  hand  of  the  bigoted 
patriot  in  Verrina.  The  other  drama,  "  Cabal 
and  Love,"  is  a  tragedy  of  domestic  hfe. 

Schiller's  fame  was  now  assured.  But  his 
was  one  of  those  minds  which  are  ever  strug- 
gling toward  perfection,  and  ever  animated 
by  the  desire  to  be  serviceable  to  their  fellow 
creatures.  He  strove  incessantly  to  improve 
himself  in  dramatic  art,  and  to  render  the 
theater  at  Mannheim  the  instrument  of  a  high 
moral  purpose.  He  may  have  overestimated 
the  power  and  the  influence  of  theatrical 
representation ;  but  he  thought  that,  like  the 
school  and  the  pulpit,  it  might  be  made  dn 
effectual  agent  in  the  work  of  national  instruc- 
tion and  civilization.  To  this  noble  end  he 
bent  all  his  powers  during  his  residence  at 
Mannheim. 

Here  he  commenced  Don  Carlos,  an  histori- 
cal subject  of  the  deepest  tragical  interest, 
and  one  on  which  he  has  expended  the  finest 
resources  of  his  genius.  In  this  play  there 
are  no  traces  of  the  immaturity  which  marked 
his  earlier  efforts.  At  this  time  he  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  councilor  to  the  duchy  of 
Weimar.  In  obtaining  this  title,  which  was 
a  mere  nominal  dignity,  his  purpose,  no  doubt, 
was  to  strengthen  his  chance  of  securing  some 
office,  diplomatic,  legal,  or  medical,  which 
might  yield  him  a  less  precarious  livelihood 
than  that  which  he  was  earning  in  the  service 


of  the  muses.  With  this  practical  object  in 
view,  and  being  embroiled  with  the  actors, 
who  frequently  refused  to  adopt  his  sugges- 
tions, he  resolved  to  leave  Mannheim. 

Then  followed  another  period  of  wandering. 
He  first  took  up  his  abode  at  Leipzig,  then  the 
great  meeting  place  of  all  the  forces  of  the 
empire,  intellectual,  moral,  and  material. 
Here  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Huber, 
the  famous  literary  critic,  and  Gottfried  Kor- 
ner,  and  wrote  the  beautiful  "Ode  to  Joy." 
His  hope  that  he  might  receive  some  appoint- 
ment in  law  or  in  medicine  at  Leipzig,  through 
the  influence  of  the  duke  of  Weimar,  was 
never  fulfilled;  and  he  accompanied  Korner 
to  the  latter's  villa  near  Dresden.  Probably 
the  chief  motive  which  urged  him  to  accom- 
pany Korner  was  a  second  unhappy  love 
affair.  While  residing  at  Mannheim,  Schiller 
had  fallen  in  love  with  Margaret  Schwann, 
the  daughter  of  a  bookseller.  Margaret  seems 
to  have  been  a  very  attractive  person,  and 
in  all  respects  worthy  of  the  poet's  affection 
and  admiration.  But  the  uncertainty  of  his 
position  and  prospects  interposed,  at  the 
time,  an  insuperable  bar  to  their  union.  "  A 
bookseller,"  as  Bulwer  remarks,  "is  generally 
the  last  person  to  choose,  as  his  son-in-law, 
an  author.  He  has  seen  too  much  of  the 
vicissitudes  of  an  author's  life,  and  of  the  airy 
basis  of  an  author's  hopes  in  the  future,  to 
be  flattered  by  the  proposals  of  a  suitor,  who 
finds  it  easier  to  charm  the  world  than  to  pay 
the  butcher."  Hence  the  elder  Schwann  had 
looked  rather  coldly  on  the  growing  intimacy 
between  Margaret  and  Schiller;  and  it  was 
to  overcome  his  scruples  that  the  poet  had 
bethought  him  of  turning  his  abilities  into  a 
more  practical  channel.  At  this  juncture  he 
explained  his  intentions  and  prospects  to 
Margaret's  father,  and  made  a  formal  proposal 
for  her  hand.  But  whether  it  was  that  the 
bookseller  distrusted  the  business  talents  of 
the  poet,  or  had  misgivings  on  some  other 
score,  he  refused  his  consent,  and  all  inter- 
course between  them  was  broken  off.  They 
met  at  Heidelberg  many  years  afterward, 
after  Margaret  had  married,  and  their  emotion 
showed  how  deep  and  intense  their  early 
attachment  had  been.  Aiter  this  disappoint- 
ment, at  any  rate,  Schiller  gave  up  his  inten- 
tion of  devoting  himself  to  a  professional 
calling,  and  removed  to  Dresden. 

At  Dresden  he  completed  Don  Carlos  in 
1787,  wrote  "Philosophical  letters  between 
Julius  and  Raphael,"  and  most  of  the  poems 


IN   LITERATURE 


87 


which  in  his  collected  works  are  entitled 
"  Poems  of  the  second  period."  The  "  Poems 
of  the  first  period"  had  been  written  some 
time  before. 

After  two  years  in  Dresden  he  shifted  his 
residence  to  Weimar,  which,  though  politically- 
insignificant,  was  at  this  time  the  intellectual 
capital  of  Germany.  Goethe,  Wieland,  and 
Herder,  and  many  minor  celebrities,  were  here 
assembled  under  the  friendly  patronage  of 
the  reigning  duke  and  his  amiable  mother,  the 
princess  Amelia.  In  the  adjacent  town  of 
Jena  there  were  professors  strong  in  philoso- 
phy and  the  sciences.  Schiller  came  to 
Weimar  in  1787;  at  first  he  was  rather  shy 
and  constrained  in  his  new  position,  but  ere 
long  he  felt  quite  at  home  in  a  society  which 
was  polished  without  being  stiff,  and  courtly 
without  ceasing  to  be  cordial. 

While  at  Weimar,  he  met  his  future  wife, 
Charlotte  von  Lengefeld,  a  woman  of  fine 
intellect  and  culture,  whom  he  married  in 
1790  after  a  coui-tship  of  three  years  . 

In  the  preceding  year  he  had  been  appointed 
to  the  position  of  professor  of  history  at  the 
university  of  Jena,  following  the  publication  of 
his  "  Revolt  of  the  Netherlands."  The  "  History 
of  the  Thirty  Years' War"  was  published  in 
1792.  Both  of  these  works  show  that  Schiller 
had  a  genius  for  fact,  not  much  inferior  to  his 
genius  for  fiction.  Carlyle  pronounced  the 
latter  the  best  historical  performance  of  which 
Germany  could  boast.  How  he  might  have 
acquitted  himself  as  an  historical  lecturer, 
we  are  not  in  a  position  to  decide.  His  room 
was  crowded,  but  his  success  seems  to  have 
been  doubtful.  His  health  broke  down,  and 
he  had  to  remit  the  active  duties  of  his  calling 
before  he  had  a  sufficient  trial,  and  even  before 
his  preparations  were  complete.  He  became 
seriously  ill  in  1791,  and  his  health  was  never 
afterward  restored,  although  he  continued 
during  the  remaining  years  of  his  life  to  work 
out  his  literary  projects  with  an  unabated 
ardor  which,  not  disease,  but  only  death, 
could  subdue. 

From  1791  to  1799  Schiller  resided  prin- 
cipally at  Jena,  although  incapacitated  for 
the  active  duties  of  his  professorship.  The 
generous  tribute  of  admiration  which  came 
to  him  from  far  Denmark  during  this  period 
must  not  be  passed  over  without  notice.  Two 
Danish  nobles,  the  count  Ernest  von  Schim- 
melmann,  and  the  prince  Christian  von  Hol- 
stein  Augustenburg,  having  heard  of  his  ill- 
ness, tendered  to  him,  with  expressions  of 


I  enthusiastic  esteem,  a  pension  of  a  thousand 
dollars  to  last  for  three  years,  in  order  that 
no  means  which  could  bring  back  his  health 
might  be  left  untried.  Such  munificence,  so 
kindly  offered,  the  poet,  of  course,  gratefully 
accepted.  It  enabled  him  to  face  work  before 
which  even  he,  with  all  his  heroism,  might 
otherwise  have  succumbed.  The  summer 
house  at  Jena  in  which,  during  the  watches 
of  the  night,  and  with  a  flask  of  Rhenish  wine 
beside  him  "to  cheer,  but  not  inebriate," 
some  of  his  finest  tragedies  were  composed, 
continued  long  to  be  shown  as  an  object  of 
interest  to  travelers. 

It  was,  indeed,  during  these  years  of  pwn 
that  his  genius  soared  to  its  noblest  flights, 
and  he  executed  his  grandest  achievements. 
In  1799  he  completed  Wallenstein,  perhaps 
his  greatest  work,  and  regarded  by  many  as 
the  finest  tragedy  in  the  German  language. 
From  1799  to  1801  — after  his  return  to 
Weimar  —  his  intimacy  with  Goethe  exercised 
a  most  happy  influence  upon  the  productions 
of  his  genius.  " The  Maid  of  Orleans,"  "  Mary 
Stuart,"  and  "The  Bride  of  Messina,"  as  well 
as  some  minor  poems,  belong  to  that  period. 
His  "Song  of  the  Bell,"  though  properly 
classed  as  a  minor  poem,  has  never  been  sur- 
passed. In  it  the  three  great  events  of  human 
life  —  birth,  marriage,  and  death,  all  marked 
by  the  ringing  of  the  bell  —  are  touched  upon 
with  an  exquisite  beauty  and  pathos  which, 
had  the  author  composed  nothing  else,  would 
have  secured  him  a  place  among  the  rare 
poets  of  the  human  race. 

In  1804  Schiller  produced  Wilhelm  Tell, 
the  most  popular  of  all  his  dramas.  The 
same  year  his  fatal  malady  —  pulmonary 
consumption  —  began  to  tighten  its  grip  on 
his  frail  life,  and  he  died  on  May  9th  of  the 
following  year. 

Ever  since  his  death  the  fame  of  Schiller 
has  increased.  He  has  long  been  recognized 
as  next  to  Goethe  in  German  literature,  if 
not  in  some  respects  his  superior.  Surely  as 
a  dramatist  he  stands  foremost  among  Ger- 
man, and  among  the  highest  of  all  dramatic 
writers.  As  a  poet  he  is  characterized  by 
strong  feeling  and  intense  idealism.  He 
possessed  true  nobility  of  soul  —  proof  against 
poverty,  dependence,  ill  health.  If,  indeed, 
the  poet's  mission  is  to  present  pure  and  ele- 
vating ideals  of  life,  Schiller  may  take  high 
rank.  Freedom  from  oppression,  temporal 
and  spiritual ;  freedom  from  sloth,  ignorance, 
and  vice;    love  of  the  family,  unity  in  the 


88 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


state,  feeling  for  the  race,  benevolence  in  the 
sovereign,  loyalty  in  the  statesman,  the  citizen, 
and  the  friend;  the  courage  of  the  warrior, 
the  blessings  of  peace  and  ordered  Hfe;  the 
self-sacrificing  aspirations  of  youth,  of  lovers, 
and  all  ingenuous  souls ;  the  nobility  of  woman 
—  these  are  the  themes  which  Schiller  sang 
with  glorious  vehemence,  and  revived  for  the 
depressed  generation  in  which  his  lot  was 
cast.  Schiller's  dramas  were  a  trumpet-call 
to  what  was  best  and  noblest  around  him. 
His  verses  stirred  the  spirit  which,  when  the 


time  came,  was  to  achieve  the  liberation  of 
his  country,  and  they  have  justly  found  a 
lasting  home  in  the  German  heart. 

"The  love  of  liberty,"  says  Madame  de 
Stael,  "respect  for  the  female  sex,  enthusiastic 
admiration  of  the  fine  arts,  inspired  his  mind. 
Schiller  was  the  best  of  friends  —  the  best  of 
fathers  —  the  best  of  husbands ;  no  quality 
was  wanting  to  complete  that  gentle  and 
peaceful  character  which  was  animated  by 
the  fire  of  genius  alone." 


A.  D. 

1771 
1783 

1792 
1797 
1799 

1802-03 

1805 

1808 

1810 

1814 


SCOTT 

AGE  A.  D. 

Bom  at  Edinburgh,  Scotland^ 1815 

Entered  the  university   of   Edin-  1816 

burgh, 12  1818 

Admitted  as  an  advocate, 21  1819 

Married, 26  1820 

Translated  Goethe's  Gdtz  von  Ber-  1821 

lichingen 28  1822 

Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish  Border,  .    31-32  1824 

The  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,   ...     34  1827 

Marmion, 37  1828 

The  Lady  of  the  Lake, 39  1832 

Waverley, 43 


AOB 

Ouy  Mannering, 44 

The  Antiquary;  Old  Mortality,  ...  45 

Rob  Roy;  Thi'  Heart  of  Midlothian,  .  47 

The  Bnde  of  Lammermoor,     ....  48 

Ivanhoe, 49 

KenUworth 50 

The  Pirate, 51 

St.  Ronan'8  Well, 53 

Life  of  Napoleon, 56 

The  Fair  Maid  of  Perth, 57 

Died  at  Abbotsfortl, 61 


CIR  WALTER  SCOTT,  famous  Scottish 
^  poet  and  novelist,  was  bom  in  Edinburgh, 
Scotland,  August  15,  1771.  His  father  was 
a  w^riter  to  the  signet,  or  solicitor,  and  was 
descended  from  an  old  family  of  border  free- 
booters. His  mother,  Anne  Rutherford,  was 
the  daughter  of  one  of  the  medical  professors 
in  the  university  of  Edinburgh.  Walter  was 
the  seventh  of  a  family  of  twelve,  six  of  whom 
lived  to  maturity,  but  only  two,  the  poet  and 
his  brother  Thomas,  left  any  descendants. 
Before  he  had  completed  his  second  year 
Walter  was  attacked  by  a  fever,  which  seri- 
ously impaired  his  health,  and  caused  a 
lameness  which  proved  permanent.  He  was 
removed  soon  afterward  to  Sandy  Knowe, 
the  farmhouse  of  his  paternal  grandfather. 
At  this  place,  close  beside  the  ruined  forta- 
lice  of  Smailholm,  overlooking  the  course  of 
the  Tweed,  and  an  extensive  tract  of  country 
studded  with  spots  famous  in  border  history, 
Scott  lived  until  his  eighth  year  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  months  spent  at  Bath. 
These  romantic  localities,  and  the  old  stories 
of  his  marauding  ancestors  to  which  he  lis- 
tened, produced  a  deep  and  indeUble  impres- 
sion upon  his  mind.  He  returned  to  Edin- 
burgh in  1779,  with  health  partially  restored, 
and  was  sent  to  the  high  school  of  that  city, 


where  he  became  distinguished  for  his  courage, 
extraordinary  memory,  vast  store  of  miscel- 
laneous information,  and  his  skill  in  story- 
telling, rather  than  for  accurate  scholarship. 

"I  left  the  high  school,"  he  says,  "with  a 
great  quantity  of  general  information,  ill 
arranged,  indeed,  and  collected  without  sys- 
tem, yet  deeply  impressed  upon  my  mind, 
readily  assorted  by  my  power  of  connection 
and  memory,  and  guided,  if  I  may  be  per- 
mitted to  say  so,  by  a  vivid  and  active  imagi- 
nation." 

In  the  winter  of  1783  he  entered  the  uni- 
versity of  his  native  city,  attending  only  one 
session,  with  little  or  no  apparent  profit.  He 
never  understood  Greek  beyond  the  elements, 
and  had  but  a  loose  scholarship  in  Latin; 
and  the  acquaintance,  which  he  obtained  in 
early  manhood,  with  French,  Italian,  Spanish, 
and  German,  was  very  superficial.  When  he 
was  nearly  fifteen  years  old,  he  entered  his 
father's  office  and  studied  law  sedulously. 
For  literary  avocations  he  was  making,  un- 
designedly, full  preparation,  by  devouring 
romances,  novels,  histories,  and  old  plays; 
while  he  continued  to  distinguish  himself  by 
inventing  and  telling  stories. 

His  father's  intention,  as  well  as  his  own, 
was  that  he  should  become  an  advocate ;  and 


SIR   WALTER  SCOTT 

From  a  painting 


IN  LITERATURE 


01 


his  attendance  in  the  debating  club,  called 
the  speculative  society,  was  one  of  his  steps 
of  training,  while  it  gave  occasion  for  writing 
essays,  exhibiting  his  turn  for  antiquarian 
and  poetical  studies.  In  1792  he  was  ad- 
mitted as  a  member  of  the  Scottish  faculty 
of  advocates.  In  1796  he  published  trans- 
lations in  verse  of  Burger's  German  ballads, 
"  Lenora,"  and  the  "  Wild  Huntsman" ;  and  he 
contributed  to  Lewis's  Tales  of  Wonder.  In 
1799  appeared  his  translation  of  Goethe's 
prose  drama,  Gotz  von  Berlichingen;  and  in 
the  same  year  he  wrote,  and  made  known 
to  his  friends,  the  earliest  of  his  considerable 
efforts  in  original  poetry,  the  ballads  of  Glen- 
finlas,  The  Eve  of  St.  John,  and  The  Grey 
Brother.  Still  he  had  gained  no  high  hterary 
reputation;  nor  was  literary  composition 
more  than  an  occasional  employment  for  him. 
He  paid  an  average  amount  of  attention  to 
his  profession,  and  was  desirous  of  securing 
an  independent  livelihood  from  some  source 
other  than  literature. 

In  the  latter  part  of  1797  he  married  Char- 
lotte Margaret  Carpenter,  the  daughter  of  a 
French  emigrant,  whose  small  fortune  added 
something  to  his  income.  His  father's  death 
next  gave  him  a  moderate  patrimony;  and, 
in  1799,  the  patronage  of  the  duke  of  Buc- 
cleuch  and  Lord  Melville,  to  whose  politics 
he  steadily  and  warmly  adhered,  bestowed  on 
him  the  shrievalty  of  Selkirkshire,  an  easy 
office,  with  an  annual  salary  of  three  hundred 
pounds.  In  the  same  year  his  poetical  taste, 
both  in  rhyme  and  in  diction  (if  not  in  more 
important  matters),  received  a  new  impulse 
and  direction  from  hearing  unpubUshed  poems 
of  Wordsworth  and  Coleridge,  especially 
Christabel. 

Now,  easy  in  circumstances  and  occupying 
a  good  position  in  society,  Scott  was  suf- 
ficiently independent  of  professional  labor 
to  devote  himself  more  and  more  to  less  un- 
congenial pursuits;  and  he  gradually  made 
authorship  the  main  business  of  his  fife. 

The  brilliant  period  of  Scott's  literary  career 
extends  from  1802,  when  he  was  in  his  thirty- 
first  year,  to  1825,  when  he  was  in  his  fifty- 
fourth.  In  the  first  of  those  years  he  pub- 
lished the  first  and  second  volumes,  and  in 
the  next  year  the  third  volume  of  the  Min- 
strelsy of  the  Scottish  Border.  This  pubUcation 
gave  him  at  once  a  distinguished  reputation. 
The  old  ballads  were  excellently  edited;  the 
annotations  showed  great  sagacity,  good 
sense,  and  varied  knowledge;  and  there  was 


undeniable  promise  in  the  few  ballads  of  hit 
own  that  were  inserted  in  the  collection. 

In  1802,  likewise,  he  had  begun  to  write 
what  he  called  "  a  kind  of  romance  of  border- 
chivalry,  in  a  light-horse-man  sort  of  stanza." 
This  piece,  insensibly  swelling  in  dimensions, 
soon  became  too  bulky  for  the  "minstrelsy," 
and  was  reserved  to  be  the  foundation  stone 
of  Scott's  celebrity  as  an  original  poet.  It 
was  circulated  among  his  friends,  and  warmly 
approved.  It  appeared  at  length  in  1805, 
under  the  title  of  The  Lay  of  Vie  Last  Minstrel. 
Its  success  was  immediate  and  unexampled. 
The  poem  appeared  when  genuine  poetry  had 
long  been  unheard  by  the  public,  and  it  was 
also  the  first  vigorous  poetical  narrative  that 
had  been  produced  in  Great  Britain  for  more 
than  a  century.  But,  further,  it  was  the 
earliest  poem  which  was  inspired  by  the  ani- 
mation and  eagerness  of  the  age  which  gave 
it  birth.  The  Lay  was  not,  any  more  than 
its  successors,  the  effort  of  a  poet  aiming  at 
the  highest  effects  of  his  art;  but  it  was  a 
work  of  great  genius  and  originality;  and, 
if  inferior  to  some  of  Scott's  latest  poems  in 
mechanism,  and  less  rich  in  strikingly  poetical 
passages,  it  was  more  faithful  than  any  of 
them  to  his  design,  of  reconstructing  the 
chivalrous  romance  in  a  shape  accommodated 
to  modern  sympathies. 

Marmion,  containing  in  its  description  of 
the  battle  one  of  the  most  spirited  passages 
in  the  whole  range  of  English  poetry,  ap- 
peared in  1808;  the  beautiful  metrical  ro- 
mance of  The  Lady  of  the  Lake  in  1810;  in 
1811  came  The  Vision  of  Don  Roderick,  indi- 
cating a  decrease  of  strength,  which  also 
showed  itself  two  years  later  in  Rokeby;  in 
1815  was  published  The  Lord  of  the  Isles;  and 
the  fist  of  the  metrical  romances  closed  with 
The  Bridal  of  Triermain,  and  Harold  the 
Dauntless,  published  respectively  in  1813  and 
1817,  and  both  of  them  anonymously. 

In  the  course  of  this  period,  also,  Scott 
edited  the  works  of  Dryden  and  Swift,  con- 
tributed for  a  time  to  the  Edinburgh  Review, 
and  in  1808  assisted  zealously  in  establishing 
its  formidable  rival  the  Quarterly.  He  wrote 
also  biographical  and  critical  prefaces,  and 
performed  much  other  miscellaneous  labor. 
To  such  work  he  was  led  by  those  commercial 
engagements  which  he  now  formed,  and 
which  exercised  in  the  end  so  disastrous  ao 
influence  upon  his  fortune. 

His  school  fellow,  James  Ballantyne,  having 
been  the  editor  and  printer  of  a  newspaper 


92 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


in  Roxburgshire,  was  assisted  by  Scott  in 
setting  up  a  printing  house  in  Edinburgh; 
and  the  poet,  after  having  loaned  money  to 
the  firm,  became  really  a  partner  in  it  in  1805. 
Not  long  afterward  his  connection  with  the 
business  became  yet  closer.  He  quarreled 
with  his  publisher,  Constable.  He  desired 
to  obtain  facilities  for  giving  to  the  world 
literature  of  a  higher  stamp  than  that  on 
which  publishers  are  likely  to  venture;  and, 
not  very  consistently  with  his  desire,  he 
entertained  sanguine  hopes  of  profit  from  a 
publishing  business  guided  by  a  man  of  knowl- 
edge and  influence  like  himself.  Accordingly, 
in  1808,  John  Ballantyne,  a  brother  of  James, 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  a  new  publishing 
firm;  but  here,  as  in  the  former  case,  Scott 
was  a  partner  to  the  extent  of  a  third.  All 
these  arrangements  were  kept  profoundly 
secret;  in  the  eyes  of  the  public,  and  even 
of  his  most  intimate  associates,  Scott  was 
merely  the  patron  and  friend  of  the  Messrs. 
Ballantyne. 

A  few  years  after  the  formation  of  these 
partnerships,  Scott  entered  on  the  second 
stage  of  his  literary  progress.  He  was  one  of 
the  first  to  discover  the  waning  popularity 
of  his  poetry;  and  he  cheerfully  set  himself 
at  work  to  regain  his  laurels  in  a  new  field. 
He  wished  for  fame ;  he  wished  also  for  gain. 
He  had  long  cherished  the  ambition  of  terri- 
torial possession;  and  this  ambition  he  could 
not  hope  to  gratify  speedily  from  his  ordinary 
means,  though  his  appointment  as  one  of 
the  principal  clerks  of  the  court  of  sessions 
in  Scotland  added,  from  1812,  more  than  a 
thousand  pounds  annually  to  his  income. 

But  what  was  ample  for  all  prosaic  needs 
seemed  poor  to  his  imagination  with  its  fond 
and  glittering  dreams.  Already  some  such 
vision,  as  at  Abbotsford  was  afterward 
realized,  flitted  before  his  mind's  eye,  and 
it  was  the  darling  ambition  of  his  heart  to 
recreate  and  leave  behind  him  in  the  founding 
of  a  family  some  image  of  the  olden  glories 
which  were  the  Ufe  of  his  literary  inspirations. 

From  this  passion  arose  many  of  the  rash 
adventures  which  finally  ruined  the  publish- 
ing firm ;  hence,  also,  in  no  small  degree,  arose 
the  eager  industry  with  which,  when  his  prose 
works  proved  so  profitable,  he  poured  forth 
volume  after  volume.  In  1805,  while  he  was 
engaged  on  Marmion,  he  had  begun  to  write 
a  novel.  In  three  weeks,  during  the  simamer 
of  1814,  he  added  two  volumes  to  it,  and  it 
was  published  anonymously  in  July  of  that 


year,  bearing  the  name  of  Waverley,  or  'Tie 
Sixty  Years  Since.  Guy  Mannering,  The 
Antiquary,  The  Black  Dwarf,  Old  Mortality, 
Rob  Roy,  and  The  Heart  of  Midlothian  rapidly 
followed.  From  this  time  onward,  for  some 
years,  Scott  stood  on  a  pinnacle  of  fame  and 
brilliant  social  distinction  such  as  no  other 
British  man  of  letters  had  ever  reached. 

In  1817  he  had  a  violent  illness,  which 
again  endangered  his  life  in  1819;  but  in 
paroxysms  of  agony  he  dictated  The  Bride 
of  Lammermoor.  His  health  then  took  a 
turn  for  the  better,  and  Ivanhoe  was  produced. 
Novels  continued  to  pour  from  his  pen  — 
Kenilworth,  The  Pirate,  St.  Ronan's  Well,  and 
others  —  apparently  without  effort,  and  his 
brilliant  and  fascinating  romances  spread 
his  fame  to  the  utmost  limits  of  the  civilized 
world. 

He  purchased,  in  1811,  a  farm  on  the  banks 
of  the  Tweed,  near  Melrose,  built  a  cottage 
on  it,  and  acquired  land  around  it  until 
he  possessed  a  large  estate,  naming  it  Abbots- 
ford.  Here  he  erected  a  baronial  castle,  filled 
it  with  antiquarian  relics  and  ornaments, 
planted  and  improved  the  grounds,  and  dis- 
pensed hospitalities  of  which  the  most  dis- 
tinguished men  in  Europe  were  proud  to 
partake.  In  1820  he  was  created  a  baronet ; 
and  in  the  following  year  he  directed  the 
reception  to  George  IV.  in  Edinburgh. 

Even  before  this  time  both  firms  of  Ballan- 
tynes  were  tottering ;  and  they  were  brought 
to  the  ground  in  the  beginning  of  1826,  by  the 
failure  of  Constable's  house,  with  which  they 
were  deeply  involved.  The  mortifying  dis- 
closure of  Sir  Walter's  concealed  partnership 
followed,  of  course;  and  his  liabilities  were 
found  to  amount  to  a  sum  not  short  of 
one  himdred  fifty  thousand  pounds.  He 
acted  like  a  man  of  courage,  and  refused  to 
offer  to  the  creditors  any  composition,  or  to 
accept  from  them  any  discharge.  He  pledged 
himself  to  devote  the  whole  labor  of  his  sub- 
sequent fife  to  the  payment  of  the  debt. 

Breaking  up  his  establishment  at  Abbots- 
ford,  where  the  wife  whom  he  loved  lay  dying, 
he  hired  a  lodging  in  Edinburgh,  and  there 
for  some  years,  -with  stern  and  imfaltering 
resolution,  he  toiled  at  his  prodigious  task. 
In  1826  he  pubhshed  the  novel  Woodstockf 
written  while  his  pecuniary  anxieties  and 
humihations  were  at  their  height.  Afterward 
appeared  the  Life  of  Napoleon,  in  eight  vol- 
umes, and  The  Fair  Maid  of  Perth,  with  much 
other  miscellaneous  work.     Within  the  space 


IN  LITERATURE 


W 


of  two  years,  Scott  had  realized  for  his  credi- 
tors the  amazing  sum  of  nearly  forty  thousand 
pounds.  A  new  and  annotated  edition  of  the 
novels  was  issued  with  immense  success,  and 
there  seemed  every  prospect  that,  within  a 
reasonable  period,  Scott  might  again  front 
the  world,  as  he  had  pledged  himself  to  do, 
not  owing  any  man  a  penny.  In  this  hope 
he  toiled  on ;  but  the  limits  of  endurance  had 
been  reached,  and  the  springs  of  the  wornout 
brain  broke  in  that  stress  of  cruel  and  long- 
continued  effort.  In  the  year  1830  he  was 
smitten  with  paralysis,  from  which  he  never 
thoroughly  rallied.  It  was  hoped  that  the 
climate  of  Italy  might  benefit  him;  and  by 
the  government  of  the  day  a  frigate  was  placed 
at  his  disposal  in  which  to  proceed  thither. 
But  in  Italy  he  pined  for  the  home  to  which 
he  returned  only  to  die.  At  Abbotsford,  on 
the  21st  of  September,  1832,  he  died  with  his 
children  around  him  and  the  murmur  of  the 
Tweed  in  his  ears.  On  the  26th,  he  was  buried 
beside  his  wife  in  the  old  abbey  of  Dry- 
burgh. 

Sir  Walter  Scott  had  two  sons  and  two 
daughters.  His  eldest  daughter,  Sophia, 
married,  in  1820,  J.  G.  Lockhart,  Scott's 
famous  biographer.  The  eldest  son,  Walter, 
entered  the  British  army,  and  on  the  death  of 
his  father  inherited  his  title. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  melancholy  thoughts 
in  the  history  of  English  literature  that  Scott 
was  prematurely  sacrificed.  With  his  splen- 
did constitution  and  amazing  fertility,  the 
world  might  have  possessed  another  series  of 
romances  from  his  brain  not  less  inimitable 
than  those  we  have.  Some  of  his  happiest 
creations  have  not  been  surpassed  in  their 
own  vein  by  Shakespeare  himself;  some  of 
his  truest  scenes  have  Homeric  simplicity 
and  charm;  his  best  tales  have  refashioned 
the  historic  judgment  of  our  age.  No  writer 
ever  exercised  a  greater  influence  over  the 
public  mind,  or  led  to  so  much  conscious  or 
unconscious  imitation.  His  writings  never 
foster  a  bad  or  throw  ridicule  on  a  good  or 
generous  feeling. 

If  we  look  at  the  variety  and  richness  of  his 
gallery,  at  his  command  over  pathos  and 
terror,  the  laughter,  and  the  tears;  at  the 
many  large  interests  besides  those  of  romance 
which  he  realizes  to  us ;  at  the  way  in  which 
he  paints  the  whole  life  of  men  —  not  their 
humors  and  passions  alone;  at  his  unfailing 
wholesomeness  and  freshness,  like  the  sea  and 
the  air  and  the  elementary  forces  of  nature ; , 


it  may  be  pronounced  a  just  estimate  which 
places  Scott  second  only  to  Shakespeare  in 
English  creative  and  imaginative  literature. 
"All  is  great  in  the  Waverley  novels,"  8a)r8 
Goethe,  in  1831,  "material,  effect,  characters, 
execution!" 

These  inexhaustible  prose  epics  paint  in 
everlasting  hues  the  best  types  of  mediajval 
chivalry,  and  those  late  echoes  of  it  which 
linger  in  the  northern  hills.  And  Scott  does 
this  with  a  systematic  completeness  and  a 
passionate  enthusiasm  which  have  not  been 
reached  by  the  greatest  masters  of  the  histori- 
cal drama. 

But  Scott's  name  does  not  rest  on  his  fiction. 
He  was  the  poet  as  well  as  the  chronicler 
of  his  native  land.  He  revived  the  scenes  of 
history,  gave  life  to  the  departed  of  earlier 
times,  and  threw  over  all  the  mantle  of 
natural  reality.  The  following  stanzas  from 
The  Lady  of  the  Lake  might  even  pass  as  his 
own  requiem  : 

Harp  of  the  North,  farewell  I  the  hills  grow  dark, 
On  purple  peaks  a  deeper  shade  descending ; 

In  twilight  copse  the  glowworm  lights  her  spark. 
The  deer,  half  seen,  are  to  the  covert  wending— 

Yet,  once  again,  farewell,  thou  minstrel  harpl 

Receding  now  the  dying  numbers  ring 

Fainter  and  fainter  down  the  rugged  dell, 

And  now  the  mountain  breezes  scarcely  bring 
A  wandering  witch-note  of  the  distant  spell  — 
And  now  'tis  silent  all  I — enchanter,  fare  thee 
well. 

"Scott,"  says  Lord  John  Russell,  "is  the 
other  wonder  of  this  age.  Picturesque,  inter- 
esting, and  bardhke  as  are  his  narrative  poems, 
the  pathos,  humor,  description,  character, 
and,  above  all,  the  marvelous  fertility  dis- 
played in  the  novels,  show  far  greater  power : 
a  whole  region  of  the  territory  of  the  imagi- 
nation is  occupied  by  this  extraordinary  man 
alone  and  unapproachable." 

The  greatness  of  Scott's  heart,  the  loyal 
affection  and  kindness  of  his  nature,  are  at 
least  as  remarkable  as  his  astonishing  genius. 
Nor  was  he  less  sagacious,  in  all  affairs  but  his 
own,  than  he  was  sympathetic.  As  a  man  of 
letters  he  was  more  than  generous.  Far  from 
being  envious,  he  admired  contemporaries 
in  whom  the  judgment  of  posterity  has  seen 
little  to  approve.  He  cared  for  the  poor  with  a 
wise  beneficence.  In  his  writings  there  is  no 
private  scandal,  no  personal  satire,  no  bribe 
to  human  frailty,  no  libel  upon  human  nature. 
And,  in  an  important  sense,  he  was  the  great- 
est of  peaceful  and  beneficent  conquerors  in 
the  world  of  letters. 


94 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


WORDSWORTH 


AOE 


17 


A.  D. 

1770         Bom  at  Cockermouth,  England,  . 
1787  Entered  Cambridge  university,    . 

1790  Visited  France,  Switzerland,  and 

Italy, 20 

1791  Graduated  from  Cambridge;   sec- 

ond tour  of  France, 21 

1793         Settled    in    London;     Descriptive 

Sketches, 23 

1798-99  Visited  Germany, 28-29 

1800         Lyrical- Ballads 30 

1802         Married 32 


A.  D.  AOB 

1803  Met    Sir    Walter    Scott;     toured 

Scotland, 33 

1807  Poerns, 37 

1813  Settled  at  Rydal  Mount, 43 

1814  The  Excursion 44 

1820  Revisited  the  continent, 50 

1822  MemorialsofaTourontheContinent,  52 

1837  Revisited  Italy, 67 

1839  Received  D.  C.  L.  from  Oxford,  .    .  69 

1843  Poet  laureate,       73 

1850  Died  at  Rydal  Mount, 80 


YyiLLIAM  WORDSWORTH,  an  illustri- 
'  '  ous  English  poet,  was  born  at  Cocker- 
mouth,  in  Cumberland,  England,  April  7, 1770. 
He  was  the  second  son  of  John  Wordsworth, 
an  attorney,  and  agent  of  the  estates  of  Lord 
Lonsdale  and  Anne  Cookson.  There  were 
five  children  in  his  father's  family,  and 
Dorothy,  the  only  daughter,  was  his  most 
cherished  friend  and  confidant  during  his  life. 
His  mother  died  in  William's  ninth  year ;  and 
his  father  died  five  years  afterward,  leaving 
his  children  little  fortune  beyond  a  claim  on 
Sir  James  Lowther,  afterward  earl  of  Lons- 
dale. This  debt  remained  unsatisfied  until 
1802,  when,  on  the  accession  of  the  next  earl, 
eighty-five  hundred  pounds  were  paid  to  the 
Wordsworth  heirs. 

William  was  first  sent  to  school  at  Penrith, 
where  his  parents  had  gone  to  reside,  and 
subsequently  he  was  transferred  to  the 
endowed  school  at  Hawkshead,  in  Lancashire, 
where  he  remained  until  1787,  when  he  was 
sent  by  his  uncles  to  St.  John's  college,  Cam- 
bridge. He  had  read  much  in  boyhood, 
especially  poetry,  and  had  written  English 
verses  in  imitation  of  Pope's  versification,  and 
a  little  in  his  style.  One  of  these  composi- 
tions presaged  two  of  the  most  prominent 
features  in  the  character  of  his  mind.  "It 
was,"  says  he,  "a  long  poem,  running  upon 
my  own  adventures,  and  the  scenery  of  the 
country  in  which  I  was  brought  up."  The 
only  considerable  poem  which  he  wrote  while 
at  the  university  was  An  Evening  Walk. 
His  vacations  were  devoted  to  wanderings  in 
the  country;  and  in  the  autumn  of  1790  he 
spent  nearly  three  months  in  a  tour  on  the 
continent,  visiting  France,  Switzerland,  some 
of  the  Italian  lakes,  and  the  Rhine. 

He  disliked  the  system  of  the  university, 
and  attended  little  to  the  studies  of  the  place. 
Indeed,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  through  hfe 
Wordsworth  was  as  little  a  student  of  books 
as  any  literary  man  of  his  eminence  ever  was. 


Except  in  poetical  literature,  his  knowledge 
of  books  seems  always  to  have  been  very 
slight.  And  if  he  was  disinclined  to  read,  he 
was  quite  as  much  disinclined  to  writing ;  he 
had  weak  eyes  and  great  indolence.  He  has 
himself  said  that,  if  he  had  been  free  to  choose 
his  course  of  life,  he  would  have  spent  his 
days  in  traveling.  To  the  adoption  of  a  pro- 
fession he  was  never  able  to  make  up  his 
mind.  The  church  was  proposed  to  him,  but 
speedily  rejected.  His  religious  belief  was 
never  such  as  to  prevent  his  taking  clerical 
orders;  but  his  opinions  on  the  state  of 
society,  during  his  early  manhood,  would  not 
easily  have  been  reconcilable  with  the  position 
of  a  clergyman  in  the  church  of  England. 
For  several  years  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
French  revolution,  he  was  an  ardent  repub- 
lican. In  1791  he  took  his  degree  of  B.  A., 
and  qxiitted  Cambridge. 

At  the  close  of  the  year  Wordsworth  again 
went  to  France,  where  he  spent  nearly  twelve 
months.  France  was  then  in  the  early  fervors 
of  the  great  revolution,  and  its  aims  seem  to 
have  won  his  sympathetic  and  passionate 
support.  He  cultivated  relations  of  a  some- 
what intimate  kind  with  the  Girondist  party, 
which  in  the  end  might  have  seriously  com- 
promised him  had  not  his  pecuniary  circum- 
stances compelled  him  to  return  to  England 
some  little  time  before  his  French  friends  were 
sent  in  a  body  to  the  scaffold.  In  1793  he 
found  his  way  to  London. 

While  in  France  he  wrote  the  poem  called 
Descriptive  Sketches,  which  betrays,  yet  more 
than  An  Evening  Walk,  the  poetic  strength 
with  which  he  was  endowed.  These  pieces 
were  published  in  1793.  In  that  year,  also. 
The  Female  Vagrant  was  written.  His  pecun- 
iary circumstances  at  this  period  were  dis- 
tressing. For  some  years  he  wandered  about, 
gradually  satisfying  himself  that  he  was 
justified  in  regarding  poetry  as  his  true  voca- 
tion.    He    planned    a    monthly    miscellany, 


IN   LITERATURE 


which  was  to  have  been  "republican  but  not 
revolutionary";  and  he  attempted  to  find 
employment  in  writing  his  particular  political 
views  for  the  London  newspapers. 

In  1795  he  received  a  legacy  from  his  friend 
and  contemporary,  Raisley  Calvert.  An 
intimate  friend  of  the  poet,  the  latter  had 
formed  a  high  opinion  of  his  genius;  and  at 
his  early  death  in  the  year  mentioned,  he  was 
found  to  have  bequeathed  to  Wordsworth  the 
sum  of  nine  hundred  pounds,  expressly  that 
leisure  might  for  some  years  be  allowed  for 
the  undisturbed  development  of  his  powers. 
Seldom  has  money  been  better  bestowed ;  and 
small  as  the  sum  may  seem,  to  a  man  of  the 
poet's  simple  tastes  and  entire  singleness  of 
aim,  it  enabled  him  to  devote  himself  to  study 
until  the  settlement  of  his  father's  affairs. 

In  the  autumn  of  that  year  Wordsworth 
took  a  house  with  his  sister,  their  first  resi- 
dence being  at  Racedown,  in  Dorsetshire.  He 
commenced,  but  abandoned,  a  poetical  imita- 
tion of  Juvenal;  and  in  this  year  and  the 
following  he  made  his  first  and  last  attempt 
at  a  kind  of  poetry  very  uncongenial  to  the 
cast  of  his  genius,  by  wTiting  the  tragedy  of 
The  Borderers.  Refused  at  Covent  Garden, 
this  piece  remained  in  manuscript  for  nearly 
half  a  century.  About  this  time,  likewise, 
were  written  a  number  of  the  earliest  of  those 
fine  passages,  which  were  afterward  dove- 
tailed into  The  Excursion.  This  is  a  fact 
particularly  deserving  attention.  The  poet's 
blank  verse  compositions,  with  their  solemn 
tone  of  meditation,  their  purely  dignified 
action,  and  their  sweep  of  rotund  melody, 
were  known  to  the  world  only  when  he  had 
passed  middle  age ;  and  they  were  treated  by 
his  critics  as  the  fruits  of  improved  skill  and 
enlarged  experience  and  purified  taste.  But 
he  actually  had  at  his  command,  and  con- 
tinued to  give  expression  to  this  highest  mood 
of  his  poetry,  from  his  twenty-fifth  year. 

In  1797  he  moved  to  Alfoxden,  in  Somer- 
setshire, in  order  to  be  near  Coleridge,  whose 
acquaintance  he  had  made  in  Dorsetshire. 
Out  of  the  intimacy  thus  begun  came  the 
famous  Lyrical  Ballads,  published  as  a  joint 
venture  of  the  two  poets.  These  were  but 
coldly  received;  but  probably  no  man  ever 
lived  more  serenely  self-appreciated  than 
Wordsworth,  and  he  did  not  allow  himself  to 
be  disheartened  by  the  seeming  neglect  of  the 
world,  or  the  hostility  of  critics.  "Possibly 
from  some  want  of  judgment  in  pimishments 
inflicted,"  he  says,  "I  had  become  perverse 


and  obstinate  in  defying  chastisement,  and 
rather  proud  of  it  than  otherwise." 

At  this  time,  indeed,  as  it  has  been  remarked 
by  his  nephew,  the  whole  tenor  of  his  opinions 
led  him  to  dissatisfaction  with  things  existing ; 
and  his  political  creed  —  perhaps  in  part 
through  the  shock  which  events  on  the  con- 
tinent were  beginning  to  give  to  it  —  affected 
his  creed  in  literature.  He  perceived  with 
great  clearness  two  or  three  deep-rooted 
faults  in  the  recent  poets  of  England;  the 
artificial  stamp  of  their  diction ;  their  general 
inattention  to  external  nature ;  their  want  of 
sympathy  with  ordinary  events  and  with  the 
feelings  of  mankind  at  large.  He  felt  that  he 
possessed  the  power  of  producing  poetry  in 
which  these  faults  should  be  avoided.  It  was 
but  natural,  then,  that  the  poems  with  which 
he  chose  to  make  his  first  efforts  toward  the 
reformation  of  the  public  taste  should  contain 
some  false  canons  that  could  be  easily  turned 
into  hostile  criticism. 

The  poet  was  now  in  his  twenty-ninth  year; 
and  with  his  sister  and  Coleridge  he  went  to 
Germany.  The  party  separating.  Miss  Words- 
worth and  her  brother  spent  the  winter  of 
1798-99  very  uncomfortably,  and  seemingly 
with  little  advantage  of  any  kind,  at  Goslar, 
in  Hanover.  Here  were  written  several 
beautiful  pieces,  among  which  were  Lucy 
Gray,  and  the  fragments  of  blank  verse 
beginning  "There  was  a  boy"  and  "Wisdom 
and  Spirit  of  the  Universe."  A  beginning  was 
also  made  with  that  first  part  of  the  great 
poem  which  Wordsworth's  friends  entitled 
The  Prelude. 

He  now  returned  to  his  native  Cumberland 
which  he  never  again  permanently  left.  In 
the  end  of  1799  he  settled  with  his  sister  in  a 
small  house  at  Grasmere,  which  he  continued 
to  occupy  for  eight  years.  In  1800  were 
written  The  BroUiers,  The  Pet  Lamb,  Ruth, 
Michael,  and  Hart-leap  Well;  and,  in  the 
close  of  the  year,  these  and  other  poems 
made  up  a  second  volume  of  the  Lyrical 
Ballads,  which  appeared  with  a  reprint  of 
the  first.  To  1802  belong,  among  other 
pieces.  The  Rainbow,  The  Leechgaiherer, 
Alice  Fell,  Intimations  of  Immortalily,  and 
the  two  sonnets  on  Buonaparte.  Then, 
also,  Wordsworth  was  working  on  The  Excur- 
sion, which  at  that  time  bore  the  name  of 
The  Pedlar.  In  that  year  he  married  Mary 
Hutchinson  of  Penrith,  to  whose  amiability 
his  poems  pay  warm  and  beautiful  tributes. 
In  1803  he  made  a  tour  of  some  weeks  in 


96 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Scotland  and  was  received  at  Melrose  by  Sir 
Walter  Scott ;  and  he  now  became  acquainted 
with  Sir  George  Beaumont,  whose  name 
appears  often  in  his  writings. 

In  1805  he  suffered  the  grief  of  losing  his 
brother,  Captain  Wordsworth,  who  perished 
by  shipwreck.  In  this  year  were  written 
The  Waggoner  and  the  Ode  to  Duty;  and  The 
Prelude  was  finished  and  consigned  to  the 
poet's  desk  for  forty-five  years.  In  1807  two 
volumes  of  poems  were  printed,  composed 
since  1800.  They  contain,  besides  several 
very  fine  ballads  and  many  other  small  poems. 
Sonnets  Dedicated  to  Liberty,  and  the  Memo- 
rials of  a  Tour  in  Scotland.  These  volumes 
were  severely  criticised  by  Lord  Jeffrey  and 
other  critics,  who  designated  Wordsworth, 
Coleridge,  and  Southey  as  the  "lake  school 
of  poets,"  because  they  lived  in  the  English 
lake  district  and  described  the  scenery  of 
that  beautiful  region. 

In  1808  he  removed  to  Allan  Bank  at  the 
head  of  Grasmere  lake  where  he  lived  for 
three  years.  In  1809  he  contributed  to  the 
Friend  of  Coleridge,  who  was  then  living  with 
him;  and  published  his  indignant  and  very 
eloquent  pamphlet  on  the  convention  of 
Cintra.  His  political  opinions  had  now  settled 
pretty  much  into  the  form  in  which  they  were 
afterward  held,  a  kind  of  speculative  tory- 
ism,  heightened  by  his  church  opinions,  but 
balanced  by  many  notions  really  dramatic. 
In  1810  he  printed,  as  an  introduction  to  a 
set  of  views  of  the  English  lake  district,  his 
Observations  on  the  Scenery  of  the  Lakes,  the 
most  interesting  of  all  things  of  that  sort.  In 
the  spring  of  1813,  after  one  temporary  change 
of  dwelling,  he  removed  with  his  wife,  sister, 
and  three  children,  to  Rydal  Mount,  two 
miles  from  Grasmere,  which  was  his  home  for 
thirty-seven  years,  and  the  scene  of  his  death. 
Then,  too,  by  the  interest  of  Lord  Lonsdale, 
he  was  appointed  distributor  of  stamps  for 
Westmoreland  —  an  office  which  was  executed 
by  a  clerk,  and  yielded  about  five  himdred 
pounds  a  year. 

A  second  tour  in  Scotland  early  in  1814 
gave  birth  to  a  few  poems ;  and  in  the  summer 
was  published  The  Excursion,  one  of  his  most 
famous  poems,  the  greater  part  of  which  had 
been  written  at  Allan  Bank.  This  didactic 
poem  contains  episodes  of  great  beauty, 
pathos,  and  grandeur;  and,  if  judged  by  its 
best  passages,  hardly  any  poem  in  the  English 
language  is  equal  to  it.  Some  of  its  scenes, 
extending  through  hundreds  of  lines;   many 


passages  of  smaller  extent,  but  yet  con- 
siderable; and  innimierable  verses,  phrases, 
and  words  —  are  among  the  most  exquisite 
things  to  which  any  poetic  mind  ever  gave 
expression.  In  1815  appeared  The  White 
Doe  of  Rylstone,  a  work  instinct  with  a 
dreamy  loveliness  and  estimated  by  its 
author  very  highly. 

Within  a  year  or  two  before  and  after  the 
publication  of  this  work,  the  poet,  in  his  usual 
fashion,  proved  his  power  of  poetizing  in  a 
different  key,  by  composing  several  of  those 
small  pieces,  whose  elaborate  refinement,  both 
of  sentiment  and  of  diction,  has  drawn  forth 
the  lively  admiration  of  readers  the  most 
adverse  to  the  peculiarities  of  his  system. 
Such  were  Laodamia,  Dion,  the  Ode  to  Lycoris, 
and  Artegal  and  Elidure.  In  1816  was  com- 
'  posed  the  Thanksgiving  Ode,  and  a  rhymed 
translation  of  three  books  of  the  ^neid.     In 

1819  appeared  in  print  Peter  Bell,  which  was 
fairly  popular,  and  The  Waggoner,  which  was 
much  the  reverse.  To  that  year  belong  the 
series  of  sonnets  on  the  river  Duddon.     In 

1820  Wordsworth,  with  his  wife  and  sister, 
made  a  tour  of  four  months  on  the  continent, 
of  which  Memorials  were  published  some 
time  afterward.  In  that  year,  too,  a  visit 
to  Sir  George  Beaumont  gave  occasion  to  the 
very  fine  series  of  sonnets  called  Ecclesiastical 
Sketches. 

Wordsworth  waa  now  fifty  years  old,  had 
written  all  his  best  works,  and  had  laid  most 
of  them  before  the  world.  But,  though  the 
thirty  years  during  which  his  life  was  still 
prolonged  were  unprolific  of  great  perform- 
ances, they  witnessed  very  extraordinary 
changes  in  the  reputation  of  the  author. 
Poets  were  already  famihar  with  his  works, 
and  acknowledged  him  as  the  chief  in  a  new 
development  of  the  art ;  but  ordinary  readers, 
taking  what  they  found  in  the  periodicals, 
knew  as  yet  only  a  few  of  his  best  passages 
and  a  great  many  of  his  worst.  For  a  good 
many  years  before  his  death,  Wordsworth 
was  not  only  acknowledged,  and  justly,  to  be 
really  the  greatest  EngUsh  poet  of  his  time, 
but  was  regarded  with  a  reverence  allowing 
no  possibiUty  of  faults.  Symptoms  of  a 
wiser  and  more  discriminating  judgment  have 
shown  themselves  since;  and  the  world  has 
estimated  justly  and  correctly  the  works  of 
one  of  the  greatest,  as  well  as  the  purest  and 
most  blameless,  of  the  poets  who  have 
enriched  and  enlarged  the  domain  of  English 
literature. 


IN   LITERATURE 


Vt 


The  period  extending  from  Wordsworth's 
fiftieth  year  to  his  eightieth  requires  no 
minute  notice.  He  lived  among  his  beloved 
mountains,  traveled  much,  suffered  a  good 
deal,  and  wrote  little.  Two  visits  to  Scot- 
land, during  the  former  of  which,  in  1831,  he 
saw  Sir  Walter  Scott  just  before  he  left 
Abbotsford  for  the  last  time,  provided  many 
of  the  materials  for  a  volume,  published  in 
1835,  Yarrow  Revisited,  and  other  Poems.  The 
finest  of  these  are  the  meditative  pieces 
entitled  Evening  Voluntaries. 

About  this  time  the  poet  was  deeply  affected 
by  political  events;  and  he  felt  yet  more 
keenly  the  declining  health  of  his  sister,  who 
became  a  confirmed  invalid.  In  1837  he 
made  for  nearly  six  months  a  tour  in  Italy, 
which  suggested  several  pieces  printed  in 
1842  in  a  volume  called  Poems,  chiefly  of 
Early  and  Late  Years.  In  it  was  inserted  the 
tragedy  of  The  Borderers.  In  1839  the 
university  of  Oxford  conferred  upon  him  its 
honorary  degree  of  D.  C.  L.  Three  years 
later,  being  now  seventy-two  years  of  age,  he 
received  from  the  government,  under  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  a  pension  of  three  hundred 
pounds  a  year.  In  1843,  on  the  death  of* 
Southey,  the  same  ministry  appointed  Words- 
worth to  be  poet  laureate,  an  office  which  he 
accepted  only  on  the  assurance  that  it  was  to 
be  entirely  honorary  and  nominal. 

Two  years  later  he  met  Tennyson  whom  he 
characterized  as  "the  first  of  living  English 
poets."  In  1847  he  had  to  witness  the  death 
of  his  only  daughter,  Dora  —  the  accom- 
plished Mrs.  Quillinan  —  and  he  himself,  in 
great  tranquillity,  died  on  April  23,  1850. 
His  remains  rest  in  the  churchyard  at  Gras- 
mere. 

Wordsworth    has    been    characterized    by 

some  as  the  "high  priest  of  nature,"  and  by 

others  as  the  "poet  of  humanity."    There  is 

abundant  evidence  that  he  was  both.     By 

!  remanding    it    to    truth    and    simplicity    of 

I  natural  feeling  as  its  basis,  he  did  more  than 

any  other  writer  of  his  time  to  forward  the 

I  great  revival  of  English  poetry  which  dis- 

j  tinguished    the    opening    of   the    nineteenth 

i  century.     But  he  was  scarcely  the  originator 

I  of  the  movement.    The  influence  was,  so  to 

I  speak,    "in    the    air."    Already    Cowper   in 

j  England,  as  in  Scotland  Burns,  had  preluded 

i  to  the  melodious  outburst  which  was  to  follow ; 

1  and  to  the  last  of  these  more  particularly,  as 

jhis  early  guide  and  exemplar,  Wordsworth 

[had  expressly  recorded   his  obligations  in  a 


stanza  which  for  a  long  time  escaped 
notice : 

"  I  mourned  with  thousands,  but  as  one 
More  deeply  grieved,  fqr  he  was  gone 
Whose  light  I  hailed  when  first  it  shone, 

And  shewed  my  youth 
How  verse  may  build  a  princely  throne 
On  humble  truth." 

With  the  charm  of  natural  simplicity  of 
manner,  which  he  shared  in  common  with 
these  his  predecessors,  Wordsworth,  however, 
combined  a  depth  of  philosophic  meditation 
peculiarly  his  own.  There  was  bom  with  him, 
moreover,  a  passionate  susceptibility  to  effects 
of  beauty  in  the  material  world,  such  as  few 
men  can  ever  have  been  gifted  with ;  and  out 
of  these  blended  elements  arose  that  mystical 
communion  with  nature  which  pervades  the 
whole  body  of  his  poetry,  and  constitutes  its 
truest  claim  to  originality.  By  diffusion  of 
this,  and  otherwise,  his  influence  on  subse- 
quent English  poetry  has  perhaps  been  as 
profound  as  any  of  the  kind  ever  exercised, 
and  it  has  been  almost  wholly  beneficial. 

William  EUery  Channing,  in  his  fine  appre- 
ciation of  Wordsworth,  speaks  as  follows : 

"The  great  poet  of  our  times,  Wordsworth 

—  one  of  the  few  who  are  to  live  —  has  gone 
to  common  life,  to  the  feelings  of  our  universal 
nature,  to  the  obscure  and  neglected  portions 
of  society,  for  beautiful  and  touching  themes. 
Nor  ought  it  to  be  said  that  he  has  shed  over 
these  the  charms  of  his  genius,  as  if  in  them- 
selves they  had  nothing  grand  or  lovely. 
Genius  is  not  a  creator,  in  the  sense  of  fancying 
or  feigning  what  does  not  exist.  Its  distinc- 
tion is  to  discern  more  of  truth  than  common 
minds.  It  sees  under  disguises  and  humble 
forms  everlasting  beauty. 

"This  it  is  the  prerogative  of  Wordsworth 
to  discern  and  reveal  in  the  ordinary  walks  of 
life,  in  the  common  human  heart.  He  has 
revealed  the  loveliness  of  the  primitive  feel- 
ings, of  the  universal  affections  of  the  human 
soul.  The  grand  truth  which  pervades  his 
poetry  is  that  the  beautiful  is  not  confined  to 
the  rare,  the  new,  the  distant  —  to  scenery 
and  modes  of  life  open  only  to  the  few ;  but 
that  it  is  poured  forth  profusely  on  the  com- 
mon earth  and  sky,  that  it  gleams  from  the 
loneliest  flower,  that  it  lights  up  the  humblest 
sphere,  that  the  sweetest  affections  lodge  in 
lowly  hearts,  that  there  is  sacredness,  dignity, 
and  loveliness  in  lives  which  few  eyes  rest  on 

—  that,  even  in  the  absence  of  all  intellectual 
culture,  the  domestic  relations  can  quietly 
nourish  that  disinterestedness  which  is  the 


98 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


element  of  all  greatness,  and  without  which 
intellectual  power  is  a  splendid  deformity. 

"  Wordsworth  is  the  poet  of  humanity ;  he 
teaches  reverence  for  our  universal  nature; 
he  breaks  down  the  factitious  barriers  between 
human  hearts." 

What  Wordsworth  does  is  to  assuage,  to 
reconcile,  to  fortify.  He  has  not  Shakes- 
peare's richness  and  vast  compass,  nor  Mil- 
ton's sublime  and  unflagging  strength,  nor 
Dante's  severe,  vivid,  ardent  force  of  vision. 
Probably  he  is  too  deficient  in  clear  beauty  of 
form  and  in  concentrated  power  to  be  classed 
among  these  great  giants.  We  can  not  be 
sure.  We  may  leave  it  to  the  ages  to  decide. 
But  Wordsworth,  at  any  rate,  by  his  secret  of 


bringing  the  infinite  into  common  life,  as  he 
evokes  it  out  of  common  life,  has  the  skill  to 
lead  us,  so  long  as  we  yield  ourselves  to  his 
influence,  into  inner  moods  of  settled  peace, 
to  touch  "  the  depth  and  not  the  tumult  of  the 
soul " ;  to  give  us  quietness,  strength,  stead- 
fastness, and  purpose,  whether  to  do  or  to 
endure.  All  art  or  poetry  that  has  the  effect 
of  settled  peace,  and  strongly  confirming 
their  judgment  and  their  will  for  good  — 
whatever  limitations  may  be  found  besides, 
however  prosaic  may  be  some  or  much  of  the 
detail  —  is  great  art  and  noble  poetry,  and 
the  creator  of  it  will  always  hold,  as  Words- 
worth holds,  a  sovereign  title  to  the  reverence 
and  gratitude  of  mankind. 


BALZAC 


A.  D.  AQB 

1799  Bom  at  Tours,  France,      

1811  Entered  the  college  of  VendAme, .    .  12 

1819  Began  his  literary  career  in  Paris,    .  20 

1829  Lea  Dernier  a  Chouana, 30 

1830  La  Phyaiologie  du  Mariage;    La 

Peau  de  Chagrin, 31 

1831  Began  La  Comidie  Humaine,  ...  32 
1833  Euginie  Grandet, 34 


A.  D.  AOE 

1835         Le  Pire  Goriot, 36 

1838  Ciaar  Birotteau, 39 

1835-40  Engaged  in  unsuccessful  publisli- 

ing  ventures 30-41 

1845-50  Lea  Parenta  Pauvrea  {Ixi  Couaine 
BetU;  Le  Cownn  Pona;  and  Lea 

Payaana) 46-51 

1850         Mamed;  died  at  Paris, 51 


JJONORE  DE  BALZAC,  celebrated 
•*  ■*■  French  novelist,  and  founder  of  the 
realistic  school  of  fiction,  was  born  at  Tours, 
France,  May  16,  1799,  where  his  father  held  a 
civil  office.  His  private  history,  which  may 
be  traced  through  many  pages  of  his  novels, 
was  a  strange  and  not  a  happy  one. 

When  but  twelve  years  of  age  he  was  sent 
from  his  home  in  Tours  to  the  college  of  Ven- 
dome,  about  a  score  of  miles  from  Blois. 
Here  he  neglected  the  studies  and  sports  of 
childhood  to  bury  himself  in  mystic  books 
and  mystic  reveries.  In  Louis  Lambert  he 
tells  the  story  of  his  school  life  —  among  other 
things,  how  he  composed  an  essay  on  aviation, 
in  which  he  proposed  a  theory  to  complete  the 
works  of  Mesmer,  Lavater,  Gall,  and  Bichat. 
His  promising  treatise  was  burned  by  one  of 
the  masters  of  the  school ;  and  Balzac,  falling 
into  ill  health,  returned  home. 

The  next  stage  in  his  education  was  a  course 
of  study  at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris,  consisting  of 
lectures  on  law.  Then  his  father  placed  him 
with  a  notary  to  whom  he  acted  as  clerk.  In 
such  offices  he  picked  up  his  knowledge  of  the 
byways  of  chicanery,  which  he  uses  only  too 
freely  in  his  romances.     Nature  did  not  mean 


Balzac  for  an  advocate.  His  occupation 
proved  intolerably  irksome ;  and  he  was  con- 
stant in  his  behef  in  his  own  genius  —  a  belief 
which  for  many  years  he  had  all  to  himself  — 
and  his  family  left  him  to  work  and  starve,  on 
the  scantiest  pittance,  in  a  garret  of  the  Rue 
Lesdiguieres.  From  about  1819  there  fol- 
lowed ten  years  of  hard  toil,  poverty,  experi- 
ments in  this  and  that  way  of  getting  a  Uving. 
These  struggles  are  described  in  Facino  Cane, 
in  La  Peau  de  Chagrin,  and  in  a  series  of  letters 
to  the  author's  sister,  Madame  de  Surville. 
Balzac  found  "three  sous  for  bread,  two  for 
milk,  and  three  for  firing"  sufficient  to  keep 
him  alive,  while  he  devoured  books  in  the 
library  of  the  arsenal,  copied  out  his  notes  at 
night,  and  then  wandered  for  hours  among 
the  scenes  of  nocturnal  Paris.  "Your 
brother,"  he  writes  to  Madame  de  Sur\'ille, 
"  is  already  nourished  like  a  great  man  —  he 
is  dying  of  hunger." 

He  tried  to  make  money  by  scribbling  many 
volumes  of  novels  without  promise,  under 
assumed  names,  and  borrowed  funds  to  specu- 
late in  the  business  of  printing.  In  the  year 
1826  he  formed  a  partnership  with  the  printer 
Barbier,  and  published  various  works;   but 


IN   LITERATURE 


the  business  in  general  turned  out  ill,  and  he 
contracted    a   heavy   burden    of   debt    that 
harassed  him  until  the  end  of  his  career.     But 
his  perseverance  was  admirable.     Although 
long   utterly  unsuccessful,   he   continued   to 
write  on  until  at  last  he  opened  a  path  for 
himselfbyhis  novel,  LesDemiersChouans,"The 
Last  Chouans,"  in  which  he  abandoned,  for 
the  first  time,  the  manner  of  treatment  which 
characterized  his  former  writings.     This  novel 
was  published  in  1829.     He  was  now  appre-  j 
ciated,  and  with  the  appreciation  ought  to 
have  come  wealth.     His  next  works.  La  Phy-  \ 
siologie    du    Mariage,    "The    Physiology    ofj 
Marriage,"  and  La  Peau  de  Chagrin,    "The! 
Ass's    Skin,"  produced    in    1830,  were   also  | 
very  successful.    The  latter  was  a  marvelous  ; 
interweaving  of  the  supernatural  into  moderp  : 
life,  and  it  was  followed  by  a  series  of  novels  and  : 
tales  entitled  La  Comedie  Humaine,  intended  ' 
as  a  complete  picture  of  modern  civiUzation. ' 

All  ranks,  professions,  arts,  trades,  all ! 
phases  of  manners  in  town  and  country,  were 
to  be  represented  in  his  imaginary  system 
of  things.  In  attempting  to  carry  out  this 
immense,  if  not  impossible  design,  he  pro- 
duced what  is  almost  a  literature  in  itself. 
The  stories  composing  La  Comedie  Humaine 
are  classified  as  Scenes  de  la  Vie  Privee,  de  la 
Vie  Parisienne,  de  la  Vie  Politique,  de  la  Vie 
Militaire,  etc.  (Scenes  from  private  life, 
Parisian  life,  political  life,  military  life.) 
These  were  produced  between  the  years  1831 
and  1850  —  the  period  of  Balzac's  most 
intense  application  —  and  the  masterpieces 
among  them  are  probably  Le  Pere  Goriot,  and 
Cesar  Birotteau,  published  in  1835  and  1838, 
respectively. 

Balzac's  later  productions,  which  also  took 
the  form  of  a  series  under  the  title  of  Les 
Parents  Pauvres,  were  among  his  best.  La 
Cousine  Bette,  Le  Cousin  Pons,  and  Les 
Paysans  have  in  our  day  reached  a  popular- 
ity scarcely  second  to  Le  Pere  Goriot,  and 
Eugenie  Grandet.  The  dramatic  pieces  of 
Balzac  were  not  received  with  favor,  and  are 
far  inferior  to  the  novels  of  the  second  and 
third  periods  of  his  career.  The  Contes 
Drolatiqu^s,  a  series  of  gross  stories  in  the  vein 
of  Rabelais,  stand  by  themselves,  and  are  not 
to  be  classed  with  his  more  pretentious  efforts. 

One  of  the  chief  things  to  be  noted  in  con- 
nection with  Balzac  is  his  phenomenal  indus- 
jtry  and  productiveness.  He  represents  him- 
self as  working  regularly  fifteen  and  even 
eighteen  hours  a  day.     He  wrote  eighty-five 


novels  in  twenty  years,  and  the  whole  of  his 
work  was  that  of  a  fastidious  writer.  He  was 
prodigal  of  his  money  as  of  his  labor,  though 
his  yearly  income  rarely  exceeded  twelve 
thousand  francs.  He  would  shut  himself  up 
for  months  and  see  no  one  but  his  printer; 
and  then  for  months  he  would  disappear  and 
dissipate  his  gains  in  some  mysterious  hiding- 
place  of  his  own,  or  in  hurried  traveling  to 
Venice,  Vienna,  or  St.  Petersburg.  As  a  child 
he  had  been  a  man  in  thought  and  learning; 
as  a  man  he  was  a  child  in  caprice  and 
extravagance.  His  imagination,  the  intense 
power  with  which  he  constructed  new  com- 
binations of  the  literal  facts  which  he  observed, 
was  like  the  demon  which  tormented  the 
magician  with  incessant  demands  for  more 
tasks  to  do. 

When  he  was  not  working  at  La  Comedie 
Humaine,  his  fancy  was  still  busy  with  its 
characters;  he  existed  in  an  ideal  world, 
where  some  accident  was  always  to  put  him  in 
possession  of  riches  beyond  the  dream  of 
avarice.  Meantime,  he  squandered  all  the 
money  that  could  be  rescued  from  his  credi- 
tors on  sumptuous  apparel,  jewels,  porcelain, 
and  pictures.  His  excesses  of  labor,  his 
sleepless  nights,  his  abuse  of  coffee  undermined 
his  seemingly  indestructible  health.  At 
length,  in  1849,  he  traveled  to  Poland  to  visit 
Countess  Hanska,  a  rich  Polish  lady,  with 
whom  he  had  corresponded  for  more  than 
fifteen  years,  and  to  whom  he  had  dedicated 
his  novel,  Seraphiia.  In  1850  she  became  his 
wife,  the  famous  debts  were  paid,  the  vision- 
ary house  was  built  and  furnished,  and  then, 
"when  the  house  was  ready,  death  entered." 
Three  months  after  his  marriage,  August  18, 
1850,  he  died  of  hypertrophy  of  the  heart. 
He  was  then  at  the  height  of  his  fame,  and  at 
the  beginning,  as  it  seemed,  of  the  period  of 
rest  to  which  he  had  always  looked  forward. 

During  his  later  years  he  had  lived  princi- 
pally in  his  villa  at  Sdvres;  but  almost  the 
whole  of  literary  Paris  was  present  at  his 
funeral.  Victor  Hugo  pronounced  a  glowing 
eulogy  over  his  grave. 

The  name  of  Balzac  is  perhaps  the  greatest 
in  the  literature  of  France  since  the  era  of  the 
revolution.  His  life  corresponds  with  the 
period  of  the  rise,  zenith,  and  decline  of  the 
French  romantic  school.  He  was  inspired 
by  many  of  the  influences  that  animated 
Victor  Hugo  and  his  followers.  Like  them  hi 
was  occupied  by  the  study  of  the  fantastic 
element  in  mediaeval  art;   and  Uke  them  he 


100 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


reproduced  the  remoter  phases  of  life  and 
passion,  and  thought  that  few  subjects  were 
so  base  or  obscure  as  to  be  unworthy  of  artis- 
tic treatment.  His  creations  scale  every 
height  and  sound  every  depth  of  human 
character  —  from  the  purity  of  the  mysterious 
Seraphitus  Serphita,  cold  and  strange,  like  the 
peaks  of  her  northern  Alps,  to  the  loathsome 
sins  of  the  Marnefs,  whose  deeds  should  find 
no  calendar  but  that  of  everlasting  execration. 

He  was  never  successful  in  reproducing  the 
past.  He  was  essentially  the  man  of  his  own 
day,  and  La  Comedie  Humaine  is  as  much  the 
picture  of  the  nineteenth,  as  the  Divina  Corn- 
media  is  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  pas- 
sions that  move  his  characters  are  the  intense 
desire  of  boundless  wealth,  of  luxury,  of  social 
distinction;  and  though  his  financiers,  his 
journaUsts,  his  political  intriguers,  his  sordid 
peasantry,  are  relieved  by  the  introduction  of 
pure  figures,  like  Eugenie  Grandet,  or  David, 
or  Eve,  there  are  many  elaborate  studies  of 
creatures  sunk  below  the  surface  of  humanity, 
the  embodiments  of  infinite  meanness  and 
nameless  sin.  He  was  merely  "  the  secretary 
of  society,"  he  said,  and  "drew  up  the  inven- 
tory of  vices  and  virtues."  His  ambition  was 
"by  infinite  patience  and  courage,  to 
compose  for  the  France  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury that  history  of  morals  which  the  old 
civilizations  of  Rome,  Athens,  Memphis,  and 
India  have  left  untold." 

In  consequence  of  this  aim,  and  its  execu- 
tion in  his  ComSdie,  both  Balzac  and  his 
works  have  often  been  misjudged.  In  person, 
as,  indeed,  in  most  ways,  he  was  a  typical 
Frenchman.  From  his  portraits  there  would 
seem  to  have  been  more  force  and  address 
than  distinction  or  refinement  in  his  appear- 
ance. But  it  must  be  remembered  that  his 
period  was  one  ungrateful  to  the  iconographer. 
In  private  life  he  has  been  held  up  as  a  self- 
centered  egotist,  who  cared  for  nothing  but 
himself  and  his  own  work,  in  which  he  took 
the  foibles  and  vices  of  mankind  for  his  sub- 
jects, and  who  either  left  goodness  and  virtue 
out  of  sight  altogether,  or  represented  them 
as  the  qualities  of  fools. 

The  fact  is  that  the  charge  is  not  worth 
answering,  although  Balzac,  on  different 
occasions,  rather  vainly  endeavored  to  grapple 
with  it,  once  drawing  up  an  elaborate  list 
of  his  virtuous  and  vicious  women,  and  show- 
ing that  the  former  outnumbered  the  latter; 
and,  again,  laboring  (with  that  curious  lack 
of  humor  which  distinguishes  all  Frenchmen 


I  but  a  very  few,  and  distinguished  him  emi- 
'  nently)  to  show  that  though  no  doubt  it  is 
I  very  difficult  to  make  virtuous  persons  inter- 
I  esting,  he.  Honors  de  Balzac,  had  attempted 
j  it,  and  succeeded  in  it,  on  a  quite  surprising 
number  of  occasions.  The  simple  truth  is 
I  that  Balzac  is  not,  indeed,  a  Shakespeare, 
I  or  a  Dante,  or  even  a  Scott  in  his  analysis  of 
mankind ;  but  we  may  be  very  well  satisfied 
I  with  him  as  a  Fielding,  aThackeray,  a  Dickens, 
I  or  a  Balzac. 

I  Self-centered  and  self-absorbed  Balzac  no 
I  doubt  was;  he  could  not  have  lived  his  life  or 
j  produced  his  work  if  he  had  not  had  the 
I  independence  as  well  as  the  isolation  of  the 
self-centered.  But  he  never  sponged  or 
fawned  on  a  great  man,  or  wronged  others  of 
what  was  due  them.  The  only  really  un- 
pleasant thing  about  him,  perhaps  due  to 
ignorance  of  all  sides  of  the  matter,  is  a  slight 
touch  of  snobbishness  now  and  then,  espe- 
cially in  those  late  letters  from  Vierzschovnia 
to  Madame  de  Balzac  and  Madame  de  Surville, 
in  which,  while  inundating  his  mother  and 
sister  with  commissions  and  requests  for  serv- 
ice, he  points  out  to  them  what  great  people 
the  Hanskas  and  Mniszechs  are,  what  infinite 
honor  and  profit  it  will  be  to  be  connected 
with  them,  and  how  desirable  it  is  to  keep 
struggling  engineer  brothers-in-law  and  ne'er- 
do-well  brothers  in  the  colonies  out  of  sight 
lest  they  should  disgust  the  magnates. 

But  these  petty  personal  blemishes,  what- 
ever they  may  have  to  do  with  Balzac  the  man, 
have  nothing  to  do  with  Balzac  the  writer. 
With  him  as  with  some  others,  but  not  as  with 
the  larger  number,  the  sense  of  greatness 
increases  the  longer  and  the  more  fully  he  is 
studied.  He  resembles  Goethe  more  than 
any  other  man  of  letters  —  certainly  more 
than  any  other  of  the  present  century  —  in 
having  done  work  which  is  very  frequently, 
if  not  even  commonly,  faulty,  and  in  yet 
requiring  that  his  work  shall  be  known  as  a 
whole.  His  appeal  is  cumulative;  it  repeats 
itself  on  each  occasion  with  a  slight  difference, 
and  though  there  may  now  and  then  be  the 
same  faults  to  be  noticed,  they  are  almost 
invariably  accompanied,  not  merely  by  the 
same,  but  by  fresh  merits. 

But  the  greatest  thing  about  Balzac  is  the 
immensity  of  his  imaginative  achievements, 
the  huge  space  that  he  has  filled  for  us  with 
vivid  creation,  the  range  of  amusement,  of 
instruction,  of  (after  a  fashion)  edification, 
which  he  has  thrown  open  for  us  to  walk  in* 


\  A,,. 


\   '■% 


1 


THOMAS  CARLYLE 
From  the  painting  by  Mrs.  Allingham 


IN  LITERATURE 


103 


In  mere  bulk  the  Comcdie  probably,  if  not 
certainly,  exceeds  the  production  of  any 
novelist  of  the  first  class  in  any  kind  of  fiction 
except  Dumas,  and  with  Dumas,  for  various 
and  well-known  reasons,  there  is  no  possibility 
of  comparing  it.  All  others  yield  in  bulk; 
all  in  a  certain  concentration  and  intensity; 
none  even  aims  at  anything  like  the  same 
system  and  completeness.  In  its  dimensions, 
Balzac  has  built  up  a  work  of  art  which 
answers  to  a  mediaeval  cathedral.  There  are 
subterranean  places,  haunted  by  the  Vautrins 
and  filles  aux  yeux  d'or;  there  are  the  seats 
of  money  changers,  where  the  Nucingens  sit 
at  the  receipt  of  custom ;  there  is  the  broad 
platform  of  everyday  life,  where  the  journal- 
ists intrigue,  where  life  is  sold  for  hire,  where 
splendors  and  miseries  abound,  where  the 
peasants  cheat  their  lords;  where  women 
betray  their  husbands;  there  are  the  shrines 
where  pious  ladies  pass  saintly  days;  there 
are  the  dizzy  heights  of  thought  and  rapture, 
whence  falls  a  ray  from  the  supernal  light  of 
the  Contes  Drolatiques.  Through  all  swells, 
like  the  organ  tone,  the  ground  note  and 
mingled  murmur  of  Parisian  life.  The  quali- 
ties of  Balzac  are  his  extraordinary  range  of 
knowledge,  observation,  sympathy,  his  stead- 
fast determination  to  drag  every  line  and 
shadow  of  his  subject,  his  keen  analysis  of 
character  and  conduct.    His  defects  are  an 


over-insistence  on  detail,  which  hampers  and 
bewilders  rather  than  aids  the  imagination  of 
his  readers ;  and  his  fondness  for  dwelling  on 
the  morbid  pathology  of  human  nature. 

It  must  be  remembered  that,  owing  to  short- 
ness of  life,  lateness  of  beginning,  and  the 
diversion  of  the  author  to  other  work,  the 
Comcdie  is  the  production,  and  not  the  sole 
production,  of  some  seventeen  or  eighteen 
years  at  most.  Not  a  volume  of  it,  for  all  that, 
failed  to  reach  the  completest  perfection  in 
form  and  style,  or  can  be  accused  of  thinness, 
of  scamped  work,  of  mere  repetition,  of  mere 
cobbling  up.  Every  one  bears  the  marks  of 
steady  and  ferocious  labor,  as  well  as  of  the 
genius  which  had  at  last  come  where  it  had 
been  so  earnestly  called  and  had  never  gone 
away  again. 

It  is  possible  to  overpraise  Balzac  in  parts 
or  to  mispraise  him  as  a  whole.  But  as  long 
as  inappropriate  and  superfluous  compari- 
sons are  avoided  and  his  own  excellence 
recognized  and  appreciated,  it  is  hardly 
possible  to  overestimate  that  excellence  in 
itself  and  for  itself.  It  is  impossible  to  judge 
justly  any  one  of  his  tales  separately,  because 
each  is  only  a  fragment  in  the  development  of 
the  immense  La  Comcdie  Hum/iine.  Balzac 
holds  a  more  distinct  and  supreme  place  in 
French  fiction  than  perhaps  any  other  author 
holds  in  the  same  field  of  art. 


CARLYLE 


A.  D.  AGE 

1795         Born  in  Dumfriesshire,  Scotland,     . 
1809         Entered  Edinburgh  university,    .    .      14 

1818         Removed  to  Edinburgh, 23 

1824-25  Visited  London;  Life  of  Schiller,     29-30 
1826         Married;  settled  in  Edinburgh,    .    .     31 
1833-34  Sartor  Resartus;   removed  to  Lon- 
don,     38-39 

1837         The  French  Revolution, 42 

1839         Chartism,      44 


A.  D.  AO« 

1843         Past  and  Present, 48 

1845         Cromwell's  Letters  and  Speeches,   .    .     50 
1858-65  History  of  Frederick  the  Great,  .    .    63-70 
1865         Lord  rector  of  Edinburgh  univer- 
sity  70 

1874         Received  the    Prussian  order  of 

merit, 79 

1881         Died  at  London, 86 


'T'HOMAS  CARLYLE,  eminent  British 
■'•  essayist,  historian,  and  philosopher,  was 
born  at  Ecclefechan,  a  small  village  in  Dum- 
friesshire, Scotland,  December  4,  1795.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  stonemason,  of  independent 
character  and  excellent  mental  powers,  and 
in  prosperous  circumstances.  His  mother 
was  Margaret  Aitken,  who,  according  to  her 
son's  opinion,  was  "a  woman  of  the  fairest 
descent  —  that  of  the  pious,  the  just,  and  the 
wise."  These  parents  of  a  large  family  — 
ten  children  in  all,  five  sons  and  five  daughters 


—  gave  such  of  their  sons  as  showed  an  apti- 
tude for  culture  an  excellent  Scottish  educa- 
tion. 

Thomas  seems  to  have  been  taught  his 
letters  and  elementary  reading  by  his  mother, 
and  arithmetic  by  his  father.  His  home 
teaching  was  supplemented  by  attendance  at 
the  Ecclefechan  school,  where  he  was  "re- 
ported complete  in  English  "  at  about  seven, 
made  satisfactory  progress  in  arithmetic,  and 
took  to  Latin  with  enthusiasm.  Thence  he 
proceeded  in  1805  to  Annan  academy,  where 


IM 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


he  learned  to  read  Latin  and  French  fluently, 
"some  geometry,  algebra,  arithmetic  thor- 
oughly well,  vague  outlines  of  geography, 
Greek  to  the  extent  of  the  alphabet  mainly." 
His  first  two  years  at  Annan  academy  were 
among  the  most  miserable  in  his  life,  from  his 
being  bullied  by  some  of  his  fellow  pupils, 
whom  he  describes  as  "coarse,  unguided, 
tyrannous  cubs."  But  he  "revolted  against 
them  and  gave  them  shake  for  shake." 

In  his  third  year  Carlyle  had  his  first  glimpse 
of  Edward  Irving,  who  was  five  years  his 
senior,  and  had  been  a  pupil  at  Annan  acad- 
emy, but  was  then  attending  Edinburgh 
university.  In  November,  1809,  Carlyle 
himself  entered  that  university  —  traveling 
on  foot  all  the  way,  one  hundred  miles,  be- 
tween Ecclefechan  and  the  Scottish  capital. 
Except  in  one  department,  Carlyle's  college 
record  was  not  remarkable.  In  "the  classi- 
cal field,"  he  describes  himself,  "truly  as 
nothing  " ;  and  he  learned  to  read  Homer  in 
the  original  with  difficulty.  He  preferred 
Homer  and  ^Eschylus  to  all  other  classical 
authors,  found  Tacitus  and  Vergil  "really 
interesting,"  Horace  "egotistical,"  and  Cicero 
"a  windy  person  and  a  weariness."  Nor  did 
he  take  much  to  metaphysics  or  moral  phi- 
losophy. In  geometry,  however,  he  excelled, 
perhaps  because  his  professor  in  that  subject 
"  alone  of  my  professors  had  some  genius  in  his 
business,  and  awoke  a  certain  enthusiasm  in 
me."  But  even  in  the  mathematical  class  he 
took  no  prize. 

In  1813  Carlyle's  academic  course  in  Edin- 
burgh university  came  to  an  end,  and  he 
began  formal  though  fitful  preparation  for 
the  ministry  of  the  church  of  Scotland  by 
enrolling  himself,  in  the  same  year,  as  a 
student  at  its  Divinity  hall.  In  the  summer 
of  1814  he  competed  successfully  at  Dum- 
fries for  the  mathematical  mastership  of 
Annan  academy.  The  post  was  worth  only 
between  sixty  and  seventy  poimds  a  year; 
but  it  enabled  Carlyle,  who  was  as  frugal  as 
his  parents,  to  reUeve  his  father  of  the  expense 
of  his  support  and  to  save  a  few  pounds. 

Meanwhile  he  had  read  widely,  and  wrote 
of  his  reading  at  great  length,  and  with  con- 
siderable power  of  satiric  characterization, 
to  some  of  his  college  friends.  But  he  found 
himself  "abundantly  lonesome,  imcomfort- 
able,  and  out  of  place  "  in  Annan,  and  from 
the  first  dishked  teaching;  while  his  "senti- 
ments on  the  clerical  profession  "  were  "  mostly 
of  the  unfavorable  kind." 


In  1816  he  accepted  a  place  as  assistant  at 
the  parish  school  of  Kirkcaldy;  but  before 
long  the  work  of  teaching  became  intolerable, 
and  at  the  end  of  1818  he  removed  to  Edin- 
burgh. By  this  time  he  had  entirely  aban- 
doned his  intention  of  entering  the  ministry, 
and  his  prospects  for  some  time  were  very 
much  beclouded.  He  even  entertained  the 
thought  of  coming  to  America.  Ultimately, 
however,  he  turned  to  private  teaching  which 
yielded  him  a  fairly  regular  income.  He  also 
wrote  some  articles,  chiefly  biographical  and 
geographical,  for  the  Edinburgh  Encyclo- 
pmdia,  and  subsequently  translated  Legendre's 
Elements  de  Giomeirie  from  the  French. 

In  1819  he  began  the  study  of  law  in  the 
university,  but  soon  found  it  as  uncongenial 
as  theology.  Until  1822  he  lived  in  various 
lodgings  in  Edinburgh,  finding  his  chief  relief 
from  tutorial  drudgery  in  visits  to  his  parents 
in  Dumfriesshire.  His  health,  which  had  suf- 
fered from  too  close  application  to  study,  was 
at  times  "  most  miserable  " ;  he  "  was  in  a  low 
fever  for  two  weeks,"  was  harassed  by  sleej)- 
lessness,  and  began  to  be  tortured  by  his  life- 
long foe,  dyspepsia.  At  the  same  time  his 
mind  was  perplexed  with  doubt  on  religious 
matters,  r^arding  which  he  seems  to  have 
unburdened  himself  solely  to  his  friend  Irving. 
For  a  period  he  was  "totally  irreligious,"  he 
sa)r8.  This  struggle  terminated  in  June,  1821, 
"all  at  once,"  when  he  was  walking  along 
Leith  Walk,  Edinburgh,  in  what  he  regarded 
as  his  "spiritual  new  birth."  He  was  now 
absorbed  in  German  literature,  especially  the 
writings  of  Schiller  and  Goethe;  and  the 
latter,  indeed,  had  a  more  abiding  influence 
on  him  than  any  other  author. 

In  Jxme,  1821,  occurred  his  introduction, 
through  Edward  Irving,  to  Jane  Baillie  Welsh, 
only  daughter  of  Dr.  John  Welsh,  a  physician 
of  Haddington,  who  had  died  two  years  before, 
leaving  his  daughter  sole  heiress  of  the  small 
estate  of  Craigenputtoch,  some  sixteen  miles 
from  the  town  of  Dumfries.  Miss  Welsh, 
who  was  descended  through  her  father  from 
John  Knox,  was  then  hving  in  Haddington 
with  her  mother,  who  claimed  kindred  with 
the  patriot  Wallace,  and,  according  to  Carlyle, 
"narrowly  missed  being  a  woman  of  genius," 
Miss  Welsh  had  been  the  private  pupil  of 
Irving  when  he  was  a  teacher  in  Haddington, 
and  the  result  of  the  acquaintance  thus 
brought  about  was  a  passionate  attachment. 
They  would,  indeed,  have  been  married,  but 
for  Irving's  engagement  to  Miss  Martin.    The 


IN  LITERATURE 


lOS 


introduction  of  Carlyle  to  Miss  Welsh,  then 
twenty  years  of  age,  led  to  a  correspondence 
between  them  on  literary  matters.  After  a 
time  Carlyle  attempted  to  adopt  the  tone  of  a 
lover,  but  received  very  indifferent  encour- 
agement. 

Carlyle  had  now  formed  a  fairly  settled 
intention  of  making  literature  his  life  work. 
He  made  some  plans  for  a  history  of  the 
British  commonwealth,  and  for  a  novel 
association  with  Miss  Welsh,  as  well  as 
arranged  to  write  a  life  of  Schiller,  and  a 
translation  of  Goethe's  Wilhelm  Meister. 
These  two  enterprises  fully  occupied  his 
leisure  while  he  was  engaged  as  a  tutor  of  the 
Bullers,  whose  parents,  after  spending  the 
winter  of  1822  at  Edinburgh,  removed  in  the 
following  spring  to  Kinnaird  House,  near 
Dunkeld,  on  the  Tay. 

Carlyle  paid  his  first  visit  to  London  in 
1824,  and  remained  there  until  March,  1825, 
superintending  the  publication,  in  book  form, 
of  his  Life  of  Schiller.  At  this  time  he  re- 
ceived the  first  of  a  series  of  letters  from 
Goethe,  and  made  the  acquaintance  of  Cole- 
ridge, Thomas  Campbell,  Allan  Cunningham, 
Procter,  and  other  literary  notables.  On 
March  26,  1825,  he  removed  to  the  farm  of 
Hoddam  Hill,  which  he  had  leased,  his  brother 
Alexander  doing  the  practical  work  of  farming, 
while  he  himself  translated  German  romances. 

Miss  Welsh  now  consented  to  become  his 
wife,  after  a  long  correspondence.  In  1826 
he  quarreled  with  his  landlord;  his  father 
gave  up  his  farm;  and  both  removed  to 
Scotsbrig,  another  farm  in  the  vicinity  of 
Ecclefechan.  The  marriage  between  Carlyle 
and  Miss  Welsh  took  place  in  October,  1826, 
at  her  grandfather's  house  at  Templand, 
Dumfriesshire,  and  they  at  once  settled  in 
Edinburgh.  Here  Carlyle  completed  four 
volumes  of  translations  from  Tieck,  Musaeus, 
and  Richter,  which  were  published  under  the 
title  of  German  Romance,  and  commenced  a 
didactic  novel  but  burned  his  manuscript. 
An  introduction  from  Procter  to  Jeffrey  led  to 
his  becoming  a  contributor  to  the  Edinburgh 
Review,  his  first  article,  on  Jean  Paul  Richter, 
appearing  in  June,  1827.  The  same  year  he 
failed  in  his  candidature  for  the  chair  of 
moral  philosophy  in  the  university  of  St. 
Andrews  in  succession  to  Dr.  Chalmers. 
Various  subsequent  attempts  to  obtain  an 
academic  position  for  Carlyle  met  with  no 
better  success. 

In  May,  1828,  the  Carlyles  removed  to  Mrs. 


Carlyle's  little  property  of  Craigcnputtoch, 
which,  in  a  letter  to  Goethe,  he  described  as 
"the  loneliest  nook  in  Britain,  six  miles 
removed  from  any  one  likely  to  visit  me," 
and  there  they  lived  for  about  six  years. 
Meanwhile,  Carlyle  wrote  magazine  articles  on 
liurns,  Samuel  Johnson,  Goethe,  Voltaire, 
Diderot,  Schiller,  and  others.  He  also  wrote 
a  History  of  German  Literature,  the  best  parts 
of  which  were  subsequently  published  in  the 
form  of  essays. 

There  is  ample  evidence  that  it  was  here 
that  he  revolved  in  his  mind  the  great  ques- 
tions in  philosophy,  literature,  social  life,  and 
politics,  to  the  elucidation  of  which  —  after 
his  own  unique  fashion  —  he  earnestly  dedi- 
cated his  whole  life.  His  critical  and  bio- 
graphical essays  written  here,  too,  were  the 
first  to  open  the  riches  of  modern  German 
thought  to  the  English  reading  world.  For 
this  work  he  was  incomparably  better  fitted 
than  any  man  then  living  in  Great  Britain. 
Possessing  a  knowledge  of  the  German  tongue 
such  as  no  foreigner  ever  surpassed,  he  was 
also  inspired  by  the  conviction  that  the  litera- 
ture of  Germany  in  depth,  truthfulness, 
sincerity,  and  earnestness  of  purpose  was 
greatly  superior  to  what  was  admired  and 
relished  at  home.  Gifted,  moreover,  in  a 
degree  altogether  unexampled,  with  a  talent 
for  portraiture,  he  soon  painted  in  ineffaceable 
colors  the  images  of  Schiller,  Fichte,  Jean 
Paul  Richter,  and  other  foreign  magnates, 
until  then  almost  unheard  of. 

Gradually  educated  circles  awoke  to  the 
fact  that  a  literary  Colmnbus  had  appeared 
among  them,  who  had  discovered  a  "new 
world  "  of  letters,  the  freshness  and  grandeur 
of  which  were  sure  to  attract,  sooner  or  later, 
multitudes  of  adventurous  spirits.  One  of 
his  most  beautiful,  eloquent,  and  solid  essays, 
written  at  Craigenputtoch,  was  that  on 
Burns.  It  gave  the  keynote  to  all  subse- 
quent criticism  on  the  Scottish  poet. 

But  Carlyle's  chief  work,  written  on  his 
moorland  farm,  was  Sartor  Resartus,  or  "The 
Tailor  Done  Over"  (the  title  of  an  old  Scottish 
song),  which  occupied  him  in  1833-34.  This 
work  is  notable  in  the  literary  history  of 
Carlyle  as  revealing  the  strong  German 
influence  on  his  mind,  and  his  abandonment 
of  the  comparatively  simple  diction  of  his 
earlier  essays  for  the  thoroughly  individual 
style  of  his  later  works  —  eruptive,  ejacula- 
tory,  but  always  powerful,  and  often  rising  to 
an  epic  sublimity.     It  was  offered  to  various 


106 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


London  publishers,  and  rejected;  and  at 
length  published  in  Eraser's  Magazine.  It 
professes  to  be  a  history  or  biography  of  a 
certain  Herr  Teufelsdrockh  ("Devil's  Dirt"), 
professor  in  the  university  of  Weissnichtwo 
("  Kennaquhair  "),  and  contains  the  manifold 
opinions,  speculations,  inward  agonies,  and 
trials  of  that  strange  personage  —  or  rather 
of  Carlyle  himself.  The  whole  book  quivers 
with  tragic  pathos,  solemn  aspiration,  or 
riotous  humor. 

Life  at  Craigenputtoch  was  varied  on  the 
part  of  Carlyle  by  occasional  visits  to  Edin- 
burgh, in  one  of  which  the  idea  of  writing  his 
French  Revolution  occurred  to  him;  by  a 
residence  of  six  months  in  London,  during 
which  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  John 
Stuart  Mill  and  John  Sterling;  and  by  visits 
from  old  friends  hke  Jeffrey  and  new  admirers 
like  Emerson.  In  1830  Carlyle  was  reduced 
to  great  straits;  and  he  had  to  borrow  fifty 
pounds  from  Jeffrey  for  the  expenses  of  his 
journey  to  London,  although  he  declined  to 
accept  an  annuity  of  one  hundred  pounds 
from  the  same  source. 

Having  by  1834  again  saved  two  hundred 
pounds,  Carlyle  resolved  to  try  his  fortune  in 
London,  and  in  June  established  himself  in 
the  house,  5  Cheyne  Row,  Chelsea,  in  which 
he  lived  until  the  day  of  his  death.  Here  he 
settled  down  to  the  writing  of  his  French 
RevoliUion.  This  enterprise  was  almost  put 
to  an  end  in  1835,  owing  to  the  destruction 
by  a  servant  of  all  but  four  or  five  leaves  of 
the  manuscript  of  the  first  volume,  which  had 
been  lent  to  John  Stuart  Mill.  Carlyle  ac- 
cepted one  hundred  pounds  from  Mill  as 
compensation  for  his  loss. 

The  work  appeared  in  1837,  and  was  the 
first  which  bore  the  author's  name.  Nothing 
can  be  more  gorgeous  than  the  style  of  this 
"prose  epic.*'  A  fiery  enthusiasm  pervades 
it,  now  softened  with  tenderness,  and  again 
darkened  with  grim  mockery,  making  it 
throughout  the  most  wonderful  image  of  that 
wild  epoch.  Carlyle  looks  on  the  explosion 
of  national  wrath  as  a  work  of  the  divine 
Nemesis,  who  "in  the  fulness  of  times,"  de- 
stroys, with  sacred  fury,  the  accumulated 
falsehoods  of  centuries.  To  him,  therefore, 
the  revolution  was  a  "truth  clad  in  hell- 
fire." 

In  the  years  from  1837  to  1840  Carlyle 
lectured  to  fair,  yet  select  audiences  in  Lon- 
don, on  German  literature,  the  history  of 
European  culture,  heroes  and  hero-worship. 


and  other  historical  subjects,  which  took  form 
in  his  later  publications.  His  yearly  earnings 
from  these  lectures,  though  varying  consider- 
ably, maintained  him  and  his  wife  until  the 
French  RevoliUion  not  only  established  his 
reputation  as  a  literary  genius  of  the  highest 
order,  and  as  in  Goethe's  phrase  "  a  new  moral 
force,"  but  placed  him  beyond  the  possibility 
of  want.  Yet,  until  late  in  life,  his  annual 
income  from  literature  was  not  more  than 
four  hundred  pounds.  In  1838  appeared 
Sartor  Resartus  in  book  form,  and  the  first 
edition  of  his  Miscellanies.  The  following 
year  Carlyle,  who  at  one  time  was  not  averse 
to  the  idea  of  becoming  a  personal  force  in 
politics,  published  the  first  of  a  series  of 
attacks  on  the  shams  and  corruptions  of  mod- 
ern society  under  the  title  of  Chartism.  This 
he  followed  in  1843  with  Past  and  Present, 
and  in  1850  with  Latter-day  Pamphlets,  which 
proved  among  other  things  that,  if  he  did 
not  quite  approve  of  slavery,  he  disapproved 
of  the  manner  in  which  it  had  been  abolished 
in  the  British  dominions.  In  1845  appeared 
Cromwell's  Letters  and  Speeches,  perhaps  the 
most  successful  of  all  his  works,  inasmuch  as 
it  completely  revolutionized  the  pubhc  esti- 
mate of  its  subject. 

From  this  time  Carlyle  gave  himself  up 
entirely  to  his  largest  work,  History  of 
Frederick  IL  of  Prussia,  called  Frederick  the 
Great,  the  first 'two  volumes  of  which  were 
published  in  1858,  and  which  was  concluded 
in  1865.  The  preparation  of  this  book  led 
him  to  make  two  excursions  to  the  continent, 
which,  with  a  yachting  trip  to  Ostend,  two 
tours  in  Ireland,  and  regular  visits  to  his 
kindred  and  friends  in  Scotland,  formed  the 
chief  distractions  from  his  literary  labors. 
Among  the  few  public  movements  with  which 
Carlyle  identified  himself  was  that  which 
resulted  in  the  estabUshment  of  the  London 
library  in  1839.  In  August,  1866,  he  also 
allowed  himself  to  be  elected  chairman  of  the 
conunittee  for  the  defense  of  Ejre,  who 
had  been  recalled  from  his  post  of  governor 
of  the  island  of  Jamaica  on  the  ground  of  his 
having  shown  severity  in  suppressing  a  negro 
insurrection  which  had  broken  out  in  October 
of  the  previous  year,  or  as  Carlyle  put  it, 
for  having  "  saved  the  West  Indies  and  hanged 
one  incendiary  mulatto,  well  worth  the 
gallows." 

During  November,  1865,  Carlyle  was  elected 
lord  rector  of  Edinburgh  university  by  a 
majority    of    six    hundred    fifty-seven  votes 


IN   LITERATURE 


107 


over  three  hundred  ten  recorded  for  his  rival, 
Disraeli.  On  April  2,  1866,  the  ceremony 
of  his  installation  took  place  amidst  extraor- 
dinary demonstrations  of  enthusiasm,  when 
he  delivered  an  address  in  which  he  embodied 
his  moral  experiences  in  the  form  of  advices  to 
the  younger  members  of  his  audience.  The 
success  attending  this  visit  to  Edinburgh  was 
quite  obliterated  by  the  news  which  reached 
him  in  Dumfries  of  the  death,  on  April  21st, 
of  Mrs.  Carlyle,  as  she  was  driving  in  her 
carriage  in  Hyde  Park,  London.  Carlyle's 
grief  developed  into  remorse  when  he  discov- 
ered from  certain  of  her  letters,  and  from  a 
journal  which  she  kept,  that  during  a  period 
of  their  married  life  his  irritability  of  temper 
and  unconscious  want  of  consideration  for 
her  wishes  had  caused  her  much  misery  and 
even  ill-health,  which  she  studiously  concealed 
from  him. 

It  has  also  been  demonstrated  by  the 
Letters  and  memorials  of  Jane  Welsh  Carlyle 
that  in  the  years  1855  and  1856  they  were 
somewhat  estranged,  owing  to  Carlyle's  liking 
for  the  society  of  Lady  Ashburton.  After  the 
death  of  Lady  Ashburton  there  were  no 
differences  between  them,  except  such  as 
might  be  expected  in  the  case  of  two  persons 
of  irritable  and  high-strung  natures,  and  of 
uncompromising  veracity.  These  Memorials 
are  also  of  note  as  proving  Mrs.  Carlyle  to  have 
been  one  of  the  keenest  critics,  most  brilliant 
letter-writers,  and  most  accomphshed  women, 
of  her  time. 

Carlyle  wrote  no  important  work  after  his 
wife's  death,  although  after  a  visit  to  Mentone, 
France,  in  1867,  where  he  partially  composed 
his  personal  Reminiscences,  he  settled  down  to 
his  old  hfe  in  London.  In  August,  1867, 
there  appeared  in  Macmillan's  Magazine  his 
view  of  British  democracy,  under  the  title  of 
Shooting  Niagara.  He  prepared  a  special 
edition  of  his  collected  works,  and  added  to 
them  in  1875  a  fresh  volume  containing  The 
Early  Kings  of  Norway,  and  an  Essay  on  the 
Portraits  of  John  Knox.  On  November  18, 
1870,  he  wrote  a  letter  to  the  London  Times 
on  the  Franco-German  question,  defending 
the  attitude  of  Germany.  He  expressed 
privately  strong  opposition  to  the  Irish  policy 
of  Gladstone.  In  February,  1874,  he  was 
offered  and  accepted  the  Prussian  order  of 
merit  in  recognition  of  his  having  written  the 
life  of  Frederick  the  Great,  who  founded  the 
order.  Toward  the  end  of  the  same  year, 
Premier  Disraeli  offered  him  the  grand  cross 


of  the  bath  (with  the  alternative  of  a  baron- 
etcy)  and  a  pension  to  "  an  amount  equal  to 
a  good  fellowship,"  but  he  declined  both. 

His  eightieth  birthday,  December  4,  1875, 
brought  Carlyle  many  tributes  of  respect, 
including  a  gold  medal  from  a  number  of 
Scottish  admirers,  and  "a  noble  and  most 
unexpected"  note  from  Prince  Bismarck. 
On  May  5,  1877,  he  published  a  short  letter  in 
the  London  Times,  referring  to  a  rumor  that 
Lord  Beaconsfield,  as  premier,  meditated 
forcing  on  a  "  Philo-Turk  war  against  Russia," 
and  protesting  pgainst  any  such  design.  This 
was  his  last  public  act.  On  February  5,  1881, 
he  died  at  his  house  in  Chelsea.  A  burial  in 
Westminster  abbey  was  offered;  but,  in 
accordance  with  his  own  wish,  he  was  laid  in 
the  churchyard  of  Ecclefechan  beside  his 
kindred.  His  wife  is  buried  beside  her  father 
in  the  ruined  abbey  church  of  Haddington. 

As  a  prophet  in  the  guise  of  a  man  of  letters, 
Carlyle  exerted  a  greater  influence  on  British 
literature  during  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  and  on  the  moral,  religious,  and 
poUtical  beliefs  of  his  time,  than  any  of  his 
contemporaries.  As  a  humorist,  using  humor 
seriously,  and  as  a  weapon  for  the  enforce- 
ment of  his  opinions,  he  has  no  superior ;  and 
as  a  master  of  the  graphic  in  style  he  has  no 
rival  and  no  second.  He  shows  an  equal 
faciUty  in  photographing  nature  and  in  grasp- 
ing and  presenting  in  appropriate  phraseology 
the  salient  points  of  personal  character  as 
exhibited  in  expression,  habits,  features,  build, 
and  dress. 

Carlyle,  as  a  man,  was  irritable,  impatient, 
intolerant,  fiercely  proud,  occasionally  hasty 
in  his  judgments,  and  preserved  to  the  last 
certain  Scottish  rusticities  of  manner  and 
mental  attitude.  But  no  one  ever  faced  the 
real  misfortunes  of  life  with  a  calmer  courage. 
He  was  as  incapable  of  conscious  injustice, 
unkindliness,  or  vindictiveness,  as  he  was  of 
insincerity  or  impurity.  When  in  pecuniary 
straits,  even  in  despair,  he  never  wrote  a  line 
that  he  did  not  beheve,  never  swerved  by  a 
hair's  breadth  from  the  noble  purposes  which 
dominated  his  hfe  and  extinguished  all  sel- 
fish ambition.  He  adopted  the  sane  and  dig- 
nified hypothesis  that  the  working  of  the 
universe  is  informed  with  purpose,  and  that, 
come  what  may,  good  in  the  end  must  be  the 
final  goal  of  ill. 

Moncure  D.  Conway  says,  "In  one  sense, 
Carlyle  was  as  a  city  set  upon  a  hill,  that  can- 
not be  hid;    in  another,  he  was  an  'open 


108 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


secret,*  hid  by  the  very  simplicity  of  his  un- 
conscious disguises,  the  frank  perversities 
whose  meaning  could  be  known  only  by  those 
close  enough  to  hear  the  heartbeat  beneath 
them ;  and  many,  who  have  fancied  that  they 
had  him  rightly  labelled  with  some  moody 
utterance,  or  safely  pigeonholed  in  some 
outbreak  of  a  soul  acquainted  with  grief,  will 
be  found  to  have  measured  the  oak  by  its 
mistletoe. 

"Graduation  from  'Carlyle  Close,'  now  a 
shamble,  to  the  highest  intellectual  distinction 
of  the  nineteenth  century  implies  the  realiza- 


tion of  several  worlds  dim  to  others.  Out  of  a 
depth  like  this  his  voice  will  always  go  forth, 
and  to  it  the  deeps  will  always  answer.  The 
influence  of  Carlyle  will  never  '  stop ' ;  wher- 
ever shams  are  falling,  his  sturdy  blows  will 
still  be  heard;  generations  of  the  free  will 
recognize  that  they  are  offspring  of  the  fire  in 
his  heart,  burning  all  fetters;  and  when  the 
morning  stars  sing  together  of  dawning  days, 
when  heroes  of  humanity  replace  nobles  with- 
out nobility  and  bauble-crowned  kings,  his 
voice,  so  long  a  burden  of  pain,  will  be  heard 
again  rising  into  song." 


A.  D. 

1802 
1816 
1817 
1822 
1827 
1829 
1830 
1831 
1832 
1836 
1838 
1841 


HUGO 

AGE  A.  D. 

Bom  at  BeaanQon,  France, 1843 

Wrote  his  first  tragedy,  Irtamine,    .      14  1845 

"On  the  Advantages  of  Study,"  .    .      15  1851 

Married 20  1853-69 

"Cromwell,"  a  drama, 25 

Lea  Orientaies;  Marion  Delorme,  .    ,     27  1862 

Hernani 28  1806 

Notre  Dame  de  Paris, 29  1871 

Rigoletto  (Le  Roi  «*  Amxue),      ...     30  1874 

La  Esmeralda, 34  1877 

Ruy  Bias, 36  1882 

Member  of  the  French  academy,  .         39  1885 


AOB 

Les  Burgraves, 41 

Raised  to  the  peerage, 43 

Banished  from  France, 49 

Lcs  ChAtiments;    Let  ConUmpla- 

tiontj 51-57 

Les  MvsirabUs, 60 

"The  Toilers  of  the  Sea," 64 

Elected  to  the  national  aaaembly,    .  69 

"Ninetv-three," 72 

"The  History  of  a  Crime,"    ....  75 

Torquemada, 80 

Died  at  Paris,      83 


A/" ICTOR  MARIE  HUGO,  the  greatest  of 
'  French  poets,  and  a  celebrated  novelist 
and  orator,  was  born  at  Besan^on,  France, 
February  26,  1802.  He  was  the  third  son 
of  General  Joseph  L.  S.  Hugo,  a  soldier  of  the 
empire,  and  Sophie  Trebuchet,  daughter  of  a 
Vendean  royalist. 

Though  a  weakling,  as  a  child  he  was  car- 
ried, with  his  boy-brothers,  in  the  train  of 
their  father  through  the  south  of  France,  in 
pursuit  of  Fra  Diavolo,  the  Italian  brigand, 
and  finally  into  Spain.  Subsequently  his 
father  was  made  governor  over  three  prov- 
inces, was  lord  high  steward  at  King  Joseph's 
court,  where  his  eldest  son  was  installed  as 
page.  The  other  two,  including  Victor,  were 
educated  for  similar  posts  among  hostile 
young  Spaniards,  under  stem  priestly  tutors 
in  the  Noble's  college  at  Madrid,  a  palace 
become  a  monastery.  Upon  the  English 
advance  to  free  Spain  of  the  invaders,  the 
general  and  his  eldest  son  remained  at  bay, 
while  the  mother  and  other  children  hastened 
to  Paris. 

In  Paris,  Victor  and  his  brother  Eugene 
were  taught  by  priests  until,  by  the  accident 
of  their  roof  sheltering  a  comrade  of  their 


father's,  a  change  of  tutor  was  afforded  them. 
This  was  General  Lahorie,  a  man  of  superior 
education,  main  supporter  of  Malet  in  his 
daring  plot  to  take  the  government  into  the 
republican's  hands  during  the  absence  of 
Napoleon  I.  in  Russia.  Lahorie  read  old 
French  and  Latin  with  Victor  until  the  police 
scented  him  out  and  led  him  to  execution, 
October,  1812.  After  this  tragic  episode, 
Victor  entered  the  college  of  Louis-le-Grand 
at  Paris,  where,  at  fourteen,  he  wrote  the 
tragedy,  Irtamene,  and  scribbled  on  the 
ephemeral  poUtics  of  those  stirring  times.  In 
1817  the  French  academy  mentioned  honor- 
ably his  poem, "  On  the  Advantages  of  Study," 
with  a  misgiving,  even,  that  some  older  hand 
was  masked  under  the  hne  ascribing  "scant 
fifteen  years"  to  the  author.  But  when  his 
"Odes"  were  collected  in  a  volume,  Louis 
XVIII.  granted  the  boy-poet  a  pension  of 
fifteen  hundred  francs. 

This  unexpected  munificence  on  the  part  of 
the  king  enabled  Hugo  to  gratify  his  first  love. 
In  his  childhood  his  father  and  M.  Foucher, 
head  of  the  war  office  department,  had  jok- 
ingly betrothed  a  son  of  the  one  to  a  daugh- 
ter of  the  other.    General  Hugo's  eldest  son,. 


IN  LITERATURE 


IW 


Abel,  had  loftier  views  than  alliance  with  a ' 
civil  servant's  child ;  Eugene  was  in  love  l 
elsewhere;  but  Victor  had  fallen  enamored 
with  Adele  Foucher.  It  is  true,  when  poverty 
beclouded  the  Hugos,  the  Fouchers  had  shrunk 
into  their  mantle  of  dignity,  and  the  girl  had 
been  strictly  forbidden  to  correspond  with  her 
child-sweetheart.  But  Victor,  finding  his 
letters  barred  out,  wrote  a  love  story,"  Hans 
of  Iceland,"  in  two  weeks,  wherein  were 
recited  his  hopes,  fears,  and  constancy,  and 
this  book  he  hoped  she  might  read. 

It  pleased  the  public  no  less,  and  its  sale, 
together  with  that  of  the  odes  and  a  West 
Indian  romance,  Bug  Jargal,  together  with 
the  royal  pension,  emboldened  the  poet  to 
renew  his  love-suit.  To  refuse  the  recipient 
of  court  funds  being  impossible  to  a  public 
functionary,  M.  Foucher  consented  to  the 
betrothal  in  the  summer  of  1821,  and  in 
October,  1822,  they  were  wed,  the  bride 
nineteen,  the  bridegroom  one  year  older. 

In  1826  Hugo  published  a  second  set  of 
f  "Odes  and  Ballads,"  and  had  been  introduced 
by  the  president  of  the  French  academy  as 
"the  most  promising  of  our  young  lyrists." 
.Romanticism  was  now  in  full  career  in  France. 
This  movement  was  initiated  by  a  band  of 
young  men,  imaginative,  ardent,  and  confi- 
dent, who  sought  to  renovate  French  litera- 
ture by  departing  from  classic  rules  and 
models,  substituting  a  varied  and  very 
flexible  verse  for  the  monotonous  Alexandrines 
of  the  old  school,  and  making  art  precisely 
conform  to  nature,  which  they  carried  so  far 
as  even  to  bring  into  prominence  things  which 
nature  herself  teaches  us  to  keep  out  of  sight. 
The  new  school,  la  jeune  France,  as  they  called 
themselves,  formed  the  romanticists,  and 
their  opponents  the  classicists.  The  literary 
war  lasted  several  years. 

With  the  appearance,  in  1827,  of  his  tragedy 
Cromwell,  Hugo  instantly  took  his  place  at  the 
head  of  the  romanticists.  This  tragedy 
broke  lances  upon  the  royalists  and  upholders 
of  the  still  reigning  style  of  tragedy.  Crom- 
well was  not  actable,  however,  and  his  "Amy 
Robsart,"  translated  from  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
in  collaboration  with  his  brother-in-law, 
Foucher,  also  miserably  failed  with  it,  not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  it  possesses  a  finale 
superior  to  Scott's  Kenilworth. 

Hugo  now  wrote  his  "  Ode  to  the  Napoleon 
Column  in  the  Place  Vendome";  his  satire 
Marion  Delorme  (1829),  and  Hernani  (1830), 
two  plays  which  were  immediately  suppressed 


by  the  censor,  because  they  had  very  much 
irritated  the  court.  Lcs  Orientales,  published 
in  1829,  had  also  laid  him  open  to  censure. 
Though  written  in  a  Parisian  suburb  by  one 
who  had  not  traveled,  they  appealed  for 
Grecian  liberty,  and  depicted  sultans  and 
pashas  as  tyrants,  many  a  line  being  deemed 
applicable  to  personages  nearer  the  .Seine  than 
Stamboul.  In  a  number  of  instances,  indeed, 
his  political  views  had  become  more  than 
apparent  before  the  seething  revolutionary 
eruption  in  1830;  and  when  in  the  following 
summer  a  civil  ceremony  was  performed  over 
the  insurgents  killed  in  the  previous  year, 
Hugo  was  constituted  poet  laureate  of  the 
revolution  by  having  his  hymn  sung  in  the 
Pantheon  over  their  biers. 

Under  Louis  Philippe,  Marion  Delorme, 
probably  his  best  play,  could  be  produced, 
but  livelier  attention  was  turned  to  Notre 
Dam^  de  Paris  written  in  1831,  the  historical 
romance  in  which  Hugo  vied  with  Sir  Walter 
Scott.  It  was  to  have  been  followed  by 
others,  but  the  publisher  unfortunately 
secured  a  contract  to  monopolize  all  the  new 
novelist's  prose  fictions  for  a  term  of  years, 
and  the  author  revenged  himself  by  publishing 
poems  and  plays  alone.  Hence  Notre  Dame 
long  stood  unique.  It  was  translated  into  all 
languages,  and  plays  and  operas  were  founded 
on  it. 

Heine,  even,  professed  to  see  in  the  prom- 
inence of  the  hunchback  a  personal  appeal 
of  the  author,  who  was  slightly  deformed 
by  one  shoulder  being  a  trifle  higher  than 
the  other.  This  malicious  suggestion  reposed 
also  on  the  fact  that  the  quasi-hero  of 
Rigoleito,  or  Le  Roi  s'  Amuse  (1832)  —  a 
tragedy  which  was  suppressed  after  one 
representation,  for  its  reflections  on  royalty 
—  was  also  a  contorted  piece  of  humanity. 
The  latter  was  superbly  written,  and  has 
gone  the  round  of  the  world  as  Rigoletto. 
This  play  was  followed  by  Lucrbce  Borgia, 
Marie  Tudor,  and  Angela,  written  in  a  singu- 
lar poetic  prose.  These  were  well  received, 
and  their  action  alone  was  sufficiently  dra- 
matic to  make  them  successes.  They  have 
all  been  arranged  since  as  operas,  and  Hugo 
himself,  to  oblige  the  father  of  Louise 
Bertin,  a  magazine  publisher  of  note,  also 
wrote  the  opera  La  Esmeralda,  in  1836,  for 
her  music. 

In  1837  Louis  Philippe  made  Hugo  an 
officer  of  the  legion  of  honor,  and  in  1841 
the   French   academy,   having  rejected  him 


110 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


several  times,  elected  him  among  the  forty 
immortals.  In  the  year  1838  Ruy  Bias, 
for  which  he  had  gone  to  Spanish  sources,  had 
been  successfully  acted.  Then,  after  the 
imperative  Rhine  tour,  came  an  unendurable 
trilogy,  Les  Burgraves,  played  one  long, 
long  night  in  1843.  A  real  tragedy,  also,  was 
to  mark  that  year,  his  daughter  Leopoldine 
being  drowned  in  the  Seine  with  her  husband, 
who  would  not  save  himself  when  he  found 
that  her  death-grasp  on  the  sinking  boat  was 
not  to  be  loosed. 

For  distraction,  Hugo  plunged  into  politics. 
He  was  created  a  peer  in  1845,  and  sat  in 
the  constituent  assembly  of  France  for  Paris, 
between  Marshal  Soult  and  Pontecoulant,  the 
regicide-judge  of  Louis  XVI.  His  maiden 
speech  bore  upon  artistic  copyright;  but  he 
rapidly  became  a  power  in  much  graver  mat- 
ters. In  1849  he  joined  the  party  of  ad- 
vanced democrats  of  whom  he  became  a 
leader  and  distinguished  orator. 

As  fate  would  have  it,  his  speech  on  the 
Bonapartes  induced  King  Louis  Philippe  to 
allow  Prince  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte  to 
return,  and,  there  being  no  gratitude  in 
politics,  the  emancipated  outlaw  rose  as  a 
rival  candidate  for  the  presidency,  for  which 
Hugo  had  nominated  himself  in  his  newspaper 
L'Evenement.  The  story  of  the  coup  d'etat  of 
1851,  by  which  Louis  Napoleon  broke  up  the 
national  assembly  by  force,  and  reestab- 
lished the  monarchy,  is  well  known;  the 
republican's  side  is  graphically  presented  in 
Hugo's  own  L'Histoire  d'un  Crime,  "The 
History  of  a  Crime,"  published  in  1877. 

Hugo,  banished  from  France  by  Louis 
Napoleon,  betook  himself  to  Brussels,  London, 
and  the  Channel  islands,  waiting  to  "return 
with  right  when  the  usurper  should  be  ex- 
pelled." Meanwhile,  he  satirized  the  third 
Napoleon  and  his  congeners  with  ceaseless 
shafts,  the  principal  being  the  famous  "  Napo- 
leon the  Little,"  based  on  the  analogical 
reasoning  that  as  the  earth  has  moons,  the 
Uon  the  jackal,  man  himself  his  simian  double, 
a  minor  Napoleon  was  inevitable  as  a  standard 
of  estimation  —  the  grain,  as  it  were,  by 
which  a  pyramid  is  measured.  From  1853 
to  1859  these  flings  were  collected  in  Les 
Chdtiments,  a  volume  preceded  by  Les  Con- 
templations (mostly  written  in  the  '40's),  and 
followed  by  Les  Chansons  des  Rues  et  des  Bois. 

Hugo  refused  to  avail  himself  of  the  am- 
nesty proclaimed  in  1859  to  political  exiles, 
and  shortly  thereafter  began  the  period  in 


which  he  gave  to  the  world  his  greatest  crea- 
tions in  fiction.  In  1862  Les  Miserables, 
"Ye  Wretched,"  the  most  celebrated  of  his 
novels,  appeared,  and  was  almost  simultane- 
ously translated  into  many  languages.  In 
1866  Les  Travailleurs  de  la  Mer,  "The  Toilers 
of  the  Sea,"  whose  scenes  are  laid  among  the 
Channel  islands,  was  given  to  the  publisher, 
and  in  1869  L'Homme  qui  RU,  "The  Man 
who  Gives,"  a  novel  of  a  fanciful  England, 
made  its  appearance.  It  was  while  writing 
the  final  chapters  of  the  latter  work  that 
Hugo's  wife  died,  and  under  the  conditions  of 
his  exile  he  could  accompany  her  remains  back 
to  France  only  as  far  as  the  Belgian  frontier. 

All  this  while,  in  his  Paris  daily  paper,  he 
and  his  sons  and  son-in-law's  family  were 
reiterating  their  blows  at  the  throne ;  and  on 
the  fall  of  the  empire  in  1870,  and  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  republic,  he  hastened 
back  to  his  native  country.  Upon  his  return, 
he  again  joined  the  republican  movement, 
and  was  returned  to  the  national  assembly 
in  1871,  which,  however,  he  soon  quitted  in 
disgust.  He  stayed  through  the  commune, 
and  denounced  with  great  vehemence  the 
treaty  of  peace  with  Germany. 

After  the  commune  he  again  fled  to  Brus- 
sels where  he  was  too  aggressive  in  sheltering 
and  aiding  French  fugitives,  with  the  con- 
sequence that  the  Belgian  government  ex- 
pelled him  from  the  country,  and  he  had  to 
seek  refuge  in  Vianden,  a  village  of  Luxem- 
burg. His  poems,  \vTitten  during  the  war 
and  siege  of  Paris,  1870-71,  collected  under 
the  title  of  U Annie  Terrible,  "The  Terrible 
Year,"  betray  the  long-tried  exile,  "almost 
alone  in  his  gloom." 

In  1874  his  novel  Quatre-Vingt-Treize, 
"Ninety- three,"  pleased  the  general  public  of 
France,  mainly  for  the  adventures  of  three 
charming  httle  children  during  the  prevalence 
of  an  internecine  war.  These  phases  of  a 
bounteously  paternal  mood  reappeared  in 
L'Art  d'etre  Grandptre,  "The  Art  of  being  a 
Grandfather,"  pubhshed  in  1877,  when  he 
had  become  a  life-senator.  Hemani  was  in 
the  regular  "  stock  "  of  the  Th6dtre  Fran^ais, 
Rigoletto  always  at  the  Italian  opera  house, 
while  the  same  subject,  under  the  title  of 
"The  Fool's  Revenge,"  held,  as  it  still  holds, 
a  high  position  on  the  Anglo-American  stage. 
Finally,  the  poetic  romance  of  Torquemada, 
promised  for  over  thirty  years,  came  forth  in 
1882  to  prove  that  the  wizard-wand  had  not 
lost  its  cunning. 


IN  LITERATURE 


111 


After  grief,  fetes  were  come.  On  one 
birthday  his  compatriots  would  crown  his 
bust  in  the  chief  theater;  on  another,  all 
notable  Paris  would  parade  under  his  window, 
where  he  sat  with  his  grandchildren  at  his 
knee,  in  the  shadow  of  the  triumphal  arch  of 
Napoleon's  star.  It  is  given  to  few  men  thus 
to  see  their  own  apothesis. 

Victor  Hugo  died  on  May  22,  1885.  Paris 
was  but  the  first  mourner  for  all  France.  A 
magnificent  funeral  pageant  conducted  his 
coffin,  enshrining  the  remains  considered 
worthy  of  the  highest  possible  reverence  and 
honors,  from  the  Champs  Elys^es  to  the  Pan- 
theon. This  was  the  more  memorable  because 
the  foremost  personages  in  French  art  and 
letters  marched  in  his  train,  and  laid  a  leaf  or 
flower  in  the  tomb  of  the  prot6g6  of  Chateau- 
briand, the  brother-in-arms  of  Dumas,  the 
inspirer  of  Mars,  Dorval,  Lemaitre,  Rachel, 
and  Bernhardt,  and,  above  all,  the  Nemesis 
of  the  third  empire. 

Victor  Hugo's  place  in  the  world's  literature 
is  secure.  His  relation  to  French  literature  is 
something  analogous  to  that  of  Shakespeare 
to  English  and  Goethe  to  German  literature. 
No  other  author  while  living  —  not  even 
Petrarch,  or  Voltaire,  or  Goethe  —  achieved 
such  unbounded  national  popularity  as  his. 
In  romance  he  stood  first,  although  his  rivals 
were  George  Sand  and  Balzac;  in  lyrical 
poetry  he  stood  first,  in  spite  of  Lamartine 
and  Alfred  de  Musset;  in  the  drama  he  had 
no  near  competitor.  He  gave  to  French 
rhythm  a  strength  and  variety  it  had  never 
known,  and  invented  a  prose  style  which  is 
singularly  effective  when  used  by  him.  His 
range  of  character-creation  is  very  broad.  He 
depicts  the  immensity  of  the  ocean,  the  battle 
of  Waterloo,  the  horrors  of  the  Vendue,  the 
innocent  prattle  of  children,  with  equal 
mastery.  He  possessed  the  genius  of  emotion 
to  the  highest  degree;  but  of  reflection,  of 
wisdom,  he  was  much  less  endowed.  Hence, 
there  is  often  found  a  strange  unevenness  in 
his  works,  marred  by  frequent  inaccuracy 
and  exaggeration.  Controlled  whoUy  by 
impulse,  he  lacked  a  corrective  sense  of  humor, 
which  might  have  dissipated  an  evident 
egotism.  He  seems  the  supreme  embodiment 
of  the  Gallic  type;  versatile,  mercurial, 
enthusiastic,  delighting  in  the  half-truths  of 
the  epigram,  demanding  brilliance  at  any  cost, 
readily  imbibing  new  ideas  and  embarking  on 
new  schemes,  sympathizing  with  those  who 
siiffer,  and  sincerely  rhetorical. 


But  Hugo  was  always  a  master  spirit; 
always  the  eloquent  and  fearless  advocate 
pleading  in  behalf  of  the  down-trodden  — 
the  champion  of  the  outcast  against  society 
which  has  cast  them  out.  He  has  the  bril- 
liance and  eloquence  and  sometimes  the 
sophistry  of  the  special  pleader.  A  true 
orator,  he  knows  the  magic  which  sways  the 
heart,  if  not  the  head.  Whatever  may  be  the 
value  of  this  power  as  compared  with  the 
impersonal  majesty  of  Shakespeare  or  Sopho- 
cles, Victor  Hugo's  endowment  of  it  is  un- 
matched. His  impulses  were  ever  noble :  he 
refused  pensions  from  Bourbons  and  soft 
promises  of  amnesty  from  Napoleon  III. 
rather  than  sell  his  freedom  of  speech;  he 
succored  the  distressed;  and  forgave  all 
enemies  except  those  of  liberty.  And  in  an 
age  when  his  ablest  contemporaries  treated 
chastity  and  the  ties  of  family  with  contempt, 
he  was  steadfastly  on  the  side  of  morality. 
His  creed  was  deistic  —  he  beheved  in  immor- 
tality. 

The  English  poet,  Swinburne,  who  was  one 
of  Hugo's  most  appreciative  interpreters, 
declared  that  he  is  "above  all  things  a  poet. 
Throughout,"  he  says,  "all  the  various  and 
ambitious  attempts  of  his  marvelous  boyhood 
—  criticism,  drama,  satire,  elegy,  epigram, 
and  romance  —  the  dominant  vein  is  poetic. 
His  example  will  stand  forever  as  the  crown- 
ing disproof  of  the  doubtless  more  than 
plausible  opinion  that  the  most  amazing  pre- 
cocity of  power  is  a  sign  of  ensuing  impotence 
and  premature  decay.  There  was  never  a 
more  brilliant  boy  than  Victor  Hugo;  but 
there  has  never  been  a  greater  man.  *  *  ♦ 
But  from  the  first,  without  knowing  it, 
he  was  on  the  road  to  Damascus ;  if  not  to  be 
struck  down  by  sudden  mirivcle,  yet  by  no 
less  inevitable  a  process  to  undergo  a  no  less 
unquestionable  conversion. 

"Hugo,  for  all  his  dramatic  and  narrative 
mastery  of  effect,  will  always  probably  remind 
men  rather  of  such  poets  as  Dante  or  Isaiah 
than  of  such  poets  as  Sophocles  or  Shakes- 
peare. We  cannot,  of  course,  imagine  the 
Florentine  or  the  Hebrew  endowed  with  his 
infinite  variety  of  sympathies,  of  interests, 
and  of  powers ;  but  as  little  can  we  imagine  in 
the  Athenian  such  height  and  depth  of  pas- 
sion, in  the  Englishman  such  unquenchable 
and  sleepless  fire  of  moral  and  prophetic 
faith."  If  he  did  not  equal  his  great  rival, 
Balzac,  in  the  latter's  field,  he  surpassed  him 
in  poetic  genius  and  expression. 


112 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


EMERSON 


A.  D. 

1803 
1821 

1829 

1832 
1834 

1835 
1836 
1837 
1841 
1842-44 


Born  at  Boston',  Mass., 

Graduated     from     Harvard    col- 
lege,   18 

Entered  Unitarian  ministry ;  mar- 
ried first  wife,      26 

Sailed  for  Europe, 29 

Settled    at    Concord;     began    his 

career  as  lecturer, 31 

Married  his  second  wife, 32 

Nature, 33 

The  American  Scholar, 34 

Essays:  first  series, 38 

Edited  The  Dial, 39-41 


A.  D.  Aoa 

1846  Poevia, 43 

1847  Revisited  England, 44 

1850  Representative  Men, 47 

1856  English  Traits, 53 

1860  The  Conduct  of  Life:    a  series  of 

essays. 67 

1866  Received  degree  of  doctor  of  lawa 

from  Harvard 63 

1870  Society  and  Sditxide, 67 

1874  Parnassus:  an  anthology, 71 

1875  Letters  and  Social  Aims, 72 

1882  Died  at  Concord, 79 


OALPH  WALDO  EMERSON,  essayist, 
•*■  ^  speculative  philosopher,  and  poet,  is  the 
most  representative,  if  not  the  greatest  name 
in  American  literature.  He  was  born  at  Bos- 
ton, Massachusetts,  May  25,  1803,  and  was 
descended  from  a  long  line  of  ministers, 
among  whom  was  the  Rev.  Peter  Bulkeley,  the 
founder  of  Concord,  Massachusetts,  and  its 
first  minister.  His  father.  Rev.  William 
Emerson,  was  pastor  of  the  First  Unitarian 
church,  Boston,  but  died  when  his  son  was 
in  his  eighth  year.  After  this  event  Ralph 
Waldo's  education  was  continued  under  the 
supervision  of  his  mother,  a  woman  of  very 
superior  qualities,  and  he  also  came  much 
under  the  influence  of  his  father's  sister.  Miss 
Mary  Moody  Emerson,  whose  extant  writings 
are  said  to  resemble  those  of  her  distinguished 
nephew  in  style  and  thought. 

In  1817  Emerson  entered  Harvard  college 
—  after  having  attended  the  Boston  Latin 
school  —  and  received  his  degree  in  arts  in 
1821.  While  at  college  he  does  not  seem  to 
have  made  any  great  impression  upon  his 
classmates,  and  his  honors  were  confined  to  a 
second  prize  in  composition  and  his  selection 
as  class  poet.  He  spent  much  time  in  the 
library,  and  was  superior  to  most  of  his  class- 
mates in  his  knowledge  of  general  literature. 
After  graduation  he  taught  in  his  elder 
brother's  school  at  Boston  for  a  while,  and  in 
1823  began  to  study  for  the  ministry  with 
William  EUery  Channing,  at  the  same  time 
attending  lectures  at  the  Harvard  divinity 
school.  His  health  failing  in  1826,  he  spent 
the  ensuing  winter  in  Florida.  In  1829  he 
was  elected  assistant  and  afterward  sole 
minister  of  the  Second  church,  Boston,  a 
Unitarian  congregation,  as  colleague  of  Rev. 
Henry  Ware ;  and  in  the  same  year  he  mar- 
ried his  first  wife,  Ellen  Louisa  Tucker,  who 
died  in  1832.  In  1832  he  resigned  for  con- 
scientious  reasons,   declaring   in   a   farewell 


sermon  his  scruples  against  administering  the 
ordinance  of  the  Lord's  supper,  and,  in  Dr. 
Holmes's  words,  "the  grounds  upon  which 
those  scruples  were  founded."  He  continued 
to  preach  at  various  churches,  however,  with 
some  regularity  until  1838,  and  occasionally 
as  late  as  1847,  although  always  declining  a 
regular  call. 

In  December,  1832,  he  sailed  for  Europe, 
where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Landor, 
Coleridge,  and  Wordsworth,  and  visited  Carlyle 
at  Craigenputtoch.  Between  Carlyle  and  him- 
self a  lifelong  friendship  sprang  up,  and  Emer- 
son edited  the  first  American  edition  of  Sartor 
Resartus  in  1836.  Indeed,  each  acted  generally 
as  hterary  agent  for  the  other  in  their  respec- 
tive countries.  Neither,  however,  quite  sympa- 
thized with  the  other's  philosophical  position. 

Emerson  returned  to  America  in  1833.  He 
took  up  his  permanent  residence  in  Concord, 
Mass.,  in  1834,  married  his  second  wife,  Lydia 
Jackson,  the  year  after  and  led  a  quiet,  retired, 
meditative  life.  He  prepared  there  the  lectures 
which  he  delivered  in  Boston  and  vicinity 
shortly  thereafter,  and  wrote  essays.  The 
year  1836  was  signalized  by  the  pubH cation  of 
the  earHest  and  perhaps  most  important  of 
his  works,  the  tractate  on  Nature,  and  by 
those  meetings  at  Emerson's  house  of  a  few 
hke-minded  thinkers  who  became  known  as 
the  transcendental  school  of  philosophy.  In 
this  year,  also,  he  wrote  the  memorable  Can- 
cord  Hymn  for  the  dedication  of  the  monu- 
ment raised  in  commemoration  of  the  battle  of 
Concord. 

Emerson's  name  was  next  brought  into 
public  notice  by  his  oration  before  the  Phi 
Beta  Kappa  society  in  1837,  on  The  Ameri- 
can Scholar,  which  Dr.  Holmes  afterward 
described  as  "the  intellectual  declaration  of 
independence  "  of  America,  and  by  a  discourse 
delivered  to  the  graduating  divinity  class  at 
Cambridge  in  1838. 


RALPH   ^ALDO   EMERSON 

From  a  photograph 


IN  LITERATURE 


lU 


These  two  productions  strike  the  I;eynote 
of  his  philosophical,  poetical,  and  moral 
teachings.  The  latter  was  a  plea  for  the 
individual  consciousness  as  against  all  histori- 
cal creeds,  bibles,  and  churches,  and  in  behalf 
of  the  soul  of  each  man  as  the  supreme  judge 
in  spiritual  matters.  His  pronouncements 
created  a  great  sensation,  especially  among 
Unitarians,  and  much  controversy  followed, 
in  which,  however,  Emerson  took  no  part. 

His  first  series  of  Essays  appeared  in  1841, 
and,  by  their  freshness,  originality  of  thought, 
and  sparkling  beauty  of  expression,  compelled 
much  attention.  In  the  previous  year  he  had 
assisted  in  the  founding  of  The  Dial,  the  organ 
of  New  England  transcendentalism,  con- 
tributing to  its  pages  more  than  forty  prose 
and  metrical  pieces,  including  The  Tran- 
scendentalist  and  The  Conservative,  and 
such  poems  as  The  Problem,  Woodnotes, 
The  Sphinx,  and  Fate,  The  publication 
was  first  edited  by  Margaret  Fuller,  and 
included  among  its  contributors  William 
Henry  Channing,  A.Bronson  Alcott,  Theodore 
Parker,  George  Ripley,  James  Freeman  Clarke, 
and  others  of  the  transcendental  school.  On 
Miss  Fuller's  retirement,  at  the  end  of  the 
second  volume,  Emerson  took  up  the  editor- 
ship, and  conducted  the  periodical  until  its 
discontinuation  in  1844.  He  was  also  at  this 
time  a  curious  observer  of  the  Brook  Farm 
experiment,  in  which  he  did  not  take  part. 
He  characterized  it.  as  "  a  noble  and  generous 
movement  in  the  projectors  to  try  an  experi- 
ment of  better  living,"  but  gently  ridiculed 
the  methods  of  the  colony  in  his  Historic 
Notes. 

A  second  volume  (or  series)  of  Essays  made 
its  appearance  in  1844.  It  was  characterized 
by  the  same  striking  peculiarities  of  thought 
and  expression  that  had  previously  attracted 
so  many  readers,  and  soon  procured  for  him  a 
multitude  of  admirers  on  both  sides  of  the 
Atlantic.  A  collection  of  his  poems  was  pub- 
lished in  1846;  and  in  the  following  year  he 
paid  his  second  visit  to  England  in  the  form 
of  a  lecturing  tour  —  a  visit  whose  chief  result 
was  the  publication  in  1856  of  the  volume 
English  Traits  —  one  of  his  most  popular  and 
attractive  books. 

In  1850  he  issued  a  volume  on  Representa- 
tive Men,  one  of  the  most  important  of  all  his 
publications.  It  consists  of  a  series  of 
studies  or  portraits,  typical  of  various  classes 
of  mind,  in  which  are  treated  Plato,  Shakes- 
peare. Montaigne,  Goethe,  Swedenborg,  and 


Napoleon.  A  decade  later  i^peared  The 
Conduct  of  Lnfe,  a  series  of  essays  on  Power, 
Culture,  Behavior,  and  like  topics,  which 
served  as  a  guide  to  manners  for  more  than 
one  generation  of  Emerson's  disciples.  This 
work  brings  clearly  into  view  the  exalted 
moral  and  ethical  principles  which  underlie 
and  pervade  all  that  he  has  written.  Harvard 
university  gave  him  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
laws  in  1866. 

On  the  conclusion  of  the  civil  war  he  pub- 
lished his  Mayday  and  Other  Pieces,  followed 
in  1870  by  a  prose  volume,  Society  and  Soli- 
tude. In  1874  he  published  Parnassus,  an 
anthology  on  English  verse;  while  a  final 
volume  of  essays.  Letters  and  Social  Aims, 
prepared  from  his  earlier  lectures,  appeared  in 
1875.  He  contributed  to  the  North  American 
Review  in  1878  a  paper  on  the  Sovereignty  of 
Ethics,  which  contained  the  ripest  fruit  of  his 
broad  culture ;  and  his  address  of  1879  before 
the  Harvard  divinity  school  at  Cambridge 
was  published  in  1880  under  the  title  of 
The  Preacher.  His  last  years  were  spent  in 
revising  his  unpublished  manuscripts  and  pre- 
paring a  complete  edition  of  his  works.  He 
died  at  Concord,  Massachusetts,  April  27, 
1882. 

In  his  personal  appearance  Emerson  was  a 
typical  New  Englander  of  college-bred  ances- 
try. Tall,  spare,  slender,  with  sloping  shoul- 
ders, slightly  stooping  in  his  later  years,  with 
light  hair  and  eyes,  the  scholar's  complexion, 
the  prominent,  somewhat  arched  nose  which 
belongs  to  many  of  the  New  England  sub- 
species, thin  hps,  suggestive  of  delicacy,  but 
having  nothing  like  primness,  still  less  of  the 
rigidity  which  is  often  noticeable  in  the  gener- 
ation succeeding  next  to  that  of  the  men  in 
their  shir<>-sleeves,  he  would  have  been  noticed 
anywhere  as  one  evidently  a  scholarly  thinker 
astray  from  the  alcove  or  the  study,  which  were 
his  natural  habitats.  His  voice  was  verysweet 
and  penetrating  without  any  loudness  or  mark 
of  effort.  His  enunciation  was  beautifully 
clear,  but  he  often  hesitated  as  if  waiting  for  the 
right  word  to  present  itself.  His  manner  was 
very  quiet,  his  smile  was  pleasant,  but  he  did 
not  hke  explosive  laughter  any  better  than 
Hawthorne  did.  None  who  ever  met  him 
failed  to  recall  that  serene  and  kindly  presence, 
in  which  there  was  mingled  a  certain  spiritual 
remoteness  with  the  most  benignant  himian 
welcome  to  all  who  were  privileged  to  enjoy 
his  companionship. 

The  key  to  Emerson's  mental  position  is  to 


116 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


be  found  in  his  intense  individualism.  What- 
ever interferes  with  the  full  development  of 
the  individual,  whether  it  be  the  poHtical 
organization  of  the  state  or  the  authority 
exerted  by  venerated  names  in  religion  and 
letters,  is  to  be  regarded  in  his  conception 
as  more  or  less  an  evil.  In  the  midst  of  his 
hterary  labors  Emerson  found  time  to  mani- 
fest his  interest  in  great  public  questions  as 
they  arose.  Some  of  his  letters  upon  passing 
events  in  the  newspaper  press  of  his  day 
exerted  a  wide  influence.  While  he  was  a 
pastor  in  Boston  he  opened  his  pulpit  to  an 
earnest  protest  against  American  slavery,  and 
during  the  whole  period  of  the  anti-slavery  agi- 
tation he  constantly  manifested  his  sympathy 
with  those  who  sought  to  dehver  the  land  from 
human  bondage.  In  1844  he  gave  emphatic 
expression  to  his  views  in  the  British  West 
Indies.  Though  not  in  the  technical  sense  of 
the  word  a  reformer,  his  habits  and  tastes 
being  rather  those  of  a  scholar  and  man  of 
letters,  every  earnest  movement  for  the  wel- 
fare of  humanity  had  his  sympathy.  He 
gave  his  name  to  the  call  issued  in  1850  for 
the  first  convention  ever  held  in  Massachusetts 
to  secure  for  women  equal  rights  with  men  as 
citizens  and  voters. 

As  a  writer,  Emerson  is  eminently  distin- 
guished for  a  singular  union  of  poetic  imagina- 
tion with  practical  acuteness.  His  observa- 
tions on  society,  on  manners,  on  character, 
on  institutions,  are  stamped  with  rare  sagac- 
ity. To  some  he  is  untrammeled  by  the  rules 
of  the  versifier;  to  others  the  prophet;  and 
again  he  is  by  turns  a  visionary,  and  the 
shrewdest  of  guides  in  the  ways  of  the  world. 
His  style  is  in  the  nicest  harmony  with  the 
character  of  his  thought ;  and,  though  marked 
by  an  ethical  and  spiritual  vitality  of  the 
highest  order,  is  utterly  devoid  of  system, 
and  pervaded  by  a  certain  mystical  quality, 
charming  to  some  but  bewildering  to  others. 
His  intellectual  gems  are  profusely  sown 
throughout  his  pages  according  to  no  visible 
or  conscious  method,  and  with  settings  that 
seem  quite  accidental ;  but  they  glow  with  a 
genuine  luster  wherever  found.  To  the  arts 
and  processes  of  the  logician  he  pays  no 
regard,  evidently  thinking  that  they  tend  to 
behttle,  rather  than  exalt,  the  truth.  He 
simply  affirms  what  he  believes,  making  his 
appeal  at  every  step  to  the  moral  institutions 
of  the  reader,  in  the  faith  that  the  "  spirit  of 
man  is  the  candle  of  the  Lord,"  with  a  power 
of  illumination  adapted  to  every  emergency. 


He  knows  that  an  idea  is  more  forcible  and 
attractive,  and  can  be  clothed  in  more  briUiant 
and  picturesque  phraseology  when  it  is  not 
quahfied,  and,  as  it  were,  dragged  down  from 
its  elevation  by  the  influence  of  other  ideas. 
He  loves  to  watch  the  play  of  thought,  and  to 
dream  and  muse  about  it,  borne  up  on  the 
wing  of  a  pure  and  deUcate  imagination, 
rather  than  to  weigh  its  significance,  or  to 
build  it  up  into  an  "intellectual  system"  or 
a  creed.  Emerson  thus  belongs  to  the  class 
of  minds  which  are  intuitional  rather  than  re- 
flective, and  subtle  rather  than  sagacious.  His 
thinking  charms,  animates,  and  vividly  ex- 
cites the  mental  faculty  of  his  reader,  but  it 
does  not  settle  any  question  conclusively. 
Hence  his  speculations  on  religion,  philosophy, 
literature,  and  life,  though  intensely  stimu- 
lating to  the  young,  are  sometimes  coldly 
regarded  by  men  of  mature  and  sage  under- 
standing. 

Emerson  can  no  more  be  measured  for  any 
regulation  uniform  worn  by  the  army  of 
writers  than  the  rolling  clouds  that  veil  and 
reveal  the  summer  sky  can  be  condensed  into 
a  valise.  In  an  age  of  unlovely  materialism,  in 
a  land  where  progress  is  too  much  measured 
by  profits,  he  dared  to  play  the  part  of  the 
youth  with  the  banner  "Excelsior,"  even  if 
the  nobility  of  the  unpractical  chmb  won  only 
smiles  in  the  market  place.  His  pure  and 
expansive  soul  mirrored  the  aspirations  of  all 
great  souls  in  all  ages  and  countries,  and,  if 
the  rays  reflected  were  confusing  to  the 
average  eye  that  would  separate  them,  the 
intense  force  of  the  sunbeam  of  his  intellect 
will  cause  it  to  shine  the  brighter  and  pene- 
trate further  into  the  dim  future. 

Emerson  has  nowhere  defined  the  funda- 
mental basis  of  his  philosophy;  but  his 
general  attitude  toward  science  throughout 
his  writings  is  that  of  the  poet  and  Platonist 
who  views  the  phenomena  of  nature  as  so 
many  adumbrations  of  ideal  truths.  He  in- 
sists on  the  identity  of  physical  and  moral 
law;  the  same  laws  govern  a  state  and  an 
acid.  He  was  known  at  one  time  as  a  tran- 
scendental philosopher;  but  even  his  appre- 
ciative admirers  now  rarely  use  that  term. 

His  earher  wTitings  are  supposed  by  some 
to  show  a  drift  toward  pantheism,  but  others 
repel  this  interpretation  as  unjust.  Certainly 
he  has  never  called  himself  a  pantheist,  and 
there  is  unquestionable  evidence  that  what- 
ever may  have  been  his  former  speculations, 
that  name  cannot  truly  be  applied  to  him 


IN  LITERATURE 


117 


now.  His  friend,  A.  Bronson  Alcott,  reports 
him  as  saying:  "I  do  not  care  to  classify 
myself  with  any  painstaking  accuracy  with 
this  sect  or  wnth  that ;  but  if  I  am  to  have  any 
appellation  at  all  of  a  rehgious  kind,  I  prefer 
to  be  called  a  Christian  theist.  You  must  not 
leave  out  the  word  Christian,  for  to  leave  out 
that  is  to  leave  out  everything."  Confirma- 
tion of  this  is  to  be  found  in  his  latest  pubh- 
cation.  The  Preacher,  in  which  he  says: 
"Unlovely,  nay,  frightful,  is  the  solitude  of 
the  soul  which  is  without  God  in  the  world. 
Tosee  men  pursuing  in  faith  their  varied  action, 
warm-hearted,  providing  for  their  children, 
loving  their  friends,  performing  their  promises 
—  what  are  they  to  this  chill,  houseless, 
fatherless,  aimless  Cain,  the  man  who  hears 
only  the  sound  of  his  own  footsteps  in  God's 
resplendent  creation?"  He  will  not  recog- 
nize a  God,  however,  who  is  not  "  one  with  the 
blowing  clover  and  the  falling  rain." 

In  regard  to  man  and  his  destinies,  Emerson 
entertains  exalted  hopes;  but  religion  is  not 
in  his  eyes  a  divinely  revealed  —  in  the 
ordinary  sense  —  or  infaUible  thing.  All 
creeds  are  merely  "the  necessary  and  struc- 
tural action  of  the  human  mind "  in  the 
course  of  its  historical  progress.  Man  made 
them  all,  and  he  believes  that  from  the  inex- 
haustible depths  of  our  nature  there  will  come 
forth  in  due  time  new  and  ever  higher  faiths, 
which  will  supersede  those  that  have  gone 
before. 

What  we  have  to  learn  from  Emerson  is 
i chiefly  the  divine  immanence  in  the  world, 
jwith  all  its  corollaries,  from  the  point  of  view 
lof  the  poet.  Indeed,  he  says  of  himself: 
i"  I  am  not  a  great  poet,  but  whatever  there  is 
pf  me  at  all  is  poet."  Though  not  a  new 
jDhilosophy,  it  was  restated  by  him  in  the 
i'ashion  most  suitable  to  his  age,  and  with  a 
!;ogency  and  attractiveness  rivaled  by  no 
j!ontemporary. 

i  Like  most  poets,  he  was  under  the  influence 
jtf  beauty  in  its  various  forms,  and  could 
lardly  ascribe  anything  but  excellence  to  the 
'ndowment  of  personal  beauty.  He  asso- 
iated  the  beautiful  with  the  good;  and  hke 
:i.ugustine  and  the  best  philosophers  he  would 
lOt  allow  the  existence  of  positive  and  original 
',vil.  But  of  sin,  even  in  a  theological  sense, 
je  had  a  clear  perception ;  and  he  knew  the 
'ark  places  of  the  human  heart  as  well  as 
fawthome  did,  though  he  did  not  delight  in 
iieir  portrayal. 
If  we  tried  to  simi  up  his  message  in  a 


phrase,  we  might  perhaps  find  most  applicable 
the  famous  dictum  from  Keats,  "Beauty is 
truth,  truth  beauty  " ;  only,  while  Keats  waa 
evidently  more  concerned  for  beauty  than  for 
truth,  Emerson  held  an  impartial  balance. 
These  are  with  him  the  tests  of  each  other"! 
whatever  is  really  true  is  also  beautiful,  what- 
ever is  really  beautiful  is  also  true.  Hence,  he 
has  especial  value  to  a  world  whose  more  refined 
spirits  are  continually  setting  up  types  of 
aesthetic  beauty  which  must  needs  be  delusive, 
as  well  as  discordant  with  beauty  contem- 
plated under  the  aspect  of  morality;  while 
the  mass  never  think  of  bringing  social  and 
political  arrangements  to  the  no  less  infallible 
test  of  conformity  to  an  ideally  beautiful 
standard. 

Even  more  important  is  that  aspect  of  his 
teaching  which  deals  with  the  unalterable- 
ness  of  spiritual  laws,  the  impossibility  of 
evading  truth  and  fact  in  the  long  run,  or 
of  wronging  any  one  without  at  the  same 
time  wronging  oneself.  Happy  would  it  be 
for  the  United  States  if  Emerson's  essay  on 
Compensation,  in  particular,  could  be  im- 
pressed upon  the  conscience,  where  there  is 
any,  of  every  political  leader;  and  interwoven 
with  the  very  texture  of  the  mind  of  every  one 
who  has  a  vote  to  cast  at  the  polls  1 

The  special  adaptation  of  Emerson's  teach- 
ing to  the  needs  of  to-day  is,  nevertheless,  far 
from  the  greatest  obhgation  under  which  he 
has  laid  us.  His  greatest  service  is  to  have 
embodied  a  specially  American  type  of  thought 
and  feehng.  It  is  the  test  of  real  greatness  in 
a  nation  to  be  individual,  to  produce  some- 
thing in  the  world  of  intellect  peculiar  to  itself 
and  indefeasibly  its  own.  Such  intellectual 
growths  are  indeed  to  be  found  in  our  htera- 
ture  before  Emerson's  time,  but  they  are  not 
of  the  highest  class.  Franklin  was  a  great 
sage,  but  his  wisdom  was  worldly  wisdom. 
Emerson  gives  us,  in  his  own  phrase,  "moral- 
ity on  fire  with  emotion  "  —  the  only  moraUty 
which  in  the  long  run  will  really  influence  the 
heart  of  man. 

The  idealist  or  transcendentalist  in  philoso- 
phy, the  rationalist  in  rehgion,  the  bold  advo- 
cate of  spiritual  independence,  of  intuition  as 
a  divine  guidance,  of  instinct  as  a  heaven-born 
impulse,  of  individualism  in  its  fullest  extent, 
making  each  life  a  kind  of  theocratic  egotism 
—  this  is  the  Emerson  of  his  larger  utterances. 
For  him  nature  was  a  sphinx,  covered  with 
hieroglyphics,  for  which  the  spirit  of  man  is 
to  find  the  key. 


118 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


BROWNING 


A.  n.  AGE 

1812         Bom  at  Camberwell,  England,     .    . 
1829         Entered  Universitv  college,  Lon- 
don  " 17 

1833         Pauline, 21 

1833-34  Traveled  in  Russia  and  Italy,  .    .    21-22 

1835         Paracelsus, ".    .    .    .      23 

1837         Strafford:  a  tragedy, 25 

1840         SordeUo, 28 

1841-46  Bella  and  Pomeqranatea,      ....    29-34 
1846         Married ;   settled  at  Florence,  Italy,      34 


A.  D.  AGE 

1850  Christmas  Eve  and  Easter  Day,    .    .     38 

1855         Men  and  Women, 43 

1861  Death  of  his  wife;  settled  in  Lon- 
don,   49 

1864         Dramatis  Persona 52 

1868-69  The  Ring  and  the  Book,       ....    56-57 

1872         Fifine  at  the  Fair, 60 

1879-80  Dramatic  Idyls. 67-68 

1889  Asolando;  died  at  Venice,  Italy,  .    .     77 


r>  OBERT  BROWNING,  one  of  the  greatest 
■*^  '^  of  English  dramatic  poets,  was  born  at 
Camberwell  —  a  suburb  of  London  —  Eng- 
land, May  7,  1812.  He  was  the  child  of  affec- 
tionate and  cultured  parents,  brought  up  in  a 
prosperous  and  well-ordered  household,  and 
imbued  with  noble  ideals.  His  boyhood  fore- 
shadowed intellectual  and  literary  qualities  of 
an  exceptional  order,  and,  before  he  had 
passed  his  twelfth  year,  he  had  produced  and 
had  printed  for  him,  by  his  father,  a  poetic 
effusion  entitled  Incondita. 

His  education  was  of  the  most  informal 
kind,  and  was  largely  under  private  tutors. 
He  does  not  seem  to  have  attended  the  public 
schools,  nor  the  university  in  the  usual  way, 
but  when  he  had  made  considerable  advance- 
ment under  private  instruction,  the  records 
show  that  he  was  entered  at  University  col- 
lege, London,  during  the  session  of  1829-30, 
for  a  course  of  lectures.  Pauline,  a  dramatic 
poem,  written  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  was  pub- 
lished in  1833,  but  did  not  evince  extraordi- 
nary powers.  The  most  important  event  in 
his  youth  was  his  sojourn  during  1833-34 
in  Russia  and  Italy.  He  went  to  the  former 
country  nominally  as  secretary  to  the  Russian 
counsel-general,  and  became  so  enamored  of 
diplomatic  life  that  he  attempted  to  enter  it 
but  failed.  Even  in  after  years  its  charms  did 
not  release  their  hold  on  him,  and  he  was 
anxious  that  his  son  might  choose  this  career. 

Browning's  earliest  dramatic  effort,  Straf- 
ford, was  produced  by  Macready  at  Covent 
Garden,  London,  in  1837,  but  was  unsuccess- 
ful, notwithstanding  Macready  himself  per- 
sonated the  hero.  Two  years  earlier  appeared 
his  Paracelsus,  which  revealed  a  much  greater 
force  than  his  Pauline.  Its  boldness  of 
thought,  lofty  aspirations,  and  grip  of  human 
passion,  marked  him  as  a  writer  of  unusual 
gifts;  and  from  this  date  Browning  deter- 
minedly devoted  himself  to  the  art  of  poetry. 
It  is  significant  to  note  in  this  connection  that 
the  three  greatest  modern  Erghsh  poets  — 


Wordsworth,  Tennyson,  and  Browning  — 
eachi  consciously  and  scrupulously,  ordered 
his  life  and  surroundings  to  the  one  great  end 
of  their  high  calling,  never  swerving,  never 
despairing,  never  expending  energy  in  any 
other  direction. 

Sordello,  which  for  its  involutions  of  thought 
has  given  more  trouble  to  Browning's  readers 
than  any  other  of  his  works,  appeared  in  1840. 
In  it  the  author  traces,  with  much  crabbed 
writing  and  elliptical  thinking,  the  develop- 
ment of  a  soul,  following  his  hero,  in  the  per- 
son of  an  Italian  poet  named  by  Dante,  until 
his  ambition  closes  in  death.  Incidentally, 
the  poem  gives  a  picture  of  the  restless  and 
troubled  conditions  of  northern  Italy  in  the 
early  part  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

A  series  of  plays,  tragedies,  and  dramatic 
lyrics,  written  by  Browning  between  1841  and 
1846,  was  issued  under  the  collective  title  of 
Bells  and  Pomegranates  in  the  latter  year. 
The  plays  included  Pip-pa  Passes,  King  Vic- 
tor and  King  Charles,  and  Colombe's  Birthday; 
and  the  tragedies.  The  Return  of  the  Druses, 
A  Blot  in  Die  'Scutcheon,  Luria,  and  A  Soul's 
Tragedy.  Among  the  lyrics  were.  How  they 
Brought  the  Good  News  from  Ghent  to  Aix, 
Saul,  The  Lost  Leader,  and  The  Pied  Piper  of 
HamMin  —  poems  which  became,  and  still 
remain,  the  most  popular  of  all  Browning's 
writings.  In  these  lyrical  efforts  the  poet 
pressed  into  his  service  in  a  masterly  degree 
humor,  pathos,  passion,  and  tenderness; 
while  the  whole  were  distinguished  for  their 
ringing  and  melodious  versification.  His 
play,  A  Blot  in  the  'Scutcheon,  was  produced 
at  Drury  Lane  theater,  but  failed  through, 
lack  of  vivid  and  impressive  incident;  al- 
though it  was  afterward  produced  in  this 
country  by  Lawrence  Barrett.  Pippa  Passes 
secured  a  much  greater  measure  of  popular 
approbation. 

Browning  married,  in  1846,  Ehzabeth  Bar- 
rett, herself  a  poetess  of  high  and  noble  gifts, 
and  with  her  he  went  to  Florence,  where  they 


IN  LITERATURE 


119 


lived  for  fifteen  years  in  perfect  and  happy 
union.  There,  in  1849,  their  only  son,  Robert 
Ikirrett  Browning,  the  sculptor,  was  born. 
In  1850  Browning  published  Christmas  Eve 
and  Easter  Day,  a  poem  which  defends  cath- 
olicity in  religion,  the  good  to  be  discovered  in 
the  varying  forms  of  Christianity.  Men  and 
Women,  which  appeared  in  1855,  contained 
some  of  its  author's  finest  work,  including  the 
stirring  poems  of  Fra  Lippo  Lippi,  Childe 
Roland,  Andrea  del  Sarto,  Evelyn  Hope,  Holy 
Cross  Day,  and  Up  at  a  Villa.  These  poems, 
for  depth  and  subtlety  of  conception,  pro- 
found analysis  of  the  human  mind  in  its  most 
delicate  and  impassioned  conditions,  and 
speculative  insight,  are  unsurpassed  in  the 
English  language. 

After  the  death  of  his  wife  in  1861,  the  poet 
settled  permanently  in  London  with  his 
only  son.  Dramatis  Pcrsonce,  issued  in  1864, 
again  attested  the  strength  of  Browning's 
dramatic  gifts  in  monologue.  These  poems 
included  Abt  Vogler,  Caliban,  A  Death  in  the 
Desert,  and  Rabbi  ben  Ezra,  in  which  the 
writer  unfolded  his  views  upon  music,  philoso- 
phy, and  the  higher  questions  affecting  life 
and  immortahty.  His  generally  accepted 
masterpiece.  The  Ring  and  the  Book,  was  pub- 
lished in  1868-69.  It  is  written  in  epic  form, 
and  has  for  its  basis  the  narrative  of  a  murder 
by  an  Italian  count  as  related  by  the  various 
persons  concerned  in  the  tragedy.  It  deals 
in  a  most  searching  and  complete  manner  with 
the  powerful  passions  of  humanity.  The 
intellectual  labor  involved  in  this  stupendous 
achievement,  which  embraces  twenty-one 
thousand  one  hundred  sixteen  lines,  is  a 
marvel  in  itself,  and  there  are  many  poetic 
passages  scattered  throughout  the  work  which 
are  as  splendidly  beautiful  as  anything  that 
has  been  written  in  verse. 

Hcrve  Riel,  a  poem  upon  a  French  sailor 
hero,  was  published  in  1871,  the  proceeds 
being  given  to  the  fund  for  the  rehef  of  Paris ; 
and  from  this  time  onward,  works  by  Brown- 
ing appeared  in  rapid  succession.  Balaustion's 
Adventure,  with  the  4^lcestis  of  Euripides  in  an 
English  dress,  was  the  poet's  first  essay  in 
Greek  subjects ;  Prince  Hohenstiel-Schwangau, 
Saviour  of  Society,  dealt  with  the  career  of 
Louis  Napoleon ;  Fifine  at  the  Fair,  which  was 
published  in  1872,  handled  a  question  in 
morals  very  powerfully;  Red  Cotton  Night- 
Cap  Country  told  the  story  of  a  famous  Nor- 
man law  case;  Aristophanes'  Apology  was  a 
second  venture  among  the  great  Greek  poets ; 


The  Inn  Album  was  a  graphic  story  of  a  deeply- 
wronged  woman;  PacchiaroUo,  and  How  He 
Worked  in  Distemper  gave  the  author  an  op- 
portunity of  defending  his  poetic  methods; 
The  Agamemnon  of  .^schylua  was  a  graphic 
transcript  of  that  famous  work ;  and  The  Two 
Poets  of  Croisic  advanced  a  strong  vindication 
of  the  faith  in  the  future  life. 

Then  came,  in  1879-80,  two  volumes  of 
DramMic  Idyls,  which  may  be  described  as 
vigorous  character  sketches,  each  idyl  having 
a  distinct  and  leading  purpose.  All  Are 
intense  in  their  realism,  and  across  the  page 
constantly  breaks  the  strong  lightning  flash 
of  genius.  Jocoseria,  a  volume  containing  a 
number  of  narrative  poems,  was  published  in 
1883;  and  in  1884  appeared  Ferishiah'a 
Fancies,  a  work  consisting  of  twelve  poems, 
each  dealing  with  some  profound  question 
touching  the  relations  of  man  with  the  divine. 
Parleyings  with  Certain  People  of  Importance 
in  Their  Day  was  issued  in  1887.  Here  again 
the  author  adopted  his  favorite  method  of 
developing  through  the  medium  of  narrative 
his  views  upon  important  philosophical, 
literary,  artistic,  and  other  questions. 

From  1861  until  1889  Browning  continued 
to  reside  in  London;  first,  for  more  than  a 
quarter  of  a  century,  in  Warwick  Crescent, 
Paddington,  and  then,  for  the  last  two  years, 
in  De  Vere  Gardens,  South  Kensington. 
During  this  period,  however,  he  made  fre- 
quent and  often  prolonged  visits  to  Italy. 
In  November,  1889,  he  paid  a  visit  to  his  son 
in  Venice,  and  there,  at  the  Palazzo  Rezzonico 
—  which  he  had  bought  for  his  Venetian  resi- 
dence —  he  died  December  12th,  of  the  same 
year,  after  a  short  and  painless  illness.  His 
death  took  place  on  the  very  day  that  his 
last  volume  of  poems,  Asolando:  Fancies  and 
Facts,  was  published.  His  remains  were 
placed  in  Westminster  abbey. 

Browning,  generally  speaking,  is  distin- 
guished for  the  depth  of  his  spiritual  insight, 
his  dramatic  energy,  his  power  of  psychologi- 
cal analysis,  and  for  his  capacity  to  create 
real  men  and  women.  In  these  respects  he 
has  rarely  been  equaled.  Besides  being  one 
of  the  most  erudite  of  poets,  he  has  intense 
human  sympathies  and  high  imaginative 
gifts,  and  a  profound  and  vigorous  faith.  On 
the  other  hand,  his  style  is  too  frequently 
obscure  and  difficult,  his  versification  hard 
and  rugged,  and  his  rhymes  forced.  Aa 
between  him  and  Tennyson— with  whom  fre- 
quent comparison  is  made — it  is  imdoubtedly 


120 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


true  that  the  latter  far  excels  him  in  melody 
of  versification  and  artistic  beauty  of  style, 
but  just  as  truly  falls  below  him  in  vigor  and 
brilliancy  of  thought. 

The  first  great  characteristic  of  Browning's 
poetry  is  undoubtedly  the  essential,  elemental 
quality  of  its  humanity  —  a  trait  in  which  it 
is  surpassed  by  no  other  English  poetry  but 
that  of  Shakespeare.  It  can  be  subtle  to  a 
degree  almost  fantastic  (as  can  Shakespeare's 
to  an  extent  that  famiharity  makes  us  forget) ; 
but  this  is  in  method.  The  stuff  of  it  —  the 
texture  of  the  fabric  which  the  swift  and 
intricate  shuttle  is  weaving  —  is  always 
something  in  which  the  human  being  is 
vitally,  not  merely  aesthetically,  interested. 
It  deals  with  no  shadows,  and,  indeed,  with 
few  abstractions,  except  those  that  form  a 
part  of  vital  problems  —  a  statement  which 
may  provoke  the  scoffer,  but  will  be  found  to 
be  true. 

A  second  characteristic,  which,  if  not  a 
necessary  result  of  this  first,  would  at  least  be 
impossible  without  it,  is  the  extent  to  which 
Browning's  poetry  produces  its  effect  by  sug- 
gestion rather  than  by  elaboration;  by 
stimulating  thought,  emotion,  and  the 
aesthetic  sense,  instead  of  seeking  to  satisfy 
any  one  of  these  —  especially  instead  of  con- 
tenting itself  with  only  soothing  the  last. 

And  a  third  trait  in  Browning  follows 
logically  from  this  second;  its  extreme  com- 
pactness and  concentration.  Browning  some- 
times dwells  long  —  even  dallies  —  over  an 
idea,  as  does  Shakespeare ;  turns  it,  shows  its 
every  facet ;  and  even  then  it  is  noticeable,  as 
with  the  greater  master,  that  every  individual 
phrase  with  which  he  does  so  is  practically 
exhaustive  of  the  suggestiveness  of  that  par- 
ticular aspect.  But  commonly  he  crowds  idea 
upon  idea  even  in  his  lyrics,  and  —  strangely 
enough — without  losing  the  lyric  quality ;  each 
thought  pressed  down  to  its  very  essence,  and 
each  with  that  germinal  power  that  makes  the 
reading  of  him  one  of  the  most  stimulating 
things  to  be  had  from  literature.  His  figures, 
especially,  are  apt  and  telling  in  the  very 
minimum  of  words;  they  say  it  all,  Uke  the 
unsurpassable  Shakespearean  example  of  the 
dyer's  hand ;  and  the  more  you  think  of  them, 
the  more  you  see  that  not  a  word  could  be 
added  or  taken  away. 

It  may  be  said  that  this  quality  of  compact- 
ness is  common  to  all  genius,  and  of  the  very 


essence  of  all  true  poetry;  but  Browning 
manifested  it  in  a  way  of  his  own,  such  as  to 
suggest  that  he  believed  in  the  subordination 
of  all  other  quahties  to  it ;  even  of  melody,  for 
instance,  as  may  be  said  by  his  critics  and 
admitted  in  many  cases  by  even  his  strongest 
admirers. 

The  vividness,  vigor,  and  truth  of  Brown- 
ing's embodiments  of  character  come,  it  is 
needless  to  say,  from  the  same  power  that  has 
created  all  great  dramatic  work  —  the  capac- 
ity for  incarnating  not  a  quality  or  an  ideal, 
but  the  mixture  and  balance  of  qualities  that 
make  up  the  real  human  being.  There  is  not 
a  walking  phantom  among  them,  or  a  lay 
figure  to  hang  sentiment  on.  Some  one  has 
said  that  of  all  the  poets  he  remembered,  only 
Shakespeare  and  Browning  never  drew  a  prig. 
It  is  this  complete  absence  of  the  false  note 
that  gives  to  certain  of  Browning's  poems  the 
finality  which  is  felt  in  all  consummate  works 
of  art,  great  and  small;  the  sense  that  they 
convey,  if  not  the  last  word,  at  least  the  last 
necessary  word,  on  their  subject. 

Andrea  del  Sarto  is,  in  its  way,  the  whole 
problem  of  the  artist^ideal,  the  weak  will  of 
the  inner  failure  in  all  times  and  guises ;  and 
at  the  other  end  of  the  gamut  nobody  will 
ever  need  again  to  set  forth  Bishop  Blougram's 
attitude,  or  even  that  of  Mr.  Sludge  the 
medium.  Of  the  informing,  almost  exuberant 
vitality  of  all  the  lyric  and  dramatic  poems, 
it  is  needless  to  speak;  that  fairly  leaps  to 
meet  the  reader  at  every  page  of  them,  and  a 
quaUty  of  it  is  their  essential  optimism. 

"  What  is  he  buzzing  in  my  ears? 
Now  that  I  come  to  die, 
Do  I  view  the  world  aa  a  vale  of  tears? 
•  Ah,  reverend  sir,  not  I !  " 

The  world  was  never  a  vale  of  tears  to 
Robert  Browning,  man  or  poet ;  but  a  world 
of  men  and  women,  with  plenty  of  red  cor- 
puscles in  their  blood.  Most  thinkers  write 
and  speak  of  man ;  Browning  of  men.  With 
man  as  a  species,  with  man  as  a  society, 
he  does  not  concern  himself;  but  with 
individual  man  and  man.  Every  man  is  for 
him  an  epitome  of  the  universe,  a  center  of 
creation. 

Through  nature,  Wordsworth  would  lead 
the  soul  to  rest.  Through  the  spiritual  stnig- 
gles  of  the  soul  itself,  Browning  reveals  the 
di\'ine  touch  that  discloses  the  true  end  of 
living  and  thinking. 


PHIDIAS 


JDHIDIAS  was  the  greatest  sculptor  of 
■*■  Greece,  and  by  many  is  regarded  as  the 
greatest  sculptor  in  the  whole  history  of  art. 
In  spite  of  his  renown,  we  unfortunately 
know  only  the  most  meager  details  concerning 
his  personal  history  —  not  even  the  dates  of 
his  birth  and  death.  Two  facts  are  certain 
in  the  chronological  history  of  his  life.  The 
first  is  that  the  statue  of  Minerva,  which  he 
erected  in  the  Parthenon  of  Athens,  was 
finished  in  the  year  438  B.  C,  and  that  he 
represented  himself  in  the  bas-rehefs  which 
adorned  the  shield  of  the  goddess  as  a  bald- 
headed  old  man.  ,  The  second  fact  is  that  he 
introduced  in  the  bas-reliefs  of  the  throne  of 
Jupiter  at  Olympia  the  figure  of  the  youth 
Pantarces,  placing  on  his  head  the  crown 
which  he  had  won  in  the  Olympian  games 
in  the  eighty-sixth  Olympiad  (436  B.  C). 
It  is  generally  supposed  that  he  was  born  in 
Athens  about  the  year  500  B.  C. —  sometime, 
at  least,  before  the  battle  of  Marathon  — 
and  that  he  died  about  432  B.  C. 

Phidias  was  the  son  of  Charmides,  and 
was  descended  from  a  family  of  artists.  His 
youth  was  passed  in  the  time  of  the  great 
struggle  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Persians 
and  during  the  illustrious  career  of  Cimon, 
who  founded  an  empire  at  Athens.  He  stud- 
ied his  art  first  under  Hegias  at  Athens  and 
then  under  Ageladas  of  Argos,  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  sculptors  of  his  time. 

He  began  life  as  a  painter,  but  when  Cimon 
undertook  to  rebuild  and  adorn  Athens,  after 
its  destruction  by  Xerxes,  he  came  into 
view  as  a  sculptor.  His  great  works  were 
all  executed  during  a  period  most  favorable 
for  the  development  and  encouragement 
of  genius,  when  Greece  was  triumphant  over 
external  enemies  and  her  people  enjoyed  a 
more  perfect  liberty  than  at  almost  any  other 
period  of  their  history.  With  the  character 
of  the  age  correspond  the  works  of  its  poets, 
particularly    of    the    tragedians,    ^Eschylus, 


Sophocles,  and  Euripides,  and  of  its  sculptors, 
particularly  of  Phidias. 

The  first  public  work  of  Phidias  was  prob- 
ably the  statue  of  Athena  (Minerva),  at 
Plataea.  The  "Athena  Promachos,"  which 
stood  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  between  the 
Parthenon  and  the  Propyla?a,  was  probably 
executed  soon  afterward.  This  statue  was 
of  bronze.  With  the  pedestal  it  was  between 
fifty  and  sixty  feet  high,  and  navigators  on 
coming  round  the  cape  of  Sunium  could 
perceive  the  point  of  the  goddess's  spear 
and  the  crest  of  the  helmet.  Phidias  was 
not  intrusted  single  handed  with  the  execu- 
tion of  so  colossal  a  work,  but  he  is  universally 
accredited  as  the  designer,  and  presiding 
genius  of  the  entire  decoration. 

It  was  probably  about  the  same  time  that 
Phidias  executed  the  goddess  of  Miner\'a  in 
the  town  of  Pellene  in  Achaia.  This  figure 
was  of  ivory  and  gold.  The  employment 
and  the  union  of  these  materials  in  sculpture 
were  not  a  new  invention,  for  examples  of 
their  use  are  found  in  the  most  remote  times ; 
but  it  was  reserved  for  Phidias,  thanks  to  the 
growth  of  wealth  and  luxury,  to  produce 
colossal  statues  of  this  kind,  which  surpassed 
by  their  magnificence  all  that  had  preceded 
them,  and  to  create  models  which  after  ages 
have  not  had  the  genius  even  to  equal. 

The  administration  of  Cimon  was  also 
rendered  memorable  by  another  work  of 
Phidias,  namely,  the  offering  which  the 
Athenians  consecrated  in  the  temple  of  Del- 
phi, in  memory  of  the  victory  at  Marathon. 
It  was  composed  of  thirteen  statues,  that  of 
Miltiades  being  placed  by  the  side  of  ApoUo 
and  Minerva.  The  rank  accorded  to  Miltiades, 
although  he  had  died  in  prison,  clearly  shows 
that  this  monument  belongs  to  the  period 
when  Cimon  in  all  the  splendor  of  his  glory 
restored  to  his  father  the  honor  which  the 
latter  had  so  justly  merited. 

It  was  also  at  the  epoch  of  the  greatest 


122 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


power  of  Athens,  when  the  victories  of  Cimon 
increased  the  number  of  her  allies,  that  the 
inhabitants  of  the  isle  of  Lemnos  offered  to 
the  Athenians  the  statue,  which,  in  conse- 
quence of  its  origin,  was  called  the  "Lemnian 
Minerva."  Phidias  impressed  on  this  figure 
a  beauty  to  which  art  had  not  before  attained. 
Lucian  preferred  it  to  all  the  other  statues 
modeled  by  this  great  artist,  and  Pausanias 
did  not  hesitate  to  say  that  of  all  the  images 
of  Minerva  produced  by  Phidias,  this  was 
the  most  worthy  of  the  tutelary  goddess  of 
Athens.  The  statue  of  the  mother  of  the 
gods,  placed  in  the  temple  of  that  goddess 
at  Athens,  and  the  "Amazon"  of  the  temple 
of  Delphi,  which  are  also  reckoned  among 
the  first  productions  of  Phidias,  date  from 
about  the  same  period. 

The  sculptor  had  now  trained  two  pupils 
who  were  worthy  of  him  —  Alcamenes  and 
Agoracritus.  Both  these  young  artists  exe- 
cuted in  a  competition  marble  figures  repre- 
senting Venus  Urania.  The  work  of  Aica- 
menes  was  preferred  to  that  of  his  rival.  It 
was  said  that  the  master  had  worked  on  it, 
and  this  opinion  was  so  well  established  that 
the  ancients  appear  generally  to  have  attrib- 
uted it,  not  to  Alcamenes,  but  to  Phidias 
himself. 

These  different  works  had  acquired  for 
Phidias  a  briUiant  reputation  when  the 
government  of  Pericles  succeeded  to  that 
of  Cimon.  Pericles  not  only  gave  to  Phidias 
a  commission  to  execute  all  the  more  splen- 
did statues  that  were  to  be  erected,  but  made 
him  general  superintendent  of  all  works  of 
art  going  on  in  the  city.  Plutarch  tells  us 
that  Phidias  had  under  him  architects, 
statuaries,  workers  in  copper  and  bronze, 
stone-cutters,  gold  and  ivory  beaters,  and 
other  artisans.  To  Phidias,  as  director- 
general  of  all  the  skilled  artists  and  artificers 
of  Athens,  we  owe,  among  other  glorious 
edifices,  the  Propylaea  and  the  Parthenon, 
or  temple  of  Minerva,  the  sculptured  orna- 
ments of  which  were  executed  under  his 
direct  superintendence,  while  the  statue  of 
the  goddess  Athena,  the  materials  for  which 
were  ivory  and  gold,  was  the  work  of  Phidias 
himseff.  Writers  never  speak  of  this  statue 
of  Athena,  or  Minerva,  except  in  raptures, 
yet  what  has  rendered  the  name  of  the  artist 
immortal  proved  at  that  time  his  ruin.  The 
statue,  clothed  with  a  golden  robe,  is  goiie 
forever,  and  the  Parthenon  is  now  only  a 
magnificent  wreck ;  but  we  still  possess  some 


splendid  evidence  of  the  genius  of  Phidiaa 
in  the  sculptures  and  friezes  of  the  temple, 
which  are  now  preserved  in  the  British  mu- 
seum in  London  under  the  name  of  the  Elgin 
marbles. 

These  marbles  were  removed  from  Athens 
between  1801  and  1803,  by  Lord  Elgin,  at 
that  time  British  minister  to  Constantinople, 
who  procured  permission  from  the  Porte  to 
take  away  from  Athens  "any  stones  that 
might  appear  interesting  to  him."  The 
"stones"  exhibit  the  highest  development 
of  Greek  art.  As  types  of  beauty  they  have 
never  been  surpassed,  and  even  in  their  present 
fragmentary  condition  they  afford  models  of 
form  which  modem  art  has  not  been  able  to 
equal. 

About  433  B.  C,  Phidias  went  to  Elis, 
where  he  produced  a  colossal  statue  of  Zeua 
(Jupiter  Olympus),  also  of  ivory  and  gold. 
This  is  considered  his  masterpiece,  and  was 
afterward  ranked  among  the  most  wonderful 
works  of  art  in  the  world.  It  was  executed 
with  "astonishing  sublimity  of  conception," 
its  dimensions  being  sixty  feet  high,  and  in 
every  way  proportioned.  "  The  majesty  of  the 
work  equaled  the  majesty  of  the  god,"  says 
Quintihan,  "and  its  beauty  seems  to  have 
added  luster  to  the  religion  of  the  country." 
This  celebrated  statue  was  removed  by  the 
emperor  Theodosius  to  Constantinople,  where 
it  was  destroyed  by  a  fire,  475  A.  D. 

On  his  return  to  Athens,  political  passions 
were  running  high.  There  was  a  strong  — 
at  least  a  violent  —  party  inimical  to  Pericles, 
but  as  they  did  not  dare  attack  the  great 
statesman,  they  assailed  him  through  his 
friends,  Phidias,  Anaxagoras,  Aspasia,  and 
others.  Phidias  was  accused  of  having 
appropriated  to  himself  some  portion  of  the 
gold  destined  for  the  robe  of  Athena.  This 
accusation  he  repelled  by  taking  off  the  robe 
and  weighing  it.  He  was  then  accused  of 
impiety,  for  having  introduced  his  own  Hke- 
ness  and  that  of  Pericles  on  the  shield  of  the 
goddess.  On  this  most  frivolous  and  con- 
temptible pretext  he  was  thrown  into  prison, 
and  died  there,  but  whether  of  sickness  or 
poison  is  uncertain.  Recent  research  detects 
in  a  late  and  rude  copy  of  the  shield  of  Athena 
the  portrait  of  Phidias  himself,  in  a  head 
unquestionably  taken  from  hfe,  and  wholly 
unUke  any  possible  ideal  type.  He  is  "a 
bald-headed  old  man,"  as  described  by 
Plutarch,  apparently  about  sixty  years  of 
age,    with    an    unsyxnmetrical   head    of   the 


IN  FINE  ARTS 


128 


Socratic  cast.  This  may  represent  a  tra- 
ditional portrait  of  the  sculptor. 

As  a  candidate  for  the  honor  of  future  ages, 
Phidias  was  singularly  fortunate.  He  saw 
the  rise  and  grandeur  of  the  noblest  century 
of  the  Greek  world.  He  carved  its  ideals  in 
marble,  and  enshrined  them  in  a  temple, 
and  this  temple,  with  its  works,  has  become 
the  standard  by  which  all  succeeding  art  is, 
either  consciously  or  unconsciously,  measured. 
Moreover,  he  had  the  good  fortune  to  be  in- 
spired at  this  happy  moment  with  such  a 
realization  of  the  image  of  the  supreme  deity, 
that  its  expression  in  material  shape  served 
to  establish  the  type  for  all  time. 

We  may  form  some  conception  of  the  char- 
acter of  that  lost  work  by  the  study  of 
the  well-known  head  —  the  Jupiter  Otricoli. 
\  The  high  and  expansive  arch  of  forehead, 
the  masses  of  hair  gently  falling  forward, 
the  largeness  of  the  facial  angle,  which  ex- 
ceeds ninety  degrees,  the  shape  of  the  eye- 
brows, the  perfect  calmness  and  commanding 
majesty  of  the  large  and  full-opened  eyes, 
the  expressive  repose  of  all  the  features,  and 
the  slight  forward  inclination  of  the  head  are 
the  chief  elements  that  go  to  make  up  that 
representation,  which,  from  the  time  of 
Phidias  downward,  has  been  regarded  as  the 
perfect  ideal  of  supreme  majesty  and  entire 
complacency  of  the  "father  of  gods  and  men," 
impersonated  in  human  form. 

"There  exists  a  God,  Creator,  and  Father 
of  all  beings,  older  than  the  sun,  older  than 
the  heavens,  greater  than  time,  greater  than 
eternity,  greater  than  nature  itself,  which 
dissolves  and  perishes;  a  God  that  the  voice 
cannot  express,  that  the  eyes  cannot  see,  but 
still  one  that  imperfect  man,  a  prisoner  in 
the  flesh,  has  need  to  imagine  in  sensible  forms. 
Statues  are  the  material  symbols  of  the  inac- 
cessible divinity.  The  duty  of  the  artist  is 
to  comprehend  the  divine  nature,  and  to 
make  it  comprehensive  to  the  consciousness 
of  his  fellow  men.  With  the  Greeks  it  was 
the  art  of  Phidias  that  awakened  in  their 
souls  the  souveniE  and  the  thought  of  deity." 

Phidias  is  said  to  have  declared  that  he 
drew  his  ideal  of  the  gods  from  the  description 
of  Homer.  And  it  is  in  the  Homeric  quality 
of  serene  majesty  and  simple  beauty  that  his 
art  excels.  His  work  is  as  free  as  that  of 
Homer  himself  from  any  taint  of  exaggera- 
tion, affectation,  false  emphasis  or  sensuous- 
ness.  It  is  always  at  once  sublime  and  per- 
fect.    It  was  a  saying  of  the  ancients  that  I 


"the  hand  of  Phidiaa  alone  of  men  ooukl 
make  the  image  of  the  gods."  With  thb 
power  of  ideal  majesty,  he  combined  a  full 
technical  mastery  over  every  form  of  plastic 
art.  He  himself  claimed  no  other  superiority 
except  that  of  "accuracy  of  work."  We  are 
told  that  his  skill  was  equally  surpaanng  in 
representing  the  grasshopiMjr  and  the  bee  as 
the  gods  of  Olympus.  He  was  a  consummate 
master  in  marble,  bronze,  ivory,  gold,  or 
ebony;  in  sculpture,  in  relief,  in  engraving, 
in  chasing,  in  enameling ;  in  colossal  statues, 
and  in  the  most  delicate  ornamentation  of  a 
moulding  or  a  fringe. 

The  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the 
art  of  Phidias  was  ideal  beauty,  and  that  of  the 
sublimest  order,  especially  in  the  representa- 
tion of  divinities,  and  of  subjects  connected 
with  their  worship.  "While  on  the  one 
hand,"  observes  Philip  Smith,  "he  set  him- 
self free  from  the  stiff  and  unnatural  forms 
which,  by  a  sort  of  religious  precedent,  had 
fettered  his  predecessors  of  the  archaic  or 
hieratic  school,  he  never,  on  the  other  hand, 
descended  to  the  exact  imitation  of  any 
human  model,  however  beautiful;  he  never 
represented  that  distorted  action,  or  expressed 
that  vehement  passion,  which  lies  beyond  the 
limits  of  repose;  nor  did  he  ever  approach 
to  that  almost  meretricious  grace,  by  which 
some  of  his  greatest  followers,  if  they  did  not 
corrupt  the  art  themselves,  gave  the  occasion 
for  its  corruption  in  the  hands  of  their  less 
gifted  and  less  spiritual  imitators. 

Of  the  four  schools  of  sculpture  existing 
at  the  commencement  of  the  century  of 
Phidias,  two  were  chief  —  the  school  of 
iEginia  and  the  school  of  Athens.  Art  was 
redeemed  from  archaic  rudeness  and  developed 
into  perfect  beauty:  physical  beauty  in  the 
one  school,  the  fair  expression  of  which  is 
seen  in  the  ^ginetan  marbles;  spiritual 
beauty  in  the  other,  the  grand  example  of 
which  is  still  seen  in  the  mutiUited  remains 
of  the  Parthenon. 

Wherever  art  is  normally  developed,  it 
passes  through  three  successive  phases  — 
strength,  ideal  beauty,  grace.  In  the  develop- 
ment of  Greek  art  the  first  is  represented  by 
Polycletus,  the  second  by  Phidias,  the  third 
by  Praxiteles.  Polycletus  wrought  out  the 
perfect  body;  Phidias  added  to  this  the 
noble  and  beautiful  face,  the  face  of  the 
Jupiter  Otricoli,  the  Juno  Ludovisi,  the 
Minerva  Vdletri,  the  Venus  de  Milo.  After 
his  time  it  became  the  favorite  manner  of 


124 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


the  artist  to  make  the  faces  of  their  statues 
express  pathos  or  suffering,  as  in  the  "  Niobe  " 
or  the  "Laocoon,"  and  to  make  the  bodies  of 
the  statues  express  allurement  and  grace, 
as  in  the  Venus  de'  Medici,  or  the  "Faun" 
of  Praxiteles. 

"His  influence  over  all  subsequent  art," 
observes  Frederic  Harrison,  "was  almost 
equal  to  that  of  Homer  in  poetry.  While 
all  subsequent  masters  and  schools  had  the 
defects  of  their  qualities,  the  ancient  and 
the  modern  worlds  have  never  suggested  a 
shortcoming  in  Phidias,  or  a  single  quality 
in  which  he  was  weak.  Consummate  judg- 
ment and  unerring  taste  control  the  most 
sublime  and  lovely  visions  of  beauty.  It  is 
significant  that,  while  his  representations 
of  the  nude  surpass  in  knowledge  and  technical 
mastery  any  others  known,  we  have  no  single 
extant  example  in  which  he  presented  the 
female  form,  even  partially  undraped.  His 
Venus  on  the  frieze,  like  all  his  other  goddesses, 
is  completely  draped.  Nor  must  it  be  for- 
gotten that  we  have  no  single  statue  by 
Phidias,  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word.  The 
Elgin  marbles  are  all,  without  exception, 
architectural    decorations.     Even     the    so- 


called  "Theseus"  and  the  "River  God," 
sublime  as  they  are,  are  the  ornaments  of  a 
group  placed  in  a  pediment,  fifty  feet  above 
the  spectator;  and,  consequently,  Uke  the 
figures  in  the  metopes  or  the  frieze,  they  are 
entirely  subordinated  to  the  conditions  of 
the  architect. 

"Nor  are  we  able  to  judge  whether  the 
great  artist  was  equal  to  present  human 
expression  and  emotion  with  the  same  power 
that  he  has  presented  the  human  form.  No 
single  head  of  any  of  the  larger  figures  that 
we  can  certainly  ascribe  to  Phidias  has  sur- 
vived uninjured.  But  in  the  extant  busts  of 
Jupiter  we  may  recognize  faint  copies  of 
the  majesty  which  he  could  give  to  the  king 
of  the  gods.  We  cannot  assume  that  even 
Michaelangelo  or  Raphael  surpassed  Phidias 
in  power  of  expression;  and  they  assuredly 
did  not  surpass  him  in  invention,  in  knowledge, 
or  in  sublime  and  serene  beauty.  There  is 
every  reason  to  believe  that  Phidias  was  the 
most  perfect  and  complete  genius  who  ever 
appeared  in  the  arts  of  form :  the  one  artist 
in  whom  we  find  nothing  wanting,  and  of 
whom  we  know  no  failure." 


LEONARDO  DA  VINCI 


▲.  D.  AQE 

1452     Born  at  Castello  da  Vinci,  Ital^,      .    .  .  . 
1470     Entered  the  studio  of  Verocchio,  Flor- 
ence,        18 

1482     Settled  at  Milan, 30 

1493     Finished  model  for  equestrian  statue 

of  the  duke  of  Sforza, 41 

1498     Completed  "The  Last  Supper,"    ...  46 

1500     Returned  to  Florence, 48 


A.  D.  AOB 

1502  Architect  and  en^neer  to  Cesare  Borgia,  50 

1503  Rival  of  Michaelangelo, 51 

1504  Portrait  of  Mona  Lma, 52 

1506  Employed  by  Louis  XII.  of  France,    .      54 

1514     Summoned  to  Rome, 62 

1516  Entered  service  of  Francis  I.  of  France,     64 

1519     Died  at  Amboise,  France, 67 


T  EONARDO  DA  VINCI,  whose  works  as 
'-^  a  painter  are  classed  with  those  of 
Raphael  and  Michaelangelo,  was  also  a 
sculptor,  architect,  scientist,  and  engineer. 
He  was  a  natural  son  of  Pietro  da  Vinci,  a 
notary,  and  was  born  at  Castello  da  Vinci,  a 
small  village,  or  burgh,  near  Florence,  Italy, 
ih  1452.  His  father  was  at  first  inclined  to 
educate  him  for  a  mercantile  career,  but, 
when  he  discovered  the  boy's  fondness  for 
drawing,  he  placed  him  at  the  age  of  eighteen 
with  Andrea  Verocchio,  a  very  versatile 
Florentine  artist.  Verocchio  was  a  sculptor, 
designer,  and  painter,  and,  under  his  instruc- 
tions, the  pupil  soon  surpassed  the  master. 
Vasari  relates  that  Verocchio  being  occupied 


on  a  picture  of  the  "Baptism  of  Christ," 
Leonardo  was  permitted  to  paint  an  accessory 
figure  of  an  angel  in  the  same  work.  Veroc- 
chio, perceiving  that  his  own  performance 
was  manifestly  surpassed  by  that  of  his  young 
scholar,  abandoned  the  art  in  despair,  and 
never  touched  a  pencil  again.  Although 
Leonardo  thus  excelled  his  master  while  a  boy, 
and  soon  enlarged  the  boundaries  of  the  art, 
he  retained  traces  of  the  manner,  and  even  ^ 
general  tastes,  of  Verocchio  all  his  life.  Like  % 
his  master,  he  studied  geometry  with  ardor; 
he  was  fonder  of  design  than  painting.  In 
his  choice  of  form,  whether  of  face  or  limb,  he 
preferred  the  el^ant  to  the  full.  From 
Verocchio,  too,  he  derived  his  fondness  for 


IN  FINE  ARTS 


12ft 


drawing  horses  and  composing  battles,  and 
from  him  imbibed  the  wish  to  advance  his 
art  by  doing  a  few  things  well,  rather  than  to 
multiply  his  works. 

During  this  early  period  of  his  career  at 
Florence  he  produced  the  "Head  of  Medusa," 
thecartoonof  "Adamand  Eve,"  a  "Madonna," 
the  "Triumph  of  Neptune,"  "Adoration  of 
the  Magi,"  and  some  lesser  works.  His  genius 
for  mechanics  had  already  manifested  itself; 
he  invented  machines  for  sinking  wells,  and 
Ufting  and  drawing  weights;  proposed 
methods  for  boring  mountains,  cleansing 
ports,  and  digging  canals.  His  architectural 
schemes,  too,  were  numerous  and  daring: 
with  the  boldness  of  an  Archimedes,  he  offered 
to  lift  the  baptistery,  or  church  of  S.  Giovanni, 
in  the  air,  and  build  under  it  the  basement 
and  steps  which  were  wanting  to  complete 
the  design.  It  does  not  appear  that  his 
fellow  citizens  availed  themselves  of  these 
powers  in  any  memorable  work ;  but  his  plan 
for  rendering  the  Arno  navigable  seems  to 
have  been  adopted  two  centuries  afterward 
by  Viviani. 

Leonardo  remained  at  Florence  until  about 
the  age  of  thirty,  after  which  we  find  him  at 
Milan,  in  the  service  of  Lodovico  Sforza,  duke 
of  Milan.  The  artist's  residence  at  the  court 
of  this  prince,  from  1482  to  1499,  may  be  con- 
sidered the  most  active  and  the  most  glorious 
period  of  his  life.  Lodovico  il  Moro  —  as 
the  duke  was  often  called  —  whatever  may 
have  been  his  character  as  a  potentate  and  as 
a  man,  certainly  gave  great  encouragement  to 
literature  and  the  arts,  and  the  universal 
genius  of  Leonardo  was  in  all  respects  calcu- 
lated for  the  restless  enterprise  of  the  time. 

All  his  powers  were  put  in  requisition  by  the 
duke  of  Milan.  The  warhke  habits  of  the 
sovereigns  of  Italy  at  this  time  rendered  the 
science  and  services  of  the  engineer  particu- 
larly useful,  and  Leonardo  was  constantly 
inventing  arms  and  machinery  for  attack  and 
defense.  He  was  engaged  in  the  architecture 
of  the  cathedral;  he  superintended  aU  the 
pageants  and  masques,  then  so  commonly 
conducted  with  splendor  and  taste  in  the 
Italian  courts,  and  in  some  of  which  his 
knowledge  of  mechanics  produced  almost 
magical  effects.  He  improved  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  Ticino  by  canals  and  irrigation, 
and  attempted  to  render  the  Adda  navigable 
between  Brivio  and  Trezzo.  A  colossal 
equestrian  statue  of  the  duke  occupied  him 
at  intervals  for  many  years.     It  was  finally 


finished  in  1493,  and  no  single  work  o(  art 
of  the  renaissance  called  forth  such  tributet 
of  praise.  Want  of  means  alone,  it  seenui, 
prevented  the  duke  from  rommisHJoning  him 
to  cast  it  in  bronze;  and  the  moticl  cxiHtcd 
until  the  invasion  of  Milan  by  Louis  XIL,  in 
1499,  when  it  was  broken  to  pieces  by  his 
Gascons. 

As  the  founder  of  the  Milanese  academy, 
the  first,  in  all  probability,  established  in 
Italy,  Leonardo  composed  his  "Treatise  on 
Painting,"  which  Annibalc  Caracci  declared 
would  have  saved  him  twenty  years  of  study 
had  he  known  it  in  his  youth.  This  work  was 
first  published  in  Paris  in  1651,  and  contained 
his  studies  in  optics,  perspective,  anatomy, 
libration,  and  proportion.  In  this  active 
period  of  his  life  were  also  composed  the 
numerous  manuscript  books  explained  by 
designs,  which  appear  to  have  comprised 
specimens  of  the  whole  range  of  his  vast 
knowledge.  This  academy,  of  which  he  was 
named  director,  was  attended  by  many 
eminent  artists,  and  had  a  very  beneficent 
influence  on  the  Lombard  school  of  painting. 

Leonardo's  works  in  painting  during  his 
residence  in  Milan  were  by  no  means  numer- 
ous owing  to  the  number  and  variety  of  his 
occupations.  The  portraits  of  Cecilia  Gal- 
lerani  and  Lucrezia  Crivelli,  done  in  the 
earlier  part  of  this  period,  received  unbounded 
praise  from  the  poets  of  the  day.  The  por- 
traits of  Lodovico  Sforza,  his  wife  and  family, 
were  painted  on  the  wall  of  the  refectory  in 
the  convent  of  Santa  Maria  delle  Grazie,  where 
"The  Last  Supper"  was  afterward  painted. 
However,  these  portraits  faded,  owing  to  the 
dampness  of  the  wall,  soon  after  they  were 
done.  Other  works  in  the  same  place  are 
mentioned  by  some  writers  as  having  been 
done  on  canvas,  but  they  all  perished  from 
the  same  cause.  The  paintings  on  the  walla 
of  the  castle  of  Milan  were  destroyed  by 
French  invaders  in  1499.  Various  portraita 
and  a  half  figure  of  St.  John  are  preserved  in 
the  Ambrosian  library. 

In  1496  Leonardo  began  his  greatest  work, 
"The  Last  Supper,"  in  the  refectory  of  the 
Dominican  convent  of  Santa  Maria  delle 
Grazie,  and  it  was  completed  within  two 
years.  It  was  painted  on  the  wall  in  oil,  to 
which  circumstance  Lanzi  and  others  who 
have  followed  him  attribute  its  premature 
decay.  But  had  it  been  in  fresco,  it  wouU 
probably  have  suffered  as  much,  since  that 
part  of  Milan,  where  the  convent  stands,  baa 


126 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


frequently  been  subject  to  inundations ;  and 
as  late  as  1800  the  floor,  or  rather  ground,  of 
the  refectory  was  several  feet  under  water 
for  a  considerable  time.  The  walls  have  thus 
never  been  free  from  dampness:  only  fifty 
years  after  the  picture  was  painted  Armenini 
describes  it  as  half  decayed.  From  that  day 
to  this  it  has  frequently  been  restored,  first 
by  one  artist,  and  then  by  another,  until 
practically  nothing  of  the  original  work  of 
Leonardo  now  remains.  Fortunately,  nu- 
merous copies  were  made  from  this  painting 
soon  after  it  was  done,  the  best  of  which  — 
one  by  Marco  Oggione,  now  in  London  —  has 
preserved  for  us  this  great  masterpiece. 

After  the  fall  of  Lodovico  il  Moro,  Leonardo 
returned  to  Florence,  and  in  1502  entered  the 
service  of  Cesare  Borgia,  the  duke  of  Romagna, 
as  architect  and  engineer.  He  remained  in 
Florence  thirteen  years,  occasionally  revisiting 
Milan.  Among  his  first  paintings  done  in 
Florence  at  this  period  were :  the  cartoon  of 
the  "Madonna  and  Child,  St.  Anne,  and  the 
Infant  St.  John,"  and  a  portrait  of  Mona,  or 
Madonna  Lisa,  wife  of  Francesco  del  Giocondo. 
This  was  the  labor  of  four  years,  and  this,  too, 
was  left  at  last  imperfect  in  1504.  The  por- 
trait of  Mona  Lisa  is  now  in  the  Louvre,  Paris. 
It  is  most  highly  wrought,  and  resembles  the 
broad  softness  of  Correggio. 

Both  he  and  Michaelangelo  received  com- 
missions to  decorate  the  council  hall  in  the 
Palazzo  della  Signoria  with  historical  compo- 
sitions. Leonardo  dealt  with  "The  Battle  of 
Anghiari,"  a  Florentine  victory  over  Milan, 
and  finished  his  cartoon;  but,  having  em- 
ployed a  method  of  painting  upon  the  plaster 
which  proved  a  failure,  he  abandoned  the 
work  in  1506.  Michaelangelo's  rival  work  was 
the  celebrated  composition  known  by  the  name 
of  the  "Cartoon  of  Pisa." 

To  this  period  belong,  also,  his  own  por- 
trait in  the  ducal  gallerj'  at  Florence;  the 
half  figure  of  a  nun ;  the  "  Madonna,  Receiving 
a  Lily  from  the  Infant  Christ " ;  the  "  Vertum- 
nus  and  Pomona,"  miscaUed  "Vanity  and 
Modesty  " ;  a  "  Holy  Family,"  now  in  Russia ; 
the  supposed  portrait  of  Joan  of  Naples ;  and 
the  "  Christ  Disputing  with  the  Doctors."  His 
numerous  imitators  render,  however,  all  deci- 
sion as  to  the  originality  of  some  of  these  works 
doubtful ;  and  the  last  mentioned  picture,  now 
in  the  national  gallery,  London,  has  been 
thought  by  more  than  one  writer  to  have 
been,  at  least  in  part,  painted  by  his  scholars. 
A  portrait  of  the  celebrated  Captain  Giangia- 


como  Triulzio  may  have  been  painted  in  one 
of  Leonardo's  short  visits  to  Milan. 

In  1514,  after  the  defeat  of  the  French  at 
Novara,  Leonardo,  being  then  at  Milan,  left 
that  city  for  Rome,  in  obedience  to  a  sum- 
mons from  the  pope,  and  again  passed  through 
Florence.  His  stay  in  Rome  was  short. 
Pope  Leo  X.  seems  to  have  been  prejudiced 
against  him  by  the  friends  of  Michaelangelo 
and  Raphael,  and  was  displeased  at  his  dila- 
tory, or  rather  desultory,  habits.  From  the 
notes  of  Leonardo  himself,  it  appears  that, 
while  in  Rome,  he  improved  the  machinery 
for  the  coinage;  but  the  only  certain  paint- 
ing of  his  done  at  this  time  was  a  votive 
picture  on  the  wall  of  a  corridor  in  the  con- 
vent of  S.  Onofrio. 

Francis  I.,  who  succeeded  Louis  XII. 
in  1515,  having  reconquered  the  Milanese, 
Leonardo  again  went  to  Milan,  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  and  once  more  superintended  a 
pageant,  in  this  instance  intended  to  celebrate 
the  triumph  of  the  king  after  the  victory  of 
Marignano.  Francis,  having  in  vain  at- 
tempted to  remove  the  painting  of  "The  Last 
Supper"  from  Milan  to  Paris,  desired  at 
least  to  have  the  painter  near  him.  Leonardo 
accepted  the  invitation,  and  afterward  ac- 
companied his  new  patron  to  France,  taking 
with  him  his  pupils,  Salai  and  Melzi.  This 
was  scarcely  more  than  two  years  before  the 
death  of  Leonardo,  and,  as  he  was  occupied  in 
planning  canals  in  the  department  of  the 
Cher  et  Loire,  he  painted  little,  although  the 
king  repeatedly  invited  him  to  execute  his 
cartoon  of  the  "Virgin  and  St.  Anne,"  which 
was  afterward  painted  by  Luini.  His  usual 
residence  in  France  was  at  Cloux,  a  royal 
villa  near  Amboise,  in  Touraine,  where  he 
died  May  2,  1519.  The  story  of  his  having 
expired  in  the  arms  of  Francis  I.,  which,  as 
Bossi  observes,  does  more  honor  to  the 
monarch  than  to  the  artist,  appears  to  be 
without  foundation. 

He  was  buried  in  the  church  of  St.  Florent, 
at  Amboise,  but  no  memorial  exists  to  mark 
the  place ;  and  it  is  supposed  that  his  monu- 
ment, together  with  many  others,  was  de- 
stroyed in  the  wars  of  the  Huguenots.  At  his 
death  he  left  his  manuscripts,  library,  and 
other  personal  property  to  his  pupil,  Fran- 
cesco Melzi. 

Leonardo  combined  in  his  person  an  at- 
tractive presence  and  extraordinary  powers 
of  mind.  He  excelled  in  many  physical 
exercises,  was  an  accomplished  musician,  and 


IN  FINE  ARTS 


127 


possessed,  besides,  a  captivating  eloquence. 
He  was  intensely  ambitious,  haughty,  capri- 
cious, dreamy,  and  restless ;  and  undoubtedly 
it  may  be  laid  to  his  gigantic  conceptions, 
unattainable  ideals  of  perfection,  and  his 
insatiable  thirst  after  new  achievements,  that 
he  left  only  three  or  four  works  of  supreme 
beauty  and  perfection.  Not  only  every  art, 
but  almost  every  science  studied  in  his  time 
seems  to  have  engaged  his  attention.  He 
was  familiar  with  chemistry,  geometry, 
anatomy,  botany,  mechanics,  and  optics; 
and  there  is  scarcely  a  subject  that  he  touched 
in  which  he  did  not,  in  more  or  less  important 
points,  anticipate  the  discoveries  of  later 
philosophers  and  scientists.  His  "Treatise 
on  Painting  "  has  been  translated  into  many 
languages,  and  is  the  foundation  of  all  that 
has  been  written  on  the  art. 

Hallam,  in  his  Introduction  to  the  Litera- 
ture of  Europe,  says:  "Leonardo's  greatest 
literary  distinction  is  derived  from  those 
short  fragments  of  his  unpublished  writings 
that  appeared  not  many  years  since,  and 
which,  according  at  least  to  our  common 
estimate  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  are 
more  live  revelations  of  physical  truths 
vouchsafed  to  a  single  mind,  than  the  super- 
structure of  its  reasoning  upon  any  estab- 
lished basis.  The  discoveries  which  made 
Galileo  and  Kepler  and  Maestlin  and  Mauro- 
licus  and  Castelli  and  other  names  illustrious, 
the  system  of  Copernicus,  the  very  theories 
of  recent  geologists,  are  anticipated  by  Da 
Vinci  within  the  compass  of  a  few  pages,  not, 
perhaps,  in  the  most  precise  language,  or  on 
the  most  conclusive  reasoning,  but  so  as  to 
strike  us  with  something  like  the  awe  of 
preternatural  knowledge." 

The  works  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  are  ex- 
tremely rare.  Among  them,  including  those 
previously  mentioned,  are  a  portrait  of  Charles 
VIII.,  long  attributed  to  Perugino;  La 
Belle  Ferroniere,  a  portrait  of  Lucrezia 
Crivelli  (in  Louvre,  Paris) ;  portrait  of  Mona 
Lisa,  wife  of  Francesco  del  Giocondo,  cele- 
brated under  \he  name  of  La  Belle  Joconde 
(Louvre) ;  "  St.  John  the  Baptist "  (Louvre) ; 
"The  Madonna  Seated  on  the  Lap  of  St. 
Anne"  (Louvre);  La  Vierge  aux  Rochers, 
of  which  the  original  is  at  Charlton  Park, 
England,  the  seat  of  the  earl  of  Suffolk,  and 
copies  are  in  the  Louvre,  at  Naples,  and  else- 
where ;  a  fresco  of  the  madonna  in  S.  Onofrio 
at  Rome;  "The  Daughter  of  Herodias  Car- 
rjring  the  Head  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  in  a 


Charger,"  regarded,  however,  by  seme  artiate 
as  the  work  of  Luini,  or  of  Andrea  SoUrio; 
"Vertumnus  and  Pomona,"  or  "Vanity  and 
Modesty,"  at  Rome;  "St.  Jerome,"  at  Rome; 
the  "Four  Evangelists";  the  "Head  of 
Medusa,"  at  Florence;  a  "Leda,"  sometiiDM 
called  a  "Charity,"  at  The  Hague;  La  Co- 
lombina,  or  "Flora";  La  Vierge  au  Ba^ 
Relief ;  and  another  "  Madonna  "  at  St.  Pctem- 
burg.  "Christ  Disputing  with  the  Doctors," 
in  the  national  gallery,  liondon,  was  long 
thought  to  be  the  genuine  work  of  Lcomirdo, 
but  it  is  now  universally  believed  by  critics  to 
be  by  Bernardino  Luini.  La  Vierge  au 
Fleur-de-Lys,  at  Rome,  has  also  been  at> 
tributed  to  Luini. 

As  a  painter,  Leonardo  da  Vinci  may  be 
considered  the  first  who  reconciled  minute 
finishing  with  grandeur  of  design  and  harmony 
of  expression.  His  was  the  very  poetry  of 
painting.  His  exquisite  taste,  by  continually 
making  him  dissatisfied  with  his  works,  urgr<l 
him  on  to  a  nearer  approach  to  i)erfection 
than  had  ever  been  attained.  He  imparted 
to  his  works  certain  qualities  of  the  highest 
kind,  for  his  drawing  evinces  very  great  deli- 
cacy and  elevation  of  style,  not  modeled  on 
the  antique,  but  formed  on  a  profound  knowl- 
edge of  nature;  and,  in  his  treatment  of  light 
and  shadow,  he  infused  a  degree  of  power, 
combined  with  softness,  into  his  productions 
that  invests  them  with  a  peculiar  charm. 
His  greatest  work  —  "The  Last  Supper,"  or 
Cenacola  —  is  now  a  mere  ruin.  But  there  is 
reason  to  hold  that  it  was  once  the  most  com- 
plete single  composition  ever  produced,  and 
it  was  undoubtedly  the  earliest. 

It  is  to  be  remembered,  to  the  eternal  honor 
of  Leonardo,  that  he  first  dissipated  the  film 
of  ignorance  which  impeded  the  progress  of 
the  arts.  He  was,  unquestionably,  the 
founder  of  the  Italian  process  of  oil  painting ; 
and  his  infinite  labor  and  continued  experi- 
ments vastly  increased  the  technical  resources 
of  the  art. 

Two  centuries  had  elapsed  from  Cimabue 
to  Leonardo.  The  most  distinguished  artists 
in  the  inten'al  were  Giotto,  who  inmiediatdy 
followed  Cimabue,  and  Masaccio,  who  im- 
mediately preceded  Leonardo.  The  latter 
was,  by  more  than  twenty  years,  the  senior  of 
Michaelangelo  and  Titian,  and  by  more  than 
thirty  years  the  senior  of  Raphael  and  Cor- 
reggio.  If  Raphael  and  Michaelangelo  after- 
ward surpassed  him,  it  is  to  him  that  justly 
belongs  the  merit  of  having  first  pcnnted  out 


128 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


the  road  which  they  so  successfully  followed. 
Although  we  can  trace  a  gradual  improve- 
ment from  the  infancy  of  Tuscan  art  to  the 
surprising  works  of  Masaccio  in  the  Chiesa 
del  Carmine,  at  Florence  —  works  which 
afterward  Raphael  himself  did  not  disdain 
to  imitate  —  the  appearance  of  Leonardo  may 
be  justly  considered  the  commencement  of  a 
new  era.  Vasari,  who  composed  his  famous 
Ih^es  of  the  painters  when  the  most  excellent 
specimens  of  the  art  had  been  recently  pro- 
duced, emphatically  calls  the  style  of  Gior- 
gione,  Titian,  Correggio,  and  Raphael  "the 
modern  manner,"  as  opposed  to  that  of 
Mantegna,  SignorelU,  and  others,  and  still 
more  to  that  of  Lippi,  Giovanni  da  Fiesole, 


and  the  earlier  masters.  Of  this  "modem 
manner  "  Leonardo  da  Vinci  was  the  inventor. 
His  chiaroscuro  is  to  be  traced  in  the  magic 
and  force  of  Correggio  and  Giorgione;  his 
delicate  and  accurate  delineation  of  character 
and  his  sweetness  of  expression  reappear  in 
Raphael;  while,  in  anatomical  knowledge 
and  energetic  design,  he  is  the  precursor  of 
Michaelangelo.  But  we  look  in  vain  for  the 
teacher  from  whom  he  derived  these  excel- 
lences. They  were  due  to  his  own  innate 
genius;  and  in  this  conclusion  we  are  com- 
pelled to  agree  w^ith  Hallam,  that  the  name  of 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  stands  first  in  the  fifteeDth 
century. 


MICHAELANGELO 

A.  D.  AOE  A.  D.  AQB 

1475         Bom  at  Caprese,  Italy 1524         Began  the  Medici  chapci  at  Florence,     49 

1488  Studied  under  Ghirlandajo 13  1529         DirecttHi  defense  of  Florence  against 

1489  Under  the  patronage  of  Lorenzo  the  imperialists, 54 

de'  Medici 14  1533—41  "Laat      Judgment"     in      Sistine 

1503-06  Rivalry  with  Leonardo  da  Vinci,     28-31  chapel,  Rome, 58-66 

1504         Finished  his  "David"  at  Florence;  1547-64  Architect  of  St.  Peters,  Rome, .    .    72-89 

began  monument  for  Julius  IL,   .     29  1564         Died  at  Rome, 89 

1512         Completed  frescoes  of  Sistine  chapel,     37 


lyriCHAELANGELO  BUONARROTI,  cele- 

^  *■  brated  as  painter,  sculptor,  and  archi- 
tect, was  born  at  Caprese,  near  Arezzo,  in 
Tuscany,  Italy,  March  6,  1475.  He  was  a 
descendant  of  an  old  Florentine  family,  and, 
on  his  mother's  side,  from  the  noble  Tuscan 
family  of  Canossa.  At  the  time  of  the  son's 
birth,  his  father  was  podesta  or  governor  of 
Caprese  and  Chiusi. 

At  a  very  early  age  Michaelangelo  showed 
indisputable  talent,  and,  when  only  thirteen 
years  of  age,  he  was  apprenticed  to  the  painter 
Ghirlandajo  for  three  years.  As  evidence  that 
he  must  have  made  considerable  progress  at 
that  time,  instead  of  having  to  pay  a  premium 
for  his  tuition,  he  was  paid  a  small  salary  for 
his  services.  Sculpture,  however,  seems  in  a 
short  time  to  have  chiefly  engrossed  his  atten- 
tion. 

Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  the  Magnificent,  a  great 
lover  of  art,  had  established  a  species  of  draw- 
ing academy  in  a  garden  near  the  church  of 
San  Marco.  Here  the  drawings  and  models 
of  the  young  Buonarroti  attracted  his  notice, 
and  were  of  such  an  order  that  Lorenzo  was 
induced  to  give  him  a  room  in  his  own  palace, 
in  1489,  and  gave  him  some  commissions  in 


sculpture.  This  noble  patronage  had  no  little 
weight  in  determining  Michaelangelo  now  to 
confine  his  efforts  to  that  branch  of  art.  It 
was  while  studying  in  this  academy  that  a 
quarrel  is  said  to  have  occurred  between  him 
and  the  sculptor  Torrigiano,  who,  with  a  blow 
in  the  face,  so  crushed  the  nose  of  Michael- 
angelo that  he  was  disfigured  for  life. 

After  the  death  of  Lorenzo  in  1492,  Michael- 
angelo received  nearly  equal  attention  from 
Piero  de'  Medici ;  but  the  political  disturb- 
ances, which  ensued  on  the  change  of  govern- 
ment, caused  the  young  sculptor  to  leave  Flor- 
ence for  a  time  and  take  refuge  in  Bologna.  He 
also  visited  Venice,  but  returned  to  Florence 
in  1494.  He  now  rapidly  distinguished  him- 
self in  sculpture;  first  by  his  "Sleeping 
Cupid,"  sold  at  Rome  to  Cardinal  Riario  as  an 
antique ;  then  by  his  Pieia,  or  group  of  "  Mary 
Weeping  0\'er  the  Body  of  Christ,"  now  in 
Rome,  where  it  was  executed  in  1499.  His 
first  visit  to  Rome  was  made  in  1496,  but  he 
returned  to  Florence  in  1501,  when  he  began 
his  colossal  "David,"  which  now  stands  in 
front  of  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  in  Florence, 
and  was  put  in  place  in  1504.  In  this  gigantic 
statue  he  completely  displayed  that  quality 


MICHAEUNGELO  AT  WORK  ON  HIS  "MOSES" 

From  the  painting  by  R.    Torrini 


IN  FINE  ARTS 


ISl 


in  his  style  of  form,  which  more  or  less  char- 
acterizes nearly  all  his  works  —  a  heaviness 
of  the  limbs  compared  with  their  bodies. 

In  1503  a  commission,  which  he  received 
from  the  gonfaloniere  Soderini,  to  decorate 
one  end  of  the  council  hall  at  Florence  as  a 
companion  to  a  similar  decoration  at  the  other 
end  intrusted  to  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  again 
turned  his  attention  from  sculpture  to  paint- 
ing, though  the  famous  cartoon  of  the  "Sur- 
prise of  Pisan  Soldiers  while  Bathing,"  exe- 
cuted in  1505  for  this  purpose,  was  never 
carried  out  in  the  hall.  This  design,  known 
as  the  "Cartoon  of  Pisa,"  partly  preserved 
in  the  engravings  of  Marco  Antonio,  is  ex- 
tremely spirited,  and  created  a  great  sensation 
among  the  artists  at  Florence  at  the  time. 
Benvenuto  Cellini  calls  it  "the  school  of  the 
world." 

While  this  work  was  in  progress,  Michael- 
angelo  visited  Rome  a  second  time  in  1504-05, 
by  the  invitation  of  Pope  Julius  II.,  who 
wished  to  consult  him  about  his  monument, 
which  was  to  be  erected  within  St.  Peter's. 
The  design  was  too  magnificent  for  the  church 
it  was  to  adorn,  and  the  pope,  after  some 
thought,  determined  to  rebuild  St.  Peter's 
as  a  fit  covering  for  his  superb  monument. 
On  this  enormous  work,  which  was  never 
finished  as  originaUy  planned,  he  was  hence- 
forth engaged,  with  various  interruptions, 
for  a  large  part  of  his  life.  Michaelangelo's 
masterpiece  of  sculpture,  "Moses,"  was  to 
form  a  part  of  it. 

Offended  by  the  treatment  he  received  from 
some  of  the  pope's  servants,  however,  he 
returned  to  Florence  without  permission, 
and,  in  turn,  offended  the  pope.  A  reconcilia- 
tion followed  at  Bologna,  where  in  1507 
Michaelangelo  made  a  bronze  statue  of  Julius, 
which  was  afterward  converted  in  1512  into 
a  cannon  by  the  Bolognese,  and  used  against 
his  holiness  himself. 

In  1508  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  was 
ordered  by  the  pope  to  paint  the  Vatican 
chambers  in  the  same  year.  Michaelangelo 
wished  at  first  to  escape  this  commission, 
conscious  of  his  own  inexperience,  and  sug- 
gested Raphael  as  a  fitter  person;  but  the 
pope  persisted  —  urged  on,  it  is  said,  by  the 
jealousy  of  Bramante,  who  wished  to  show 
the  inferiority  of  the  celebrated  Florentine 
to  his  countryman,  Raphael.  If  this  be  true, 
the  scheme  signally  failed ;  for  Michaelangelo 
produced  the  great  triumph  of  his  life  — 
the  frescoes  of  the  "Prophets  and  Sibyls," 


and  the  "History  of  the  Creation  and  Fall 
of  Man  "—  on  the  vault  of  this  chapel  of  Um 
popes  at  Rome. 

The  chapel  is  one  hundred  thirty-three 
feet  long  and  forty-three  feet  wide.  Midiael- 
angelo  at  first  got  some  painters  from  Florence 
to  help  him ;  but,  being  dissatisfictl  with  their 
work,  he  knocked  it  all  down,  and  executed 
the  frescoes  entirely  with  his  own  hands.  He 
completed  his  work  in  October,  1512,  and 
returned  to  Florence  that  same  month.  In 
1513  Julius  II.  die<l.  Michaelangelo  clung 
to  the  hope  that  he  would  yet  complete  the 
great  monument ;  but  intrigue  and  spite  were 
too  strong  for  him,  and  the  famous  mausoleum 
designed  by  the  pope  was  given  up  of  neces- 
sity, and  a  more  modest  design  was  demanded. 
Other  demands  were  continually  made  upon 
his  energy,  and  the  sublime  statue  of  "  Moses  " 
is  the  best  fragment  that  is  left  to  us  of  the 
tomb  of  Julius. 

During  the  whole  pontificate  of  Leo  X. — 
Lorenzo  the  Magnificent's  second  son,  Gio- 
vanni de'  Medici  —  Michaelangelo's  great 
powers  were  wasted.  The  pope  employed 
him  for  several  years  looking  out  marble  at 
the  quarries  of  Pietra  Santa  for  the  facade 
of  the  family  church  of  San  Lorenzo  at  Flor- 
ence; and  during  the  pontificate  of  Adrian 
VI.,  and  part  of  that  of  Clement  VII. — 
another  Medici  —  beginning  about  1524,  he 
was  engaged  on  the  Lauren  ti  an  library  and 
the  Medici  chapel  in  San  Lorenzo,  and  on 
the  family  mausoleum,  where  are  the  cele- 
brated allegorical  figures  of  "Night"  and 
"Morning." 

There  is  no  evidence  of  Michaelangelo's 
having  been  in  Rome  between  1513  and  1525. 
Part  of  his  time  from  this  period  was  devoted 
to  improving  the  fortifications  of  Florence, 
used  against  the  pope,  Clement  VII.,  in  1529; 
and,  when  the  city  was  besi^ed  by  the  im- 
perialists, he  was  foremost  in  its  defense. 
The  city  surrendered  in  1530,  and  afterward 
Michaelangelo  went  to  Rome.  In  1533,  how- 
ever, in  the  tenth  year  of  Clement's  pontificate, 
Michaelangelo  entered  into  another  compact 
concerning  the  ill-fated  scpulcher  of  Fape 
Julius,  whereupon  he  was  again  commissioned 
to  adorn  the  Sistine  chapel.  He  according 
resumed  his  painting,  and  just  thirteen  years 
after  the  death  of  Raphael,  in  1533,  com- 
menced his  famous  fresco  of  the  "Last  Judg- 
ment," on  the  altar  wall  of  the  Sistine  chapel. 
This  great  composition  is  forty-seven  feet 
high  by  forty-three  feet  wide,  and  it  occupied 


132 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


the  painter  about  eight  years.  It  was  com- 
pleted in  1541,  in  the  pontificate  of  Paul  III., 
who  in  1535  had  made  Michaelangelo  painter, 
sculptor,  and  architect  of  the  Vatican  palace. 
He  produced  no  good  work  in  painting  after 
this  time.  The  frescoes  of  the  Pauhne  chapel, 
also  in  the  Vatican,  and  finished  in  1549,  are 
very  inferior  works. 

He  was  now  chiefly  employed  as  an  archi- 
tect, having  in  1547  succeeded  Sangallo  as 
architect  of  St.  Peter's;  and  by  the  touch 
of  his  genius  this  edifice  was  converted  from 
a  mere  Saracenic  hall  into  the  most  superb 
model  of  a  Christian  church.  The  great 
mausoleum  of  Julius  resulted  in  the  simple 
but  noble  monument  in  the  church  of  San 
Pietro  in  Vinculis,  of  which  the  principal  fig- 
ures are  the  famous  sitting  statue  of  "Moses," 
already  referred  to,  and  "Active  Life"  and 
"Contemplative  Life"  executed  by  Michael- 
angelo himself.  The  "Virgin  and  Child,"  the 
"Prophet,"  and  "Sibyl"  were  executed  by 
another  artist;  and  the  monument  was  thus 
finally  completed,  as  modified,  in  1550,  after 
more  than  forty  years  from  tlie  date  of  the 
original  commission.  He  altered  the  plan 
of  St.  Peter's,  particularly  the  dome,  of  which 
he  made  the  model  in  1558,  carefully  executed 
to  a  scale  in  wood. 

The  duke  of  Florence,  Cosmo  de'  Medici, 
was  at  this  time  very  anxious  to  get  him  back 
to  the  Tuscan  capital;  and,  possibly  as  an 
inducement,  in  1563  he  was  made  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  academy  of  Florence,  then  founded 
by  Cosmo,  and  of  which  the  duke  himself 
was  the  president.  But  Michaelangelo  pre- 
ferred to  devote  the  remainder  of  his  life  to 
the  church,  which  he  regarded  as  a  service 
to  the  glory  of  God.  He  consequently  refused 
all  remuneration  for  this  work. 

He  had  also  to  carry  forward  at  Rome  the 
Palazzo  Farnese  —  one  of  the  most  imposing 
edifices  of  modern  Rome  —  construct  a  palace 
on  the  Capitoline  hill,  adorn  the  hill  with 
antique  statues,  make  a  flight  of  steps  to  the 
church  of  the  convent  of  Ara  Cceli,  rebuild 
an  old  bridge  across  the  Tiber,  and  convert 
the  baths  of  Diocletian  into  the  magnificent 
church  of  Santa  Maria  degli  Angeli.  Under 
Pius  IV.  St.  Peter's  was  carfied  up  as  far  as 
the  dome,  but  Michaelangelo  did  not  live  to 
see  it  completed.  A  slow  fever  attacked  him 
in  Februarj--,  1564,  and  in  a  few  days  closed 
his  career.  He  died  on  the  night  of  February 
17th,  having  nearly  completed  his  eighty- 
ninth  year.     His  buoyancy  and  fertihty  of 


mind  continued  until  the  last,  and  just  before 
his  death  he  is  said  to  have  drawn  an  allegori- 
cal sketch  of  an  old  man,  and  labeled  it  ancora 
impora,  "still  learning."  It  was  the  great 
artist's  wish  to  be  buried  at  Florence,  and 
his  body  was  taken  to  that  city  on  March  14th, 
and  buried  in  a  vault  in  the  church  of  Santa 
Croce. 

Michaelangelo  was  of  middle  stature,  bony 
in  his  makeup,  and  rather  spare,  although 
broad  over  the  shoulders.  He  had  a  good 
complexion;  his  forehead  was  square  and 
somewhat  projecting;  his  eyes  rather  small, 
of  a  hazel  color,  and  on  his  brows  but  little 
hair ;  his  lips  were  thin ;  and,  speaking  ana- 
tomically, the  cranium  on  the  whole  was 
rather  large  in  proportion  to  the  face.  He 
wore  his  beard,  which  was  divided  into  two 
points  at  the  bottom,  not  very  thick,  and 
about  four  inches  long;  his  beard  and  the 
hair  of  his  head  were  black  when  he  was  a 
young  man;  and  his  countenance  was  ani- 
mated and  expressive. 

Temperamentally,  Michaelangelo  was  in- 
dependent, haughty,  inflexible,  frugal,  high- 
minded,  generous,  pure,  and  true.  He  was 
never  married,  but  his  love  for  Vittoria  Co- 
lonna,  marchioness  of  Pescara,  is  one  of  the 
most  famous  of  soul-unions  in  history,  and 
called  out  from  him  some  exquisite  poetry, 
of  which  he  was  also  a  master.  At  evening, 
after  the  labor  of  the  day,  he  wrote  sonnets 
in  her  praise,  and  knelt  in  spirit  before  her, 
as  did  Dante  at  the  feet  of  Beatrice.  She  died 
before  him,  and  for  a  long  time  he  remained 
"down-stricken,  as  if  deranged."  Several 
years  later  his  heart  still  cherished  a  great 
grief  —  the  regret  that  he  had  not,  at  her 
deathbed,  kissed  her  brow  or  cheek  instead 
of  her  hand.  His  sonnets  —  chiefly  inspired 
by  this  purely  Platonic  aff'air  —  would  even 
place  him  in  the  foremost  rank  of  the  lyrical 
poets  of  his  age. 

From  his  youth  he  had  passionately  cher- 
ished all  noble  things :  first  his  art,  and  next 
his  self-respect.  He  faced  imperious  popes, 
and  forced  them  to  regard  him  as  an  equal, 
braving  them,  says  his  historian,  "  more  than 
a  king  would  have  done."  Ordinary  pleasures 
he  held  in  contempt ;  although  rich,  he  lived 
laboriously,  as  frugally  as  a  poor  man,  often 
dining  on  a  crust  of  bread.  Treating  him- 
self severely,  sleeping  but  little,  and  then 
often  in  his  clothes,  he  hved  without  luxury 
of  any  kind,  without  household  display,  with- 
out care  for  money,  gave  away  statues  and 


IN  FINE  ARTS 


US 


pictures  to  his  friends,  as  well  as  many  thou- 
sands of  francs  to  his  relatives  and  servants. 

He  took  great  delight  in  the  "arguments 
of  learned  men,"  and  in  the  perusal  of  the 
poets  —  especially  Dante  and  Petrarch,  whom 
he  knew  almost  by  heart.  The  books  he  pre- 
ferred were  those  imbued  with  grandeur  — 
the  old  and  new  testaments  —  and  especially 
the  impassioned  discourses  of  Savonarola, 
his  master  and  his  friend,  whom  he  saw  bound 
to  the  pillory,  strangled,  and  burned,  and 
whose  "living  word,"  he  wrote,  "would  al- 
ways remain  branded  in  his  soul."  There 
are  almost  endless  anecdotes  recorded,  too, 
of  his  caustic  wit,  proud  reserve,  and  pathetic 
earnestness.  Gherardo  Fidelissimi,  one  of 
the  physicians  who  attended  him,  announcing 
his  death  to  the  duke  Cosmo  de'  Medici  at 
Florence,  speaks  of  him  as  a  miracle  of  nature, 
and  terms  him  the  greatest  man  that  had  ever 
lived  upon  the  earth. 

Sublimity  of  conception,  grandeur  of  form, 
and  breadth  of  manner  are  the  elements  of 
Michaelangelo's  style.  By  these  principles 
he  selected  or  rejected  the  objects  of  imitation. 
As  painter,  as  sculptor,  as  architect,  he  at- 
tempted, and  above  any  other  man  suc- 
ceeded in  uniting  magnificence  of  plan  and 
endless  variety  of  subordinate  parts,  with 
the  utmost  simplicity  and  breadth.  His 
line  is  uniformly  grand ;  character  and  beauty 
were  admitted  only  as  far  as  they  could  be 
made  subservient  to  grandeur.  To  give  the 
appearance  of  perfect  ease  to  the  most  per- 
plexing difficulty  was  the  exclusive  power 
of  Michaelangelo.  He  is  the  inventor  of 
epic  painting  in  that  sublime  circle  of  the 
Sistine  chapel  which  exhibits  the  origin,  the 
progress,  and  the  final  dispensation  of  theoc- 
racy. He  has  personified  motion  in  the  groups 
of  the  "Cartoon  of  Pisa";  embodied  senti- 
ment on  the  monuments  of  San  Lorenzo; 
unraveled  the  features  of  meditation  in  the 
"Prophets  and  Sibyls"  of  the  Sistine  chapel; 
and  in  the  "Last  Judgment,"  with  every 
attitude  that  varies  the  human  body,  traced 
the  master-trait  of  every  passion  that  sways 
the  human  heart. 

Though  as  sculptor  he  expressed  the 
character  of  flesh  more  perfectly  than  all  who 
came  before  or  went  after  him,  yet  he  never 
submitted  to  copy  an  individual.  Pope  Julius 
II.  only  excepted ;  and  in  him  he  represented 
the  reigning  passion  rather  than  the  man. 
In  painting  he  has  contented  himself  with 
the  negative  color,  and,  as  the  painter  of  man- 


kind, rejected  all  meretricioua  ornament. 
The  fabric  of  St.  Peter's,  scattered  into  ui 
infinity  of  jarring  parts  by  Bramante  and  hi« 
successors,  he  concentrated;  suspended  the 
cupola,  and  to  the  most  complex  gave  the 
air  of  the  most  simple  of  edifices.  Such, 
take  him  for  all  in  all,  was  MichaeUngdo, 
the  salt  of  art.  Sometimes,  no  doubt,  he  had 
his  moments  of  dereliction  deviated  into 
manner,  or  perplexed  the  grandeur  of  hta 
forms  with  futile  and  ostentatious  anatomy. 
Both  met  with  armies  of  copyists ;  and  it  has 
been  his  fate  to  be  censured  for  their  folly. 

Michaelangelo  has  been  styled  the  "Dante 
of  the  arts,"  and  there  is,  in  truth,  more  than 
one  point  of  resemblance  between  him  and 
the  illustrious  poet.  As  Dante  choae  the 
most  difficult  subjects  to  celebrate  in  verae, 
and  discovered  in  them  beauties  which  gained 
for  him  the  epithets  of  grand,  profound,  and 
sublime,  so  Michaelangelo  sought  out  diffi- 
culties in  design,  and  showed  himself  equally 
profound  and  skillful  in  his  mode  of  sur- 
mounting them. 

The  work  of  Michaelangelo  may  be  broadly 
divided  into  three  periods.  His  youthful 
period  included  the  creation  of  the  "  Bacchus," 
the  South  Kensington  "  Cupid,"  the  "  Adonis," 
the  two  Madonne  in  tondo,  the  "Madonna 
of  Bruges,"  and  ended  with  the  execution  of 
the  colossal  "David"  and  of  the  Pida  — 
which  showed  Michaelangelo  at  the  age  of 
twenty-nine  to  be  the  greatest  sculptor  in 
Europe  — and  the  "Cartoon  of  Pisa"— 
"Bathing  Soldiers" — which  proclaimed  him 
the  greatest  draughtsman.  His  second  period 
was  that  epoch  of  tremendous  gestation  which 
witnessed  the  birth  of  the  most  potent,  fasci- 
nating, and  dominating  painting  and  sculpture 
the  world  had  seen  for  eighteen  hundred 
years,  work  which  warped  the  talent  of  a 
generation  of  artists  —  the  frescoes  of  the 
Sistine  chapel,  and  the  sculptures  of  the 
Medici  tombs  in  the  sacristy  of  San  Lorenzo. 
To  the  army  of  Titans  of  the  vaulting  and 
the  seven  colossal  shapes  of  San  Lorenzo 
must  be  added  the  "Moses,"  and  the  so-called 
"Captives"  of  the  Louvre.  His  style  was 
determined  and  had  reached  its  highest  point. 
His  final  period  as  painter  and  sculptor  in- 
cluded the  "Last  Judgment,"  the  frescoes  of 
the  Pauline  chapel,  and  the  Pida,  the  "De- 
scent from  the  Cross,"  of  the  duomo  of  Flor- 
ence. After  the  execution  of  this  latter  work 
the  sculptor-painter  became  architect  and 
poet,  and  laid  aside  brush  and  chisel  forever. 


134 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


RAPHAEL 

A.  D.                                                                                                      AGE  A.  D.                                                                                                      AQB 

1483         Born  at  XJrbino,  Italy, 1508-13  Series  of  Vatican  frescoes,  ....   2&-30 

1500         Studied  at  Perugia  under  Perugino,      17  1609-11  "Dispute    on    the    Sacrament"; 

1503  "Coronation  of  the  Virgin,"      ...     20  " School  of  Athens " ;   "Pamas- 

1504  (Spo.soZrzi'o,  or  "Marriage  of  the  Vir-  sus,"      26-28 

gin";   went  to  Florence,    ....      21  1515-10  "The  Cartoons," 32-33 

1507  La    BcUe  Jardiniere;    "The  En-  1517-20  "Sistine Madonna ";  "St. Cecilia,"  34-37 

tombment";  "St.  Catherine,".    .     24  1520         "The  Transfiguration";    died  at 

1508  Invited  to  Rome  by  Pope  Julius  II.,     25  Rome, 37 


"D  APHAEL,  or,  in  his  own  language, 
*^  Rafaello  Santi,  is  by  universal  con- 
sent the  greatest  of  all  painters.  He  was  the 
son  of  Giovanni  Santi,  a  poet  and  painter, 
and  Magia  Ciarla,  daughter  of  a  merchant, 
and  was  born  at  Urbino,  a  state  of  the  church, 
in  central  Italy,  on  April  G,  1483. 

When  only  eight  years  old  Raphael  lost  his 
mother,  and  at  eleven  years  of  age  he  had  to 
mourn  the  death  of  his  father,  who  had  mar- 
ried a  second  time.  His  step-mother,  and 
the  priest  Bartolommeo  Santi,  his  uncle  and 
guardian,  appear  to  have  neglected  him,  but 
happily  he  found  a  sincere  friend  in  his 
mother's  brother,  Simone  Ciarla,  who  knew 
how  to  appreciate  him,  and  for  whom  he  pre- 
served until  his  death  quite  a  filial  affection. 

The  career  of  Raphael  is  usually  divided 
into  three  periods,  of  which  the  first  terminates 
with  his  visit  to  Florence,  in  the  autumn  of 
1504;  the  second  comprises  the  time  from 
that  date  until  he  was  invited  to  Rome  by 
Pope  Juhus  II.,  about  the  middle  of  1508; 
and  the  third  extends  to  his  death  in  1520. 

Much  uncertainty  exists  respecting  Ra- 
phael's early  artistic  training.  It  is  probable 
that  he  received  his  first  instruction  from  his 
father.  He  seems,  also,  to  have  studied  under 
Timoteo  Viti,  and  then  from  about  1500  at 
Perugia,  under  Pietro  Perugino,  the  most 
celebrated  j)ainter  at  that  time  in  Umbria, 
who  was  then  engaged  on  the  frescoes  of  the 
Sala  del  Cambio,  or  exchange,  at  Perugia. 
Here  he  adopted  and  carried  to  its  highest 
point  the  tender  grace  and  mystical  devotion 
of  that  master,  often  surpassing  him  in  beauty, 
simplicity,  and  charm.  Other  native  artists 
of  the  Umbrian  school  probably  exercised 
some  influence  over  the  young  painter,  par- 
ticularly Fra  Carnevale,  one  of  the  earliest 
who  attempted  perspective,  and  to  whom  he 
may  have  been  indebted  for  a  knowledge  of 
architecture ;  and  Justus  van  Ghent,  a  painter 
of  very  considerable  talent.  In  1502  we  find 
him  employed  at  Siena  in  assisting  Pinturic- 
chio,  an  older  pupil  of  Perugino,  although  he 


had  little  to  do  with  Pinturicchio's  frescoes  in 
the  famous  library  at  Siena. 

The  most  important  of  Raphael's  paintings 
during  the  period  at  Perugia  were  the  "Cruci- 
fixion," the  "Coronation  of  the  Virgin,"  about 
1503,  now  in  the  Vatican  at  Rome,  the  cele- 
brated Sposalizio,  or  "  Marriage  of  the  Virgin," 
which  latter  was  executed  in  1504,  and  is  now 
at  Milan. 

Among  other  works  prior  to  his  removal 
to  Florence  are  the  "Vision  of  a  Knight,"  in 
the  national  gallery,  London;  the  "Adora- 
tion of  the  Magi,"  at  Berlin;  "Christ  on  the 
Mount  of  Olives";  and  "St.  George,"  and 
"St.  Michael,"  in  the  Louvre  at  Paris. 

In  October,  1504,  Raphael  paid  his  first 
visit  to  Florence,  carrying  with  him  a  letter 
of  introduction  from  the  duchess  of  Sora, 
sister  of  the  reigning  duke  of  Urbino.  His 
amiable  character,  as  well  as  his  extraordinary 
talents,  soon  procured  him  the  notice  and  ad- 
miration of  the  Florentine  artists.  Among  his 
chief  friends  were  T.'iddeo  Gaddi  —  in  return 
for  whose  hospitality  he  is  said  to  have 
painted  the  Madonna  del  Gran  Duca  and 
the  Madonna  Tempi — Ridolfo  Ghirlandajo, 
and  Fra  Bartolommeo.  With  the  latter  he 
maintained  a  friendship  which  ended  only 
with  death,  and  to  which  we  partly  owe  the 
finest  works  of  both. 

Meanwhile,  Raphael  reaped  all  the  improve- 
ment which  the  sight  of  the  excellent  works  of 
art  in  Florence  was  calculated  to  communi- 
cate. The  inspection  of  the  works  of  Jlichael- 
angelo  and  Leonardo  da  Vinci  enlarged  his 
knowledge  of  form  and  his  execution,  while 
the  inventions  of  the  earher  Florentine  mas- 
ters were  diligently  examined  and  remem- 
bered. Yet  it  is  here  important  to  remark 
that  he  never  imitated  even  the  highest  ex- 
amples alluded  to,  as  he  had  imitated  the 
first  models  from  which  he  studied.  This  is 
naturally  to  be  accounted  for  in  some  degree 
by  the  greater  docility  of  earlier  youth. 
Much  has  been  written  of  the  inspiration 
which  Raphael  caught  from  Michaelangelo, 


>  ot\  «c-  ■  "• 


THE  DYING  RAPHAEL 

From  the  painting  by  Morgari 


IN  FINE  ARTS 


W 


in  Florence,  from  a  sight  of  the  cartoons,  and, 
in  Rome,  from  that  of  the  ceiling  of  the 
Sistine  chapel ;  but  no  direct  imitation  of 
Michaelangelo  is  anywhere  to  be  traced  in 
Raphael,  and  he  seemed  desirous  rather  of 
exhibiting  his  own  feeling  as  distinct  from 
that  of  the  great  Florentine  master  than  of 
aiming  at  that  master's  style. 

The  picture  he  painted  at  Florence  —  the 
"Madonna  of  the  Grand  Duke,"  so  called 
because  Ferdinand  III.  always  took  it  with 
him  on  his  travels  —  is  almost  entirely  in  his 
earlier  style.  The  celebrated  picture  at  Blen- 
heim painted  in  1505  holds  a  middle  place 
between  Raphael's  first  and  his  second,  or 
Florentine  manner.  It  was  designed  as  an 
altar-piece  for  a  church  at  Perugia,  and  repre- 
sents the  madonna  and  child  on  a  throne, 
with  St.  John  the  Baptist  and  St.  Nicholas  of 
Bari.  The  chief  works  executed  in  Raphael's 
second,  or  Florentine  manner,  about  1507, 
are  the  "St.  Catherine  of  Alexandria,"  in  the 
national  gallery,  London,  "The  Entombment 
of  Christ,"  which  is  the  principal  ornament  of 
'the  Borghese  gallery  at  Rome,  La  Belle 
Jardiniere  in  the  Louvre,  Paris,  and  the 
Madonna  del  Baldacchino,  and  Madonna 
del  Cardellino,  both  at  Florence.  With  the 
exception  of  a  few  months  passed  at  Perugia 
in  1505,  and  a  short  interval  at  Bologna  and 
Urbino  in  1506,  the  whole  period  from  1504  to 
1508  was  spent  by  Raphael  in  Florence. 

In  1508  Pope  Julius  II.,  a  great  patron  of 
the  arts,  invited  him  to  the  eternal  city, 
and  received  him  with  the  most  flattering 
marks  of  distinction.  Vasari  relates  that 
Bramante,  the  architect  of  Julius  II.,  being 
from  the  same  city  as  Raphael,  and  distantly 
related  to  him,  had  recommended  him  to  the 
pope  as  qualified  to  paint  in  fresco  certain 
rooms  of  the  Vatican.  It  is  more  probable 
that  Raphael's  great  reputation,  now  second 
to  none,  was  the  real  cause  of  the  pope's  notice, 
although  Bramante  may  have  been  the 
medium  of  communication.  To  the  honor 
of  Julius  it  should  be  remembered  that  he 
had  discernment  enough  to  fix  in  every 
instance  on  the  best  artists  of  his  age,  and  he 
left  no  means  unemployed,  sometimes  even 
to  an  indulgence  at  variance  with  the  haughti- 
ness of  his  character,  to  secure  their  very 
best  efforts  in  his  service.  It  is  certain 
that  at  no  period  of  Raphael's  laborious  life 
were  his  exertions  greater  than  during  the 
reign  of  Julius  II.,  that  is,  until  1513,  the 
year  of  that  pontiff's  death. 


He  was  first  employed  on  the  frescoes  in 
the  stanzas  of  Raphael  in  the  Vatican.  The 
first  of  these  works  pjiinted  in  the  Stansa 
della  Segnatura  was  the  "Theology,"  com- 
monly called  the  "  Dispute  on  the  Sacrament." 
This  was  probably  finished  in  1509,  and  is 
painted  in  Raphael's  second,  or  Florentine 
manner.  His  later  works,  including  all  the 
other  Vatican  frescoes,  are  painted  in  his 
third  manner,  or  in  that  style  which  peculiarly 
characterizes  him,  and  constitutes  the  Roman 
school  in  its  highest  development.  They  are 
distinguished  for  dramatic  composition  and 
expression,  for  correct  and  vigorous  design, 
and,  at  least  in  the  frescoes,  for  a  grand  and 
appropriate  tone  of  coloring. 

In  the  Stanza  della  Segnatura  are  also 
the  frescoes  of  "Poetry,"  or  "Parnassus"; 
"Philosophy,"  or  the  "School  of  Athens"; 
and  "Jurisprudence."  They  were  all  finished 
in  or  before  1511.  In  the  second  chamber, 
known  as  the  Stanza  del  Eliodoro,  are  "The 
Expulsion  of  Heliodorus  from  the  Temple  of 
Jerusalem";  the  "Miracle  of  Bolsena"; 
"  The  Repulse  of  Attila  by  Pope  Leo  I. " ;  and 
"St.  Peter  released  from  Prison."  The  two 
former  were  painted  in  1512  during  the  life- 
time of  Pope  Julius  II. ;  the  two  latter  were 
painted  in  1513  and  1514  during  the  pontifi- 
cate of  Leo  X. 

Before  the  frescoes  of  the  second  stanza 
were  completed,  Juhus  II.  died  and  was  suc- 
ceeded in  1513  by  Leo  X.  Though  the  charac- 
ter of  Pope  Leo  X.  was  in  all  respects  different 
from  that  of  Julius,  he  was  not  a  less  patron  of 
Raphael  than  his  predecessor  had  been;  and 
certainly  the  number  of  learned  and  accom- 
plished men  whom  he  attracted  to  his  court, 
and  the  enthusiasm  for  classical  learning 
which  prevailed  among  them,  strongly  influ- 
enced those  productions  of  Raphael  which 
date  from  the  accession  of  Leo.  They  be- 
came more  and  more  allied  to  the  antique, 
and  less  and  .  less  imbued  with  that  pure 
religious  spirit  which  we  find  in  his  earlier 
works. 

Cardinal  Bembo,  Cardinal  Bibbiena,  Count 
Castiglione,  the  poets  Ariosto  and  Sanazzaro, 
ranked  at  this  time  among  Raphael's  intimate 
friends.  With  his  celebrity  his  riches  in- 
creased ;  he  built  himself  a  fine  house  in  that 
part  of  Rome  called  the  Borgo,  between  St 
Peter's  and  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo;  he  had 
numerous  scholars  from  all  parts  of  Italy,  who 
attended  on  him  with  a  love  and  reverence 
and  duty  far  beyond  the  lip  and  knee  homage 


138 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


which  waits  on  princes;  and  such  was  the 
influence  of  his  benign  and  genial  temper 
that  all  these  young  men  lived  in  the  most 
entire  union  and  friendship  with  him  and  with 
each  other,  and  his  school  was  never  disturbed 
by  animosities  and  jealousies.  All  the  other 
painters  of  that  time  were  the  friends  rather 
than  the  rivals  of  the  supreme  and  gentle 
Raphael,  with  the  single  exception  of  Michael- 
angelo. 

About  this  period,  the  beginning  of  the 
pontificate  of  Leo  X.,  Michaelangelo  had  left 
Rome  for  Florence.  Leonardo  da  Vinci  came 
to  Rome  by  the  invitation  of  Leo,  attended  by 
a  train  of  scholars,  and  lived  on  good  terms 
with  Raphael,  who  treated  the  venerable  old 
man  with  becoming  deference.  Fra  Bartol- 
ommeo  also  visited  Rome  about  1513,  to  the 
great  joy  o^  his  friend.  Raphael  at  this  time 
was  on  terms  of  the  tenderest  friendship  with 
Francia,  and  in  correspondence  with  Albrecht 
Diirer,  for  whom  he  entertained  the  highest 
admiration. 

Under  Leo  X.  Raphael  continued  his  great 
work  in  the  Vatican,  assisted  by  his  scholars. 
The  third  chamber,  called  the  Stanza  del 
Incendio,  was  now  painted  —  almost  wholly 
by  Raphael's  scholars ;  and  the  fourth,  called 
the  Sala  di  Constantino,  was  completed  from 
designs  of  Raphael,  after  his  death,  under  the 
direction  of  Giulio  Romano.  Of  all  the  Vati- 
can works  the  "Attila"  is  justly  considered 
to  be  the  most  perfect  example  of  fresco 
painting,  and  to  exhibit  the  greatest  com- 
mand over  the  material.  Though  produced 
after  the  death  of  Julius,  it  may  be  regarded 
as  the  noblest  result  of  that  impulse  which 
the  pontiff's  energy  had  communicated  to 
Raphael. 

The  celebrated  cartoons  are  the  original 
designs  executed  by  Raphael  and  his  scholars 
in  1515  and  1516,  as  copies  for  tapestry  work 
for  Pope  Leo  X.  The  tapestries,  worked  in 
wool,  silk,  and  gold,  were  hung  in  the  Sistine 
chapel  at  Rome  in  1519,  the  year  before 
Raphael  died,  and  excited  the  greatest  ap- 
plause. Seven  of  the  cartoons  remained  neg- 
lected in  the  warehouse  of  the  manufacturer 
at  Arras,  and  were  there  seen  by  Rubens, 
who  advised  Charles  I.  to  purchase  them. 
These  exquisite  compositions  are  now  in  the 
South  Kensington  museum,  London.  The 
subjects  are:  "Christ's  Charge  to  Peter," 
"The  Death  of  Ananias,"  "Peter  and  John 
Healing  the  Lame  Man,"  " Paul  and  Barna- 
bas at  Lystra,"  "Elymas  the  Sorcerer  Struck 


Blind,"  "St.  Paul  Preaching  at  Athens,"  and 
"The  Miraculous  Draught  of  Fishes." 

Whether  from  the  indifference  of  Leo,  or 
from  his  neglect,  as  Vasari  hints,  to  discharge 
his  pecuniary  debts  to  Raphael,  we  soon  find 
the  painter  employed  on  various  other  works, 
and  the  remaining  frescoes  of  the  Vatican 
bear  evidence  of  the  frequent  employment  of 
other  hands.  Many  works  of  minor  impor- 
tance in  the  Vatican  were  entirely  executed 
by  his  assistants.  The  first  portrait  of  Leo 
with  the  cardinals  De'  Medici  and  De'  Rossi 
completes  the  list  of  larger  works  under- 
taken for  the  pope. 

Among  the  numerous  and  extensive  works 
done  for  other  patrons  by  Raphael  —  all  in 
his  third  manner  —  are  the  frescoes  in  the 
Farnese  palace ;  the  "  St.  Cecilia,"  at  Bologna ; 
the  portrait  of  Julius  II.,  in  the  national 
gallerj',  London;  the  "Madonna,  Infant 
Christ,  and  St.  John,"  now  called  the  "Gar- 
vagh  Raphael,"  in  the  same  collection;  the 
celebrated  "Sistine  Madonna,"  at  Dresden; 
the  Spasimo,  at  Madrid;  the  Madonna  dd 
Pesce,  at  Madrid ;  the  Madonna  di  Foligno,  in 
the  Vatican;  the  Madonna  delta  Sedia,  at 
Florence.  Many  a  palace  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Rome  still  exhibits  remains  of  frescoes  for 
which  Raphael  at  least  furnished  the  designs. 
A  long  Ust  of  portraits  might  be  added  to 
the  above  works,  together  with  many  inter- 
esting designs  in  architecture  and  even  some 
productions  in  sculpture. 

At  this  time  the  lovers  of  painting  at  Rome 
were  divided  as  to  the  relative  merits  of 
Michaelangelo  and  Raphael,  and  formed  two 
great  parties,  that  of  Raphael  being  by  far 
the  more  numerous.  Michaelangelo  with 
characteristic  haughtiness  disdained  any  open 
rivalry  with  Raphael,  and  put  forward  the 
Venetian  Sebastian©  del  Piombo  as  no  un- 
worthy competitor  of  the  great  Roman 
painter.  Raphael  bowed  before  Michael- 
angelo, and,  with  the  modesty  and  candor 
which  belonged  to  his  character,  was  heard 
to  thank  heaven  that  he  had  been  born  in 
the  same  age  and  enabled  to  profit  by  the 
grand  creations  of  that  sublime  genius,  but 
he  was  by  no  means  incUned  to  yield  any 
supremacy  to  Sebastiano;  he  knew  his  own 
strength  too  well.  To  decide  the  controversy, 
the  cardinal  Giulio  de'  Medici,  afterward 
Clement  VII.,  commissioned  Raphael  to  paint 
the  picture  of  "The  Transfiguration,"  and  at 
the  same  time  commanded  from  Sebastiano 
del  Piombo  the  "Raising  of  Lazarus,"  which 


IN  FINE  ARTS 


1» 


is  now  in  the  national  gallery,  London. 
Both  pictures  were  intended  by  the  cardinal 
for  his  cathedral  at  Narbonne,  he  having 
lately  been  created  archbishop  of  Narbonne 
by  Francis  I.  Michaelangelo,  well  aware 
that  Sebastian©  was  a  far  better  colorist  than 
designer,  furnished  him  with  the  cartoon  for 
his  picture,  and,  it  is  said,  drew  some  of  the 
figures  (that  of  Lazarus  for  example)  with  his 
own  hand  on  the  panel;  but  he  was  so  far 
from  doing  this  secretly  that  Raphael  heard 
of  it,  and  exclaimed,  joyfully,  "Michael- 
angelo has  graciously  favored  me,  in  that  he 
has  deemed  me  worthy  to  compete  with  him- 
self, and  not  with  Sebastiano ! "  But  he  did 
not  live  to  enjoy  the  triumph  of  his  acknowl- 
edged superiority,  dying  before  he  had  finished 
his  picture,  which  was  afterward  completed 
by  the  hand  of  his  pupil,  Giuho  Romano. 

During  the  last  years  of  his  life,  and  while 
engaged  in  painting  "The  Transfiguration," 
Raphael's  active  mind  was  employed  on  many 
other  things.  He  had  been  appointed  by  the 
pope  to  superintend  the  building  of  St.  Peter's, 
and  he  prepared  the  architectural  plans  for 
that  vast  undertaking.  He  was  most  active 
and  zealous  in  carrying  out  the  pope's  project 
for  disinterring  and  preserving  the  remains  of 
art  which  lay  buried  beneath  the  ruins  of 
ancient  Rome.  He  also  made  several  draw- 
ings and  models  for  sculpture,  and,  with  a 
princely  magnificence,  sent  artists  at  his 
own  cost  to  various  parts  of  Italy  and 
into  Greece  to  make  drawings  from  those  re- 
mains of  antiquity  which  his  numerous  and 
important  avocations  prevented  him  from 
visiting  himself.  He  was  in  close  intimacy 
and  correspondence  with  most  of  the  cele- 
brated men  of  his  time;  interested  himself 
in  aU  that  was  going  forward;  mingled  in 
society,  lived  in  splendor,  and  was  always 
ready  to  assist  generously  his  own  family  and 
the  pupils  who  had  gathered  round  him. 
Cardinal  Bibbiena  offered  him  his  niece  in 
marriage,  with  a  dowry  of  three  thousand 
gold  crowns;  but  the  early  death  of  Maria 
di  Bibbiena  prevented  this  union,  for  which 
it  appears  that  Raphael  himself  had  no  great 
inclination. 

In  possession  of  all  that  ambition  could 
desire,  for  him  the  cup  of  life  was  still  rurming 
over  with  love,  hope,  power,  glory,  when,  in 
the  very  prime  of  manhood,  and  in  the  midst 
of  vast  undertakings,  he  was  seized  with  a 
violent  fever  —  caught,  it  is  said,  in  superin- 
tending   some    subterranean    excavations  — 


and  expired  after  an  illness  of  fourteen  days. 
His  death  took  place  on  Good  Friday  —  hit 
birthday  —  April  G,  1520,  when  he  had  oom- 
plet«d  his  thirty-seventh  year.  Great  was 
the  grief  of  all  classes;  unspeakable  that  of 
his  friends  and  scholars.  The  pope  had  sent 
every  day  to  inquire  after  his  health,  adding 
the  most  kind  and  cheering  messages;  and, 
when  told  that  the  beloved  and  admired 
painter  was  no  more,  he  broke  out  into  Iamen« 
tations  on  his  own  and  the  world's  loss.  The 
body  was  laid  on  a  bed  of  state,  and  above  it 
was  suspended  the  last  work  of  that  divine 
hand,  the  glorious  "Transfiguration."  From 
his  own  house  near  St.  Peter's  a  multitude 
of  all  ranks  followed  the  bier  in  sad  procession, 
and  his  remains  were  laid  in  the  church  of  the 
Pantheon,  near  those  of  his  betrothed  bride, 
Maria  di  Bibbiena,  in  a  spot  chosen  by  him- 
self during  his  lifetime. 

Raphael  was  about  five  feet  eight  inches  in 
height.  He  had  a  regular,  agreeable,  and 
delicate  face,  the  features  well  proportione<l, 
the  hair  brown,  the  eyes  of  the  same  color,  full 
of  sweetness  and  modesty.  The  tone  of  the 
face  bordered  upon  the  olive.  His  expression 
was  that  of  grace  and  sensibility.  The  rest 
of  his  conformation  appears  to  have  been 
completely  in  harmony  with  his  physiognomy. 
His  neck  was  long,  his  head  small,  his  frame 
feeble.  Nothing  in  him  indicated  a  constitu- 
tion of  long  duration.  His  manners  were  full 
of  charm;  his  exterior  was  prepossessing; 
and  his  style  of  dress  elegant.  His  sincere 
modesty  was  not  diminished  by  his  admission 
as  an  equal  by  the  princes  of  the  church,  the 
distinguished  scholars,  and  the  world-famed 
men  of  every  class  who  formed  the  courts  of 
Julius  II.  and  Leo  X. 

In  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  age, 
Raphael  lived  with  considerable  display  and 
luxury,  and  was  approached  with  the  utmost 
deference  by  the  ambassadors  of  foreign 
princes,  whether  their  masters  desired  a  pic- 
ture, or  some  form  of  favor.  It  is  related  that 
the  duke  of  Ferrara  even  sent  to  consult  him 
on  the  best  cure  for  smoky  chimneys. 

To  his  pupils  he  was  as  a  father.  They 
formed  round  him  a  sort  of  royal  retinue, 
numbering  many  youths,  each  talented  in 
some  branch  of  the  arts.  Giulio  Romano  and 
Gianfrancesco  Penni,  his  two  favorite  pupils, 
lived  with  him  in  the  Palazzo  di  Bramante, 
where  he  resided  during  the  greater  part  of  hia 
life  in  Rome.  This  fine  palace,  designed  by 
the    celebrated     architect    Bramante,    was 


140 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMEK 


destroyed  in  the  seventeenth  century  at  the 
same  time  as  Raphael's  Palazzo  dell'  Aquila. 

At  his  death  he  left  property  to  the  value  of 
sixteen  thousand  ducats,  a  large  fortune  at 
that  time.  His  painting  materials  and  works 
of  art  he  bequeathed  to  his  favorite  pupils, 
Penni  and  Romano,  then  both  young  men,  on 
condition  of  completing  his  unfinished  works. 
.  In  1527  his  numerous  pupils  dispersed. 
/'Giulio  Romano  established  his  style  at  Man- 
tua, and  Penni  carried  it  to  Naples ;  Caravag- 
gio  spread  it  to  Sicily ;  Garofalo  early  intro- 
duced it  into  Farrara,  and  Pierino  del  Vaga 
founded  a  school  upon  its  principles  at  Genoa. 

Yet,  in  an  important  sense,  he  founded  no 
school  of  art;  for  as  Baron  von  Walzogen 
observes:  "When  Raphael's  divine  form  — 
he  was  called  by  his  countrymen  il  Divino, 
'the  Divine' — walked  the  earth,  painting 
then  stood  above  all  as  the  highest  acquisition 
to  which  the  Romanic  nations  had  ever 
attained.  The  bond  between  religion  and 
beauty,  heaven  and  earth,  was  concluded. 
And  yet  this  glorious  prime  contained  in  itself 
the  germ  of  its  dissolution.  The  soul  of 
Italian  art  perished,  when  the  noble  author  of 
that  incomparable  bond  was  snatched  from 
earth.  Because  he  had  summed  up  in  him- 
self all  the  perfections  of  former  times,  there 
was  only  a  fragmentary  sundering  of  his  uni- 
versal aims  left  behind  him  on  the  field  of  art. 
Raphael  forms  no  school,  because  he  is  the  end 
and  close  of  an  era  in  mental  development. 
All  that  could  be  expressed  within  the  sphere 
of  art  which  he  embraced  was  expressed  by 
him.  His  pupils  are  indeed  only  pupib,  who 
cultivate  his  manner." 

When  we  consider  the  immense  field  over 
which  his  labors  were  spread,  and  the  strong 
personal  individuality  which  appears  in  all 
these  varied  branches  of  art,  together  with  the 
almost  incredible  number  of  paintings  that 
issued  from  his  studio,  it  will  be  seen  that  he 
must  have  labored  with  an  amount  of  unflag- 
ging industry  which  has  perhaps  never  been 
surpassed,  and  that,  too,  in  a  time  and  in  a 
city  of  which  the  social  habits  and  luxiu-ious 
splendor  certainly  threw  every  possible 
temptation  in  the  way  of  steady  appUcation 
and  regular  work. 

Among  all  the  painters  of  the  world  none 
has  been  so  universally  popular  as  Raphael, 
or  has  so  steadily  maintained  his  preeminent 
reputation  throughout  the  many  changed  in 
taste  which  have  taken  place  in  the  last  four 
centuries.    Apart  from  his  combined  merits 


as  a  draughtsman,  colorist,  and  master  of 
graceful  composition,  he  owes  the  constancy  of 
admiration  which  has  been  felt  for  him,  partly 
to  the  wide  range  of  his  subjects,  but  still 
more  to  the  wonderful  varieties  of  his  style. 

If  the  authorship  of  his  paintings  were 
unknown,  no  one  would  guess  that  the 
Sposalizio,  the  Madonna  del  Baldacchino,  and 
"The  Transfiguration"  could  possibly  be  the 
work  of  one  painter.  In  his  earliest  pictures 
he  touches  the  highly  spiritual  and  sacred  art 
of  the  Perugian  Fiorenzo  di  Lorenzo,  while  in 
his  latest  Roman  work  he  is  fully  embarked 
in  the  pagan  spirit  of  the  last  development  of 
the  renaissance,  already  on  the  brink  of  the 
most  rapid  decline.  In  the  seventeen  or 
eighteen  years  which  composed  his  short 
working  life,  he  passed  through  stages  of 
development  for  which  a  century  would  not 
have  seemed  too  long,  while  other  painters 
lived  through  the  same  changeful  time  with 
but  little  alteration  in  their  manner  of  work. 

In  versatility  of  power  Raphael,  as  a 
painter,  remains  almost  without  a  rival. 
Whether  painting  an  altar-piece  for  a  church, 
a  large  historical  fresco,  a  portrait,  or  decora- 
tive scenes  from  classical  mythology,  he  seems 
to  excel  equally  in  each.  Besides,  the  widely 
different  methods  of  painting  in  temper,  oil, 
or  fresco  are  employed  by  him  with  ap- 
parently equal  facility.  His  range  of  scale 
is  no  less  remarkable,  varying  from  a  minia- 
ture, finished  like  an  illuminated  manuscript, 
to  colossal  figures  in  fresco  dashed  in  with 
inimitable  breadth  and  vigor. 

"The  character  of  his  pencil,  its  versatility 
and  its  purity  are  sufficient  signs,"  remarks 
Kugler,  "of  his  marvelous  endowments.  No 
master  has  left  so  many  works  of  the  highest 
rank  in  art  —  no  other  so  little  that  is  defec- 
tive or  imattractive.  He  represents  a  purity 
and  refinement  of  feeling  and  form  unattained 
before  and  unequaled  since,  and  in  the  com- 
bination of  which,  with  power  of  hand  and 
grasp  of  mind,  he  stands  alone." 

"In  his  art,"  says  Hazhtt,  "he  seemed  to 
pour  out  all  the  treasures  of   nature  —  gran- 
deur and  scope  of  design,  exquisite  finishing, 
force,  grace,  delicacy,  the  strength  of  man, 
the  softness  of  woman,   the  playfulness  of] 
infancy,  thought,  feehng,  and  invention.     He 
received  his  inspiration  from  without,  and  his  ] 
genius  caught  the  lambent  flames  of  peace, 
of  truth  and  grandeur,  which  are  reflected  in| 
his  works  with  a  clear  light,  transparent  andj 
unfading." 


IN  FINE  ARTS 

TITIAN 


141 


A.  D.  AGE 

1477        Bom  at  Capo  del  Cadore,  Italy 

1487         Began  study  under  Bellini  at  Venice,  10 
1502         Produced   his    first  Antwerp   altar- 
piece 25 

1512         Chief  of  Venetian  painters;  "Sacred 

and  Profane  Love," 35 

1514         *'The  Tribute  Money," 37 

1518         Finished  the  "Assumption,"     ...  41 


}fot"^^  Employed  by  duke  of  Femi*,  .  41-W 

lo^o  Married, ^g 

1530  "Death    of    Peter,    Martyr;'"  '  met 

,„^^  ^  Emperor  Charles  V.  at  Ikiloena,  53 

1545  Invited  to  Rome  by  Pope  Paul  III..  08 

1548  Visiteti  Charles  v.,      .......  71 

1576  Died  at  Venice, .'!!.'  M 


'T'lTIAN,  or  Tiziano  Vecelli,  was  the 
■■■  greatest  painter  of  the  Venetian  school, 
and  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  all  painters. 
Like  Raphael,  he  was  also  styled  "the  di- 
vine," but  many  of  the  facts  concerning  his 
life  are  very  obscure.  He  was  born  at  Capo 
del  Cadore,  a  mountainous  district  of  Venetia, 
Italy,  in  1477,  son  of  Gregorio  di  Conte  Vecelli, 
a  man  of  some  note  in  his  province  as  a  sol- 
dier and  councilor. 

Titian  showed  an  early  disposition  toward 
art,  and,  therefore,  he  was  not  brought  up 
to  arms  or  the  law  like  the  rest  of  his  race. 
When  a  child  of  nine  or  ten  years  old  he  was 
taken  to  the  house  of  Sebastian  and  Francis 
Zuccati  at  Treviso,  to  be  instructed  by  them 
in  the  principles  of  drawing.  The  brothers 
Zuccati,  however,  were  chiefly  masters  in 
mosaic  work  —  which  they  had  brought  to 
the  highest  degree  of  perfection  —  and  Titian, 
being  more  inchned  to  painting,  was  soon 
removed  to  the  tuition  of  Gentile  Bellini  at 
Venice.  He  could  not  endure,  however,  to 
follow  the  dry  and  labored  manner  of  Gentile, 
and  appUed  to  his  brother  Giovanni  Bellini, 
under  whose  guidance  he  made  rapid  progress. 
Indeed,  he  was  soon  able  to  imitate  his  mas- 
ter's style  so  exactly  that  their  works  could 
scarcely  be  distinguished. 

To  be  sure,  this  style  was  stiff  and  dry, 
but,  guided  by  his  own  genius,  by  the  study  of 
nature,  and  by  the  example  of  Giorgione,  his 
older  fellow  pupil,  he  was  not  long  in  acquir- 
ing a  bolder  touch  and  a  more  vigorous  man- 
ner. To  the  latter,  indeed,  he  was  indebted 
chiefly  for  the  ideas  of  color  and  art  by  which 
he  was  long  governed;  and  such  was  his 
facility  that  he 'soon  vied  with  Giorgione, 
also.  This  competition  later  became  so  keen 
that  all  connection  was  broken  off  between 
them. 

It  is  probable  that  Titian  first  employed  his 
talents  as  a  painter  and  decorator  of  the 
palaces  of  the  great  Venetian  nobles.  It  was 
the  custom  of  the  time  to  adorn  the  outside 
of  Venetian  palaces  with  frescoes  and  other 
decorative  work ;    and  the  first  reference  -to 


his  work  is  in  connection  with  the  Morosini 
palace.  His  "Pope  Alexander  VI.  Com- 
mending Jacopo  Pesaro  to  the  Madonna," 
an  altar-piece  at  Antwerp,  was  produced  in 
1502  or  1503. 

From  1507  to  1508,  with  Giorgione,  he 
was  engaged  in  the  decoration  of  the  new 
Venetian  exchange;  and  here  among  other 
works  he  painted  a  fresco  above  the  gateway, 
variously  called  "Judith,"  "Justice,"  and 
"Germania,"  which  was  considered  a  remark- 
able figure  by  early  critics.  In  the  latter  part 
of  the  period  closing  with  the  year  1512,  he 
produced  "Sacred  and  Profane  Love,"  now 
one  of  the  celebrated  pictures  of  the  Borghese 
gallery  in  Rome,  and  probably  more  properly 
called  "Medea  and  Venus."  During  this 
period  is  placed  also,  about  1514,  his  great 
painting,  "The  Tribute  Money,"  one  of  his 
most  carefully  finished  pictures.  The  "As- 
sumption of  the  Virgin,"  one  of  the  grandest 
of  his  achievements,  was  begun  in  1516  and 
finished  about  two  years  later. 

After  the  death  of  Giovanni  Bellini  in  1516, 
the  Venetian  government  employed  Titian 
to  finish  a  composition  which  that  painter 
had  left  imperfect.  It  represents  the  "  Hom- 
age of  the  Emperor  Frederic  Barbarossa  to 
Pope  Alexander  III."  The  senate  recom- 
pensed Titian  by  giving  him  the  office  of 
broker  to  the  German  exchange  —  a  lucrative 
post  which  was  usually  conferred  on  the  most 
eminent  painter  of  the  city. 

Titian's  reputation  soon  spread  through- 
out the  whole  of  Italy.  In  1513  the  duke 
Alphonso  I.  of  Ferrara,  who  was  embellishing 
his  palace  of  Castello,  employed  the  best  mas- 
ters he  could  press  into  his  service  in  order  to 
render  that  abode  worthy  of  the  magnificence 
of  a  great  prince.  Giovanni  Bellini  was  the 
first  to  receive  a  commission  for  this  work- 
Between  1518  and  1523  Titian  executed  for 
the  duke  Alphonso  three  famous  mytho- 
logical pictures,  "Worship  of  Venus,"  a 
"Bacchanal,"  and  "Bacchus  and  Ariadne." 
While  at  Ferrara  he  also  painted  a  portrait 
of  Ariosto,  the  poet,  and  probably  one  of 


142 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


the  duke's  wife,  the  celebrated  Lucrezia 
Borgia,  Invitations  from  Pope  Leo  X.,  and 
also  from  Raphael,  to  visit  Rome,  were  de- 
clined. Another  invitation  from  Francis  I., 
king  of  France,  was  also  declined,  as  Titian 
always  preferred  domestic  happiness  to  the 
most  brilliant  promises  of  fortune. 

During  the  period  from  1520  to  1530,  the 
most  celebrated  of  his  numerous  productions 
were :  "  Death  of  Peter,  Martyr,"  a  work  of  un- 
surpassed beauty,  finished  about  1530;  "Vic- 
tory of  the  Venetians  over  the  Janizaries;" 
and  "St.  Sebastian."  In  1530  Aretino,  the 
poet,  introduced  him  to  the  notice  of  the 
emperor  Charles  V.,  and  he  went  to  Bologna 
to  paint  the  portraits  of  the  emperor  and  Pope 
Clement  VII.  Charles  not  only  granted  him  a 
pension,  but  sent  him,  at  a  later  date,  the 
cross  of  chevalier  and  the  diploma  of  Count 
Palatine.  When  his  courtiers  made  envious 
remarks  about  the  deference  he  paid  Titian, 
the  emperor  rephed:  "I  can  easily  create 
a  duke,  but  where  shall  I  find  another 
Titian?"  On  another  occasion  when  the 
artist  dropped  his  pencil,  the  emperor  hast- 
ened to  pick  it  up,  and  presented  it  with 
the  remark:  "Titian  is  worthy  of  being 
served  by  Caesar ! " 

Although  Titian  received  repeated  invita- 
tions to  Rome,  he  does  not  appear  to  have 
gone  there  until  1545,  when  he  was  received 
with  great  distinction  by  Paul  III.,  by  Cardi- 
nal Farnese,  who  had  been  trying  for  some 
time  to  lure  him  to  the  holy  city,  and  by 
his  learned  friend,  Cardinal  Bembo.  Rooms 
were  assigned  him  in  the  Belvedere,  that  he 
might  have  easy  access  to  the  Farnese  family, 
and  Vasari  acted  as  his  guide  to  the  city. 
During  his  residence  in  Rome  —  where  he 
remained  three  years  —  the  most  important 
of  his  pictures  were  the  portraits  of  Pope  Paul 
III.  with  his  grandsons,  Cardinal  Alessandro 
and  Duke  Ottavio  Farnese. 

Charles,  who  seemed  unable  to  do  without 
Titian,  summoned  him  on  two  futiire  occasions 
to  Augsburg  —  in  1548  and  1550  —  and  once 
to  Innsbruck.  At  Augsburg  he  painted  the 
equestrian  portrait  of  Charles  V.  in  full  armor 
—  a  wonderful  characterization  of  the  irre- 
sistible but  disappointed  master  of  Europe 
in  the  sixteenth  century.  After  the  second 
simmions  to  Augsburg  he  painted  the  portrait 
of  Philip  II.  as  a  prince  in  armor.  He  seenied 
to  reciprocate  the  extreme  intimacy  and 
friendship  of  the  world-weary  Charles  V., 
and  this  relationship  resulted  in  the  design 


of  the  "Trinity,"  the  emperor's  last  com- 
mission to  Titian. 

The  latter  part  of  Titian's  life  was  occupied 
in  working  at  Venice  chiefly  for  Philip  II. 
of  Spain,  for  whom,  besides  portraits,  he 
painted  several  religious  and  mythological 
subjects.  Among  these  works  were :  a  "  Last 
Supper,"  "Christ  in  the  Garden,"  "St.  Mar- 
garet with  the  Dragon";  besides  "Venus 
and  Adonis,"  "Medea  and  Jason,"  and  other 
classic  canvases. 

His  splendid  vigor  of  constitution  and 
indomitable  energy  seems  never  to  have 
failed,  and  it  is  not  until  the  last  years  of  his 
life  that  we  see  any  signs  of  decay  in  his  art. 
Vasari  found  him  in  1566  with  the  brushes 
still  in  his  hand,  and  even  in  1574,  when  he 
was  ninety-seven  years  of  age,  he  was  able 
to  receive  a  royal  visitor  —  Henry  III.  of 
France  —  with  his  wonted  magnificence.  In 
1576,  when  he  was  only  one  year  short  of  a 
hundred,  he  succumbed  at  last  to  a  terrible 
plague  which  visited  Venice  in  that  year 
and  carried  off  both  himself  and  his  painter 
son,  Orazio.  The  law  stipulated  that  the 
churches  of  Venice  should  be  closed  to  the 
plague-stricken,  but  it  was  set  aside  in  the 
case  of  Titian,  and  he  was  buried  with  great 
pomp  in  the  church  of  the  Frari,  in  which 
were  his  great  "Assumption,"  and  his  beauti- 
ful votive  painting,  the  Madonna  di  Casa 
Pesaro. 

Very  little  is  known  of  Titian's  domestic 
life.  He  married  in  1525  when  forty-eight 
years  of  age,  but  his  wife  died  in  1530  leaving 
three  children.  One  son  took  priest's  orders; 
the  other  followed  his  father's  profession; 
and  his  beautiful  daughter,  Lavinia,  has  been 
immortalized  by  her  father's  brush.  Shortly 
after  the  death  of  his  wife,  he  seems  to  have 
changed  his  mode  of  life.  He  purchased  a 
home  in  the  Venetian  suburb  of  Biri,  where 
his  children  were  brought  up  under  the  care 
of  his  sister  Orsa.  In  this  home  he  lived  with 
great  hospitahty  and  splendor,  surrounded 
by  men  of  eminence  —  poets,  painters,  and 
soldiers  —  among  others  Ariosto,  Sansovino, 
and  Aretino,  and  even  kings. 

In  personal  appearance,  Titian  was  com- 
manding and  attractive.  He  had  a  high 
forehead,  bold  projecting  brow,  strong  arched 
nose  finely  cut,  penetrating  eyes,  and,  in  mid- 
dle and  later  life,  a  beard  and  moustache.  He 
loved  pleasures,  but  in  moderation.  His  nature 
was  noble,  generous,  affectionate,  and  joyous, 
though  both  luxurious  and  improvident. 


IN  FINE  ARTS 


143 


The  works  of  Titian  are  said  to  number 
upward  of  six  hundred.  As  a  portrait  painter 
he  has  never  been  surpassed,  and  as  a  master 
of  color  he  is  the  greatest  that  the  world  has 
known.  Nearly  every  great  potentate  of 
Europe  of  the  sixteenth  century  was  painted 
by  him;  and  soldiers,  statesmen,  poets,  and 
ecclesiastics  almost  without  number  were 
among  his  sitters.  Perhaps  the  most  remark- 
able picture  existing  of  any  individual  is 
Titian's  portrait  of  "The  Emperor  Charles 
V.  on  Horseback,"  in  the  Madrid  gallery. 

With  Titian  commenced  that  form  of  fancy 
female  portraits,  which,  under  various  dis- 
guises, afforded  opportunity  for  the  delinea- 
tion of  youth  and  beauty.  Among  these  are 
the  so-called  "Daughter  of  Titian";  "Sa- 
lome"; "Titian  and  his  Mistress";  La 
Bella  di  Tiziano;  and  "Flora." 

He  also  excelled  in  landscape;  and  no  less 
celebrated  an  authority  than  Ruskin  says 
that  "  all  landscape  grandeur  vanishes  before 
that  of  Titian  and  Tintoretto."  His  religious 
pictures,  too,  are  numerous  and  magnificent, 
some  of  them  on  a  large  scale,  and  he  fre- 
quently chose  mythological  subjects.  Some 
of  his  finest  works  are  poetical  or  allegorical. 
His  taste  in  design  was  the  least  conspicuous 
part  of  his  merit,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  record 
that  even  his  contemporaries  regretted  that 
he  had  not  visited  Rome  at  an  early  period 
of  his  life  so  that  this  defect  might  have  been 
corrected.  "Had  he  been  at  Rome,"  ob- 
served Piombo,  "and  seen  the  works  of 
Michaelangelo,  those  of  Raphael,  and  the 
antique  statues,  and  attended  more  to 
correct  drawing  and  proportion,  he  would 
have  produced  miraculous  works,  seeing  the 
practice  he  had  in  coloring,  and  his  being 
undoubtedly  the  most  faultless  imitator  of 
nature  of  his  time.  Could  he  but  have  ac- 
quired correctness  of  outline,  the  world  would 
then  have  seen  a  perfect  painter." 

Posterity  has  placed  Titian  by  the  side  of 
Raphael  and  of  Correggio.  If  he  yields  to 
the  former  in  the  ideal  beauty  of  forms  and 
the  philosophy  of  expression,  and  to  the  latter 
in  chiaroscuro,  he  is  superior  to  them  both 
in  coloring  and  faithful  imitation  of  nature. 
His  special  mark  is  the  complete  and  har- 
monious perfection  of  his  method,  his  equal 
mastery  of  all  the  sides  of  art,  and  of  all  sub- 
jects, whether  in  the  realm  of  nature  or  of 
man.  There  is  a  stately  repose,  a  glowing 
nobility,  and  an  unerring  judgment  in  his 
masterpieces.     He  is,  of  all  painters,  the  one 


who  has  the  feweet  defect*  in  his  qualitica, 
and  is  the  least  open  to  criticism ;  that  one 
who,  as  master  of  the  brush,  still  standa 
supreme.  Titian  never  wearies  us,  never 
exaggerates,  has  no  kind  of  noannerum,  and 
never  fails  in  dignity.  Wanting  as  he  is  in 
profound  imagination  and  passion,  his  joyous 
sympathy  with  all  forms  of  beauty  ami  of 
life,  his  splendid  sense  of  color,  his  dignity 
and  grace,  make  him  equal  to  the  most  varied 
and  the  noblest  tasks. 

"Titian's  art,"  says  John  Addington  Sy- 
monds,  "is  a  golden  mean  of  joy,  unbroken 
by  brusque  movements  of  the  passions  — 
a  well-tempered  harmony  in  which  no  thrilling 
note  suggests  the  possibility  of  discord.  In 
his  work  the  world  and  men  cease  to  be  merely 
what  they  are;  he  makes  them  what  they 
ought  to  be ;  and  this  he  does  by  separating 
what  is  beautiful  in  sensuous  life  from  its 
alloy  of  painful  meditation  and  of  bunlcn- 
some  endeavor.  The  disease  of  thought  is 
unknown  in  his  kingdom ;  no  divisions  exist 
between  the  spirit  and  the  flesh;  the  will  is 
thwarted  by  no  obstacles.  When  we  think 
of  Titian,  we  are  irresistibly  led  to  think  of 
music.  His  '  Assumption  of  the  Madonna ' — 
the  greatest  single  oil-painting  in  the  world, 
if  we  except  Raphael's  Madonna  di  San  Sitto 
—  can  best  be  described  as  a  symphony  — 
a  symphony  of  color,  where  every  hue  is 
brought  into  harmonious  combination  —  a 
symphony  of  movement,  where  every  line 
contributes  to  melodious  rhythm  —  a  sym- 
phony of  light  without  a  cloud  —  a  83ntnphony 
of  joy  in  which  the  heavens  and  earth  sing 
hallelujah. 

"Tintoretto,  in  the  Scuola  di  San  Rocco, 
painted  an  'Assumption  of  the  Virgin'  with 
characteristic  energy  and  impulsiveness.  A 
group  of  agitated  men  around  an  open  tomb, 
a  rush  of  air  and  clash  of  seraph  wings  above, 
a  blaze  of  glory,  a  woman  borne  with  sidewise- 
swaying  figiu-e  from  darkness  into  li^t  — 
that  is  his  picture,  all  brio,  excitement,  speed. 
Quickly  conceived,  hastily  executed,  this 
painting  bears  the  impress  of  its  author's 
impetuous  genius.  But  Titian  worked  by 
a  different  method.  On  the  earth,  among 
the  apostles,  there  is  action  enough  and 
passion;  ardent  faces  straining  upward, 
divesting  themselves  of  their  mantles,  as 
though  they,  too,  might  follow  her  they  love. 
In  heaven  is  radiance,  half  eclipsing  the  arch- 
angel who  holds  the  crown,  and  revealing 
the  father  of  spirits  in  an  aureole  of  golden 


144 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


fire.  Between  earth  and  heaven,  amid  choirs 
of  angelic  children,  rises  the  mighty  mother 
of  the  faith  of  Christ,  who  was  Mary  and  is 
now  a  goddess,  ecstatic  yet  tranquil,  not  yet 
accustomed  to  the  skies,  but  far  above  the 
grossness  and  the  incapacities  of  earth.  Her 
womanhood  is  so  complete  that  those  for 
whom  the  meaning  of  the  Catholic  legend 
is  lost  may  hail  in  her  humanity  personi- 
fied. 

"The  grand  manner  can  reach  no  further 
than  in  this  picture  —  serene,  composed, 
meditated,  enduring,   yet    full    of    dramatic 


force  and  of  profound  feeling.  Whatever 
Titian  chose  to  touch,  whether  it  was  classical 
mythology  or  portrait,  history  or  sacred  sub- 
ject, he  treated  in  this  large  and  healthful 
style.  It  is  easy  to  tire  of  Veronese;  it  is 
possible  to  be  fatigued  by  Tintoretto.  Titian, 
like  nature,  waits  not  for  moods  or  humors 
in  the  spectator.  He  gives  to  the  mind  joy 
of  which  it  can  never  weary,  pleasures  that 
cannot  satiate,  a  satisfaction  not  to  be 
repented  of,  a  sweetness  that  will  not  pall. 
The  least  instructed  and  the  simple  feel  his 
influence  as  strongly  as  the  wise  or  learned." 


A.  D. 

1577 
1588 

1596 
1600. 

1608 

1609 
1612 


RUBENS 

AGE  A.   D. 

Born  at  Siegen,  Westphalia, ....  1621 
Taken    to    Antwerp;    educated    in 

Jesuit  college 11  1621-25 

Studied  in  studio  of  Otto  Venius, .    .      19 

Went  to  Italy  and  remained  eight  1628 

years 23  1629 

Returned  to  Antwerp ;  court  painter 

to  Archduke  Albert, 31  1630 

Married 32  1640 

"The  Descent  from  the  Cross,"   .    .     35 


AGE 

Invited   to    France    by   Marie   de' 

Medici 44 

Painted  scries  of  paintings  for  the 
Luxembourg  pafare,  Paris,    .    .   44-48 

Visited  Pliilip  IV.  of  Spain 61 

Painter    and    diplomatic  envoy  for 

Charles  1.  of  England, 52 

Married  his  second  wife, 53 

Died  at  Antwerp, 63 


pETER  PAUL  RUBENS,  greatest  of  the 
•*•  Flemish  painters,  and  the  most  versatile 
of  all  the  celebrated  artists,  was  born  at 
Siegen,  in  Westphalia,  Prussia,  June  29,  1577. 
He  was  the  son  of  Jan  Rubens,  a  lawyer,  and 
Mary  Pypeling,  and  the  time  of  his  birth 
came  in  the  midst  of  a  period  of  great 
domestic  trouble  and  disgrace  in  his  immedi- 
ate family. 

Jan  Rubens  had  been  chosen  secretary  to 
William  the  Silent,  and  on  account  of  a  liaison 
between  Rubens  and  Princess  Anne  of 
Saxony,  wife  of  William,  he  was  first  impris- 
oned, and  then  "interned"  in  the  little  town 
of  Siegen.  This  favor  —  for  it  was  a  favor 
to  Jan  Rubens  to  live  no  longer  in  a  prison  — 
had  been  granted  to  him  at  the  urgent  request 
of  his  wife,  who,  generously  forgetting  the 
wrongs  he  had  inflicted  on  her,  asked  that  he 
should  be  allowed  to  undergo  his  punishment 
with  her,  and  in  liberty.  But  this  public 
captivity,  which  at  first  seemed  sweet  to  the 
prisoner,  soon  became  almost  insupportable, 
and  in  1578  he  obtained  leave  to  fix  his  resi- 
dence at  Cologne,  where  he  died  in  1587. 

In  the  year  following  the  death  of  her  hus- 
band, Rubens's  mother  removed  to  Antwerp; 
where  her  boy  was  educated  in  the  Jesuit 
college,  and  later  became  a  lay  brother.    To 


this  institution  he  was  indebted  for  his  ex- 
cellent classical  training,  and  possibly,  too, 
for  the  practical  turn  which  he  exhibited  on  a 
number  of  occasions  in  future  years.  It  was 
at  first  intended  by  his  mother  that  he 
should  take  up  the  law,  but  his  predilection  in 
favor  of  art  led  him  to  enter  the  studio  of 
Otto  Venius  (or  van  Veen)  about  1596,  when 
he  was  nineteen.  He  had  previously  received 
some  art  training  under  Tobias  Verhaeght,  a 
landscape  painter,  and  also  under  Adam  van 
Noort. 

In  1598  Rubens  entered  the  guild  of  St. 
Luke  at  Antwerp,  and  started  for  Italy  in  the 
spring  of  1600,  where  he  spent  about  eight 
years,  at  Venice,  Mantua,  Rome,  Florence, 
and  Genoa,  and  painted  numerous  pictures. 
He  made  Venice  his  first  halting  place, 
specially  attracted  by  the  great  Italian 
colorists.  At  Mantua  he  became  court 
painter  to  Duke  Vincenzo  Gonzaga,  and 
became  familiar  with  the  manners  of  courts 
—  a  natural  element  to  the  future  diplomatist. 
Here  he  was  occupied  in  copying  the  most 
magnificent  examples  from  Giulio  Romano's 
hand,  and  later  proceeded  to  Rome  to  make 
copies  of  the  old  masters.  While  in  Rome 
he  also  executed  several  altar-pieces  for  the 
archduke  Albert,  governor  of  the  Netherlands. 


PETER  PAUL  RUBENS 
From  a  fainting  by  himself 


.  »  •         o 


IN  FINE  ARTS 


147 


In  1603  he  left  Mantua  on  his  first  mission 
to  Madrid,  deputed  by  the  duke  Vincenzo 
Gonzaga  to  Fhilip  III.  to  take  charge  of  some 
beautiful  horses  which  were  intended  for  the 
king,  but  secretly  intrusted  to  convey  a  large 
Mantuan  bribe  to  the  duke  of  Lerma,  then 
prime  minister  of  Spain.  After  his  return  to 
Italy  he  resided  successively  at  Rome,  Flor- 
ence, Milan,  and  Genoa.  At  Genoa  he 
painted  the  "Miracles  of  St.  Ignatius,"  a  work 
of  great  splendor  and  merit;  at  Milan  he 
made  drawings  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci's  "Bat- 
tle of  Anghiari"  and  "Last  Supper,"  both 
now  in  the  Louvre,  Paris;  and  at  Rome  he 
continued  his  studies  of  the  masters,  and 
painted  a  highly  finished  "St.  Jerome." 

On  the  death  of  his  mother  in  1608,  he 
returned  to  Antwerp,  where,  by  the  persua- 
sion of  the  archduke  Albert  and  the  infanta 
Isabella,  he  was  induced  to  take  up  his  resi- 
dence, accepting  the  title  of  official  painter 
with  a  salary  of  five  hundred  florins.  In  the 
year  1609  he  married  his  first  wife,  Isabella 
Brandt,  the  niece  of  his  brother  Philip's  wife. 
In  a  splendid  portrait,  produced  the  next 
year,  she  is  depicted  with  himself  on  the 
celebrated  canvas  now  in  the  Pinakothek  at 
Munich. 

In  the  street  which  bears  his  name  stand 
portions  of  the  palatial  residence  in  which  the 
rest  of  his  life  was  spent.  It  was  bought  by 
him  in  1611,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the 
months  occupied  by  his  embassies  into  Spain 
and  England,  and  some  other  short  journeys, 
there  he  dwelt,  there  the  great  pictures  began 
to  live  under  his  hand,  there,  according  to  his 
own  boast,  he  coined  gold  with  the  palette 
and  the  pencil,  and  there,  in  the  ripeness  of  a 
good  old  age,  this  "prince  of  painters  and 
gentlemen  "  died. 

During  the  preceding  year  Rubens  had 
received  his  first  important  commission.  It 
came  from  his  adopted  city,  in  Avhose  city  hall 
he  painted  the  "Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  an 
immense  canvas  in  glowing  color,  now  in  the 
Prado  at  Madrid.  He  painted  in  the  same 
year  the  San  Ildefonso  altar,  and  the  "Eleva- 
tion of  the  Cross,"  two  of  his  most  famous 
pieces.  In  1612  followed  liis  conceded  mas- 
terpiece, "The  Descent  from  the  Cross,"  for 
the  Antwerp  cathedral.  The  latter  subject 
in  modified  form  is  also  to  be  found  in  the 
Hermitage  of  St.  Petersburg,  where  there  is 
to  be  found  likewise  his  "  Perseus  and  Andro- 
meda," the  most  successful  of  his  mytho- 
logical pictures. 


During  this  period  of  his  career  Rubeni 
completed  the  exquisite  "Madonna  Sur- 
rounded by  Children,"  in  the  Louvre,  Paria, 
and  the  playful  "Children  with  a  Fruit  Oar- 
land,"  in  the  Pinakothek  at  Munich.  In 
1614  the  "Flight  into  Egypt"  and  the  Fusia 
of  the  Vienna  museum  were  produced. 

After  he  settled  at  Antwerp,  pupils  flocked 
to  his  studio  in  such  numbers  that  ho  was 
compelled  to  recommend  many  of  Uiem  to 
other  masters.  His  patronage  kept  on  con- 
stantly increasing,  and  he  availed  himself  of 
the  assistance  of  his  most  acconjplisljed 
students  in  the  execution  of  the  larger  paint- 
ings and  repHcas  in  demand.  He  frequently, 
also,  collaborated  with  other  artista  —  notably 
with  Breughel  and  Frans  Snyders  —  and  the 
extent  and  range  of  his  productive  powers, 
thus  augmented  during  the  years  from  1615 
to  1622,  were  most  remarkable. 

In  conjunction  with  Snyders  he  produced 
the  spirited  "Boar  Hunts,"  in  the  Dresden 
and  Munich  galleries,  and  the  "Chase  of 
Diana,"  in  the  Berlin  museum.  His  "Lion 
Hunt "  in  the  Pinakothek  shows  that  Rubens 
Was  an  animal  painter  of  the  first  rank. 

In  1621  he  received  a  conmiission  from 
Marie  de'  Medici  to  adorn  the  gallery  of  the 
palace  of  the  Luxembourg  at  Paris,  for  which, 
with  the  aid  of  his  pupils,  he  executed  the 
well-known  series  of  paintings,  exhibiting  the 
principal  events  of  the  life  of  that  princess. 
The  whole,  comprising  twenty-four  paintings, 
was  completed  in  four  years. 

In  1627  he  was  sent  by  the  infanta  Isabella 
to  The  Hague,  to  ascertain  from  Sir  Balthasar 
Gerbier,  the  agent  of  Charles  I.  of  England, 
whether  an  agreement  could  not  be  effected 
between  England  and  Spain,  which  powers 
had  been  at  war  for  some  time.  In  1628, 
with  the  same  object  in  view,  he  was  des- 
patched on  diplomatic  missions  to  Philip  IV. 
of  Spain,  and  in  1629  to  Charles  I.  of  England, 
and,  eventually,  had  the  satisfaction  of  bring- 
ing the  negotiations  for  peace  between  the 
two  countries  to  a  successful  termination. 
Both  these  sovereigns  bestowed  upon  him 
signal  marks  of  favor,  and  did  not  overlook 
in  the  ambassador  the  talents  of  the  painter. 
At  Madrid  he  met  Velasquez,  the  famous 
Spanish  painter;  and  at  iLondon  Charles  I. 
engaged  him  to  paint  the  ceiling  of  the  ban- 
queting hall  at  Whitehall,  the  design  being 
the  apotheosis  of  James  I.  His  all^ory  of 
"Peace  and  War,"  now  in  the  national  gal- 
lery, "  St.  George,"  and  other  works,  were  also 


148 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


presented  by  him  to  the  king,  who  conferred 
upon  him  the  honor  of  knighthood,  giving 
him  at  the  same  time  the  royal  sword  and  a 
massive  gold  ring.  On  leaving  England 
Rubens  again  visited  Madrid,  to  explain  to 
Philip  the  means  by  which  he  had  brought 
about  so  happy  a  result  to  the  negotiations. 
Here  he  renewed  the  study  of  Titian,  which 
strongly  influenced  the  works  of  his  later 
period. 

In  1626  his  wife  died,  leaving  him  two  sons ; 
and  in  November,  1630,  he  married  his  second 
wife,  H^l^ne  Fourment,  a  niece  of  his  first 
wife,  a  beautiful  girl  of  sixteen,  who  bore  him 
two  more  sons,  and  three  daughters.  He  has 
preserved  her  features  for  us  in  numerous 
portraits,  which  he  never  tired  of  painting  at 
various  stages. 

In  1635  he  designed  the  decorations  which 
celebrated  the  entry  of  the  cardinal  infant 
Ferdinand  into  Antwerp  as  governor  of  the 
Netherlands;  and  in  1639  completed  the 
"Crucifixion  of  Peter,"  in  the  church  of  that 
saint  at  Cologne.  His  Santa  Conversazione 
for  the  altar  of  his  mortuary  chapel,  one  of  his 
latest  and  finest  works,  belongs  to  the  same 
year. 

After  a  career  marked  by  all  the  distinction 
that  fame,  riches,  and  universal  admiration 
could  bestow,  and  distinguished  in  the  triple 
character  of  painter,  diplomatist,  and  man,  he 
died  at  Antwerp  on  May  30,  1640.  For 
several  years  he  had  been  a  victim  of  gout, 
but  his  death  was  due  to  paralysis  of  the 
heart.  He  was  buried  with  elaborate  cere- 
mony in  the  church  of  St.  Jacques  in  Antwerp. 

The  pictures  ascribed  in  whole  or  in  part  to 
Rubens  reach  the  enormous  number  of  eigh- 
teen hundred,  or,  estimating  the  number  of 
years  he  was  actually  engaged  in  the  practice 
of  his  art,  nearly  one  a  week.  Among  the 
most  noted  of  them  are :  "The  Descent  from 
the  Cross,"  his  masterpiece,  and  "The  Erec- 
tion of  the  Cross,"  both  in  Antwerp  cathedral ; 
"Communion  of  St.  Francis,"  at  Antwerp; 
"Battle  of  the  Amazons,"  at  Munich;  the 
small  "Last  Judgment,"  also  at  Munich; 
"Lot  and  His  Daughters  Leaving  Sodom,"  in 
the  Louvre,  Paris;  "Adoration  of  the  Magi," 
at  Antwerp;  "St.  Theresa  Delivering  from 
the  Flames  of  Purgatory  Bernardino  de  Men- 
doza,  the  Founder  of  the  Theresian  Nuns," 
at  Valladolid;  "Crucifixion  of  St.  Peter,"  at 
Cologne;  "Rape  of  the  Sabines,"  and  "The 
Judgment  of  Paris,"  in  the  national  gallery, 
London;  "Castor  and  Pollux  Carrying  off  the 


Daughters  of  Leucippus,"  at  Munich;  six 
pictures  at  Vienna  illustrating  the  feats  of  the 
consul  Decius  Mus;  "The  Garden  of  Love," 
at  Madrid  and  also  at  Dresden;  "The  Four 
Philosophers,"  at  Florence;  the  celebrated 
Chapeau  de  PaiUe,  in  the  national  gallery, 
London;  "Daniel  in  the  Lions'  Den,"  at 
Hamilton  palace;  "The  Four  Quarters  of  the 
Globe,"  at  Vienna;  the  Prairie  de  Lacken,  in 
Buckingham  palace;  "Rubens's  Country 
House,"  in  the  national  gallery,  London;  and 
the  famous  "  Rainbow  "  landscape. 

The  pKjrson  of  Rubens  is  described  to  have 
been  of  excellent  proportions.  His  height  was 
about  five  feet  nine  and  a  half  inches;  his 
face  oval  with  regular  and  finely  formed 
features,  dark-hazel  eyes,  a  clear  and  ruddy 
complexion  contrasted  by  curling  hair  of  an 
auburn  color,  with  moustache  and  beard. 
His  carriage  was  easy  and  noble,  his  intnxluc- 
tion  and  manners  exceedingly  graceful  and 
attractive ;  his  conversation  facile  and  engag- 
ing, and,  when  animated  in  discourse,  his 
eloquence,  delivered  with  full  and  clear  intona- 
tion of  voice,  was  at  all  times  powerful  and 
persuasive.  His  keen  intellect  and  linguistic 
attainments  qualified  him  for  his  successful 
diplomatic  missions,  and  indicate  that  he 
possessed  a  large,  solid,  and  practical  nature 
as  a  fitting  complement  to  his  artistic  tem- 
perament. 

Of  Rubens's  personal  character  we  may 
speak  in  tenns  of  high  praise.  He  bore  his 
great  reputation  without  pride  or  presump- 
tion ;  he  was  amiable  in  his  domestic  relations, 
courteous  and  afi"able  to  all.  He  was  the 
liberal  encourager  of  rperit,  especially  in  his 
own  art,  and  he  repaid  those  among  his  con- 
temporaries who  aspersed  him,  by  endeav- 
oring to  serve  them.  His  own  mind  was 
uncontaminated  by  envy,  for  which  perhaps 
Httle  credit  will  be  given  him,  conscious,  as 
he  must  have  been,  of  his  own  most  extraordi- 
nary endowments.  His  noble  admission, 
however,  of  Titian's  superiority,  when  he 
copied  one  of  his  works  at  Madrid,  attests  the 
magnanimity  of  his  disposition;  and  his 
almost  parental  kindness  to  his  pupil.  Van 
Dyck,  shows  that  he  was  equally  wiUing  to 
recognize  the  claims  and  to  promote  the  suc- 
cess of  living  genius.  He  was  simple  and 
temperate  in  his  habits.  He  rose  early  and 
usually  attended  morning  mass  at  the  church. 
In  the  evening  he  often  took  a  ride  on  horse- 
back. 

In  extent  of  range  the  pencil  of  Rubens  is 


IN  FINE  ARTS 


140 


unrivaled.  History,  portrait,  landscape  under 
the  aspect  of  every  season,  animal  life  in  every 
form,  are  equally  familiar  to  him.  His  hunt- 
ing pieces  especially,  wherein  lions,  tigers,  and 
other  wild  animals,  with  men,  dogs,  and  horses, 
are  depicted  under  all  the  circumstances  of 
fierce  excitement,  momentary  action,  and  com- 
plicated fore-shortenings,  are  wonderful. 

In  addition  to  his  paintings,  Rubens 
etched  a  few  plates,  made  some  designs  for 
silversmiths,  and  many  for  printers  like 
Moretus,  for  whom  he  sketched  numerous 
titles,  as  well  as  eight  illustrations  for  a  his- 
tory of  cameos.  He  furthermore  made 
designs  for  several  sets  of  tapestry,  of  which 
"The  Life  of  Achilles,"  "The  History  of  Con- 
stantine,"  and  "Triumphs  of  the  Church"  are 
the  most  important.  The  amount  of  his  picto- 
rial work  was  prodigious.  Even  an  incom- 
plete record  numbers  no  fewer  than  2,253, 
exclusive  of  484  drawings.  The  Munich 
gallery  alone  contains  77  canvases,  and  the 
Louvre,  Paris,  54,  while  there  is  scarcely  a 
collection  of  any  importance,  public  or 
private,  which  does  not  include  at  least  one 
of  his  works. 

Rubens  wanted  only  a  purer  style  in  design- 
ing the  human  figure  to  have  been  a  perfect, 
as  well  as  a  universal,  painter.  His  taste  in 
this  is  singularly  unlike  that  which  the  habits 
of  his  life  seemed  likely  to  produce.  He  had 
been  brought  up  in  scenes  of  courtly  elegance, 
and  was  acquainted  with  whatever  was  beau- 
tiful in  art;  yet  his  conception  of  character, 
especially  in  relation  to  feminine  beauty, 
betrays  a  singular  want  of  refinement.  He 
seldom  attempted  to  idealize  the  human 
figure.  He  was  content  to  reproduce  literally 
Flemish  types  of  womanhood.  His  goddesses, 
nymphs,  and  heroines  are  usually  fat,  middle- 
aged,  and  sometimes  even  old  and  ugly;  and 
they  always  retain  the  peculiarities  of  indi- 
vidual models.  His  men,  too,  though  not 
without  an  air  of  portly  grandeur,  want  mental 
dignity. 

Indeed  Ruskin,  in  his  characteristic  way, 
once  described  Rubens  as  "a  healthy,  worthy, 
kind-hearted,  courtly-phrased  animal,  without 
any  clearly  perceptible  traces  of  a  soul  except 
when  he  paints  children." 

Faults  of  such  magnitude  would  have 
ruined  the  fame  of  almost  any  other  painter; 
but  while  the  pictures  of  Rubens  are  before  us, 
it  is  hard  to  criticise  severely  their  defects. 
If,  as  a  colorist,  he  is  inferior  to  Titian,  it  is 
perhaps    rather    in    kind    than    in    degree. 


Titian's  coloring  may  be  compared  to  the 
splendor  of  the  summer  sun ;  that  of  Ruboia 
excites  the  exhilarating  sensations  of  a  spriog 
morning.  It  is  true  that  the  artifice  of  his 
system  is  sometimes  too  apparent,  whereas,  in 
Titian,  it  is  wholly  concealed.  Rul)cns,  how- 
ever, painted  for  a  darker  atmosphere,  and 
adapted  the  effect  of  his  pictures  to  the  light 
in  which  they  were  likely  to  be  seen.  Inferior 
to  Raphael  in  elegance  and  purity  of  compo- 
sition, he  competes  with  him  in  fertility  and 
clearness  of  arrangement.  He  drew  from 
Paul  Veronese  a  general  idea  of  diffused  and 
splendid  effect,  but  he  superadded  powers  of 
pathos  and  expression,  to  which  that  artist 
was  a  stranger.  It  is,  as  Reynolds  justly 
observes,  only  in  his  large  works  that  the 
genius  of  Rubens  is  fully  developed ;  in  these 
he  appears  as  the  Homer  of  his  art,  dazzling 
and  astonishing  with  poetic  conception,  with 
grandeur,  and  energy,  and  executive  power. 

"His  character  as  a  painter  consisted 
essentially,"  says  Kugler,  "in  those  qualities 
which  no  other  master  had  ever  before  united 
in  so  high  a  degree,  viz.,  in  a  truthful  and 
intense  feeling  for  nature,  a  warm  and  trans- 
parent coloring,  a  power  of  picturesque  keep- 
ing, and  a  wealth  of  fire  and  imagination 
which  embraced  every  object  capable  of  repre- 
sentation, and  enabled  him  to  render  with 
equal  success  and  originality  both  the  most 
forcible  and  the  most  fleeting  appearances  of 
nature.  It  is  this  combination,  in  such  a 
degree,  of  qualities  so  various,  that  disposes 
the  connoisseur  to  tolerate,  though  not  to 
overlook,  the  fact  that  Rubens's  heads  and 
figures  are  seldom  of  elevated  form  or  refined 
feeling,  but,  on  the  contrary,  rude  and  vulgar 
in  both  respects,  and  continually  repeated  — 
nay,  even  to  admit  that  he  is  rarely  profound 
or  ardent  in  sentiment,  but  too  often  harsh 
and  coarse." 

The  lofty  strain  of  his  composition,  his 
mastery  of  the  mechanics  of  his  art  —  in 
which  he  has  never  been  equaled  —  the  sen- 
suous brilliancy  of  his  color  and  the  embodi- 
ment of  the  pleasures  of  the  senses,  strong 
passion  and  stirring  action,  exercised  a  far- 
reaching  influence  on  his  contemporaries  and 
disciples.  His  impress  was  felt  in  Flemish 
art  for  more  than  a  century,  and  had  a  mould- 
ing influence,  as  well,  on  the  English  school. 
Of  his  numerous  pupils.  Van  Dyck  was  the 
most  famous;  but  Jordaens,  Van  Thulden, 
Diepenbeck,  and  Quellyn  also  achieved  a  fair 
degree  of  fame. 


150 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


VELASQUEZ 


A.  D,  AGE 

1599         Bom  at  Seville,  Spain, 

1613-18  Studied    under   Herrera  and   Pa- 

checo, 14—19 

1618         Married, 19 

1622  Visited  Madrid, 23 

1623  Again     at     Madrid;     painter    to 

Philip  IV.;   "Portrait  of  Philip 
IV.,'^ 24 

1627  "Expulsion  of  the  Moriscos,"  ...     28 

1628  Met    Rubens    in    Madrid;     "The 

Topers," 29 


A.   D.  AOE 

1629-31  Visited    Italy;     "Forge    of    Vul- 
can"; "Joseph's  Coat,"    .    .    .   30-32 

1631  Returned  to  Madrid, 32 

1638         "The  Crucifixion," 39 

1647         "The  Surrender  of  Breda,"  ....     48 
1649-50  Again  in  Italy;  "Portrait  of  Inno- 
cent X.,"      50-51 

1652-60  Palace    Marshal    to    Philip    IV.; 
"The      Tapestry      Weavers"; 
"The    Maids   of  Honor,".    .    .   53-61 
1660         Died  at  Madrid, 61 


DIEGO  RODRIGUEZ  DE  SILVA  VE- 
LASQUEZ, the  greatest  of  Spanish 
painters,  was  born  at  Seville,  Spain,  June  5, 
1599,  the  son  of  parents  of  good  family  of 
Portuguese  origin.  His  father  was  Juan  Rod- 
riguez de  Silva,  his  mother  Geronima  Velas- 
quez; so  that  the  painter  ought  rather  to 
have  been  known  as  Silva,  but,  according 
to  an  Andalusian  custom,  he  is  commonly 
known  by  the  name  of  his  mother. 

The  young  Diego  was  intended  by  his 
parents  for  some  liberal  profession,  was  taught 
Latin,  was  introduced  to  belles  letlres,  and 
even  to  philosophy.  After  a  time,  however, 
he  began  to  show  such  unmistakable  bent 
toward  art  that  he  was  placed  as  a  pupil 
with  Francisco  Herrera,  the  elder,  whose 
brutal  manners  are  said  to  have  driven  the 
boy  away,  after  but  a  short  probation,  to 
the  studio  of  the  milder  Francisco  Pacheco. 
In  his  "Art  of  Painting"  Pacheco  claims 
nearly  all  the  glory  of  his  pupil's  education 
during  the  years  1613-18.  His  assertions 
are,  however,  to  be  taken  with  some  reserve, 
for  the  mature  art  of  Velasquez  has  vastly 
more  in  common  with  the  rough,  but  painter- 
like vigor  of  Herrera,  than  with  the  cold 
timidity  of  Pacheco.  Whether  the  lad  stayed 
longer  with  his  first  master  than  tradition 
declares  or  not,  a  comparison  of  their  work 
leaves  no  room  for  doubt  as  to  the  strong 
and  permanent  influence  of  Herrera's  ex- 
ample. 

The  influence  of  a  third  master  has  been 
said  to  count  for  something.  This  was  Luis 
Tristan  of  Toledo,  a  pupil  of  El  Greco.  On 
him,  however,  no  great  stress  need  be  laid. 
The  true  masters  of  Velasquez  were  his  models. 
He  worked  directly  from  nature  with  a  de- 
termined sincerity  which  has  not  been  sur- 
passed. Huge  studies  of  still  life,  with  life-, 
size  figures  introduced,  exist  to  prove  how 
frankly  he  endeavored  to  realize  the  actual 
look  of  things.    The  models  he  selected  were, 


for  the  most  part,  of  the  sordid  peasant  class, 
and  in  this  way  a  certain  habit  of  mind  was 
induced,  unfavorable  to  the  attainment  of 
that  pure  and  elevated  ideal,  some  infusion 
of  which  is  all  that  is  wanted  to  elevate  the 
noble,  realistic  hardihood  of  his  manner  into 
the  very  highest  region  of  art.  Before  he 
was  out  of  his  teens  he  painted  the  "Water 
Carrier,"  and  the  "Adoration  of  the  Kings" 
of  the  Madrid  museum ;  and  in  each  of  these 
the  power  given  by  such  studies  is  conspicuous. 

In  1618,  when  he  was  not  yet  nineteen, 
Velasquez  married  Pacheco 's  daughter,  Juana. 
Thirteen  months  afterward  she  bore  him  a 
daughter,  Francisca;  and  two  years  later, 
a  second  daughter,  Ignacia,  who  seems  to 
have  died  in  infancy.  Francisca  lived  to 
become  the  wife  of  the  painter,  Mazo-Mar- 
tinez. 

In  April,  1622,  Velasquez  paid  his  first 
visit  to  the  Spanish  capital,  Madrid.  There 
he  won  the  friendship  of  Don  Juan  Fonseca, 
canon  of  Seville  and  almoner  to  the  king, 
who  presented  him  to  the  minister,  Olivares. 
Of  this  nothing  came  for  the  moment,  and 
the  painter  returned  to  Seville.  In  the  first 
months  of  1623,  however,  he  received  a  letter 
through  Fonseca  from  OHvares,  calling  him 
back  and  enclosing  a  sum  of  fifty  ducats  to 
defray  expenses. 

Velasquez  at  once  set  out  again  for  Madrid, 
taking  his  father-in-law  with  him.  Within 
a  few  days  after  his  arrival  he  began  and 
finished  a  portrait  of  Fonseca,  which  was 
carried  to  the  palace  and  showed  to  the 
king.  The  portrait  met  with  such  recognition 
that  it  was  forthwith  declared  that  he  should 
paint  Don  Ferdinand,  the  king's  brother, 
and  then,  on  further  consideration,  that  he 
should  commence  with  the  king  himself; 
and  to  the  magic  of  Velasquez's  brush  it  is 
due  that  Philip's  memory  has  not  become  as 
dim,  as  faint  in  outline,  as  that  of  any  other 
weakling  monarch  of  the  long  Spanish  de- 


IN  FINE  ARTS 


in 


cadence,  which  dates  from  the  last  years  of 
Philip  II.  With  this  same  painter  the  king 
was  to  continue,  with  two  important  inter- 
vals, in  daily  and  intimate  intercourse  during 
forty  years;  and  besides  the  unbounded 
admiration  of  the  true  connoisseur  that  he 
undoubtedly  was,  Philip  accorded  to  the 
artist  as  much  friendship  and  regard  as  it 
was  possible  for  the  king,  isolated  and  walled 
in  by  the  inflexible  court  etiquette  of  the 
time,  to  vouchsafe  to  a  subject. 

In  the  autumn  of  1623  Philip's  portrait 
was  finished,  and  his  delight  in  it  was  such 
that  he  granted  the  painter  a  monopoly  in 
the  royal  features,  and,  it  is  said,  ordered 
previous  portraits  by  the  Carducci,  Angelo 
Nardi,  and  others  to  be  removed  from  the 
palace.  Thus  was  Velasquez,  at  the  excep- 
tionally early  age  of  twenty-four  years, 
formally  installed  as  one  of  the  specially 
privileged  painters  of  Philip  IV.,  with  a 
studio  in  the  palace,  a  residence  in  the  city, 
and  a  monthly  stipend  of  twenty  ducats,  to 
which  was  added,  moreover,  special  payment, 
as  Pacheco  states,  for  each  work  produced. 
It  was  here  in  1627  that  he  completed  the 
"Expulsion  of  the  Moriscos." 

In  August,  1628,  Rubens  arrived  at  Madrid, 
just  about  the  time  that  Velasquez  was  finish- 
ing his  famous  picture,"  The  Topers."  Accord- 
ing to  Pacheco,  the  two  painters  had  already 
been  in  correspondence,  but,  however  that 
may  be,  both  natural  inclination  and  the 
express  commands  of  Olivares  led  the  Span- 
iard to  pay  solicitous  attention  to  the  Fleming. 
During  nine  months  the  two  men  lived  in 
close  intimacy,  and  the  influence  of  Rubens, 
who  was  now  fifty-one  years  of  age,  must  have 
had  its  effect  upon  his  companion.  In  the 
work  of  Velasquez  no  direct  echo  from  Rubens 
can  be  traced,  but  it  was  by  his  new  friend's 
advice  that  the  Spanish  painter  made  his 
first  journey  into  Italy. 

Velasquez  obtained  leave  of  absence  from 
the  Spanish  court,  and  set  out  for  Italy,  sail- 
ing from  Barcelona  on  August  10,  1629,  in  the 
same  ship  with  Don  Ambrosio  Spinola,  the 
victor  of  Breda,  and  taking  his  faithful  slave, 
Pareja,  with  him.  Olivares  gave  him  two 
hundred  ducats  for  his  journey,  a  gold  medal- 
lion of  the  king,  and  many  letters  of  recom- 
mendation. The  first  city  in  which  Velasquez 
made  a  stay  was  Venice.  Here  he  copied 
Tintoretto's  "Crucifixion"  and  "The  Last 
Supper."  From  Venice  he  went  to  Rome, 
by  way  of  Ferrara,  Bologna,  and  Loretto. 


At  Rome  he  remained  for  a  whole  ywir. 
Through  the  influence  of  the  count  Monterey, 
at  that  time  Philip's  ambassador  to  the 
Vatican,  he  was  assigned  a  lodging  in  the 
Villa  Medici. 

After  a  stay  of  two  months  at  the  latter 
place,  he  was  driven  by  fever  to  take  refuge 
in  the  Spanish  embassy.  His  time  was  spent 
in  making  studies  from  the  Italian  masters, 
and  in  completing  the  "Forge  of  Vulcan," 
now  in  the  Prado,  Madrid,  and  the  "Joseph's 
Coat,"  at  the  Escorial.  Toward  the  end  of 
1630  Velasquez  went  to  Naples,  where  he 
was  the  guest  of  the  Spanish  viceroy,  the 
duke  of  Alcald,  and  where  he  formed  a  close 
friendship  with  Spagnoletto.  It  was  at  the 
instigation  of  Velasquez  that  Philip  TV. 
bought  many  of  those  pictures  by  the  Valen- 
cian  master,  which  now  hang  at  Madrid. 

Early  in  1631  Velasquez  was  again  in  the 
Spanish  capital.  Delighted  to  have  his 
favorite  back,  Philip  assigned  him  for  a 
studio  the  north  gallery  of  the  Alcazar,  which 
communicated  with  the  royal  apartments 
by  a  door  of  which  Philip  kept  the  key.  The 
king  soon  fell  into  the  habit  of  paying  a  daily 
visit  to  the  painter,  with  whose  help  he  him- 
self made  some  by  no  means  contemptible 
attempts  at  painting.  Soon  after  his  return 
Velasquez  finished  a  portrait  of  Don  Balthasar 
Carlos,  at  the  age  of  two,  and  provided  a 
sketch  of  the  equestrian  statue  of  Philip 
which  was  afterward  modeled  by  Pietro 
Tacca  at  Florence,  and  now  stands  before 
the  royal  palace  at  Madrid.  In  1634,  on  the 
occasion  of  his  daughter  Francisca's  marriage 
to  Juan  Bautista  del  Mazo-Martincz,  Velas- 
quez was  permitted  to  hand  down  his  court 
appointment  to  his  son-in-law,  but  was  him- 
self continued  as  an  honorary  attach^  of  the 
court.  Between  this  time  and  1648  the  story 
of  Velasquez  is  continued  in  the  chronological 
list  of  his  pictures. 

In  the  last  weeks  of  1637  he  is  said  to  have 
painted  Marie  de  Rohan,  duchess  of  Chev- 
reuse,  perhaps  in  the  male  costume  in  which 
she  fled  from  France.  In  1638,  probably, 
he  painted  "The  Crucifixion,"  now  in  the 
Madrid  gallery.  In  1642  he  painted  the 
two  Aranjuez  landscapes,  now  at  Madrid, 
during  the  sojourn  of  the  court  in  that  re- 
treat. The  following  year  saw  the  disgrace 
of  Olivares.  He  was  accompanied  into 
obscurity  by  the  best  wishes  of  Velasquer, 
who  so  far  disregarded  the  etiquette  of  the 
court  to  which  he  belonged  as  to  visit  the 


162 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


fallen  minister  in  his  exile.  The  great  eques- 
trian portrait  of  Philip  in  the  Prado  was  the 
fruit  of  1644.  To  these  years,  too,  belong  the 
portraits  of  dwarfs,  fools,  and  other  eccentric 
members  of  Philip's  household,  which  hang 
in  the  same  gallery.  In  1646  the  infante, 
Don  Balthasar  Carlos,  died,  and  in  1647  Velas- 
quez painted  "The  Surrender  of  Breda,"  the 
famous  Las  Lanzas,  perhaps  the  finest  purely 
historic  picture  in  the  world. 

In  January,  1649,  Velasquez  embarked  at 
Malaga  on  his  second  visit  to  Italy.  He  was 
accompanied,  as  before,  by  Pare j  a,  and  he 
traveled  in  the  suite  of  the  duke  of  Najera, 
who  was  on  his  way  to  receive  Philip's  fiancCe, 
the  grand  duchess  Mariana  of  Austria.  The 
main  object  of  this  second  journey  was  to 
collect  pictures  and  casts  from  the  antique 
for  the  Alcazar  and  for  the  proposed  academy 
of  fine  art,  which  was  only  to  be  established 
a  century  later  by  Ferdinand  VI.  The  painter 
landed  at  Genoa,  visited  successively  Milan, 
Padua,  Venice,  Bologna,  Modena,  Parma, 
Florence,  and  Rome.  From  Rome  he  passed 
on  almost  immediately  to  Naples,  where  he 
presented  himself  to  the  viceroy,  Count 
d'Onate,  who  had  just  suppressed  the  rising 
of  Masaniello,  and  renewed  his  friendship 
with  Ribera. 

After  this  he  returned  to  Rome  and  stayed 
there  for  more  than  a  year.  Here  he  painted 
the  portrait  of  Innocent  X.,  the  reigning 
pontiff,  now  considered  one  of  his  finest  works. 
In  the  early  months  of  1651  the  painter  still 
hngered  in  Italy,  but  a  letter  from  his  friend, 
Fernando  Ruiz  de  Contreras,  hinting  at 
Philip's  impatience  for  his  return,  led  him 
to  make  preparations  for  his  journey  home- 
ward. He  sent  his  collections  off  to  the  care 
of  the  Spanish  viceroy  at  Naples,  and  em- 
barked at  Genoa  for  Barcelona. 

Velasquez  returned  to  Madrid  in  1651, 
after  which  many  of  his  finest  works  were 
painted.  Such  was  the  favor  in  which  he 
continued  to  be  held  by  Philip  that  the  cross 
of  Santiago  was  conferred  on  him  in  1659, 
an  honor  never  before  awarded  except  to  the 
highest  of  the  nobility.  In  1652  he  was  ai> 
pointed  palace  marshal  to  the  king.  This 
post,  the  duties  of  which  consisted  in  attend- 
ance on  the  king  in  his  journeys,  and  the 
superintendence  of  everything  essential  to  his 
convenience,  was  one  of  much  honor  and 
emolument.  But  it  involved,  at  times,  great 
trouble  and  anxiety;  and  on  the  specially 
important  occasion  of  the  conferences  held  in 


1660,  to  arrange  the  marriage  between  Louis 
XIV.  and  the  infanta,  these  were  such  as  to 
utterly  prostrate  the  painter.  On  June  26th 
of  that  year  he  returned  to  Madrid,  worn  down 
with  the  overwork  to  which  he  had  been  forced 
to  subject  himself.  He  was  then  attacked  by 
a  subtle  fever  on  July  31st,  to  which,  after 
much  suffering,  he  succumbed  a  week  later, 
on  August  6th.  He  was  buried  with  solemn 
and  splendid  obsequies  in  the  church  of  San 
Juan.  He  left  all  he  possessed  to  his  wife, 
but  she  followed  him  to  the  grave  on  the  13th 
of  the  month.  After  his  death  the  painter's 
affairs  were  found,  or  at  least  declared,  to  be 
in  great  disorder.  The  Spanish  treasury 
claimed  a  large  sum  from  his  estate,  and  laid 
an  embargo  upon  his  effects.  Six  years  later 
this  was  taken  off  on  the  payment,  by  his 
son-in-law,  Mazo,  of  half  the  amount,  the 
remaining  half  being  remitted  as  due  by  the 
treasury  for  arrears  of  pay  to  Velasquez  as 
king's  marshal. 

As  a  man,  Velasquez  seems  to  have  been 
all  that  was  attractive  and  admirable.  He 
is  spoken  of  by  Palomino  in  glowing  terms 
for  his  courtly  refinement,  his  noble  and 
courteous  manner,  his  kind  and  generous 
disposition.  He  was  always  ready  to  be- 
friend other  artists ;  Alonzo  Cano  and  Murillo 
—  rivals,  in  a  sense  —  owed  much  to  his  kind- 
ness and  advice.  His  fine  spirit  toward 
Murillo,  who  surpassed  him  in  popularity, 
and  toward  the  deposed  Duke  Olivares,  to 
whom  he  had  been  indebted  while  yet  an 
obscure  artist,  is  especially  noteworthy.  His 
long  career  as  an  intimate  of  Philip's  court 
had  much  to  do  with  the  character  of  his 
dress,  which  on  most  occasions  was  elaborate 
and  elegant.  Amid  numerous  costly  dia- 
monds and  gems,  he  also  displayed  rather 
prominently  the  red  cross  of  the  order  of 
Santiago,  with  which  the  king  had  honored 
him. 

The  chief  works  which  belong  to  his  later 
period  are  Las  Hilanderas,  or  "The  Tapestry 
Weavers";  Las  Meninas,  or  "The  Maids  of 
Honor";  the  so-called  "Portrait  of  Alonzo 
Cano,"  the  "^sop,"  and  "Moenippus,"  and 
the  later  portraits  of  Philip  and  his  family. 
Las  Meninas  was  painted  in  1656,  and, 
near  the  close  of  his  life,  he  painted  two  fine 
religious  canvases:  the  "Coronation  of  the 
Virgin,"  and  the  "Anchorites,"  the  latter 
representing  St.  Ajithony  and  Paul  the  Her- 
mit, in  a  desolate  landscape  of  sublime  gran- 
deur. 


IN   FINE   ARTS 


Itt 


The  universal  fame  of  Velasquez  as  a  painter 
really  dates  from  the  first  quarter  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Until  then  his  pictures 
had  been  immured  in  the  palaces  and  museum 
of  Madrid.  In  one  respect,  at  least,  this  was 
fortunate  for  Spain:  from  want  of  popular 
appreciation  they  had,  to  a  large  extent, 
escaped  the  rapacity  of  the  French  marshals 
during  the  Peninsula  war.  In  1828  Sir 
David  Wilkie,  the  noted  Scotch  painter,  wrote 
from  Madrid  that  he  felt  himself  in  the  pres- 
ence of  a  new  power  in  art  as  he  looked  at 
the  works  of  Velasquez,  and  at  the  same  time 
found  a  wonderful  affinity  between  this 
master  and  the  English  school  of  portrait 
painters,  being  specially  reminded  of  the 
firm  square  touch  of  Raeburn.  He  was  struck 
by  the  sense  of  modernness  of  impression,  of 
direct  contact  with  nature,  and  of  vital  force 
which  pervaded  all  the  works  of  Velasquez, 
in  landscape  as  well  as  in  portraiture. 

Time  and  criticism  have  now  fully  estab- 
lished his  reputation  as  one  of  the  most  con- 
summate of  painters,  and  he  more  thoroughly 
foreshadowed  the  art  of  our  own  time  than 
did  any  other  "old  master."  Ruskin  says 
of  him  that  "everything  Velasquez  does  may 
be  taken  as  absolutely  right  by  the  student." 
His  marvelous  technique  and  strong  individu- 
aUty  have  given  him  a  power  such  as  is  prob- 
ably exercised  by  no  other  single  individual. 
Acquainted  with  all  the  Italian  schools,  the 
friend  of  the  foremost  painters  of  his  day, 
he  was  strong  enough  to  withstand  every 
external  influence,  and  to  work  out  for  him- 
self the  development  of  his  own  nature  and 
his  own  principles  of  art. 

A  realist  of  the  realists,  he  painted  only 
what  he  saw;  consequently,  his  imagination 
seems  limited.  His  religious  conceptions  are 
of  the  earth  earthy,  although  some  of  his 
works,  such  as  "The  Crucifixion,"  and  "The 
Scourging,"  are  characterized  by  an  intensity 
of  pathos  in  which  he  ranks  second  to  no 
painter. 

"His  portraits,"  says  the  talented  art 
critic,  Richard  'Ford,  "bafl[le  description 
and  praise.  They  must  be  seen.  He  ele- 
vated that  humble  branch  to  the  dignity 
of  history.  He  drew  the  minds  of  men  — 
they  live,  breathe,  and  seem  ready  to  walk 
out  of  the  frames.  His  power  of  painting 
circumambient  air,  his  knowledge  of  lineal 
and  aerial  perspective,  the  gradation  of  tone 
in  light,  shadow,  and  color,  give  an  absolute 
concavity  to  his  canvas ;  we  look  into  space, 


into  a  room,  into  the  reflection  of  a  mirror. 
It  is  even  difficult  to  doubt  the  aDecdot« 
related  of  Philip  IV.,  who,  nuBtAldng  for 
the  man  the  portrait  of  Admiral  Par«ja  in  a 
dark  corner  of  Velasquez's  room,  exclaimed 
(he  had  been  ordered  to  sea)  — 'What! 
still  here?'" 

England  was  the  first  nation  to  recog- 
nize his  extraordinary  merit,  and  owns  by 
far  the  largest  share  of  his  works  outaide 
of  Spain.  But  Velasquez  can  only  be  seen 
in  all  his  power  in  the  gallery  of  the  Prado  at 
Madrid,  where  over  sixty  of  his  works  are 
preserved,  including  historical,  mythological, 
and  religious  subjects,  as  well  as  landscapes 
and  portraits. 

Although  acknowledged  even  by  his  con- 
temporaries to  be  the  first  among  Spanish 
painters,  Velasquez  had,  nevertheless,  but 
few  immediate  followers.  His  son-in-law, 
Juan  Bautista  del  Mazo-Martinez,  his  slave 
and  afterward  freedman,  Juan  de  Pareja, 
and  his  successor  in  court  favor,  Carreno  de 
Miranda,  are  all  that  achieved  distinction. 
His  true  followers  came  much  later.  The 
painters  of  to-day  and  yesterday  —  the 
modern  French  painters  and  their  fellow 
artists  in  Europe  and  America  —  these  are 
the  real  followers  of  the  great  Spanish  master. 

Paul  Lefort,  in  his  excellent  estimate  of 
Velasquez,  says:  "Velasquez  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  precursor,  an  initiator  of  the 
modern  school  of  painting.  In  his  manner 
of  interpreting  life,  in  his  just  observation 
of  the  laws  of  light,  in  his  habitually  clear 
and  simple  method  of  representation,  as  well 
as  in  his  technique  —  so  novel  and  so  original 
even  nowadays  —  Velasquez  marks  buch  an 
advance  upon  the  art  of  his  time  that  he  seems 
rather  to  belong  to  our  own.  The  striking 
relief  and  perfect  solidity  with  which  he 
endows  natural  objects,  the  marvelous  envel- 
opment of  air  with  which  he  surrounds  them, 
gives  such  a  pecufiar  intensity  of  illusion  and 
appearance  of  life  to  his  work,  that,  compar- 
ing it  with  the  productions  of  even  our  boldest 
realists,  we  are  tempted  to  exclaim  that  this 
painter  of  Philip  IV.  speaks  not  only  the  lan- 
guage of  the  painter  of  to-day,  but  that  of 
the  painter  of  the  future  — a  language  so 
completely  formulated,  so  definite,  and  so 
perfected  by  this  master  of  two  centuries  ago 
that  we  may  say,  and  without  injustice,  that 
even  our  impressionists  —  the  advance  guard 
of  the  modem  school  —  have  as  yet  scaroe 
learned  to  Usp  it." 


154 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


REMBRANDT 


A.  D.  AGE 

1607         Bom  at  Leyden,  Holland, 

1619-23  Studied  under  Van  Swanenburch 

and  Lastman, 12-16 

1623-30  Studied  and  painted  at  Leyden,    .    16-23 

1630  Established    himself    in    Amster- 

dam,   23 

1631  "Portrait    of    a    Young    Man"; 

"Simeon  in  the  Temple,"      ...     24 

1632  "The    Anatomist    Nicholas   Tulp 

and  his  Pupils," 25 


A.  D.  AOB 

1633  " The  Shipbuilder  and  his  Wife,"  .    .  26 

1634  Married  his  first  wife, 27 

1640         Purchased  his  house  in  Amsterdam,  33 
1642         Death    of    his    first    wife;     "The 

Ni^ht  Watch," 35 

1648         "Christ  at  Emmaus," 41 

1661         "The   Syndics   of   the   Merchant 

Drapers," '>4 

1669         Died  at  Amsterdam, U2 


rjEMBRANDT  HARMENSZOON  VAN 
'■^  RUN,  or  Rembrandt,  son  of  Harmen 
of  the  Rhine,  the  most  celebrated  of  Dutch 
painters,  was  born  at  Leyden,  near  Amster- 
dam, Holland,  July  15,  1607.  He  was  the 
sixth  son  of  a  well-to-do  miller  of  Leyden, 
Harmen  Gerritsz,  and  Neeltje  (Cornelia), 
daughter  of  Willems  of  the  village  of  Zuyd- 
brock. 

At  the  early  age  of  twelve,  Rembrandt, 
who  showed  decided  proclivities  toward  art, 
was  placed  under  Van  Swanenburch,  a  painter 
of  modern  talent  in  Leyden,  and  he  also 
attended  the  university  of  Leyden.  His 
parents  entered  him  at  the  university  in  the 
expectation  that  he  would  eventually  take  up 
the  profession  of  law;  but  his  almost  com- 
plete alisorption  in  the  study  of  painting  led 
him  to  devote  himself  exclusively  to  that  art. 

From  Leyden  he  went  to  study  for  a  year  at 
Amsterdam  under  Pieter  Lastman,  whom  he 
left  in  order  to  frequent  the  studio  of  Jacob 
Pinas  at  Haarlem.  After  having  learned  all 
that  others  could  teach  him,  Rembrandt 
returned  to  his  father's  house,  and  during 
several  years  devoted  himself  to  that  solitary 
study  from  which  genius  derives  its  power 
and  originality.  He  remained  seven  years  in 
his  native  town  —  from  1623  to  1630  —  and 
carried  out  those  elaborately  staged  compo- 
sitions which  mark  his  first  period  as  a  painter, 
and  he  took  his  first  steps  as  an  etcher.  His 
etching,  "The  Presentation  with  the  Angel," 
and  several  fine  portrait  studies  belong  to  this 
early  period. 

At  the  age  of  twenty-three  Rembrandt 
established  himself  at  Amsterdam,  and  began 
his  remarkable  independent  career,  never 
leaving  that  city  until  his  death  thirty-nine 
years  later. 

M.  Michel  in  his  life  of  Rembrandt  paints 
a  graphic  picture  of  Amsterdam  in  1630, 
of  her  growing  trade  and  prosperity,  and 
of  the  transformation,  not  only  in  the  city 
itself,  but  in  the  spirit  of  the  inhabitants, 


which  followed  the  long  struggle  with  Spain. 
The  revival  of  civil  life  had  been  followed  by 
a  great  increase  in  the  attention  given  to  the 
arts.  The  institutions  fostered  by  the  war 
had  encouraged  painters,  and  now,  with 
returning  prosperity,  other  institutions,  and 
especially  those  connected  with  charity,  came 
forward  as  patrons  of  pictures.  For  a  long 
time  Amsterdam  was  the  chief  place  to  profit 
by  the  return  of  peace.  Her  position,  at 
once  well  sheltered  and  easily  accessible  both 
from  the  interior  and  the  sea,  has  often  been 
likened  to  that  of  Venice,  but  perhaps  a 
comparison  would  be  better  with  Constanti- 
nople. Her  position  at  the  head  of  the  then 
navigable  Zuyder  Zee,  and  at  a  point  where 
all  the  canals  of  Holland  converged  from  the 
south,  was  very  similar  to  that  of  the  eastern 
capital  on  the  sea  of  Marmora.  Within  a 
century  of  William  the  Silent's  assassination 
in  the  palace  at  Delft,  Amsterdam  had  practi- 
cally grown  into  the  town  we  all  knew  until 
the  other  day.  Like  several  other  Dutch 
cities,  she  has  now  begun  to  put  on  suburbs 
at  an  alarming  rate,  but  in  1630  she  was 
already  at  the  knees  of  that  rampart  over 
which  she  only  began  to  swarm  some  twenty 
years  ago. 

During  his  first  year  in  Amsterdam,  Rem- 
brandt painted  the  "  Portrait  of  an  Old  Man," 
now  in  the  Cassel  gallery,  and  thereafter 
followed  portraits,  landscapes,  historical,  and 
genre  subjects,  in  great  numbers,  as  well  as 
the  hundreds  of  wondrous  etchings,  which 
have  served  almost  as  much  as  his  paint- 
ings to  immortalize  him.  There  are  two 
pictures  dated  by  him  1631,  both  of  which,  a 
"Portrait  of  a  Young  Man"  and  "Saint 
Simeon  in  the  Temple,"  are  now  in  the  mu- 
seum at  The  Hague.  In  the  following  year 
Rembrandt  painted  for  the  anatomical  theater 
of  the  college  of  surgeons  at  Amsterdam  "The 
Anatomist  Nicholas  Tulp  and  his  Pupils,"  a 
famous  picture  —  now  in  the  museum  at  The 
Hague  —  which  alone  would  suffice  to  place 


IN  FINE  ARTS 


157 


the  author  in  the  first  rank  of  the  Dutch  mus- 
ters. In  the  picture  Professor  Tulp  is  seen 
standing  behind  an  operating  table  upon 
which  is  placed  the  corpse.  Forceps  in  hand, 
he  lifts  the  tendons  of  the  partly  dissected  arm, 
while  around  him  press  his  colleagues,  eager 
to  watch  and  to  listen.  It  is  a  marvelous 
picture  for  a  young  man  of  twenty-five,  and 
is  generally  accepted  as  a  milestone  in  the 
career  of  the  painter,  and  as  marking  a  new 
departure. 

"It  is  Rembrandt's  triumph,"  says  Fred- 
erick Wedmore,  "that  over  all  this  terrible 
reality  of  the  dead,  the  reality  of  the  living  is 
victorious;  and  our  final  impression  of  his 
picture  is  not  of  the  stunted  corpse,  but  of  the 
activity  of  vigor  and  intellect  in  the  lecturing 
surgeon  and  passing  crowd." 

Malcolm  Bell  has  written:  "The  enthusi- 
asm aroused  by  'The  Anatomy  Lesson,'  when 
it  was  finished  and  hung  in  its  predestined 
place  in  the  little  dissecting  room  of  the 
guild  of  surgeons,  was  immediate  and 
immense.  Commissions  flowed  in  upon  the 
artist  faster  than  he  could  execute  them,  so 
that  those  who  wished  to  be  immortalized  by 
him  had  often  to  wait  their  turn  for  months 
together,  while  all  the  wealth  and  fashionable 
of  the  city  flocked  to  the  far-off  studio  in  the 
outskirts,  the  more  fortunate  to  give  their 
sittings,  the  later  comers  to  put  down  their 
names  in  anticipation  of  the  future  leisure. 
From  the  beginning,  too,  pupils  came  clamor- 
ing to  his  doors,  eager  to  pay  down  their  hun- 
dred florins  a  year,  as  Sandrart  says  they  did, 
and  work  with  and  for  the  lion  of  the  day." 

In  1633  Rembrandt  finished  "The  Ship- 
builder and  his  Wife."  The  next  year,  1634, 
marks  his  marriage  to  Saskia,  daughter  of 
Rombertus  van  Uylenburgh,  pensioner"  and 
burgomaster  of  Leeuwarden  in  Frisia.  He 
received  a  considerable  fortune  with  his  wife, 
and  lived  with  her  happily  until  her  death. 
The  eight  years  following  his  marriage  were 
the  happiest  period  of  the  artist's  fife.  He 
received  numerous  commissions  for  pictures, 
and  his  etchings  Were  also  a  source  of  great 
profit  to  him.  He  purchased  his  house,  and 
formed  a  fine  and  valuable  collection  of 
Italian  pictures,  engravings,  marbles,  armor, 
and  works  of  art.  Saskia  formed  one  of 
Rembrandt's  best  models,  and  during  her 
short  married  life  sat  for  eighteen  separate 
portraits,  of  one  kind  or  another,  besides 
other  compositions.  She  died  in  1642,  leaving 
a    son    named    Titus.     Rembrandt    married 


again  about  1653,  but  nothing  is  known 
respecting  this  second  marriage,  except  that 
it  resulted  in  the  birth  of  two  children,  one  of 
whom,  Cornelia,  survived  her  father. 

The  year  of  Saskia's  death  produced  the 
famous  "Sortie  of  the  Civic  Guard,"  usually 
known  as  "The  Night  Watch,"  a  guild  picture 
representing  Captain  Banning  Cocq  and  his 
company  of  musketeers.  The  incident  repre- 
sented is  a  call  to  arms  of  the  civic  gtianl. 
The  company  is  issuing  from  its  guild  house; 
the  captain,  dressed  in  black  and  wearing  a  red 
scarf,  gives  his  orders  to  the  lieutenant,  who, 
clad  in  yellow,  with  a  white  scarf  about  his 
waist,  and  wearing  a  yellow  hat  adorned  with 
a  white  feather,  walks  at  his  side  —  the  two 
men  preceding  the  rest  of  the  group. 

The  canvas  measures  eleven  by  fourteen 
feet,  but,  as  originally  painted  in  1642,  was 
considerably  larger.  The  mutilation  which  it 
has  undergone  took  place  in  1715,  when  the 
picture  was  removed  from  the  hall  of  the 
Musketeers'  Doelen  to  the  town  hall  of 
Amsterdam;  and,  in  order  to  suit  it  to  the 
dimensions  of  the  place  assigned  to  it,  part  of 
the  drum  to  the  left,  and  two  figures  to  the 
right  of  the  canvas  were  cut  off.  A  contem- 
porary copy  of  the  work  by  Gerrit  Lundens, 
now  in  the  national  gallery,  London,  shows 
this  to  have  been  the  case. 

Erroneously  called  "The  Night  Watch"  — 
a  name  given  it  by  French  writers  at  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century  —  it  is  not  a  night 
scene,  as  its  darkened  condition,  caused  by 
time,  thick  coatings  of  varnish,  and  fumes 
from  peat-fires  and  tobacco  smoke  seemed  to 
indicate,  but,  on  the  contrary,  as  a  recent 
cleaning  and  restoration  has  proved,  was 
painted  in  full  sunlight.  It  has  even  been 
asserted  that  the  exact  position  of  the  sun  can 
be  ascertained  from  the  shadow  cast  by 
Banning  Cocq's  hand  on  the  tunic  of  his 
lieutenant. 

The  decade  after  his  wife's  death  brought 
disastrous  changes  in  the  financial  fortunes  of 
Rembrandt,  though  in  it  he  produced  some  of 
his  best  work.  "Christ  at  Emraaus"  was 
painted  in  1648.  Holland  during  this  period 
suffered  from  a  severe  industrial  stringency, 
and  a  consequent  change  in  public  expendi- 
tures for  the  refinements  of  art.  In  addition 
to  this,  the  documents  preserved  in  the  court 
of  insolvency  at  Amsterdam  show  that  in 
1656  Rembrandt  was  under  the  necessity  of 
abandoning  to  his  son,  Titus,  all  the  real 
property  in  which  he  had  a  life  interest  under 


158 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


the  will  of  his  first  wife.  Shortly  afterward 
he  was  forced  to  intrust  to  a  court  of  law  the 
administration  of  his  own  property,  which 
was  sold  by  public  auction.  Fortunately  for 
his  memory,  the  inventory  of  his  personal 
effects  has  been  preserved.  It  proves  that 
this  man,  who  had  been  made  a  type  of  sordid 
avarice,  devoted  nearly  the  whole  of  his 
wealth  to  the  purchfise  of  pictures  and 
engravings  by  the  Italian  masters,  antique 
marbles,  rare  and  precious  articles  of  furni- 
ture, and  objects  of  art  of  all  kinds.  The 
passion  for  beautiful  works  of  art  and  curiosi- 
ties, and  the  mal-administration  of  a  fortune, 
estimated  at  the  time  of  his  first  wife's  death 
at  upward  of  forty  thousand  florins,  had 
been  the  sole  means  of  reducing  Rembrandt  to 
the  sad  position  in  which  we  now  see  him 
placed.  After  abandoning  to  his  creditors 
absolutely  everything  he  possessed,  he  with- 
drew into  a  laborious  isolation,  and  after  ten 
years  of  patient  toil  the  old  artist  at  last 
succeeded  in  satisfying  their  claims. 

However,  during  this  time  of  stress  and 
vexation,  Rembrandt  produced  probably  his 
greatest  work,  "The  Syndics  of  the  Merchant 
Drapers,"  completed  in  1661.  In  this  great 
picture  five  members  of  the  cloth  guild  are 
ranged  round  the  inevitable  table,  prosaically 
occupied  in  the  verification  of  their  accounts. 
They  are  all  dressed  in  black  costumes,  with 
flat  white  collars,  and  broad-brimmed  black 
hats.  Behind  them  and  somewhat  in  the 
shadow,  as  befits  his  office,  a  servant,  also  in 
black,  awaits  their  orders  with  uncovered 
head.  The  tablecloth  is  of  a  rich  scarlet;  a 
wainscot  of  yellowish-brown  wood  with 
simple  mouldings  forms  the  background  for 
the  heads.  No  accessories,  no  variation  in  the 
costumes;  an  equally  diffused  light  falling 
from  the  left  on  the  faces,  which  are  those  of 
men  of  mature  years,  some  verging  on  old 
age.  With  such  modest  materials  Rembrandt 
produced  his  masterpiece. 

Never  before  had  Rembrandt  achieved  such 
perfection ;  never  again  was  he  to  repeat  the 
triumph  of  that  supreme  moment  when  all  his 
natural  gifts  joined  forces  with  the  vast  expe- 
riences of  a  life  devoted  to  his  art  in  such  a 
crowning  manifestation  of  his  genius.  Bril- 
liant and  poetical,  his  masterpiece  was  at  the 
same  time  absolutely  correct  and  unexcep- 
tional. Criticism,  which  still  wrangles  over 
"The  Night  Watch,"  is  unanimous  in  admi- 
ration of  the  "Syndics."  In  it  the  colorist 
and  the  draughtsman,  the  simple  and  the 


subtle,  the  realist  and  the  idealist  alike  recog- 
nize one  of  the  masterpieces  of  painting. 

Rembrandt's  son,  Titus,  died  in  1668,  and 
the  distinguished  painter  in  his  melancholy 
last  years  was  left  with  two  children  —  his 
daughter,  Cornelia,  and  a  granddaughter  — 
to  form  his  only  links  with  the  past.  His  own 
death  took  place  about  thirteen  months  later. 
The  only  allusion  to  it  that  has  been  found  is 
the  record  on  the  death  register  of  Wester- 
kerk,  Amsterdam,  in  which  this  entry  occurs : 
"Tuesday,  October  8,  1669;  Rembrandt  van 
Rijn,  painter,  on  the  Roozegraft,  opposite  the 
Doolhof.     Leaves  two  children." 

Rembrandt  painted  more  than  forty  por- 
traits of  himself,  in  many  aspects  and  various 
fantastical  costumes.  Although  probably 
few  of  them  are  accurate  likenesses,  it  is  clear 
that  he  was  a  strong  man,  of  ordinary  figure, 
with  a  thick  nose,  firm  mouth  framed  with  a 
stiff  moustache,  and  imperial  and  dark 
piercing  eyes.  He  possessed  a  rather  somber, 
thoughtful,  dreamy  disposition,  which  he 
communicated  to  his  works,  though  many  are 
also  full  of  pathos,  mystery,  sympathy,  and 
fine  imagination.  Some  of  his  censorious 
critics  charge  him  with  dissipation,  extrava- 
gance, and  even  avarice;  but  these  stories 
have  been  proven  to  be  entirely  unfounded. 

Among  his  chief  paintings,  including  those 
already  mentioned,  are  "The  Syndics,"  at 
Amsterdam ;  " The  Shipbuilder  and  his  Wife," 
in  the  collection  of  the  British  royal  family; 
the  "Jewish  Rabbi,"  in  the  national  gallery, 
London ;  and  " The  Night  Watch,"  at  Amster- 
dam. Of  his  historical  pictures,  the  most 
remarkable  are:  "Duke  Adolphus  of  Guel- 
dres  Threatening  his  Father,"  and  "Moses 
Destroying  the  Tables  of  the  Law,"  in  the 
Berlin  museum;  the  "Sacrifice  of  Abraham," 
in  the  Hermitage  at  St.  Petersburg;  the 
"  Woman  Taken  in  Adultery,"  in  the  national 
gallery,  London;  the  "Descent  from  the 
Cross,"  and  the  "Nativity,"  in  the  same  col- 
lection; "Christ  in  the  Garden  with  Mary 
Magdalen,"  and  the  "Adoration  of  the  Magi," 
in  the  collection  of  the  British  royal  family; 
and  "Tobit  Adoring  the  Departing  Angel," 
in  the  Louvre,  Paris.  Of  his  landscapes,  of 
which  he  painted  fewer  than  of  other  kinds 
of  pictures,  a  very  characteristic  specimen  is 
that  known  as  "The  Mill,"  in  the  possession 
of  the  marquis  of  Lansdowne.  His  most 
noted  etchings  include  a  "Descent  from  the 
Cross";  "Christ  Healing  the  Sick";  "The 
Raising    of    Lazarus";     "Burgomaster   Jan 


IN   FINE  ARTS 


1« 


Six  " ;  and  the  well-known  "  Landscape  with 
Three  Trees." 

Rembrandt  is  one  of  the  most  perfect 
colorists  that  ever  existed ;  and  in  chiaroscuro 

—  the  contrasts  of  light  and  shade  —  he  has 
no  equal  in  the  whole  range  of  art.  He  has 
clearly  shown  in  all  his  works  that  the  grand 
resources  of  his  art  consist  in  subduing  gaudy 
and  harsh  colors,  because  they  ought  not  to  be 
used  except  for  bringing  out  the  principal 
objects.  Rembrandt  used  them  with  ad- 
dress, either  by  glazing  them  over  in  the  man- 
ner of  the  Venetian  school,  or  by  blending 
other  tints  to  lessen  that  harshness  which 
dazzles  the  eyes.  He  perceived  that  by  the 
circulation  of  air  which  surrounds  all  objects, 
colors  receive  a  reflection  from  whatever  is 
near  them;  and,  consequently,  all  represen- 
tations of  nature  ought  to  participate  in  those 
aerial  gradations  which  in  his  pictures  appear 
to  raise  the  figures  from  the  canvas  as  if  they 
were  animated.  As  examples  of  composition, 
expression,  color,  and  light  and  shade,  his 
works  rank  with  those  of  the  greatest  artists. 
In  order  to  thoroughly  know  and  appreciate 
Rembrandt,  it  is  not  sufficient  to  admire  his 
paintings ;  it  is  also  necessary  to  examine  and 
study  the  wonderful  engravings,  upward  of 
three  hundred  sixty  in  number,  which  he 
executed  between  1628  and  1661,  and  which 
amateurs  search  for  with  an  enthusiasm 
which  every  year  grows  more  ardent.  As  an 
etcher  he  has  neither  equals  nor  rivals. 

Mentally  he  was  a  man  keen  to  observe, 
assimilate,  and  synthesize.  His  conception 
was  localized  with  his  own  people  and  time 

—  he  never  built  up  the  imaginary  or  fol- 
lowed Italy  —  and  yet  into  types  taken  from 
the  streets  and  shops  of  Amsterdam  he  infused 
the  very  largest  humanity  through  his  inherent 
sympathy  with  man.    Dramatic,  even  tragic 


he  was  at  times,  and  yet  showed  it  lew  in 
vehement  action  than  in  passionate  expra»> 
sion.  He  had  a  way  of  striking  universal 
truths  through  the  human  face,  a  turned  head, 
bent  body,  or  outstretched  hand  that  waa 
powerful  in  the  extreme.  His  people  have 
great  dignity  and  character ;  and  we  are  made 
to  feel  that  they  are  types  of  the  Dutch  race 
—  people  of  substantial  physique,  slow  in 
thought  and  impulse,  yet  capable  of  feeling, 
comprehending,  enjoying,  suffering.  His 
landscapes,  again,  are  a  synthesis  of  all  Duteh 
landscape,  a  grouping  of  the  great  truths  of 
light,  space,  and  air.  Whatever  he  turned 
his  mind  upon  was  treated  with  that  breadth 
of  view  that  overlooks  the  little  and  gra^M 
the  great. 

Emile  Michel  says:  "His  originality  of 
interpretation  was  always  controlled  by  study 
of  nature.  Nature  made  him  what  he  was, 
and  to  her  he  turned  unceasingly.  One  of  his 
principles  was  that  'Nature  alone  should  be 
followed.'  Tradition  had  httle  power  over 
him,  and  yet  he  never  deliberately  threw  off 
its  yoke.  On  the  contrary  he  was  always  keen 
to  know  what  men  had  done  before  his  time, 
and  to  profit  by  their  teaching.  But  when  a 
subject  had  to  be  treated  he  did  not  trouble 
himself  too  much  about  what  others  had  said. 
He  thought  about  it  for  himself;  he  entered 
into  it ;  he,  as  it  were,  hved  it  over  again,  and 
then  set  himself  to  reproduce  it  in  his  own 
way,  giving  special  force  to  those  aspects 
which  had  stirred  his  own  emotions. 

"  Rembrandt  belongs  to  the  breed  of  artists 
which  can  have  no  posterity.  His  place  is 
with  the  Michaelangelos,  the  Shakespeares,  the 
Beethovens.  An  artistic  Prometheus,  he  stole 
the  celestial  fire,  and  with  it  put  life  into  what 
was  inert,  and  expre&sc<l  the  immaterial  and 
evasive  sides  of  nature  in  his  breathing  forms." 


1685 
1700 


1703 


1704 
1707 


1708 


BACH 


Born  at  Eisenach,  Germany, 

Entered    choir    of    St.    Michael's 

school,  Liineburg, 15 

Received    court    appointment    at 

Weimar, 18 

Organist  at  Amstadt, 19 

First  marriage;  removed  to  Miihl- 

hausen, 22 

Court  organist  at  Weimar,    ....  23 


A.  D.  *«■ 

1717-23  Chapel  master  for  Prince  Leopold,  32-38 

1721         Second  marriage, 36 

1723-50  Director  of  St.  Thomas's  school, 

Leipzig, 38-65 

Honorary'  court  composer  to  Augtis- 

tus  III.  of  Saxony, 51 

At  court  of  Frederick  the  Great, 

Potsdam.      62 

Died  at  Leipiig, W 


1736 
1747 


1750 


TOHANN  SEBASTIAN  BACH,  founder  of 
*^  modern  music,  and  one  of  the  supremely 
great  musicians  of  the  world,  was  born  at 


Eisenach,  in  Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach,Germany, 
March  21,  1685.  The  family  to  which  he  be- 
longs had  already  produced  many  musician*. 


160 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


His  father,  Johann  Ambrosius,  was  a  court  cal  construction,  which  he  subsequently  de- 
and  city  musician  at  Eisenach.  His  mother  veloped  to  such  completeness  as  to  make  his 
was  Elizabeth  Lammerhirt,  daughter  of  a  works  a  model  of  form  for  all  time, 
furrier  of  Erfurt.  The  former  was  one  of  j  Especially  devoted  to  the  organ  as  an 
twin  brothers,  who  were  So  much  alike  in  j  instrument,  and  anxious  for  the  field  in  which 
person  and  voice  that  their  wives  could  know  •  to  exercise  his  wonderful  powers  of  invention, 


one  from  the  other  only  by  their  dress 
Their  temper,  their  constitution,  their  talent, 
and  their  music  were  ahke;  and  their  death 
took  place  very  nearly  at  the  same  time. 
This  occurred  when  Sebastian  was  but  ten 
years  old.  His  elder  brother,  then  organist 
in  the  little  town  of  Ohrdruf,  took  him  under 
his  protection,  and  taught  him  the  principles 
of  the  art  for  which  his  family  was  famous. 

It  is  to  be  supposed,  however,  that  in  the 
household  of  his  father  he  made  the  early 


Bach  quitted  the  duke's  service  in  1704  to 
accept  the  office  of  organist  at  Arnstadt,  in 
which  for  the  first  time  he  had  an  oppor- 
tunity to  prove  his  remarkable  abihty.  While 
in  this  situation  he  made  several  art-pilgrim- 
ages for  the  sake  of  hearing  any  player  from 
whose  experience  he  might  derive  any  im- 
provement. In  particular,  he  once  walked 
to  Liibeck,  where  the  celebrated  Buxtehude 
was  organist  of  St.  Mary's  church,  with  whose 
playing  and  composition  he  was  so  delighted 


familiarity  with  music,  without  which  even  |  that  he  prolonged  his  stay  for  three  months, 
his  marvelous  organization  could  not  have  1  In  1707    he  was  appointed  organist  of  the 


been  developed.  His  own  ardent  love  of  his 
pursuit,  and  his  brother's  want  of  sympathy 
with  him  are  equally  shown  in  an  early  inci- 
dent. He  had  a  great  desire  to  study  some 
of  the  compositions  of  the  most  profound 
writers  of  the  day,  but  was  forbidden  the  use 
of  a  volume  which  contained  them.  He  pro- 
cured  the  book,   however,   by  stealth,   and 


church  of  St.  Blasius  at  Miihlhausen,  where, 
in  the  same  year,  he  married  his  first  wife, 
Maria  Barbara,  daughter  of  Johann  Michael 
Bach  of  Gehren.  The  year  following  he  re- 
turned to  Weimar,  no  more  in  the  subordinate 
capacity  of  an  orchestra  player,  but  in  the 
important  capacity  of  court  organist. 
His  environments  at  Weimar  were  such 


copied  the  valued  pieces  in  secret  on  moon- '  as  to  quicken  Bach's  already  active  musical 


light  nights,  and  thus  spent  six  months  upon 
the  task.  He  had  scarcely  finished  his  labor, 
when  his  brother  discovered  the  transcript 
and  confiscated  it.  He  did  not  regain  it 
until,  shortly  afterward,  the  death  of  Chris- 
toph  left  the  boy  again  without  a  protector. 
In  this  destitute  condition  he  went  with  a 
schoolfellow  to  Liineburg  in  1700,  and  ob- 
tained there  an  engagement  as  a  singer  in 


faculties.  The  life  of  the  court  was  decoroas ; 
the  duke  —  William  Ernest  —  was  a  man 
of  serious  temperament,  a  patron  of  arts  and 
letters,  and  used  his  utmost  endeavors  to 
bring  the  music  of  the  ducal  chapel  up  to  a 
high  standard.  It  was  he,  in  fact,  who  laid 
the  foundation  of  that  culture  which  made 
Weimar  the  center  of  German  letters  in 
Goethe's  time,  and  gave  it  a  "golden  period  " 


the  choir  of  St.  Michael's  school.  Here  he  I  of  music  when  Liszt  resided  there.  The  nine 
began,  too,  the  study  of  the  organ  under  years  spent  at  the  ducal  court  did  much  to 
George  Boehm,  an  organist  and  composer  I  perfect  Bach's  style  as  a  composer  for  the 
of  distinction,  and  laid  the  foundation  for  organ,  and  some  of  the  best  of  his  cantatas 


his  career  as  the  greatest  master  of  composi- 
tion for  this  instrument,  and  one  of  its  greatest 
players.     With  enthusiasm  that  no  difficulties 


were  also  written  there. 

His  reputation  as  a  performer,  as  a  com- 
poser, and  as  an  extemporist,  began  now  to 


could  check,  he  walked  several  times  to  Ham-  spread  over  all  Germany,  and  his  unremitting 
burg  to  hear  the  performances  of  Reinken,  |  study  gave  even  further  justification  to  the 
the  famous  organist.     He  also  went  to  Zell  high  esteem  in  which  he  was  held.      In  1717 


to  hear  the  concerts  of  the  prince's  band,  and 
lost  no  opportunity  that  could  afford  him 
gratification  from,  or  improvement  in,  his 
beloved  art.     When  he  was  eighteen,  he  was 


P*rince  Leopold  of  Anhalt-Kothen,  a  great 
patron  of  music,  and  himself  a  talented  singer 
and  player,  offered  him  the  office  of  master 
of   his  chapel  and  director  of   his  concert, 


engaged  to  play  the  violin  in  the  orchestra  I  which   gave    him    still   greater    opportunity 


of  the  duke  of  Weimar,  and  it  was  probably 
then  that  he  became  acquainted  with  the 
concertos  of  Vivaldi,  to  which  he  always 
attributed  his  ideas  of  the  principles  of  musi- 


than  he  had  yet  enjoyed.  Here  he  composed 
numerous  works  for  the  clavichord  and 
orchestra,  and  this  period  of  his  career  is, 
therefore,  marked  off  in  a  general  way  from 


IN   FINE  ARTS 


161 


his  more  serious  period  at  Weimar,  and  the 

final  epoch  at  Leipzig. 

On  the  death  of  Zachau,  the  master  of 
Handel,  however,  Bach  was  invited  to  suc- 
ceed him  as  organist  at  Halle,  and  went  there 
to  prove  his  fitness  for  the  appointment; 
but,  for  some  unknown  reason,  the  post  was 
given  to  Kirchhoff,  a  pupil  of  the  former 
organist. 

About  this  time  Marchand,  a  French  player, 
was  exciting  great  admiration  in  the  court 
of  Dresden;  and  it  was  proposed  that  Bach 
should  make  a  trial  of  skill  with  him,  to  prove 
the  superiority  of  French  or  German  art. 
Accordingly,  Bach  went  to  Dresden,  and, 
having  heard  his  rival,  and  so  satisfied  him- 
self that  he  was  worthy  to  compete  with  him, 
sent  him  a  most  courteous  challenge,  which 
Marchand  accepted.  On  the  appointed  day 
Bach  appeared  before  the  elector  and  his 
retinue;  but  Marchand,  after  he  had  been 
long  waited  for,  was  ascertained  to  have 
suddenly  left  the  city,  and  thus  left  the  field 
to  his  opponent.  Bach,  on  this  occasion, 
gave  such  a  superior  performance  that  his 
incomparable  ability  was  fully  demonstrated. 

In  1720  Bach's  wife  died,  and  in  December 
of  the  next  year  he  married  his  second  wife, 
Anna  Magdalena  Wiilkens,  the  beautiful 
daughter  of  the  court  trumpeter  at  Weissen- 
fels.  A  woman  of  decided  musical  gifts  her- 
self, she  proved  a  most  sympathetic  and 
industrious  helper  of  her  artist-husband. 
She  copied  much  of  his  music,  and  many  of 
his  works  for  keyed  instruments  were  written 
for  her  use.  By  his  two  marriages.  Bach 
had  twenty  children,  eleven  sons  and  nine 
daughters  —  seven  during  his  first  marriage, 
and  thirteen  during  his  second  —  many  of 
whom  inherited  rare  musical  endowments, ! 
and  two  of  whom  achieved  high  fame.  j 

In  1722  he  revisited  Hamburg  for  the  | 
purpose  of  again  hearing  the  veteran  Reinken,  I 
then  nearly  a  hundred  years  old.  It  was  not  j 
as  a  mere  listener  that  he  now  met  the  master. , 
On  this  occasion,  to  prove  himself  a  worthy  i 
successor  to  the,  old  man's  reputation,  he ) 
played  at  great  length  and  with  such  fine  I 
effect  that  Reinken  exclaimed :  "  I  thought  i 
this  art  would  die  with  me ;  but  here  I  find ; 
it  has  a  more  able  representative."  In  this  \ 
year  Bach's  first  publication  appeared.  Al- ; 
though  from  a  very  early  period  he  had  with  | 
ceaseless  assiduity  studied  and  practiced  j 
composition,  and  thus  developed  a  style  j 
entirely  his  own,  it  was  not  until  his  thirty-  j 


eighth  year  that  one  of  his  works  was  printed. 
It  was  his  habit  so  carefully  to  perfect  what 
he  wrote  by  correction  and  recorrection 
that  he  was  even  then  reluctant  to  let  hi* 
work  pass  through  the  press,  because  publi- 
cation, as  he  viewed  it,  would  be  an  obstacle 
to  further  improvement.  Even  this  first 
publication,  the  first  part  of  D<u  WohUem' 
pcrirte  Clavier,  known  in  Etigliah  as  the 
"Forty-eight  Preludes  and  Fugues"— the 
latter  half  of  which  was  written  some  years 
later  —  was  reprinted  three  times  during  his 
life,  and  underwent  very  important  modi- 
fications in  each  successive  edition. 

Bach  liked  especially  to  play  upon  the 
clavichord,  which  was  a  portable  instrument 
of  small  power,  and,  unlike  the  harpsichord, 
yielded  more  or  less  tone  according  to  the 
force  used  by  the  player;  and  it  was  upon 
this  instrument  that  he  most  frequently 
composed.  He  disregarded  the  custom  which 
had  prevailed  until  his  day,  of  writing  in  a 
few  keys  only,  and  tuning  keyed  instruments 
so  as  to  render  these  nearly  perfect  at  the 
expense  of  the  rest.  He,  therefore,  tuned 
this  instrument  with  equal  temperament, 
a  task  he  never  would  trust  to  another,  and 
which  he  accomplished  with  singular  rapidity. 
It  is  also  to  be  remarked  that  he  was  the  first 
who  used  the  thumb  and  the  fourth  finger 
in  fingering  on  the  pianoforte  key-board. 
His  preludes  and  fugues,  in  each  of  the 
twelve  major  and  twelve  minor  keys,  exem- 
plify both  his  method  of  tuning  and  his 
system  of  fingering. 

In  1723  Bach  received  the  most  important 
appointment  in  his  career,  that  of  cantor,  or 
choirmaster  of  St.  Thomas's  school  in  Leipzig. 
This  appointment  obliged  him  to  resign  his 
engagement  with  P*rince  Leopold,  who,  how- 
ever, remained  his  warm  friend  until  he  died, 
when  Bach  wrote  a  funeral  cantata  for  his 
obsequies.  In  his  new  situation  the  master, 
now  generally  acknowledged  as  such,  had  a 
larger  field  of  action  than  he  had  yet  enjoyed. 
His  playing  became  more  and  more  famous, 
and  he  had  constant  opportunity  for  the  pro- 
duction of  important  works.  His  income, 
also,  was  soon  increased  by  his  additional 
appointment  as  composer  to  the  duke  of 
Weissenfels.  He  had  many  pupils  in  com- 
position and  on  instruments.  He  was  fre- 
quently engaged  to  examine  new  organs  and 
to  elect  organists,  and  he  now  published 
numerous  works. 

Many  as  were  these  sources  of  income,  the 


162 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


expenses  of  his  numerous  family,  and  his 
hospitality  to  the  artists  from  all  countries 
who  visited  him,  necessitated  frugality  in  his 
household.  Though  he  might  have  gained 
riches  and  honors  wherever  he  went,  had  he 
traveled  as  a  player,  he  preferred  the  simple 
life  with  its  simple  means,  which  enabled 
him  to  labor  uninterruptedly  in  his  art,  and 
to  win  the  personal  regard  of  all  who  had 
occasion  to  meet  him. 

He  now  wrote  the  greater  part  of  his  enor- 
mous number  of  church  compositions,  in- 
cluding most  of  his  motets  and  church  can- 
tatas, and  his  services  for  every  Sunday  and 
festival  day  for  five  years,  for  the  use  of  his 
choir.  Though  he  never  wrote  what  we 
would  now  call  light  music,  he  was  not  with- 
out relish  for  the  composition  of  others  of  a 
less  severe  character  than  his  own,  and, 
accordingly,  used  to  make  frequent  pleasure 
trips  to  Dresden  with  his  eldest  son  for  the 
sake  of  hearing  the  operas  of  Hasse,  then 
constantly  given  there.  In  1736  he  received 
the  further  appointment  of  chapel  master 
to  the  court  of  Dresden,  under  Augustus  III., 
king  of  Poland,  and  elector  of  Saxony,  who 
had,  hke  his  father,  abjured  the  Lutheran 
faith  in  favor  of  that  of  the  church  of  Rome. 
This  office  gave  Bach  occasion  to  write  his 
masses  and  other  pieces  for  the  Roman 
Catholic  service. 

He  had  now  attained  the  summit  of  his 
greatness.  His  simple  and  homely  nature 
found  its  chief  pleasure  in  his  family  circle, 
in  witnessing  the  successes  of  his  elder  sons, 
whom  he  had  taught  to  emulate  himself,  and 
in  training  his  younger  children  to  follow  in 
their  course.  He  had  some  quarrels  with 
the  master  of  his  school,  which  were  not, 
however,  of  a  nature  to  disturb  his  comfort ; 
at  least,  they  did  not  interrupt  his  artistic 
pursuits.  He  was  unaffectedly  pious,  with- 
out any  of  the  polemical  scruples  that  induced 
his  ancestor  to  leave  Hungary,  and  he  wrote 
indifferently  for  the  Lutheran  church  and 
for  that  of  Rome.  He  never  sought  applause. 
His  self-satisfaction  was  the  goal  of  his  en- 
deavor. He  disregarded  the  honor  that 
everywhere  awaited  him ;  and  thus  he  lived, 
composing,  playing,  and  teaching ;  advancing 
his  art  in  all. 

Bach  always  had  a  great  wish  to  know 
Handel  —  the  only  one  of  his  contemporaries 
whom  posterity  ranks  with  him  —  and,  in 
1719,  while  residing  at  Kothen,  on  hearing 
that  the  famous  Saxon  was  visiting  his  native 


town  of  Halle,  he  went  there  in  the  hope  of 
meeting  him,  but  he  found  that  Handel  had 
departed  on  that  very  day.  While  Bach  was 
at  Leipzig,  Handel  again  visited  Halle,  when 
Bach,  being  prevented  by  illness  from  leaving 
home,  sent  his  eldest  son  to  invite  him  to 
come  to  his  house.  This  invitation  was 
equally  in  vain. 

Frederick  the  Great,  of  Prussia,  whose  love 
of  music  is  almost  as  renowned  as  his  success 
in  battle,  it  is  said,  often  inquired  of  Bach 
from  the  latter's  second  son,  Emmanuel,  who 
had  an  engagement  at  Frederick's  court. 
In  consequence.  Bach  was  persuaded  in  1747 
to  visit  Potsdam,  where  the  Prussian  mon- 
arch was  staying.  The  king  was  surrounded 
by  his  musicians  on  the  usual  evening  for 
the  concert,  and  Frederick,  with  his  flute  in 
hand,  was  ready  to  play  the  solo  which  was 
to  be  the  first  piece.  According  to  custom, 
an  officer  then  presented  to  him  the  list  of 
the  arrivals  in  the  town,  on  which  Frederick 
saw  the  name  of  the  master.  "Gentlemen," 
cried  the  king,  "old  Bach  is  come,"  and  so 
broke  up  the  meeting;  the  presence  of  the 
great  musician  engrossed  all  his  attention. 

A  messenger  summoned  Bach  to  the  palace 
without  allowing  him  time  to  change  his 
traveling  dress,  and  the  king  received  him 
with  the  most  eager  welcome.  In  the  palace 
there  were  several  pianofortes  —  then  a 
newly  invented  instrument  —  made  by  Silber- 
mann,  and  Bach  must  play  upon  them  all. 
The  king  was  dehghted  with  his  guest,  and 
wTote  him  a  subject  for  a  fugue  on  which 
the  master  extemporized,  to  the  amazement 
of  the  many  musicians  and  courtiers  who 
gathered  to  hear  him.  Bach  afterward  wrote 
a  very  elaborate  work  upon  this  theme 
which  he  dedicated  to  his  royal  admirer. 
The  following  day  he  went  to  Berhn  to  try 
the  principal  organs  in  that  city,  and  to  see 
the  opera  house  and  concert  room,  where 
he  astonished  those  who  accompanied  him 
by  the  rare  knowledge  of  acoustics  which 
he  displayed  in  his  examination  of  these 
buildings.  He  returned  to  Leipzig  to  quit 
it  no  more. 

Bach's  labors  at  Leipzig  were  unremitted 
almost  up  to  the  time  of  his  death.  He  fin- 
ished his  "Art  of  Fugue,"  and  then  set  to 
work  on  a  much  more  extensive  study,  when 
an  affliction  of  his  eyesight  suddenly  stopped 
all  further  progress.  His  sight  had  been  in- 
jured at  a  very  early  age,  probably  by  the 
moonlight    transcription    of     his    brother's 


IN  FINE  ARTS 


108 


forbidden  volume,  and  it  now  failed  him  so 
greatly  that  he  was  persuaded  to  let  an  English 
oculist  operate  upon  him.  The  experiment  was 
unsuccessful,  and  a  second  attempt  reduced 
the  sufferer  to  total  blindness.  Ten  days 
before  his  death  his  sight  suddenly  returned, 
but  after  a  few  hours  he  became  delirious; 
and  a  stroke  of  apoplexy  closed  his  life  on 
July  28,  1750.  When  he  found  his  final 
blindness  returning,  he  called  his  son-in-law 
to  him,  and,  as  a  sort  of  valedictory,  dictated 
music  for  the  choral,  "When  We  are  in  the 
Depths  of  Need."  A  little  later,  when 
death  had  already  laid  its  hand  upon  him, 
he  asked  that  the  inscription  be  changed  to 
"Herewith  I  Come  Before  Thy  Throne." 

It  is  a  singularly  harsh  commentary  on  the 
times,  that  the  death  of  the  great  founder 
of  modern  music  called  forth  practically  no 
public  notice.  He  was  unostentatiously  bur- 
ied in  St.  John's  churchyard  in  Leipzig,  and, 
when  that  was  converted  into  a  street,  his 
dust  was  exhumed  and  found  no  definite 
resting  place. 

His  labor  was  indeed  prodigious ;  very  few 
of  his  works  were  published  during  his  life- 
time; but  he  left  an  immense  collection  of 
manuscripts,  scattered  about  in  various 
libraries.  He  wrote  over  two  hundred  fifty 
cantatas,  seven  masses,  one  hundred  forty- 
nine  psalms,  and  one  hundred  fifty  chorals. 
His  works  for  the  harpsichord,  with  and 
without  accompaniment,  are  too  numerous 
to  mention,  and  his  instrumental  works 
comprised  seventeen  numbers,  consisting  of 
overtures,  symphonies,  concertos,  and  other 
compositions. 

Bach  was  perhaps  the  most  severely  con- 
scientious artist  that  ever  devoted  himself 
to  music.  He  deemed  that  to  compromise 
his  art  would  be  to  compromise  himself,  and 
that  to  lend  himself  to  anything  which  did 
not  to  the  utmost  of  his  power  tend  to  exalt 
it  was  in  the  last  degree  unworthy  of  him 
and  of  music.  He  was  the  greatest  master 
of  counterpoint  in  the  history  of  music,  and 
is  especially  remarkable  for  the  strict  integ- 
rity of  his  part-^\Titing,  the  complexity  of 
which,  we  must  own,  often  prevents  the  broad 
and  massive  effect  that  greatly  distinguishes 
the  music  of  Handel.  His  wonderful  power 
of  expression  evinced  in  his  free  movements 
and  in  his  great  choral  works,  particularly 
in  his  famous  Passions-Mitsik,  is  the  mani- 
festation of  a  transcendent  genius. 

As  he   despised   popular  applause,  so  his 


niusic  is  little  open  to  popular  apprecUtioo; 
his  music  is  beyond  that  of  any  other  com-' 
poser,  difficult  of  comprehension,  but  ita 
measureless  beauties  will  ever  repay  the 
pains  of  the  student  who  unravebi  them. 

As  a  composer,  Bach  discovered  many 
novelties  which  have  been  wrongly  claimed 
for  his  successors.  Gluck  is  called  the  father 
of  recitative,  but  no  finer  examples  arc  to  be 
found  than  those  written  by  Bach  for  many  df 
his  cantatas,  and  especially  for  the  Pauion»- 
Musik.  Mozart  and  even  Beethoven  have 
been  credited  with  the  invention  of  musical 
effects  to  be  found  in  Bach's  works.  No 
musician  has  excelled  him  in  the  art  of  com- 
bining a  great  number  of  voices  and  instru- 
ments  together  —  an  art  he  created  himself, 
for  he  had  few  opportunities  of  hearing 
orchestral  effects  on  a  large  scale. 

His  melody  is  sometimes  fantastic,  but  it 
is  never  commonplace;  he  seemed  to  take 
a  pleasure  in  choosing  rough,  uncompromising 
materials  for  his  themes,  which  at  first  excite 
more  astonishment  than  delight,  and  then 
proceeds  to  charm  his  auditors  by  skillfully 
drawing  unexpected  and  pleasing  effects 
from  these  unlikely  sources.  His  harmony 
is  very  effective ;  it  is  characterized  by  bold- 
ness rather  than  by  strict  adherence  to  the 
rigid  laws  of  counterpoint. 

The  musical  idea  conveyed  by  his  chorusefl 
is  aptly  compared  to  that  of  a  people  kneelin{; 
in  respectful  adoration  before  a  celestial 
being,  or  the  cry  of  triumph  of  men  glorifying 
God  in  the  incomparable  beauty  of  His 
creations.  Nowhere  in  the  domain  of  art 
is  the  grandeur  of  religion  more  worthily 
celebrated  than  in  the  sacred  compositions 
of  Johann  Sebastian  Bach.  All  succeeding 
composers  have  bowed  with  reverence  before 
his  name,  and  acknowledged  in  him  the 
creative  mind  which  not  only  placed  music 
on  a  deep  scientific  basis,  but  perfected  the 
form  from  which  have  been  developed  the 
wonderfully  rich  and  varied  phases  of  orches- 
tral composition.  Handel,  who  was  his  con- 
temporary, having  been  born  the  same  year, 
spoke  of  him  with  sincere  admiration  and 
called  him  the  giant  of  music.  Haydn  \^Tote, 
"  WTioever  understands  me  knows  that  I  owe 
much  to  Sebastian  Bach,  that  I  have  studied 
him  thoroughly  and  well,  and  that  I  acknowl- 
edge him  only  as  my  model."  Mozart's  un- 
ceasing research  brought  to  light  many  of  his 
unpublished  manuscripts,  and  helped  Ger- 
many to  a  full  appreciation  of  Uiis  great 


164 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


master.  In  like  manner  have  the  other 
luminaries  of  music  placed  on  record  their 
sense  of  obligation  to  one  whose  name  is 
obscure  to  the  general  public  in  comparison 
with  many  of  his  brother  composers. 

To  his  extraordinary  musical  genius,  Bach 
united  social  qualities  that  endeared  him  to 
his  family  and  friends.  He  was  a  good  father, 
a  good  husband,  and  a  good  friend.  Every 
lover  of  music,  no  matter  whence  he  came, 
was  received  by  him  with  open  arms,  for, 
though    not   rich,    his   hospitality   was   un- 


bounded. Notwithstanding  his  undoubted 
superiority  as  performer  and  composer  over 
his  contemporaries,  he  was  exceedingly 
modest  in  his  intercourse  with  them.  When 
asked  how  he  had  attained  such  high  pro- 
ficiency in  his  art,  he  said  it  was  by  continual 
application,  and  those  who  chose  to  work 
in  the  same  manner  could  be  as  successful 
as  himself.  He  seemed  to  count  as  nothing 
the  extraordinary  genius  with  which  nature 
had  endowed  him. 


HANDEL 


A.  D.  AGE 

1685         Born  at  Halle,  Germany, 

1693-96  Studied  under  Zachau, 8-11 

1702          Entered  the  university  of  Halle, .    .      17 
1705         Produced  his  first  opera  at  Ham- 
burg,      20 

1707         Visited     Florence;     Rodrigo    per- 
formed,      22 

1707-08  Visited  Venice,  Rome,  and  Naples,  22-23 
1709         Chapel  master   to   the  elector  of 

Hanover, 24 


A.  D.  AOm 

1710  Went  to  London 26 

1711  Rinaldo  proiliiced, 26 

1712  Settled  in  London,       27 

1718-21  Etther;  Ada  and  Galatea,  ....   33-36 

17.33         DOxfrah, 48 

1738         larad  in  Egypt, 53 

1742         Meaaiah  first  performed, 57 

1751  Becomes  blind 66 

1759         Died  in  London,      74 


/^EORGE  FREDERICK  HANDEL,  an 
^^  eminent  German  composer,  and  chief 
founder  of  oratorio,  was  born  at  Halle,  Prus- 
sian Saxony,  February  23,  1685,  though  for 
almost  half  a  century  he  resided  in  England, 
his  adopted  country. 

He  was  the  son  of  a  surgeon,  who  died  when 
his  son  was  but  twelve  years  of  age,  and  from 
whom  Handel  at  first  received  but  little 
encouragement  in  the  developments  of  his 
early  disclosed  musical  talent.  The  father 
intended  that  his  son  should  follow  the  law 
as  a  profession;  but  the  latter  managed  to 
practice  secretly  on  a  small  clavichord,  or 
spinet,  placed  in  the  attic,  and  othervN-ise 
showed  his  extraordinary  passion  for  music. 

In  his  eighth  year  he  attracted  attention  by 
his  playing  on  the  occasion  of  a  visit  by  his 
father  and  himself  to  the  duke  of  Saxe- 
Weissenfels,  and  the  duke  was  so  impressed 
with  his  genius  that  he  counseled  its  unre- 
strained cultivation.  His  father  was  thereby 
persuaded  to  renounce  his  opposition,  and 
about  1693  the  boy  was  placed  under  the 
instruction  of  Zachau,  a  famous  organist,  who 
was  deemed  worthy  to  guide  the  steps  of 
so  promising  a  pupil.  He  remained  under 
Zachau  for  three  years,  composed  every  week 
cantatas  for  the  church  service,  learned  all 
the    orchestral    instruments,    especially    the 


organ,  and  familiarized  himself  with  the 
works  of  the  most  celebrated  composers  of 
Germany  at  that  time. 

His  education  was  furthered  at  the  univer- 
sity of  Halle,  which  he  entered  in  1702,  and 
he  also  became  organist  of  the  Domkirche  in 
the  same  city.    At  this  time  he  excelled  on 
I  the  organ,  clavichord,  and  violin,  and  shortly 
thereafter  he  took  a  position  in  the  orchestra 
I  of  the  Hamburg  opera  hou.se  where  he  aston- 
j  ished  the  public  with  his  skill.     Here  Handel 
formed  a  friendship  with  the  musician,  Mat- 
j  theson,  and,  when  he  produced  his  first  opera, 
I  Almira,    in    1705,    Mattheson    assumed    the 
I  chief    character.    This    opera    was    speedily 
I  followed  by  Nero,  Florindo,  and  Daphne,  and 
he  was  made  director  of  the  orchestra.     Sub- 
sequently, his  violent  temper  involved  him  in 
a  quarrel  with  Mattheson,  which  resulted  in 
;  a  duel,  and  almost  in  his  death ;  by  a  mere 
I  accident    the   sword    of   his   adversary    was 
I  stopped  by  a  large  metal  button  on  his  coat. 
j  At  Hamburg,  also,  he  composed  a  number  of 
;  works  for  the  church,  and  gave  lessons  to 
many  pupils. 

In  1707  and  1708  Handel  visited  Italy. 
During  the  first  year  he  produced  his  Rodrigo 
at  Florence,  and  the  following  year  his 
Agrippina  at  Venice,  The  latter  had  a  run 
of    thirty    nights    and    was    received    with 


IN  FINE  ARTS 


187 


extraordinary  favor.  His  journey  through 
Italy  —  which  included  Rome  and  Naples  — 
was  one  of  continued  triumphal  progress.  He 
met,  in  Italy,  Scarlatti,  who  greatly  influenced 
his  subsequent  works,  and  at  Rome  he  formed 
an  intimate  friendship  with  Cardinal  Ottoboni. 
It  is  also  related  that  he  heard  and  met 
Corelli,  the  famous  Italian  composer  and  per- 
former, whom  he  beat  with  his  own  violin  for 
not  playing  to  suit  him  in  his  opera  of  II 
Trionfo  del  Tempo. 

On  his  return  to  Germany  in  1709,  Handel 
was  offered  and  accepted  the  position  of 
chapel  master  at  the  court  of  the  elector  of 
Hanover  —  afterward  George  I.  of  England 
—  with  a  good  salary  and  permission  to  visit 
England,  a  voyage  Handel  was  very  anxious 
to  make.  He  arrived  in  London  in  1710,  and 
almost  immediately  received  the  patronage 
of  Queen  Anne  and  the  nobility  in  general. 
In  the  year  1711  he  composed  an  opera, 
Rinaldo,  which  was  performed  at  the  Hay- 
market  with  great  success.  Compelled  by 
his  engagement  to  return  to  Hanover,  he 
quitted  England  only  to  return  in  1712,  when 
he  permanently  settled  in  London.  His  patron, 
the  elector  of  Hanover,  ascended  the  throne 
of  England  as  George  I.  in  1714,  and  Handel, 
whose  prolonged  visit  to  London  had  offended 
him,  succeeded  in  again  finding  grace  in  his 
eyes  by  writing  a  symphony,  followed  by 
several  instrumental  pieces,  for  a  fete  on  the 
Thames,  known  as  the  "Water  Music." 
This  and  an  apology  reinstated  him  in  royal 
favor  with  an  increased  salary,  and  Handel 
now  determined  to  remain  in  England.  In 
1716  he  went  with  the  court  to  Hanover,  and 
wrote  the  music  to  Brockes's  German  poem 
on  the  "Passion  of  Christ." 

On  returning  to  London  he  was  appointed 
musical  director  to  the  duke  of  Chandos,  for 
whose  chapel  he  composed  the  celebrated 
"Chandos  Anthems,"  and  for  w^hom  he  wrote 
his  first  English  oratorio,  Esther,  and  the 
pastoral  of  Ads  and  Galatea,  between  1718 
and  1721. 

He  next  attempted  to  place  Itahan  opera 
in  London  upon  a  firm  foundation,  through 
the  royal  academy  of  music,  which  was 
opened  in  1720,  by  a  subscription  of  fifty 
thousand  pounds  from  the  king  and  nobility. 
He  went  abroad  to  engage  a  company,  and 
his  Radamisto  achieved  great  success.  His 
Italian  colleagues  conspired  against  him, 
however,  and  were  encouraged  by  the  duchess 
of  Marlborough  and  her  wing  of  fashionable 


society.  A  musical  contest  with  his  chief 
rival,  Bononcini,  resulted  in  Handel'i 
triumph;  but  the  enterprise  was  throughout 
subjected  to  continual  hostility.  Hissubw- 
quent  operas  composed  for  the  royal  academy 
are :  Floridante,  OUone,  Flavio,  Giulio  Cemre, 
Tamer lano,  Rodelinda,  Scipione,  AUasandro, 
Admeio,  Siroe  (Cyrus),  Tolomro  (Ptolemy). 
In  1727  he  had  added  to  the  list  of  his  minor 
works  the  noble  anthems  for  the  coronation 
of  George  II.  But  the  subscription  was  now 
exhausted,  and  the  royal  academy  was  bank- 
rupt. In  1728  Handel  formed  a  partnership 
with  Heidegger,  of  the  Haymarket  theater, 
for  which  he  composed  the  operas  Lotario, 
Partenope,  Poro,  Ezio,  Somrme,  Orlando^ 
Ariadne,  Pamasso  in  Fcsta  (serenata  partly 
new),  and  Pastor  Fido  (completely  rear- 
ranged). In  1733  he  discharged  his  prin- 
cipal singer,  Senesino,  for  misconduct,  and 
a  coalition  was  formed  against  Handel  and 
a  rival  opera  establishe<l ;  but  he  brought 
a  new  company  from  Italy,  and  continued 
until  the  close  of  his  engagement  with  Hei- 
degger in  1734.  He  then  removed  to  Covent 
Garden,  and  brought  out,  besides  his  muaie 
to  Dryden's  Alexander's  Feast,  the  operas 
Ariodante,  Atalanla,  Arminio,  Givstino,  and 
Berenice.  Handel  had  saved  ten  thousand 
pounds  during  his  musical  career  on  the  con- 
tinent and  in  England ;  but  he  lost  this  and 
involved  himself  in  a  considerable  debt  in  an 
attempt  to  carry  on  the  opera  single-handed 
against  such  violent  opposition.  His  cher- 
ished project  had  to  be  abandoned,  and  then, 
with  shattered  health  and  bankruptcy  before 
him,  he  applied  himself  to  sacred  music  and 
his  famous  oratorios,  the  works  by  which  he 
finally  achieved  his  lasting  reputation-  In 
May  1737  he  closed  his  theater,  with  heavy 
losses. 

The  oratorio,  Deborah,  had  been  composed 
in  1733,  followed  by  Alexander't  Fead  in 
1736,  Said,  Israel  in  Egypt,  in  1738,  and, 
in  1740,  L'AUegro,  il  Penseroso.  For  the 
funeral  of  Queen  Caroline  in  1737  he  wrote 
an  anthem  which  is  one  of  his  grandest  and 
most  touching  works;  while  in  1738  hia 
operas,  Faramondo,  Akssandro  Severo,  and 
Serse  (Xerxes),  were  brought  out  by  Hei- 
degger, a  noted  impressario.  In  the  end  of 
1741  he  went  to  Dublin,  where  the  Messiah, 
composed  in  that  year,  was  produced  few 
charitable  purposes.  He  remained  in  Dublin 
about  nine  months  and  received  a  generous 
support.    From  this  time  success  attended 


168 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


all  his  undertakings.  On  his  return  to  Lon- 
don he  composed  the  Samson;  and  the 
Messiah  was  performed  for  the  benefit  of 
the  foundling  hospital.  It  was  repeated 
annually  for  the  same  purpose,  and  from  1749 
to  1777  brought  to  that  charity  ten  thousand 
three  hundred  pounds. 

Handel  now  resolved  to  give  concerts  of 
sacred  music.  These  were  so  successful  that 
he  continued  them  annually,  and,  in  the 
course  of  ten  years  not  only  paid  off  all  his 
debts,  but  also  saved  about  twenty  thousand 
pounds.  His  excessive  labor  had  weakened 
his  eyesight,  and  three  operations  for  cataract 
undertaken  to  relieve  him  were  unsuccessful. 
In  the  end,  1751,  Handel,  like  Bach,  became 
blind;  and  his  pupil,  John  Christian  Smith, 
aided  him  in  conducting  his  oratorios, 
as  well  as  acted  as  his  amanuensis  in 
making  additions  and  changes.  When  he 
appeared  in  public  at  his  concerts  he  had 
to  be  led  to  the  organ,  and  the  grand  old 
man  was  brought  forward  to  receive  the 
applause  of  the  audience.  The  new  works 
of  these  latter  years  were:  Judas  Macca- 
bceus,  Alexander,  Joshua,  Susannah,  Solomon, 
Theodora,  Choice  of  Hercules,  and  Jephtha, 
the  last  of  this  stupendous  series  of  dramatic 
oratorios. 

The  intense  activity  he  had  displayed 
through  Hfe  began  to  tell  on  his  bodily 
strength,  also;  this  gradually  declined,  and, 
on  the  seventeenth  anniversary  of  his  first 
performance  of  the  Messiah,  April  13,  1759, 
Handel  died  in  his  seventy-fourth  year.  He 
was  buried  in  Westminster  abbey. 

Handel  possessed  noble  and  handsome 
features,  which  he  retained  even  in  old  age. 
His  figure  was  tall  and  erect,  though  stout; 
and  his  manner,  when  not  agitated,  expressed 
an  agreeable  disposition.  He  was  hberal, 
much  interested  in  charity,  but  at  times 
extremely  choleric.  To  his  frequent  quar- 
rels with  his  singers  was  due  chiefly  his  failure 
as  a  manager.  He  shunned  society,  never 
leaving  his  house  except  on  business.  He 
refused  to  see  visitors,  and  admitted  only 
three  friends  to  his  presence  —  his  pupil, 
Smith,  a  painter,  Goupy,  and  a  dyer,  Hurter. 
He  was  never  known  to  have  the  slightest 
affection  for  any  woman,  and  hved  to  the 
end  in  the  most  rigorous  ceUbacy. 

Considering  the  multiplicity  of  his  employ- 
ments as  director  of  concerts  and  operatic 
manager,  it  is  still  a  wonder  how  Handel  ever 
found  time  to  write  the  fifty  operas,  twenty 


oratorios,  and  great  quantity  of  church  music, 
cantatas,  songs,  and  instrumental  pieces 
which  time  has  preserved  for  us.  His  com- 
positions were  written  with  a  rapidity  without 
a  parallel  in  musical  history.  The  only 
relaxation  which  he  sought  was  in  improvising 
them  on  a  harpsichord,  the  keys  of  which  were 
thummed  into  spoon-shaped  cavities  by  his 
incessant  practice.  The  Messiah,  it  is  said, 
was  composed  in  only  twenty-three  days. 

While  it  is  unquestionably  true  that  Han- 
del's art  was  universal,  yet  in  a  degree  he 
was  influenced  by  the  national  spirit  of  his 
adopted  country.  His  reputation  and  popu- 
larity, in  fact,  were  for  a  long  time  far  greater 
in  England  than  in  Germany,  France,  and 
continental  Europe  generally.  His  massive 
choral  effects  were  exactly  suited  to  impress  a 
people  saturated  with  biblical  ideas,  and 
accustomed  to  public  demonstrations  of 
national  and  patriotic  enthusiasm.  He  was 
thus  in  a  singular  degree  the  musical  expres- 
sion of  the  England  of  Marlborough,  Chatham, 
De  Foe,  and  Wesley.  No  artist  in  any  line 
more  deeply  touched  the  national  fiber;  and 
none  ever  more  completely  vivified  patriotic 
aspirations  and  religious  fervor  in  masses  of 
people.  "Handel  Festivals"  not  only  grew 
in  popularity  throughout  Great  Britain,  but 
have  since  extended  to  every  part  of  the 
civilized  world.  His  operiis  are  now  seldom 
performed,  but  his  oratorios  hold  the  same 
place  in  music  that  the  plays  of  Shakespeare 
do  in  English  drama. 

In  no  art  are  the  idols  of  one  age  displaced 
by  the  idols  of  the  next  so  quickly  or  so 
effectually  as  in  music.  The  melody  which 
drew  enchanted  tears  from  the  eyes  of  one 
generation  falls  flat  and  insipid  on  the  ears 
of  the  next,  and  creates  wonder  how  the  idol 
ever  came  to  be  worshiped,  or  what  strange 
taste  could  find  beauty  in  such  an  oddity. 
If  the  test  of  genius  in  a  work  is  its  power  to 
move  the  hearts  of  succeeding  generations 
long  after  its  author  and  his  coterie  of  friends 
have  passed  away,  then  Handel's  Messiah 
deserves  to  rank  with  the  plays  of  Shakes- 
peare, the  madonnas  of  Italian  and  Spanish 
art,  and  the  marbles  of  Phidias.  Ail  the 
luxury  of  modern  instrumentation  can  add 
nothing  to  the  grandeur  and  effectiveness  of 
his  choral  masterpieces.  Mozart  attempted 
the  task  in  vain,  and  Beethoven  declared  that 
the  simplicity  of  the  means  by  which  Handel 
had  produced  such  grand  effects  was  httle 
short    of    magic.     Each    succeeding    decade 


IN  FINE  ARTS 


1« 


seems  but  to  add  fresh  glory  to  his  noble 
songs;  while  nearly  every  other  form  of 
musical  art  is  chopped  and  changed  about  to 
suit  the  passing  fashion  of  the  day. 

Beethoven  called  Handel  the  greatest  com- 
poser that  ever  lived.  He  possessed  an  inex- 
haustible fund  of  melody  of  the  richest  and 
noblest  character;  an  almost  unparalleled 
power  of  musical  expression;  an  unlimited 
command  of  all  the  resources  of  contrapuntal 
and  f ugal  science ;  a  power  of  wielding  huge 
masses  of  tone  with  the  most  perfect  ease  and 
felicity.  But  perhaps  his  leading  character- 
istic was  the  grandeur,  majesty,  and  sublimity 
of  his  conceptions.  He  carried  the  old  forms 
of  opera  to  their  highest  perfection;  infused 
a  new  life  and  power  into  English  ecclesiasti- 
cal music;  was  as  an  instrumental  composer 
equaled  by  none  but  Bach,  and  in  one  direc- 
tion surpassed  all  others  who  have  written. 
If  not  the  creator,  he  was  the  perfecter  of  the 
dramatic  oratorio,  and  reached  a  height  in  the 
Messiah,  Israel  in  Egypt,  Samson,  and  Judas 
Maccabceus  whereon  he  stands  alone. 

Victor  Schoelcher,  in  his  Life  of  Handel, 
reiterates  and  intensifies  this  estimate  of 
Handel.  "  Grandeur  is  the  distinctive  charac- 
teristic which  dominates  over  all  the  compo- 


sitions of  Handel.  Even  in  the  cxquiiiu 
gracefulness  of  Acit  and  GaUUea  there  is  a 
latent  vigor,  a  certain  Bolemnity  of  ttyla, 
which  elevates  whilst  it  chaimi  the  mind. 
Every  one  is  struck  with  this.  So  true  u  It, 
that  critics,  biographers,  friends,  and  f>TMmtw 
all  concur  in  speaking  of  him  as  A  'coloaus,' 
a '  giant,'  a '  man  mountain.'  His  atmoq>liere 
is  the  immensity  resplendent  with  the  sun. 
Like  Corneille,  he  lived  in  the  sublime.  •  •  • 
Handel  has  treated  all  styles,  and  has  excelled 
in  all,  whether  the  subject  be  gay  or  serious, 
light  or  solemn,  profane  or  sacred.  He 
would  be  the  Shakespeare  of  music  if  he  were 
not  the  Michaelangelo.  ♦  *  ♦  In  that 
musical  Olympus  the  most  divine  mastera 
have  given  to  Handel  the  place  of  Jupiter 
Tonans." 

"He  is  the  father  of  us  all,"  exclaimed  the 
patriarchal  Haydn.  "Handel,"  said  the 
dogmatic  Mozart,  "knows  better  than  any 
one  of  us  what  is  capable  of  producing  a  great 
effect;  when  he  chooses  he  can  strike  like  a 
thunderbolt."  The  lyrical  Beethoven  called 
him  "the  monarch  of  the  musical  kingdom. 
He  was  the  greatest  composer  that  ever  lived," 
said  he  to  Mr.  Moscheles.  "  I  would  uncover 
my  head,  and  kneel  before  his  tomb." 


MOZART 


AGE  A.  D. 

Bom  at  Salzburg,  Austria, 1780 

Received    music    lessons    from    his  1781 

father 4  1782 

First  public  appearance,  at  Munich,       6  1786 

1763-73  Musical  tours  of    Europe;     "Mith-  1787 

radates," 7-17  1788 

1766         Returned  to  Salzburg, 10  1791 

1768         La  Finta  Semplice, 12 


1756 
1760 


1762 


Idomeneo, 24 

Married ;  settled  at  Vienna,  ....     26 
"The  Abduction  from  the  SeracUo," 
"The  Marriage  of  Figaro,"    .... 
Settled  at  Prague;  Don  Ounnnni,    . 

Returned  to  Vienna, 

Die  Zauberflate,  "The  Magic  Flute  " ; 
the  Requiem;  died  at  Vienna, .   . 


TOHANN  WOLFGANG  AMADEUS 
•^  MOZART,  famous  Austrian  composer, 
and  chief  founder  of  the  opera,  was  born  at 
Salzburg,  Austria,  January  27,  1756.  He  was 
the  son  of  Leopold  Mozart,  a  violinist  of 
talent,  in  the  service  of  the  archbishop  of 
Salzburg,  and  Vas  reared  to  music  almost 
from  the  cradle.  In  many  respects,  indeed, 
he  was  the  greatest  genius  in  the  whole  history 
of  music. 

When  three  years  old  the  child  Mozart 
attracted  attention  by  his  evident  delight 
in  seeking  out  and  striking  chords  on  the 
piano;  thirds  and  sixths  specially  pleased 
him.  The  musical  lessons  of  his  sister,  five 
years  older,   he  learned  easily,   and,   under 


the  happy  tuition  of  his  father,  began  him- 
self to  take  lessons  in  his  fourth  year.  The 
boy  had  an  exquisite  ear  for  pitch,  and  could 
detect  a  slight  difference  in  the  tuning  of  a 
violin  with  singular  accuracy.  His  nster  was 
an  admirable  player  on  the  harpsichord  in 
her  eleventh  year. 

The  father,  whose  position  as  vice  chapel 
master  at  Salzburg  was  a  poorly  paid  one, 
determined  to  give  concerts  in  various  cities 
to  exhibit  the  precocious  talent  of  his  cliil- 
dren.  Mozart  with  his  sister  made  his  first 
appearance  in  public  at  Munich  in  his  sixth 
year,  afterward  visiting  Vienna,  Paris,  and 
London,  everywhere  exciting  astonishment, 
even  among  old  musicians,  by  his  wonderful 


170 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


musical  abilities.  He  could  play  on  the 
organ,  harpsichord,  piano,  and  violin,  accom- 
pany French  and  Italian  songs  at  sight,  and 
readily  transpose  them  into  different  keys. 

The  boy's  exquisite  sensibility  colored  all 
his  actions.  He  sought  the  love  and  friend- 
ship of  all  who  came  near  him  with  a  child- 
like simplicity  that  made  him  a  general 
favorite.  One  day  as  he  sat  in  the  lap  of 
the  empress  of  Austria,  he  lost  his  balance 
and  slipped  down  on  the  floor.  One  of  the 
daughters  of  the  empress,  Marie  Antoinette, 
afterward  the  unfortimate  queen  of  France, 
hastened  to  lift  him  up  and  soothe  him. 
"You  are  very  kind,"  said  the  little  artist  of 
six  years.  "  I  will  marry  you."  "  Why  her, 
rather  than  one  of  my  other  daughters?  "  asked 
the  empress.  "Out  of  gratitude,"  said 
Mozart.  "She  was  very  good  to  me,  while 
her  sisters  never  stirred  to  help  me."  To 
all  who  came  near  him  he  asked  one  constant 
question,  "Do  you  love  me?"  And  his  little 
eyes  filled  with  tears  if  an  answer  were  not 
quickly  given.  For  his  father  he  had  the 
fondest  respect.  "God  first  and  then  papa," 
was  a  motto  he  frequently  repeated. 

After  making  the  tour  of  Europe,  his  father 
returned  to  Salzburg  and  set  to  work  to  give 
his  son  a  thorough  musical  education  in 
theory  and  practice.  He  bestowed  the  great- 
est care  on  his  education,  assisting  and  en- 
couraging all  his  youthful  efforts  in  com- 
position with  the  enthusiasm  of  an  artist 
added  to  a  father's  pride.  Happy  would  it 
have  been  for  poor  Mozart  if  all  his  later 
surroundings  had  been  of  an  equally  loving 
kind.  He  studied  the  works  of  the  famous 
organists  of  Germany  and  those  of  the  old 
Italian  masters,  and  it  was  this  happy  com- 
bination in  his  studies  of  two  wholly  different 
schools  that  prepared  him  for  the  task  on 
which  his  reputation  chiefly  rests,  that  of 
fusing  together  into  a  single  work  the  severe 
harmony  of  German  music  with  the  charming 
melody  of  Italy. 

The  position  of  the  family  at  Salzburg  was 
a  hard  and  unpleasant  one,  for  the  father 
was  wretchedly  paid.  They  were  obliged 
to  travel  about  giving  concerts  to  keep  out 
of  debt;  and,  up  to  the  age  of  seventeen, 
Mozart  was  engaged  in  a  long  series  of  jour- 
neys over  Europe,  chiefly  in  the  coml  cities 
of  Germany,  and  the  great  continental  capi- 
tals. In  all  of  them  his  marvelous  genius 
created  the  utmost  enthusiasm.  He  played, 
composed  elaborate  pieces,  and  improvised, 


besides  exhibiting  various  feats  of  a  some- 
what dubious  value.  They  finally  arrived 
in  Salzburg  in  1766,  and  again  in  1768  were 
at  the  court  of  Vienna.  While  there  the 
emperor  urged  Mozart  to  compose  an  opera 
and  conduct  it.  La  Finia  Scmplice  was  the 
result,  and  it  was  performed  both  at  the 
capital  and  at  Salzburg. 

At  theageof  fifteen  he  traveled  in  Italy,  com- 
posed and  produced  the  opera  of  "Mithra- 
dates"  at  Milan  in  1770,  and  was  overwhelmed 
with  applause  and  distinctions.  At  sixteen 
he  was  the  foremost  player  on  the  clavichord 
in  the  world ;  had  produced  two  requiems 
and  a  stabat  mater,  numerous  offertories, 
hymns,  and  motets,  four  operas,  two  can- 
tatas, thirteen  symphonies,  twenty-four  piano- 
forte sonatas,  not  to  speak  of  a  vast  number 
of  concertos  for  difl"erent  instruments,  trios, 
quartets,  marches,  and  other  minor  pieces. 

These  ten  years  of  wandering  in  boyhood 
from  1763  to  1773  could  not  but  be  a  terrible 
strain  on  a  lad  of  intense  susceptibility  and 
ardent  genius.  He  sought  employment  else- 
where without  success.  He  went  to  Paris 
in  1778,  when  the  contest  between  the  rival 
musical  systems  of  Gluck  and  Piccini  was 
at  its  height,  and  for  six  months  vainly  sought 
an  opportunity  to  produce  an  opera.  The 
death  of  his  mother,  who  had  accompanied 
him  to  Paris,  was  a  severe  blow  to  him,  and 
he  returned  to  Salzburg  at  his  father's  re- 
quest just  as  his  prospects  in  Paris  began 
to  brighten.  The  time  spent  in  Paris  had 
not,  however,  been  wasted,  for  he  had  the 
opportunity  of  hearing  the  various  kinds 
of  opera  then  in  vogue. 

He  was  now  appointed  concert  master  and 
organist  at  Salzburg  with  a  small  salary, 
and  permission  to  travel  occasionally  to  per- 
form his  new  works  in  larger  cities.  His 
opera,  Idomeneo,  was  composed  in  1780  for 
the  Itahan  opera  at  Munich,  and  was  received 
with  great  applause  in  spite  of  its  novelty. 
This  work  belonged  to  no  existing  school  of 
music.  It  was  as  original  in  its  phraseology 
and  development  as  in  its  modulation,  har- 
mony, and  instrumentation,  and  introduced 
a  new  epoch  in  dramatic  music  which  has 
not  ceased  to  influence  the  stage  even  to-day. 

This  great  opera,  it  is  said,  Mozart  com- 
posed to  win  the  good  graces  of  the  W^eber 
family,  whose  acquaintance  he  had  made 
during  a  previous  visit  to  Mannheim,  and 
who  now  were  destined  to  affect  very  inti- 
mately his  succeeding  years.    The  Webers 


IN  FINE  ARTS 


171 


were  a  musical  family.  Fridolin  von  Weber, 
its  head,  was  a  copyist  and  prompter  at  the 
Mannheim  theater.  His  eldest  daughter, 
Josepha,  subsequently  Frau  Hofer,  was  the 
prima  donna  for  whom  Mozart  wrote  in  later 
years  the  "  Queen  of  the  Night"  in  his  "  Magic 
Flute."  Aloysia,  a  younger  daughter,  was  a 
pupil  of  Mozart's  for  some  time,  and  he  was 
not  long  in  faUing  in  love  with  her.  The 
Webers,  however,  did  not  view  such  an 
alliance  favorably  on  the  ground  that  Mozart's 
reputation  was  not  at  that  time  sufficiently 
established.  Nor  was  the  love  of  his  youth- 
ful sweetheart  itself  of  long  duration,  though, 
in  after  years,  as  the  celebrated  prima  donna, 
Frau  Lange,  she  did  more  than  any  other 
singer  to  make  his  music  famous. 

In  1781  Mozart  accompanied  the  arch- 
bishop of  Salzburg  to  Vienna,  and  there, 
with  some  journeys  to  other  cities  and  coun- 
tries, the  rest  of  his  short  life  was  passed. 
Here  he  took  up  his  residence  with  the  Webers, 
who  had  now  removed  there  from  Mannheim. 
His  father  remonstrated  with  him  for  this 
and  he  sought  other  lodgings.  But  he  had 
already  fallen  in  love  with  Constanza,  a  sister 
of  his  former  sweetheart,  and  in  spite  of 
remonstrances  he  married  her.  She  proved 
an  affectionate  wife,  and  their  marriage  was 
a  happy  one,  notwithstanding  the  hardships 
which  constantly  confronted  them,  largely 
due  to  his  thriftless  genius,  and  her  incapacity 
to  manage. 

Mozart's  master,  the  archbishop  of  Salz- 
burg, a  man  of  very  boorish  manners,  treated 
him  as  if  he  were  a  domestic  servant,  and 
seemed  to  be  jealous  of  the  applause  the 
young  musician  won  from  his  admirers.  At 
last  Mozart  gave  up  his  miserable  situation 
under  him,  and  determined  to  support  him- 
self and  his  young  wife  by  giving  concerts 
and  music  lessons.  These  yielded  him  a 
scanty  and  irregular  livelihood,  but  still  per- 
mitted him  to  devote  considerable  time  to 
his  own  original  work.  Emperor  Joseph  of 
Austria  tried  to  found  a  German  operatic 
school,  and  Mozart  wrote  his  "Abduction  from 
the  Seraglio "  to  promote  this  idea.  There 
was,  however,  strong  opposition  displayed  by 
the  lovers  of  Italian  music  at  Vienna,  and 
both  the  opera  and  the  project  failed. 

After  incessant  rebuffs  and  amidst  violent 
intrigues,  in  1786  he  set  "The  Marriage  of 
Figaro"  to  music  as  an  Italian  opera.    The 
piece  was  successful,  though  violently  assailed  i 
by  his  rivals  and  opponents.    He  was  then ! 


thirty  years  old,  and  it  marks  the  high  tide 
of  his  genius;  but  thecompoeer  received  little 
but  applause.  At  Prague  it«  reception  was 
80  favorable  that  Mozart  wa«  induced  to  visit 
that  city,  and  here  he  Bp<;nt  the  hi4>piert 
period  of  his  life.  His  master  opera  of  Dm 
Giovanni  was  written  in  1787  at  Prague, 
and  met  with  great  succcas  there,  although 
coldly  received  at  Vienna.  Both  of  these 
operas  he  conducted  in  person,  for  which  he 
received  a  salary  of  about  four  hundred  dol- 
lars. In  1788  he  returned  to  Vienna,  and 
now  came  the  busiest  period  of  his  life.  Jour- 
neys followed  to  Dresden,  Berlin,  Leipzig,  and 
Frankfort,  at  all  of  which  he  gave  concerts 
which  brought  him  nothing  but  fame. 

It  was  at  this  time  he  began  to  feci  symp- 
toms of  a  disease  of  the  lungs,  coupled  with 
a  nervous  affection,  which  often  threw  him 
into  fits  of  melancholy.  He  worked  fever- 
ishly to  drive  away  his  sad  thoughts,  com- 
posing with  incredible  rapidity,  yet  all  this 
work  bears  the  stamp  of  genius  and  perfe(y 
tion.  The  fear  of  an  early  death  took  posses- 
sion of  his  mind.  He  thought  he  had  not  done 
enough  work  to  establish  his  reputation,  and 
he  exhausted  his  strength  by  incessant  labor 
day  and  night. 

It  was  in  this  condition  he  composed  "The 
Magic  Flute,"  an  opera  wholly  unlike  any- 
thing he  had  written  before.  That  a  dying 
man  could  fill  a  fairy  tale  with  the  beauty 
and  freshness  of  the  melody  he  wrote  for  it 
seems  scarcely  credible.  This  opera  had  an 
unexampled  success  at  Vienna.  It  was  played 
no  less  than  one  hundred  twenty  successive 
times,  and  was  hailed  with  enthusiasm  over 
all  Germany.  While  he  was  at  work  on 
"The  Magic  Flute,"  a  mysterious  stranger 
applied  to  him  to  compose  a  Requiem,  and 
paid  for  it  handsomely  in  advance.  Mozart's 
health  was  already  shattered  by  his  intense 
labor,  and,  being  unable  to  discover  the  name 
of  the  stranger,  the  event  preyed  on  his  mind 
until  he  fancial  there  was  something  super- 
natural about  it.  He  worked  at  it  with  the 
firm  conviction  that  it  was  his  own  requiem ; 
nothing  could  dispel  the  fatal  delusion.  His 
wife  and  friends  tried  in  vain  to  distract  his 
attention,  but  he  continued  to  work  on  with 
restless  energy  until  illness  confined  him  to 
his  bed. 

His  presentiment  was  true.  The  Requiem 
was  never  finished ;  but  he  sketched  out  the 
principal  features  of  the  uncompleted  part, 
leaving  them  for  his  pupil,  Siissmayer,  to  fill 


172 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


out.  On  November  15th,  though  visibly 
dying,  he  composed  a  cantata,  and  conducted 
it  himself;  but  he  was  forced  to  take  to  his 
bed,  where  he  labored  at  his  Requiem,  con- 
sumed with  fever  and  anxiety.  On  Decem- 
ber 4th  he  had  the  score  brought  to  his  bed- 
side, tried  a  passage,  singing  the  alto  him- 
self; but  his  strength  gave  way;  he  burst 
into  tears,  and  put  aside  the  score.  But  up  to 
midnight  he  continued  to  give  directions, 
and  was  seen,  in  delirium,  to  be  puffing  his 
cheeks  to  imitate  the  action  of  the  drums. 
By  one  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  December  5, 
1791,  he  was  no  more.  The  next  day,  with- 
out music  and  with  no  friends  around  the 
coffin,  Mozart  was  laid  in  the  common  grave 
of  St.  Marx  churchyard  at  Vienna.  Research 
has  failed  to  identify  the  exact  spot,  nor  can 
his  bones  be  found.  So  ended  the  greatest 
of  musicians  at  the  age  of  thirty-five. 

It  is  now  generally  believed  that  the  myste- 
rious commission  for  the  Requiem  came  from 
Count  Walsegg,  a  musician  of  some  note, 
whose  evident  purpose  was  to  keep  his  identity 
from  Mozart,  and  have  the  work  performed 
as  his  own. 

While  practically  on  his  death  bed,  Mozart 
was  nominated  chapel  master  to  St.  Etienne 
cathedral;  and  another,  still  better  appoint- 
ment was  offered  him  at  Amsterdam.  The 
ill-fortune  which  pursued  him  through  life 
with  brutal  masters  and  petty  rivalries  filled 
up  the  cup  by  dangling  fame  and  wealth 
before  his  dying  eyes. 

In  stature,  Mozart  was  short,  with  a  pleas- 
ant countenance,  beautiful  hands  and  feet, 
hair  and  eyes.  His  physical  delicacy  de- 
tracted much  from  his  personal  impressive- 
ness,  and  left  little  to  recommend  him  except 
a  childlike  simplicity  and  lovable  nature. 
He  was  affectionate,  generous,  sociable,  joy- 
ous, and  sympathetic;  but  at  the  same  time 
careless,  improvident,  and  not  uniformly 
abstemious.  He  has  been  well  compared 
with  Raphael,  inasmuch  as  both  were  artists 
—  at  least  in  the  modern  world  both  lived 
in  one  unbroken  life  of  beauty,  and  both  have 
clothed  with  instinctive  grace  every  side  of 
their  art  and  of  life. 

In  looking  over  the  long  list  of  his  works, 
it  is  astonishing  to  think  a  man,  who  spent 
so  much  of  his  time  in  traveling  about  giving 
concerts  and  who  died  in  his  thirty-fifth  year, 
could  ever  have  found  time  to  accomplish 
so  much.  He  wrote  eight  hundred  works 
of  various  kinds,  comprising  eighteen  operas, 


forty-nine  s3niiphonies,  fifteen  overtures,  sev- 
enty pieces  of  sacred  music,  not  to  speak  of 
an  immense  quantity  of  work  he  began  but 
left  uncompleted.  No  musician  of  any  epoch 
has  possessed  so  universal  a  genius  for  all  the 
departments  of  musical  art  —  song,  sonata, 
concerto,  symphony,  mass,  and  opera.  He 
was  the  greatest  pianist  of  his  time  in  Ger- 
many; his  cantatas  bear  the  inspiration  of 
a  true  religious  spirit;  and  in  the  opera  he 
effected  nothing  less  than  a  complete  trans- 
formation. No  other  master  has  left  an  equal 
number  of  exquisite  airs  of  which  the  world 
is  never  tired.  Id(mieneo  was  a  revolution 
in  the  lyrical  drama.  In  construction,  detail, 
instrumentation,  and  every  imaginable  re- 
spect, it  was  an  enormous  advance  on  all 
previous  works  of  the  kind.  The  change  was 
carried  to  its  highest  pitch  in  "The  Marriage 
of  Figaro";  and  the  romantic  opera  may 
almost  be  said  to  have  been  created  by  Don 
Giovanni  and  Die  Zauberflote.  His  genius 
rose  steadily  without  a  sign  of  feebleness 
to  the  day  of  his  death,  and,  had  he  lived  a 
few  years  longer,  still  grander  works  than 
these  might  have  been  expected  from  his 
fertile  brain. 

But  it  is  not  so  much  the  quantity  as  the 
excellence  of  his  music  which  excites  the 
astonishment  of  the  musician.  This  was 
owing  not  more  to  the  greatness  of  his  genius 
than  to  his  profound  studies,  which  from 
infancy  to  the  close  of  his  life  never  ceased. 
As  an  instrumental  composer  perhaps  one 
only  has  surpassed  him,  Beethoven;  but 
Beethoven  had  perfected  his  genius  by  study- 
ing Mozart.  Haydn  had  developed  the  quartet 
form  and  invented  the  grand  symphonj'. 
Mozart  gave  them  a  new  spirit,  and  one  sees 
his  influence  in  all  Haydn's  later  works. 
The  symphony  in  C  with  the  fugue  is  the 
greatest  work  of  the  kind  ever  written  before 
Beethoven. 

Mozart  is  the  first  composer  in  whose  works 
all  traces  of  the  old  tonality  disappear;  he 
is  the  father  of  the  modern  school.  No  com- 
poser has  ever  combined  genius  and  learning 
in  such  perfect  proportions;  none  has  ever 
been  able  to  dignify  the  lightest  and  tritest 
forms  by  such  profound  scholarship,  or,  at 
the  moment  when  he  was  drawing  most 
largely  on  the  resources  of  musical  science, 
to  appear  so  natural,  so  spontaneous,  and  so 
thoroughly  at  ease. 

"In  musical  art,"  observes  Frederic  Harri- 
son, "  the  test  of  power  to  impress  the  imagina- 


>     »  » 


;  5\  •   .; 


£^ 

ir 
<  t 

X   i 


IN  FINE  ARTS 


17S 


tion  of  numbers  in  various  ages  and  races  is 
decisive.  The  philosopher,  the  man  of  science, 
the  inventor,  can  produce  his  vast  social 
efforts  indirectly  through  the  medium  of 
other  minds.  It  is  enough  that  Aristotle, 
Kepler,  Newton,  Descartes,  Gutenberg,  are 
followed  by  competent  minds  who  can  give 
to  posterity  the  results  of  their  work.  Even 
in  poetry  it  is  enough  that  ^schylus  and 
Dante  have  given  to  mankind  eternal  types 
of  tragedy  and  sacred  poem,  which  the  masses 
of  men  know  only  by  repute.  But  in  music 
the  business  is  to  delight,  to  touch  the  soul, 
and  to  elevate  the  spirit;  and  its  effects  can 


be  indirectly  extended  in  a  much  leas  degree. 
It  is  not  the  business  of  musical  creation  to 
astonish  a  coterie  or  to  delight  a  company  of 
virtuosos.  When  in  art  men  talk  <rf  'leam> 
ing,'  'profundity,'  and  'subjective  coMoiou*- 
ness,'  we  know  that  they  are  passing  into  the 
field  of  abstract  science,  not  of  concrete  ex- 
pression. Music  must  rouse  enthustaam  in 
races  and  throughout  ages.  Judged  by  this 
test,  the  supremacy  of  Mozart  is  plain.  'Tha 
bewitching  melody  of  Mozart,'  in  the  language 
of  Sir  Archibald  Alison,  'will  captivate  man- 
kind to  the  end  of  the  world.'  " 


BEETHOVEN 


A.  D.  AGE 

1770     Born  at  Bonn,  Prussia,  

1781     Played  in  Holland  as  a  virtuoso  on  the 

piano, 11 

1787  Went  to  Vienna  to  study  with  Mozart,  17 
1792     Studied    under    Haydn;     settled    at 

Vienna, 22 

1795     Published  his  Opus  1 25 

1798     Defect  in  hearing  developed,     ....  28 

1800     His  "First  Symphony," 30 


A.  D.  AOB 

1803  The  Kreutzer  Sonata, 33 

1804  The  "  Heroic  Symphony," 34 

1805  Fidelio,  an  opera,        35 

1813  The  "  Battle  Symphony," 43 

1814  "Eighth  Symp"hony," 44 

1823  Completed  "Mass  in  D"  and  "Ninth, 

or  Choral  Symphony," 5.1 

1827  Died  at  Vienna, 57 


T  UDWIG  VAN  BEETHOVEN,  the  great- 
•*-^  est  of  all  composers,  with  the  possible 
exception  of  Mozart,  though  of  Dutch  extrac- 
tion, was  a  native  of  Bonn,  Prussia,  where  he 
was  born  about  December  16,  1770.  His 
father,  Johann  van  Beethoven,  was  a  tenor 
singer  in  the  chapel  of  the  elector  of  Cologne, 
and  married  the  daughter  of  a  cook  at  the 
elector's  palace. 

Unlike  Mozart,  young  Beethoven  showed 
little  or  no  predilection  for  musical  studies, 
but  his  father  compelled  him  to  practice  on 
the  harpsichord  daily  in  his  fourth  year.  It 
was  not  until  he  had  made  some  progress  in 
his  art  that  his  ardor  began  to  be  excited. 
Mozart  was  a  musician  by  instinct.  Beetho- 
ven's musical  inclinations  were  intellectual 
rather  than  intuitive,  and  had  to  be  awakened 
before  his  interest  was  excited.  His  early 
teachers,  Pfeiffer  and  Van  der  Eden,  laid  the 
foundation  for  the  technical  skill  which  after- 
ward made  him  one  of  the  greatest  pianists 
of  Germany,  and  a  later  teacher,  Neefe,  made 
him  familiar  with  the  grand  conceptions  of 
Bach  and  Handel. 

For  these  works  he  had  an  admiration  that 
became  a  kind  of  worship  in  after  life.  When 
eleven  years  old,  it  is  said  he  could  play  the 
whole  of  Bach's  pianoforte  exercises,  and  had 


already  shown  the  bent  of  his  genius  by  com- 
posing three  sonatas.  At  this  period  he  also 
appeared  in  Holland  as  a  piano  virtuoso, 
chiefly  of  Bach's  music,  and  was  made  the 
assistant  of  Neefe  at  the  organ  in  elector's 
chapel.  In  his  thirteenth  year  he  published, 
at  Mannheim,  a  volume  of  marches,  songs, 
and  sonatas,  and  the  year  following  earned 
about  seventy-five  dollars  as  second  court 
organist. 

In  the  year  1787  he  went  to  Vienna,  at 
the  expense  of  the  elector  of  Cologne,  to 
study  with  Mozart,  from  whom  he  received 
only  a  few  lessons  when  he  was  recalled  to 
Bonn  by  the  illness  of  his  mother,  who  died 
shortly  afterward.  From  this  time  on  he 
became  the  main  support  of  his  family.  The 
death  of  his  mother  was  a  severe  blow  to  him, 
and  removed  from  his  life  his  "best  friend,"  as 
he  frequently  styles  her  in  his  letters,  in  con- 
trast with  his  father,  who  was  both  shiftleei 
and  intemperate.  His  natural  talent  and 
refinement  began  to  assert  themselves  in 
spite  of  his  unpleasant  home  surroundings,  and 
he  now  began  to  give  lessons,  and  to  make  an 
occasional  public  appearance.  He  included 
among  his  early  friends  many  lovers  of  music, 
including  the  Von  Breunings,  Archduke 
Rudolph,    Baron   van   Swieten,   and   Count 


176 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Waldstein  —  all  of  whom  took  an  extraor- 
dinary interest  in  his  future  career  as  indi- 
cated by  his  dedications. 

An  early  love  affair  with  Babette  Koch, 
the  attractive  daughter  of  the  proprietress  of 
the  Zehrgarten  at  Mannheim,  began  about 
this  time,  but  was  interrupted  by  the  plans  of 
the  elector,  who  arranged  to  send  Beetho- 
ven again  to  Vienna.  Accordingly,  in  1792, 
his  two  younger  brothers  having  found 
employment,  he  returned  to  Vienna,  where, 
with  the  exception  of  short  voyages  under- 
taken for  business  or  pleasure,  he  remained 
for  the  rest  of  his  days. 

The  first  five  years  of  his  residence  at 
Vienna  were  the  happiest  of  his  life.  He  had 
excellent  patrons,  was  received  into  the  best 
society,  and  became  a  general  favorite  by  his 
admirable  skill  on  the  harpsichord,  although 
his  manners  and  temper  were  not  of  the  kind 
to  make  or  keep  friends.  When  he  arrived 
at  Vienna,  he  possessed  a  rare  talent  for 
execution,  but  very  little  knowledge  of  har- 
mony or  composition.  There  he  studied 
under  Haydn  and  Albrechtsberger.  His 
rapid  progress  in  the  study  of  musical  form 
is  due  to  his  own  unaided  efforts,  rather  than 
to  any  assistance  he  received  from  his  teachers, 
whose  methods  were  too  scholastic  to  please 
his  original  tastes. 

About  1795  he  made  his  debut  in  Vienna 
as  a  pianist,  and  with  his  "Concerto  in  C 
major "  he  created  a  great  impression.  He 
also  took  part  in  a  benefit  concert  for  the 
relief  of  Mozart's  widow  and  children,  and 
attracted  attention  by  his  extraordinary 
ability  as  an  extempore  player  of  fantasias. 
His  compositions,  too,  produced  a  great  stir 
in  the  musical  world ;  for  it  was  in  this  year 
that  his  Opus  I  appeared,  containing  his 
three  trios  for  the  piano.  As  a  relaxation 
from  music,  Beethoven's  ardent  interest  in 
general  literature  —  which  hitherto  had  suf- 
fered far  too  great  a  neglect  on  his  part  — 
received  a  fresh  impetus,  and  he  was  smitten 
with  a  veritable  passion  for  reading.  He 
read  the  great  German  poets,  the  works  of 
Homer,  Vergil,  Tacitus,  and  this  absorption 
had  a  tendency  to  soften  in  some  measure 
the  troubles  and  afflictions  which  afterward 
were  his  heritage.  From  about  1798  he  was 
afflicted  with  a  defect  in  hearing  which  gave 
him  much  concern.  His  highly  sensitive 
nature  was  so  perturbed  over  it  that  in  ISOO 
he  wrote  a  letter  to  one  of  his  friends  enjoining 
him  to  keep  it  "a  profound  secret."     In  1814, 


or  earlier,  the  loss  of  his  hearing  was  com- 
plete, and  so  sorely  affected  him  that  the 
character  of  his  compositions  were  even 
tinged  with  a  passionate  melancholy.  It 
saddened  his  thoughts,  and  was  the  cause  of 
the  fits  of  ill-temper  and  misanthropic  ten- 
dencies he  manifested  ever  after. 

Before  the  end  of  the  year  1800,  Beethoven 
had  composed  twenty  sonatas  for  the  piano- 
forte, a  large  number  of  trios  and  quartets,  as 
well  as  his  first  and  second  symphonies.  The 
sale  of  his  musical  publications  brought  him 
very  little  money,  and  his  position  for  some 
years  was  not  an  easy  one.  A  pension  was 
at  length  settled  upon  him  on  condition  that 
he  should  continue  to  live  in  Austria.  Then 
he  fixed  his  residence  at  Beden,  a  pretty 
village  near  Vienna ;  and  there  he  would  walk 
about  for  hours  in  the  most  unfrequented 
spots,  shunning  all  companionship,  compos- 
ing as  he  walked. 

It  was  his  habit  never  to  write  down  a  single 
note  until  the  whole  piece  was  complete  in  his 
head ;  but  this  habit  did  not  prevent  his  cor- 
recting and  modifying  the  manuscripts  until 
he  was  satisfied  with  them.  His  works  had 
already  placed  him  in  a  high  position  among 
composers,  when  the  calamity  of  his  deafness 
fell  upon  him,  and  his  productiveness  in  the 
year  immediately  following  gives  remarkable 
evidence  of  his  fortitude  during  the  years 
of  bitter  trial  —  doubly  bitter  to  a  musician. 
Among  these  were  a  sonata  containing  the 
well-known  funeral  march;  the  so-called 
"Moonlight  Sonata";  the  Kreutzer  Sonata, 
written  for  piano  and  violin,  in  1803;  the 
"Heroic  Symphony,"  in  1804;  and  his  one 
opera,  Fidelio,  written  in  1805,  but  sub- 
sequently revised  on  several  occasions.  He 
did  not  vmte  a  second  opera  because  he 
could  get  no  libretto  of  a  sufficiently  ele- 
vated character  which  he  thought  essen- 
tial, and  which  alone  he  would  consent  to 
consider. 

Though  friends  and  admirers  surrounded 
him  during  these  years,  he  yet  led  a  solitary 
life,  and  frequently  changed  his  lodgings  to 
avoid  visitors.  To  add  to  his  troubles,  he 
became  involved  in  a  law  suit  relating  to  the 
custody  of  his  nephew,  and  for  several  years 
he  produced  but  few  new  works.  This 
nephew  was  wholly  unworthy  of  the  affection 
Beethoven  lavished  upon  him.  The  boy 
failed  to  pass  his  school  examination,  and 
made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  commit 
suicide.    As  this  was  an  offense  against  the 


IN  FINE  ARTS 


177 


laws  of  Austria,  Beethoven  was  compelled  to 
remove  his  nephew  from  Vienna. 

Beethoven's  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  sympho- 
nies and  the  "Mass  in  C"  were  composed 
between  1805  and  1810.  The  music  to 
Kotzebue's  "  Ruins  of  Athens  "  was  first  per- 
formed in  1812;  the  "Battle  Symphony"  in 
1813;  the  cantata,  "The  Glorious  Moment," 
at  the  Vienna  congress  in  1814;  and  thfe 
eighth  symphony  was  written  in  1814,  when 
he  was  totally  deaf.  The  principal  produc- 
tions of  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life  were 
several  great  sonatas  for  the  pianoforte;  the 
grand  "Mass  in  D,"  a  three  years'  labor;  the 
overture  in  C,  op.  115;  the  ninth  symphony 
with  chorus,  the  greatest  of  his  productions, 
completed  in  1823;  and  the  last  grand 
quartets. 

The  last  four  years  of  the  composer's  life 
were  passed  amid  great  distress  from  poverty 
and  feebleness.  He  could  compose  but  little ; 
and,  though  his  friends  solaced  his  latter 
days  with  attention  and  kindness,  his  sturdy 
independence  would  not  accept  them.  It  is 
a  touching  fact  that  Beethoven  voluntarily 
suffered  want  and  privation  in  his  last  years, 
that  he  might  leave  the  more  to  his  selfish  and 
ungrateful  nephew.  He  went  to  reside  on  his 
brother's  estate  on  the  Danube,  but  the 
society  of  his  brother's  family  became  insup- 
portable, and  he  returned  to  Vienna  in  1826. 
The  return  journey  was  undertaken  in  cold, 
wet  weather,  he  caught  a  severe  cold,  which 
brought  on  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  suc- 
ceeded by  dropsy,  and  he  died  in  Vienna, 
March  26,  1827,  in  his  fifty-seventh  year. 
His  death  took  place  during  a  frightful 
thunderstorm,  and  prompted,  no  doubt,  by 
the  keen  burden  his  soul  had  borne  so  long, 
his  last  words  were,  "I  shall  hear  in  heaven." 
His  remains  were  laid  in  Wahring  cemetery, 
near  Vienna. 

In  1802,  in  expectation  of  death,  Bee- 
thoven addressed  to  his  brother  a  testa- 
mentary letter,  or  will,  which  speaks  more 
eloquently  of  the  hidden  life  of  an  heroic 
soul  than  any  other  words  could  do.  From 
this  letter  we  cannot  refrain  from  reproducing 
the  following  extracts : 

"O  ye,  who  consider  or  declare  me  to  be 
hostile,  obstinate,  or  misanthropic,  what 
injustice  ye  do  me!  Ye  know  not  the  secret 
causes  of  that  which  to  you  wears  such  an 
appearance.  My  heart  and  my  mind  were 
from  childhood  prone  to  the  tender  feelings 
of  affection.     Nay,   I   was  always  disposed 


even  to  perform  great  actions.  But  only 
consider  that  for  the  last  six  yeara  I  have 
been  attacked  by  an  incurable  complaint, 
aggravated  by  the  unskillful  treatment  of 
medical  men,  disappointed  from  year  to  year 
in  the  hope  of  relief,  and  at  last  obliged  to 
submit  to  the  endurance  of  an  evil  the  cure  of 
which  may  last  perhaps  for  years,  if  it  i« 
practicable  at  all.  Born  with  a  lively,  ardent 
disposition,  susceptible  to  the  diversions  of 
society,  I  was  forced  at  an  early  age  to  re- 
nounce them,  and  to  pass  my  life  in  seclusion. 

"  If  I  strove  at  any  time  to  set  myself  above 
all  this,  oh  how  cruelly  was  I  driven  back  by 
the  doubly  painful  experience  of  my  defective 
hearing !  And  yet  it  was  not  possible  for  me 
to  say  to  people, '  Speak  louder  —  bawl  —  for 
I  am  deaf ! '  Ah !  how  could  I  proclaim  a 
defect  of  a  sense  that  I  once  possessed  in  the 
highest  perfection  —  in  a  perfection  in  which 
few  of  my  colleagues  possess  or  ever  did  pos- 
sess it?  Indeed,  I  can  not!  Forgive  me, 
then,  if  ye  see  me  draw  back  when  I  would 
gladly  mingle  among  you.  Doubly  mortifying 
is  my  misfortune  to  me,  as  it  must  tend  to 
cause  me  to  be  misconceived.  From  recrea- 
tion in  the  society  of  my  fellow  creatures, 
from  the  pleasures  of  conversation,  from  the 
effusions  of  friendship,  I  am  cut  off.  Almost 
alone  in  the  world,  I  dare  not  venture  into 
society  more  than  absolute  necessity  requires. 
I  am  obliged  to  live  as  an  exile.  If  I  go  into 
company,  a  painful  anxiety  comes  over  me, 
since  I  am  apprehensive  of  being  exposed  to 
the  danger  of  betraying  my  situation.  Such 
has  been  my  state,  too,  during  this  half  year 
that  I  have  spent  in  the  country.  Enjoined 
by  my  intelligent  physician  to  spare  my 
hearing  as  much  as  possible,  I  have  been 
almost  encouraged  by  him  in  my  present 
natural  disposition,  though,  hurried  away  by 
my  fondness  for  society,  I  sometimes  suffered 
myself  to  be  enticed  into  it. 

"But  what  a  humiliation  when  any  one 
standing  beside  me  could  hear  at  a  distance  a 
flute  that  I  could  not  hear,  or  any  one  heard 
the  shepherd  singing,  and  I  could  not  distin- 
guish a  sound !  Such  circumstances  brought 
me  to  the  brink  of  despair,  and  had  wellnigh 
made  me  put  an  end  to  my  life :  nothing  but 
my  art  held  my  hand. ■  Ah!  it  seemed  to  me 
impossible  to  quit  the  world  before  I  had 
produced  aU  that  I  felt  myself  called  to 
accomplish.  And  so  I  endured  this  wretched 
life —  so  truly  wretched,  that  a  somewhat 
speedy  change  is  capable  of  transporting  me 


178 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


from  the  best  into  the  worst  condition. 
Patience  —  so  I  am  told  —  I  must  choose  for 
my  guide.  Steadfast,  I  hope,  will  be  my  reso- 
lution to  persevere,  till  it  shall  please  the 
inexorable  Fates  to  cut  the  thread. 

"  Perhaps  there  may  be  an  amendment  — 
perhaps  not ;  I  am  prepared  for  the  worst  — 
I,  who  so  early  as  my  twenty-eighth  year  was 
forced  to  become  a  philosopher  —  it  is  not 
easy  —  for  the  artist  more  difficult  than  for 
any  other.  O  God !  Thou  lookest  down  upon 
my  misery;  Thou  knowest  that  it  is  accom- 
panied with  love  of  my  fellow  creatures,  and 
a  disposition  to  do  good!  O  men!  when  ye 
shall  read  this,  think  that  ye  have  wronged 
me;  and  let  the  child  of  affliction  take  com- 
fort on  finding  one  like  himself,  who,  in  spite 
of  all  the  impediments  of  Nature,  yet  did  all 
that  lay  in  his  power  to  obtain  admittance  into 
the  rank  of  worthy  artists  and  men. 

"  I  go  to  meet  Death  with  joy.  If  he  comes 
before  I  have  had  occasion  to  develop  all  my 
professional  abilities,  he  will  come  too  soon 
for  me,  in  spite  of  my  hard  fate,  and  I  should 
wish  that  he  had  delayed  his  arrival.  But 
even  then  I  am  content,  for  he  will  release  me 
from  a  state  of  endless  suffering.  Come  when 
thou  wilt,  I  shall  meet  thee  with  firmness. 
Farewell,  and  do  not  quite  forget  me  after  I 
am  dead;  I  have  deserved  that  you  should 
think  of  me,  for  in  my  lifetime  I  have  thought 
of  you  to  make  you  happy.  May  you  ever  be 
so." 

Beethoven  was  never  married,  but  his 
heart  was  more  than  once  sensibly  affected 
by  the  tender  passion,  even  in  his  mature 
years.  His  "  Moonlight  Sonata  "  was  inspired 
by  Countess  Guicciardi,  "who  loves  me,  and 
whom  I  love,"  he  says  in  his  dedication,  but 
"unluckily,  she  is  not  in  my  rank  of  life." 
He  also  had  a  love  affair  with  Eleonora  von 
Breuning,  who  married  another ;  with  Count- 
ess Braunsschweig,  one  of  his  pupils,  to 
whom  he  was  engaged  for  four  years ;  another 
with  Bettina  Brentano;  still  another  with 
Marie  Pachler-Koschak,  whom,  he  says, 
"alone  I  wished  to  possess,  but  never  shall 
call  mine";  and,  finally,  with  Countess 
Erdody,  who  erected  a  temple  to  him  in  her 
park,  as  a  memorial. 

Rochlitz,  who  visited  Beethoven  in  his 
later  years,  thus  describes  his  personal  appear- 
ance :  He  was  of  short  stature,  thick-set. and 
bony,  slightly  round-shouldered,  with  a  full 
face,  somewhat  flushed,  and  brilliant  piercing 
eyes  that  seemed  to  transfix  you.    His  thick 


black  hair  fell  in  uncombed  masses  round  his 
magnificent  head.  There  was  no  play  in  the 
features,  nor  in  the  eyes  so  full  of  life  and 
genius,  but  an  expression  of  benevolence  and 
timidity  wholly  unlike  the  character  his  fits 
of  passion  gave  him.  In  all  his  manner,  one 
could  see  the  strained  attention  to  catch  every 
sound,  noticeable  in  the  manner  of  deaf  per- 
sons of  a  sensitive  temperament.  He  would 
speak  gaily  for  a  minute,  and  then  sink  into 
a  profound  silence.  His  voice  was  rough  on 
occasions,  but  when  he  was  touched  it  had  a 
light  tone  that  was  peculiarly  affecting. 

His  character  was  simplicity  itself;  false- 
hood was  absolutely  foreign  to  his  nature,  and 
he  carried  truth  and  sincerity  into  brusquerie, 
and  often  into  shocking  rudeness.  The  books 
are  full  of  stories  of  this,  which  can  not  be 
given  here.  And  yet  so  great  was  the  influ- 
ence of  his  personality  that  those  to  whom  he 
was  rudest  were  fondest  of  him.  Princes, 
cardinals,  high-born  beautiful  ladies,  women 
like  Rahel,  and  men  like  Goethe  were  de- 
voted to  him,  and  put  up  with  every  un- 
punctuality  and  incivility. 

His  simplicity  sometimes  became  credulity, 
blinded  him  to  real  facts,  and  made  him  often 
unfair  and  harsh.  This  showed  itself  unjusti- 
fiably toward  his  relations,  and  toward 
many  of  his  best  and  truest  friends.  Such 
conduct  must  have  been  greatly  due  to  his 
deafness,  his  sensitive  nature,  and  his  absorp- 
tion in  his  music,  and  he  was  always  ready  to 
confess  his  error.  He  was  fuU  of  the  deepest 
feeling,  and  there  is  something  wonderfully 
touching  in  his  devotion  to  his  nephew,  one  of 
the  meanest,  most  graceless  scamps  on  record ; 
but  on  whom,  partly  because  he  was  left  to 
him,  partly  because  of  his  craving  for  affection, 
he  lavished  all  his  tenderness.  His  nature  and 
his  deafness  drove  his  goodness  inward,  and 
we  must  look  to  his  music,  and  to  the  mystical 
aspirations  with  which  he  salutes  God  in  the 
sunrise,  or  the  beauty  of  the  woods,  for  the 
deeply  religious  feehngs  of  his  great  heart. 

Though  a  Catholic  by  birth,  and  dying  in 
that  faith,  he  had  little  formal  religion ;  and 
yet  a  more  deeply  religious  mind  never  existed. 
In  every  trial  his  thoughts  flew  upward,  and 
his  note  books  are  full  of  the  most  passionate 
ejaculations,  God  was  to  him  the  most 
solemn  and  intimate  reality,  whom  he  saw 
and  welcomed  through  all  aspects  of  nature, 
and  in  every  mood  of  joy  and  sorrow.  Living 
in  a  profligate  city,  and  in  a  time  of  the  loosest 
morals,  and  himself  singularly  attractive  to 


IN  FINE  ARTS 


179 


women,  his  name  is  not  connected  with  a 
single  liaison  or  scandal. 

He  treated  his  pianoforte  as  an  intimate 
friend,  to  whom  he  could  confide  his  thoughts 
and  secrets,  and  taught  it  to  respond  in  sym- 
pathy with  all  his  innermost  feelings,  making 
his  music  the  medium  for  communicating  the 
feelings  which  swelled  his  own  breast. 

The  works  of  Beethoven  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes,  or  may  be  assigned  to  three 
distinct  periods  of  his  intellectual  develop- 
ment. All  the  works  of  his  first  period, 
though  important,  show  the  influence  of  his 
teacher,  Haydn,  or  of  his  more  highly  esteemed 
model,  Mozart.  This  period  of  composition 
may  be  said  to  extend  to  his  sixteenth  orches- 
tral work,  including,  besides  several  piano- 
forte sonatas,  trios  for  pianoforte  and  for 
stringed  instruments.  All  these  early  works 
display  the  highest  cultivation  of  the  forms 
and  principles  of  art  previously  established 
in  the  Viennese  school  of  music. 

The  second  period  of  Beethoven's  artistic 
life,  in  which  his  genius  was  completely  self- 
reliant,  extends  from  the  sixteenth  to  the 
eightieth  work.  This  was  certainly  the  most 
productive  and  brilliant  part  of  his  career. 
To  it  belonged  his  greatest  creations,  his  mag- 
nificent and  powerful  orchestral  works  — 
symphonies,  overtures,  sonatas  —  all  of  which 
display  the  highest  qualities  of  imaginative 
composition.  Besides  the  great  orchestral 
works,  it  includes  many  sonatas  for  piano- 
forte, and  various  compositions  of  chamber- 
music  —  septets,  quintets,  quartets,  trios, 
serenades,  and  other  musical  forms.  In 
dramatic  composition  Beethoven  produced 
only  one  opera,  but  this  was  Fidelio,  the 
first  truly  German  musical  work  of  a  dramatic 
character.  This  was  the  result  of  great  study, 
and,  as  it  is  now  given,  is  the  reconstruction 
of  an  earlier  composition.  Other  dramatic 
pieces  are  the  overture,  interludes,  and 
melodramatic  music  in  Goethe's  Egmont, 
and  the  instrumental  music  and  choruses  in 
the  "Ruins  of  Athens." 

In  the  third  and  last  period  of  Beethoven's 
career  we  find  these  two  gigantic  works,  the 
Missa  Solemnis  in  D  minor,  and  the  ninth 
sjrmphony  in  D  minor  with  chorus.  These 
works  transcend  all  common  laws  and  forms, 
and  belong  to  the  highest  sphere  of  art. 
Their  deep  mysteries  can  be  apprehended  only 
by  those  who  have  deep  emotions  and  pro- 
found technical  knowledge  of  music.  Other 
works  of  this  last  class  approach  those  just 


mentioned  though  they  do  not  readi  the  i 
elevation.  But  all  are  alike  in  paasing  far 
beyond  the  ordinary  traditional  fomw  of  art. 
All  are  pervaded  by  an  impulse  as  of  insptn^ 
tion.  Among  these  works  may  be  mentioned 
the  great  quartets  for  bow-instrumoats  — 
mostly  published  after  the  death  of  Beetho- 
ven—  the  grand  overtures  —  Opj«  115  and 
124,  and  several  sonatas  for  pianoforte, 
especially  that  in  B  flat  major. 

The  music  of  Beethoven  has  left  a  profound 
impress  on  art.  In  speaking  of  his  genius  it 
is  difficult  to  keep  expression  within  the  limite 
of  good  taste.  For  who  has  so  passed  into  the 
very  inner  penetralia  of  his  great  art,  and 
revealed  to  the  world  such  heights  and  depths 
of  beauty  and  power  in  sound  ? 

Barbedette,  speaking  of  Beethoven's  work 
and  genius,  says,  "Bach  created  the  typical 
form  of  the  sonata,  the  form  which  is  most 
logical,  largest,  and  most  readily  adapted  to 
the  development  of  a  serious  thought,  or  even 
that  of  some  capricious  fancy,  restrained 
within  due  limits  by  the  laws  of  art.  The 
first  part  explains  the  subject,  and  develops 
its  plan,  terminating  with  a  brief  synopsis 
and  peroration,  then  comes  a  slow  movement, 
lending  itself  to  the  inspiration  of  melancholy, 
dreamy  thoughts ;  this  is  followed  by  a  third 
part,  reveling  in  wild  fantasie ;  and  the  whole 
ends  with  a  fourth,  of  a  lively  captivating 
character,  leaving  the  auditor  under  the 
influence  of  a  pleasing  impression.  Such  is 
the  framework  of  the  sonata,  on  which,  for 
more  than  a  century,  all  the  great  composers 
have  exercised  their  genius.  Haydn  com- 
posed sonatas  for  a  whole  orchestra,  and 
created  the  quartet  and  symphony.  Mosart 
modified  it  to  form  the  concerto,  by  making 
it  a  grand  composition,  rich  in  effects.  While 
Beethoven  —  passionate,  poetic  Beethoven  — 
took  his  predecessors'  models,  and  surpassed 
them  all.  He  made  few  innovations  on  the 
traditional  form  of  the  sonata.  He  haa 
enriched  it  with  the  scherzo,  a  ravishing  inter- 
lude that  takes  the  place  of  the  old  minuet 
(the  third  part).  When  he  does  depart  from 
the  classical  form,  it  is  in  his  musical  trifles, 
charming  in  themselves,  but  only  the  amus^ 
ment  of  a  great  composer." 

Beyond  this  Beethoven  composed  nine 
sjnnphonies,  which,  by  one  voice,  are  ranked 
as  the  greatest  ever  written,  reaching  in  the 
last  — known  as  the  "Choral"  — the  full 
perfection  of  his  power  and  experience. 
Other  musicians  have  composed  symphonic 


180 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


works  remarkable  for  varied  excellencies,  but 
in  Beethoven  this  form  of  writing  seems  to 
have  attained  its  highest  possibilities,  and 
to  have  been  illustrated  by  the  greatest  variety 
of  effects,  from  the  sublime  to  such  as  are 
simply  beautiful  and  melodious.  His  hand 
swept  the  whole  range  of  expression  with 
unfaltering  mastery.  Some  passages  may 
seem  obscure,  some  too  elaborately  wrought, 
some  startling  and  abrupt,  but  on  all  is 
stamped  the  die  of  his  great  genius. 

Beethoven's  compositions  for  the  piano — 
the  sonatas — are  no  less  notable  for  range  and 
power  of  expression  than  for  their  adaptation 
to  meet  all  the  varied  moods  of  passion  and 
sentiment.  Other  pianoforte  composers  have 
given  us  more  warm  and  vivid  color,  richer 
sensual  effects  of  tone,  more  wild  and  bizarre 
combination,  perhaps  even  greater  sweetness 
in  melody.  But  we  look  in  vain  elsewhere 
for  the  spiritual  passion  and  poetry,  the 
aspiration  and  longing,  the  lofty  humanity, 
which  make  the  Beethoven  sonatas  the 
suspiria  de  profundis  of  the  composer's  inner 
life.  In  addition  to  his  symphonies  and 
sonatas,  he  wrote  the  great  opera,  Fidelio, 
and  in  the  field  of  oratorio  asserted  his  equality 
with  Handel  and  Haydn  by  composing  "The 
Mount  of  OUves."  A  great  variety  of  cham- 
ber music,  masses,  and  songs  bear  the  same 
imprint  of  power. 


Beethoven  may  be  rightfully  called  the 
most  original  and  conscientious  of  all  the 
composers.  He  seems  to  have  been  so  fecund 
in  great  conceptions,  so  lifted  on  the  wings 
of  his  tireless  genius,  so  austere  in  artistic 
morality  that  in  these  respects  he  stands  for 
the  most  part  far  above  all  other  composers. 
His  genius  was  universal ;  he  embraced  the 
whole  circle  of  human  emotions.  It  is  not  in 
this  sense  that  Michaelangelo,  Raphael,  and 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  though  they  were  painters, 
architects,  and  poets,  at  the  same  time  were 
universal.  Each  of  them  represents  a  special 
phase  of  human  nature.  Beethoven  felt  all 
phases,  and  expressed  all.  The  simple  emo- 
tions of  confiding  youth,  then  the  difficulties 
of  life  with  the  courage  that  surmounts  them, 
the  combat,  the  victory,  and  the  heroic  joy 
it  brings;  finally,  the  exhaustion  of  a  soul 
broken  by  the  struggle,  the  deceptions  of 
unhappy  love,  the  renunciations  of  earthly 
affections  and  thirst  for  the  ideal,  celestial 
contemplation,  the  solitary  communion  of  man 
with  the  Infinite  —  this  is  the  immense  circle 
which  his  genius  embraced.  Goethe  alone, 
in  literature,  has  equaled   this  universality. 

Beethoven's  principal  title  to  fame  is  in  his 
superlative  place  as  a  symphonic  composer. 
In  the  symphony  music  finds  its  highest 
intellectual  dignity;  in  Beethoven  the  sym- 
phony has  found  its  loftiest  master. 


WAGNER 

A.  D.  AQE  A.  D. 

1813         Bom  at  Leipzig,  Prussia 1849-61 

1830         Entered   the    university  of  Leip- 
zig,          17  1861 

1833         Wrote  his  first  opera,  Die  Feen,  1865-69 

"The  Fairies," 20 

1836         Music    director    at    Konigsberg;  1870 

married, 23  1872-82 

1839—42  Lived,  studied,  and  wrote  in  Paris ; 

Rienzi  produced, 26-29  1874 

1843         "The  Flying  Dutchman,"      ....      30 

1843-49  Chapel  master  at  Dresden;  Tanri-  1882 

hauser;  Lohengrin,      30-36  1883 


AOB 

Exiled  from  Germany;  Rheingold; 

Die  Walkiire,  "The  Valkyrs,"    .    36-48 

Returned  to  Germany, 48 

Tristan  und  Isolde;    Die  Meister- 

ainger;  Siegfried 52-56 

Married  second  wife, 57 

Settled    at    Bayreuih,    and    pro- 
duced his  Nihelungen  trilogy,    .   59-69 
Gdtterdammerung,  "Twilight  of  the 

Gods  " 61 

Parsi/cU, 69 

Died  at  Venice,  Italy, 70 


'\\/'ILHELM  RICHARD  WAGNER,  the 
'  ~  greatest  composer  since  Beethoven,  and 
a  romantic  poet  and  philosopher  as  well, 
was  born  at  Leipzig,  Prussia,  on  May  22, 1813. 
His  father  was  a  municipal  clerk  of  Leipzig, 
who  died  a  few  months  after  the  birth  of  his 
son.  The  boy's  mother  then  married  Lud- 
wig  Geyer,  a  playwright  and  portrait  painter, 
and  removed  to  Dresden,  Saxony,  where  he 
passed  his  childhood. 


From  his  father,  who  had  a  fine  appreciation 
of  poetry  and  the  drama,  Richard  inherited 
his  love  for  the  theater;  and  this  was  stimu- 
lated, in  a  degree,  by  his  stepfather.  After 
his  stepfather's  death,  in  1821,  he  was  sent 
to  the  Kreuzschule  in  Dresden,  where  he 
received  an  excellent  education;  and,  at 
the  age  of  thirteen,  the  bent  of  his  taste, 
as  well  as  his  diligence,  was  shown  by  his 
translation  —  out  of  school  hours  —  of  the 


IN  FINE  ARTS 


18S 


first  twelve  books  of  the  Odyssey.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  his  passion  for  poetry  found  expres- 
sion in  a  grand  tragedy.  "  It  was  a  mixture," 
he  says,  "  of  Hamlet  and  Lear.  Forty- two  per- 
sons died  in  the  course  of  the  play,  and  for 
want  of  more  characters  I  had  to  make  some 
of  them  reappear  as  ghosts  in  the  last  act." 

In  1827  the  family  removed  from  Dresden 
to  Leipzig.  Weber,  who  was  then  conductor 
of  the  Leipzig  opera,  seems  to  have  attracted 
the  boy,  both  by  his  personality  and  by  his 
music,  and  he  was  deeply  impressed  with 
Beethoven's  music  which  he  heard  there. 
His  artistic  and  susceptible  temperament  was 
so  completely  captivated,  indeed,  that  he 
decided  to  set  his  youthful  tragedy  to  music. 
For  this  purpose  he  first  tried  to  instruct 
himself  in  the  art  of  composition,  took  some 
lessons  from  Gottlieb  Miiller,  and  finally  fin- 
ished an  overture  that  was  produced  between 
acts  at  a  theater  where  his  eldest  sister  had 
an  engagement.  His  individuality  was  im- 
pressed even  on  this  first  composition,  and  he 
then  began  studying  under  Theodor  Weinlig, 
a  teacher  of  considerable  reputation,  whom 
he  honored  throughout  all  his  after  years. 
About  the  same  time  —  1830  —  he  entered 
the  university  of  Leipzig,  where  his  student 
career  was  marked  both  by  his  individuality 
and  brilliant  talents. 

From  1830  to  1833  many  compositions 
after  standard  models  are  evidence  of  hard 
and  systematic  work,  and  in  1833  he  began 
his  long  career  as  an  operatic  composer  with 
Die  Feen,  "The  Fairies,"  which,  however, 
never  reached  the  dignity  of  performance 
until  1888  —  five  years  after  his  death. 

He  now  spent  several  years  in  very  unre- 
munerative  routine  work  in  Magdeburg, 
Konigsberg,  Riga,  and  other  places,  during 
which  period  he  brought  out  his  opera,  Das 
Liebesverbot,  and  some  lesser  compositions. 
In  the  year  1836  he  added  to  his  financial 
burdens  by  marrying  in  Konigsberg  an 
actress,  Minna  Planer.  During  the  years  he 
spent  at  Riga  as  chapel  master  —  1837-39 
—  he  found  time"  to  complete  the  libretto 
and  first  two  acts  of  the  opera,  Rienzi,  and 
with  this  he  resolved  to  try  his  fortune  in 
Paris.  With  his  wife  he  accordingly  took 
passage  in  a  sailing  vessel  from  Pillau  to 
London.  The  voyage  was  exceedingly  tem- 
pestuous, and  from  this  experience  he  gained 
the  first  inspiration  for  Der  Fliegende  Hol- 
lander, "The  Flying  Dutchman,"  subsequently 
one   of  his  most   successful   creations.    His 


remarkable  receptivity  is  evidenced  in  thia 
work  from  the  fact  that  the  wondeiful  too»- 

picture  of  Norway's  storm-beaten  shore  wt» 
painted  by  one  who  until  that  voyage  had 
never  set  eyes  on  the  sea. 

Wagner  passed  a  week  or  more  in  London, 
several  weeks  in  Boulogne,  and  remained 
in  Paris  from  September,  1839,  until  April, 
1842.  In  these  three  years  he  passed  throu^ 
some  of  the  bitterest  experiences  of  hia  career, 
and  finally  left  Paris  with  Rienzi  unperformed 
—  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  Meyerbeer  in  its 
favor  —  and  heartsick  with  hope  deferred. 
He  reached  such  straits  that  he  offered  him- 
self as  a  chorus  singer  at  a  small  second-rate 
theater,  but  was  refused  even  that  humble 
post.  However,  in  Paris,  he  finishcil  a  "  Faust 
Overture,"  some  sketches  of  "The  Flying 
Dutchman,"  and  revised  his  Rienzi.  "The 
Flying  Dutchman"  was  also  offered  to  the 
authorities  of  the  grand  opera  house,  and 
refused;  but  the  directors  were  so  charmed 
with  the  beauty  of  the  libretto  that  they 
bought  it  to  be  reset  to  music. 

In  1842  he  sent  Rienzi  to  Dresden  —  and 
speedily  followed  himself  —  where  it  was 
produced  with  great  enthusiasm  in  October 
of  the  same  year,  and  its  signal  success  led 
to  his  appointment  as  chapel  master  there  in 
January,  1843.  "The  Flying  Dutchman," 
produced  in  1843,  was  not  so  enthusiastic- 
ally received,  but  it  has  since  easily  distanced 
the  earlier  work  in  popular  favor.  In  1845 
his  new  opera,  Tannhduser,  proved  at  first 
a  comparative  failure  in  Dresden.  It  was 
produced  in  Weimar  by  Liszt,  however, 
in  1849,  with  better  results,  and  the  event 
led  to  the  famous  friendship  between  Wagner 
and  Liszt  which  has  now  become  hi.storic. 
The  part  played  by  Liszt  in  compelling  public 
appreciation  of  this  great  opera  is  regarded 
as  one  of  the  noblest  and  most  self-sacrificing 
roles  ever  taken  by  genius.  After  hearing 
of  the  Weimar  performance,  Wagner  wrote 
to  Liszt,  "  I  once  more  have  courage  to  stif- 
fer";  while  Liszt  replied:  "So  much  do  I 
owe  to  your  bold  and  high  genius,  to  the  fiery 
and  magnificent  pages  of  your  Tannh&utfft 
that  I  feel  quite  awkward  in  accepting  the 
gratitude  you  are  good  enough  to  express 
with  regard  to  the  two  performances  I  had 
the  honor  and  happiness  to  conduct." 

The  theme  of  Tannhduser,  which  is  founded 
on  a  well-known  legend  preserved  in  a  six- 
teenth century  ballad,  had  been  proposed  to 
Weber    in    1814,    and    especially    attracted 


184 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Wagner  while  he  was  in  Paris.  The  tem- 
porary failure  of  the  opera  led  him  to  the 
consideration  and  self-examination  of  his 
theories  of  composition  and  construction, 
which  resulted  in  an  elaborate  exposition  of 
his  ideals,  subsequently  pubhshed  in  "Opera 
and  Drama,"  and  many  other  essays,  "I  saw 
a  single  possibility  before  me,"  he  writes,  "to 
induce  the  public  to  understand  and  partici- 
pate in  my  aims  as  an  artist." 

Lohengrin,  which  had  also  been  suggested 
during  his  stay  in  Paris,  was  finished  early 
in  1848,  and  likewise  the  poem  of  "Siegfried's 
Death,"  the  result  of  Wagner's  studies  in  the 
old  Nibelungenlied.  This  opera  was  about 
to  be  performed  in  Dresden  in  1849,  when 
the  revolutionary  outbreak  took  place  there. 
Wagner  was  an  active  leader  in  the  movement, 
which  reigned  for  two  short  days  behind  the 
street  barricades  in  Dresden. 

A  few  days  after  the  suppression  of  the 
revolution,  news  reached  Wagner  in  Weimar 
that  a  warrant  was  issued  for  his  arrest.  With 
a  passport  procured  from  Liszt  he  fled  across 
the  frontier,  first  to  Paris,  then  to  Zurich, 
and  for  nearly  twelve  years  the  bitterness 
of  exile  was  added  to  the  hardship  of  poverty. 
It  is  this  period  which  is  mainly  responsible 
for  Wagner's  polemical  writings,  so  biting 
in  their  sarcasm,  artd  often  unfair  in  their 
attacks.  This  period  of  his  musical  activity 
also  commenced  to  witness  the  development 
of  his  theories  on  the  philosophy  of  his  art, 
and  some  of  his  most  remarkable  critical 
writings  were  then  given  to  the  world. 

In  1850  he  was  appointed  director  of  the 
Zurich  musical  society  and  of  the  orchestra 
of  the  theater.  Here  he  chiefly  resided  until 
1859,  composing  Tristan  und  Isolde,  and  a 
portion  of  his  great  series  of  operas  founded 
on  the  Nibelungenlied,  known  as  the  Nibel- 
ungen  trilogy. 

During  these  years  of  exile  Wagner's  most 
faithful  friend  and  benefactor  was  Franz  Liszt 
—  almost  his  artistic  twin  soul.  Liszt  fur- 
nished Frau  Wagner  with  means  to  join  her 
husband  just  after  the  failure  of  the  revolu- 
tion; he  was  his  provider  in  exile;  and,  in 
spite  of  the  zest  which  came  to  Wagner 
through  his  passionate  devotion  and  loyalty 
to  his  art,  it  is  questionable  whether  he  could 
have  stood  the  strain  without  the  aid  of  his 
brother  artist  so  generously  bestowed. 

In  1850  Liszt  first  produced  Lohengrin  at 
Weimar,  the  greatest  of  solaces  to  Wagner. 
This  production  and  the  generous  heart  that 


was  behind  it  acted  as  a  vitalizing  tonic  on 
him.  Though  at  a  distance,  he  directed 
the  productions  as  well  as  he  could  through 
numerous  written  instructions.  This  per- 
formance was  one  of  the  most  important 
in  Wagner's  career.  It  started  the  now 
historic  "Wagner  question,"  which  was 
fought  out  in  a  fierce  war  of  words,  with 
vituperation  almost  unheard  of  in  art  matters, 
on  the  part  of  Wagner's  enemies,  covering 
many  years.  The  Wagner  cause,  however, 
forged  steadily  ahead,  and  finally  emerged 
triumphant. 

Wagner  went  to  London  in  1855  as  con- 
ductor of  the  Philharmonic  society  for  one 
season.  At  last,  in  1861,  he  received  permis- 
sion to  return  to  Germany,  and  in  \'ienna  he 
had  the  first  opportunity  of  hearing  his  own 
Lohengrin.  For  three  years  the  struggle  with 
fortune  seems  to  have  been  harder  than  ever 
before,  and,  in  broken  health,  he  had  practic- 
ally determined  to  give  up  the  unequal 
contest,  when  an  invitation  was  sent  him  by 
Ludwig  II.,  the  young  King  Louis  of  Bavaria. 
"Come  here  and  finish  your  work."  Here 
at  last  was  salvation  for  Wagner,  and  the 
rest  of  his  life  was  comparatively  smooth. 

He  settled  at  Munich,  and  with  the  glories 
of  the  royal  opera  house  of  that  city,  and 
subsequently  at  Bayreuth,  his  name  is  hence- 
forward principally  connected.  In  1865 
Tristan  und  Isolde  was  performed  at  Munich, 
and  was  followed  three  years  later  by  a  comic 
opera.  Die  Meisier singer,  the  first  sketches 
of  which  date  from  1845.  Siegfried  was  com- 
pleted in  1869,  and  in  the  following  year 
Wagner  married  Cosima,  the  daughter  of 
Liszt,  and  formerly  the  wife  of  Von  Biilow. 
His  first  wife,  from  whom  he  had  been  sepa- 
rated in  1861,  died  at  Dresden  in  1866. 

Wagner  for  a  long  time  despaired  of  the 
visible  execution  of  his  ideas  exhibited  in 
his  later  operas.  At  last,  in  1870,  the  cele- 
brated pianist,  Tausig,  suggested  an  appeal 
to  the  admirers  of  the  new  music  throughout 
the  world  for  means  to  carry  out  the  com- 
poser's great  idea,  viz.,  to  perform  the  AHbe- 
lungen  at  a  theater  to  be  erected  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  by  a  select  company,  in  the  manner 
of  a  national  festival,  and  before  an  audience 
entirely  removed  from  the  atmosphere  of 
viilgar  theatrical  shows.  After  many  delays 
the  foundation-stone  of  the  Bayreuth  theater 
was  laid  in  1872,  and  in  1876  Wagner's  hopes 
were  attained,  two  years  after  the  completion 
of  the  Gotterddmmerung. 


IN  FINE  ARTS 


IM 


The  first  work  given  at  Bayreuth  was  the 
entire  trilogy.  The  principal  celebrities  of 
Europe  and  America  were  present  to  witness 
the  perfected  fruit  of  the  composer's  theories 
and  genius.  In  July,  1882,  Wagner's  long 
and  stormy  career  was  magnificently  crowned 
there  by  the  first  performance  of  Parsifal, 
which,  with  its  sacred  allegory,  its  lofty  no- 
bility of  tone,  and  its  pure  mysticism,  stands 
on  a  platform  by  itself,  and  is  almost  above 
criticism,  or  praise,  or  blame.  The  libretto 
alone  might  have  won  Wagner  immortality, 
so  original  it  is  and  perfect  in  intention ;  and 
the  music  seems  to  be  no  longer  a  mere  acces- 
sory to  the  effect,  but  the  very  essence  and 
fragrance  of  the  great  conception.  A  few 
weeks  later  his  health  showed  signs  of  giving 
way,  and  he  resolved  to  spend  the  winter  at 
Venice.  There  he  died  suddenly  of  heart 
disease,  on  February  13,  1883,  at  the  Palazzo 
Vendramin.  He  was  buried  in  the  garden 
of  his  own  house  "Wahnfried"  at  Bayreuth. 

It  is  a  remarkable  coincidence  that  in  the 
very  town  of  Bayreuth,  where  since  1876  the 
Wagner  festivals  have  been  held,  Jean  Paul 
Richter,  in  a  preface  to  a  book,  wrote  the 
half-prophetic  words:  "Hitherto,  Apollo  has 
always  distributed  the  poetic  gift  with  his 
right  hand,  the  musical  with  his  left  to  two 
persons  so  widely  apart  that  up  to  this  hour 
we  are  still  waiting  for  the  man  who  will  create 
a  genuine  opera  by  writing  both  its  text  and 
its  music." 

This  is  precisely  what  Richard  Wagner  did. 
He  was  a  musician  of  the  highest  type,  and 
was  a  poet  of  supreme  eminence  in  the  field 
of  romantic  drama  with  scarcely  a  rival.  He 
possessed  a  genius  for  reconstructing  in  form 
and  spirit  the  splendid  conceptions  of  the 
legendary  ages,  and  infusing  into  the  char- 
acters of  that  heroic  time  the  more  compli- 
cated emotions  of  our  modern  days;  and 
this  he  did  with  a  power  of  dramatic  con- 
struction, and  a  depth  of  poetic  imagination, 
that  rank  him  among  the  great  romantic 
poets  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

When  Schopenhauer,  the  famous  philoso- 
pher, read  the  text  of  the  Nihelungen  trilogy, 
he  exclaimed,  "The  fellow  is  a  poet,  not  a 
musician";  and  again,  "He  ought  to  hang 
music  on  the  nail;  he  has  more  genius  for 
poetry."  But  the  might  of  Wagner's  musical 
genius  long  obscured  the  poet's  fame.  Critics 
continued  to  sneer  at  the  lines  long  after 
they  had  conceded  the  merit  of  the  scores; 
but  it  is  a  crowning  tribute  to  the  greatness 


of  the  poet-composcr,  that  now  a  whole  Utem- 
ture  has  arisen  around  his  operas  aa  poema, 
and  the  process  still  goes  on.  It  is  now  uiU« 
versally  acknowle<lged  that  Warner  can  ooly 
be  compared  with  the  greatest  namea  in 
music.  His  instrumentation  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  being  the  inheritor  of  the  enor- 
mous development  of  the  orchestra  from 
Haydn  to  Beriioz,  his  harmony  is  as  original 
and  daring  as  Bach's,  and  his  melody  ia  aa 
beautiful  as  it  is  different  from  Beethoven'a 
or  Mozart's. 

His  aim  was  to  reform  the  whole  8tnictur« 
of  opera,  using  the  last  or  "Beethoven"  d»> 
velopment  of  instrumental  music  as  a  ba«8, 
and  freeing  it  from  the  fetters  which  conven- 
tionality had  imposed  in  the  shajMs  of  set 
forms,  in  a  style  of  singing  now  h:ippily 
almost  extinct.  In  this  "art  work  of  the 
future,"  as  he  called  it,  the  interest  of  the 
drama  is  to  depend  not  entirely  on  the 
music,  but  also  on  the  poem  and  on  the 
acting  and  staging  as  well.  Theme,  verse, 
and  melody  must  unite  in  one  exquisite 
rhythm  in  which  it  is  impossible  to  separate 
the  one  from  the  other. 

The  first  radical  development  of  Wagner's 
theories  we  see  in  "The  Flying  Dutchman." 
In  TannhdtLser  and  Lofiengrin  they  find  full 
sway.  J'or  a  while  he  oscillated  between 
history  and  legend,  as  best  adapted  to  furnish 
his  material,  but  finally  selected  the  dream- 
land of  myth  and  legend.  He  saw  the  utter 
incongruity  of  any  dramatic  picture  of  ordi- 
nary events,  or  ordinary  personages,  finding 
expression  in  musical  utterance.  Even  char- 
acters set  in  the  comparatively  near  back- 
ground of  history  he  conceived  to  be  too 
closely  related  to  our  own  familiar  surround- 
ings of  thought  and  mood  to  be  regarded  as 
artistically  natural  in  the  use  of  music.  But 
within  the  dim  and  heroic  shapes  that  haunt 
the  borderland  of  the  supernatural,  which 
we  call  legend,  the  case  is  far  different.  This 
is  the  drama  of  the  demigods,  living  in  a  dif- 
ferent atmosphere  from  our  own,  however 
akin  to  ours  may  be  their  passions  and  pur- 
poses. For  these  we  are  no  longer  compelled 
to  regard  the  medium  of  music  as  a  forced 
and  untruthful  expression,  for  do  they  not 
dwell  in  the  magic  lands  of  the  imagination? 
All  sense  of  dramatic  inconsistency  instantly 
vanishes,  and  the  conditions  of  artistic  illuaon 
are  perfect. 

"  'Tis  distance  lends  enchantment  to  the  view.      ^^ 
And  clothes  the  mountains  with  their  aiure  bu«. 


186 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Thus  all  of  Wagner's  works,  from  Der 
Fliegende  Hollander  to  the  Nibelungenlied, 
have  been  located  in  the  world  of  myth,  in 
obedience  to  a  profound  art  principle.  The 
opera  of  Tristan  und  Isolde,  first  performed 
in  1865,  announced  Wagner's  absolute  emanci- 
pation, in  the  construction  both  of  music 
and  poetry  from  the  time-honored  and  time- 
corrupted  canons,  and,  aside  from  the  last 
great  work,  it  may  be  received  as  the  most 
perfect  representation  of  his  school. 

The  third  main  feature  in  Wagner's  music 
is  the  wonderful  use  of  the  orchestra  as  a 
factor  in  the  solution  of  the  art  problem. 
This  is  no  longer  a  mere  accompaniment  to 
the  singer,  but  translates  the  passion  of  the 
play  into  a  grand  symphony,  running  parallel 
and  commingling  with  the  vocal  music. 
Wagner,  as  a  great  master  of  orchestration, 
has  had  few  equals  since  Beethoven ;  and  he 
uses  his  power  with  marked  effect  to  heighten 
the  dramatic  intensity  of  the  action,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  convey  certain  meanings 
which  can  find  vent  only  in  the  vague  and 
indistinct  forms  of  pure  music.  The  romantic 
conception  of  the  mediajval  love,  the  shudder- 
ings  and  raptures  of  Christian  revelation, 
have  certain  phases  that  absolute  music  alone 
can  express.  The  orchestra,  then,  becomes 
as  much  an  integral  part  of  the  music-drama, 
in  its  actual  current  movement,  as  the  chorus 
or  the  leading  performers.  Placed  on  the 
stage,  yet  out  of  sight,  its  strains  might  al- 
most be  fancied  the  sound  of  the  sympathetic 
communion  of  good  and  evil  spirits,  with 
whose  presence  mystics  formerly  claimed 
man  was  constantly  surrounded.  Wagner's 
use  of  the  orchestra  is  probably  best  illus- 
trated from  the  opera  of  Lohengrin. 

The  ideal  background  in  Lohengrin,  from 
which  the  emotions  of  the  human  actors  in 
the  drama  are  reflected  with  supernatural 
light,  is  the  conception  of  the  "Holy  Graal," 
the  mystic  symbol  of  the  Christian  faith,  and 
its  descent  from  the  skies,  guarded  by  hosts 
of  seraphim.  This  is  the  subject  of  the 
orchestral  prelude,  and  never  have  the  sweet- 
nesses and  terrors  of  the  Christian  ecstasy 
been  more  potently  expressed. 

The  prelude  opens  with  long-drawn  chords 
of  the  vioUns,  in  the  highest  octaves,  in  the 
most  exquisite  pianissimo.  The  inner  eye 
of  the  spirit  discerns  in  this  the  suggestion 
of  shapeless  white  clouds,  hardly  discernible 
from  the  aerial  blue  of  the  sky.  Suddenly 
the  strings  seem  to  sound  from  the  farthest 


distance,  in  continued  pianissimo,  and  the 
melody,  the  Graal-motif,  takes  shape.  Gradu- 
ally, to  the  fancy,  a  group  of  angels  seem  to 
reveal  themselves,  slowly  descending  from 
the  heavenly  heights,  and  bearing  in  their 
midst  the  Sangreal.  The  modulations  throb 
through  the  air,  augmenting  in  richness  and 
sweetness,  till  the  fortissimo  of  the  full  orches- 
tra reveals  the  sacred  mystery.  With  this 
climax  of  spiritual  ecstasy  the  harmonious 
waves  gradually  recede  and  ebb  away  in 
dying  sweetness,  as  the  angels  return  to  their 
heavenly  abode.  This  orchestral  movement 
recurs  in  the  opera,  according  to  the  laws  of 
dramatic  fitneas,  and  its  melody  is  heard 
also  in  the  motif  of  Lohengrin,  the  knight  of 
the  Graal,  to  express  certain  phases  of  his 
action.  The  immense  power  which  music 
is  thus  made  to  have  in  dramatic  effect  can 
easily  be  fancied. 

A  fourth  prominent  characteristic  of  Wag- 
ner's music-drama  is  that  to  develop  its  full 
splendor  there  must  be  a  cooperation  of  all 
the  arts,  painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture, 
as  well  as  poetry  and  music.  Therefore  in 
reaUzing  its  effects  much  importance  rests 
in  the  visible  beauties  of  action,  as  they  may 
be  expressed  by  the  painting  of  scenery  and 
the  grouping  of  human  figures..  But  all  Wag- 
ner's principles  would  have  been  useless  with- 
out the  energy  and  perseverance  which  di- 
rected his  work,  the  loving  study  which  stored 
his  memory  with  all  the  great  works  of  his 
predecessors,  and,  above  all,  the  genius  which 
commands  the  admiration  of  the  musical 
world. 

As  a  great  musical  poet,  rather  epic  than 
dramatic  in  his  powers,  there  can  be  no 
question  as  to  Wagner's  rank.  The  perform- 
ance of  the  Nibelungen  trilogy,  covering 
Rheingold,  Die  Walkure,  Siegfried,  and  GoUer- 
ddmmerung,  was  one  of  the  epochs  of  musical 
Germany.  However  deficient  Wagner's  skill 
in  writing  for  the  human  voice,  the  power 
and  symmetry  of  his  conceptions,  and  his 
genius  in  embodying  them  in  massive  operatic 
forms,  are  such  as  to  storm  even  the  preju- 
dices of  his  opponents.  The  poet-musician 
rightfully  claimed  that  in  his  music-drama  is 
found  that  wedding  of  two  of  the  noblest  of 
the  arts,  pregnantly  suggested  by  Shakes- 
peare: 

"  If  Music  and  sweet  Poetry  both  agree. 

As  they  must  needs,  the  sister  and  the  brother; 

*  *  *  *  *  •  * 

One  (Jod  is  God  of  both,  as  poets  feign." 


MOSES 

From  the  painting  by  Carlo  Dolci 


MOSES 


TV/f  OSES,  the  great  Hebrew  lawgiver  and 
^  •*•  prophet,  is  the  first  gigantic  figure  that 
rises  to  view  in  the  traditional  history  of  the 
human  race.  As  in  the  case  of  Homer  and 
other  great  names  of  antiquity,  great  differ- 
ence of  opinion  has  existed  as  to  the  dates  of 
his  life  and  activities.  These  range  all  the 
way  from  the  seventeenth  to  the  seventh 
century  B.  C,  but  the  best  historians  and 
critics  now  practically  agree  that  he  lived 
and  flourished  within  the  fourteenth  and 
thirteenth  centuries  B.  C. 

The  story  of  Moses  is  told  in  the  book  of 
Exodus,  is  referred  to,  also,  in  the  writings  of 
Strabo  and  Josephus,  and,  as  we  now  know  it, 
has  been  embellished  much  by  legend.  The 
main  features,  however,  are  on  the  whole  con- 
sistent; and  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the 
truthfulness  of  an  account  which  shows  us 
Moses,  hke  many  other  supreme  benefactors 
and  "suns"  of  mankind,  struggling  against 
an  apparently  adverse  fate  from  the  instant 
of  his  birth. 

Moses,  it  appears,  was  the  son  of  Amram, 
of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  and  was  born  at  the  time 
this  Hebrew  tribe  was  settled  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  Egypt.  In  consequence  of  an 
Egyptian  royal  edict  that  all  male  infants  of 
the  Hebrews  should  be  drowned,  his  mother, 
unable  to  hide  the  child,  put  it  into  a  basket 
of  papyrus  and  hid  it  among  the  Nile  rushes, 
Miriam,  his  sister,  watching  it  from  afar. 
The  king's  daughter,  Thermuthis,  or  Merrhis, 
coming  down  to  the  river,  observed  the 
weeping  child,  and  was  so  struck  with  its 
beauty  that  she  allowed  Miriam  to  fetch  a 
Hebrew  nurse,  Jochebed. 

When  grown  up,  Moses  was  sent  to  the  king's 
palace  at  Hehopolis  as  the  adopted  son  of  the 
princess,  and  here  seems  to  have  enjoyed  not 
only  princely  rank,  but  also  a  princely  educa- 
tion. He  is  also  said  to  have  become  a  priest, 
imder  the  name  of  Osarsiph,  or  Tisithen,  and 
to  have  been  a  mighty  adept  in  all  the  sciences 


of  Egypt,  Assyria,  and  Chaldea;  to  have 
led  Egyptian  armies  against  the  Ethiopians, 
defeated  them,  and  pursued  them  to  their 
stronghold,  Saba,  or  Mcroe,  this  place  being 
delivered  into  his  hands  by  Tharbis,  the  king's 
daughter,  whom  he  subsequently  married. 

The  Bible  contains  nothing  whatever  about 
the  time  of  his  youth.  He  first  reappear* 
there  as  the  avenger  of  a  Hebrew  slave,  ill- 
treated  by  an  Egyptian  overseer.  Threatened 
by  the  discovery  of  this  bloody  act,  he  escapes 
into  Midian,  where  he  is  hospitably  received 
by  Jethro,  the  priest,  and  marries  his  daugh- 
ter, Zipporah.  He  stayed  for  many  years  in 
Midian,  tending  the  flocks  of  his  father-in-law. 
This  most  sudden  transition  from  the  brilliant 
and  refined  life  of  an  Egyptian  court,  of  which 
he  had  been  brought  up  a  prince,  to  the  state 
of  a  poor,  proscribed,  exiled  shepherd,  to- 
gether with  the  influences  of  the  vast  desert 
around  him,  produced  in  his  mind  a  singular 
revolution.  The  fate  of  his  brethren  went 
now  to  his  heart  with  greater  force  than  when 
he  was  a  prince  and  near  them.  There  rushed 
upon  his  memory  the  ancient  traditions  of 
his  family,  the  promises  of  Jehovah  to  the 
mighty  sheikhs,  his  forefathers,  that  they 
should  become  a  great  and  a  free  nation,  and 
possess  the  ancient  heritage  of  Canaan ;  why 
then  should  not  he  be  the  instrument  to  carry 
out  this  promise? 

So  Moses  obe)'ed  the  prophetic  spirit  that 
now  came  upon  him,  and  decided  to  return  to 
Egypt  for  the  purpose  of  delivering  his  breth- 
ren from  slavery.  A  new  king  had  succeeded 
in  Egypt,  his  old  enemies  were  either  dead  or 
had  forgotten  him,  and  with  Aaron,  his 
brother,  the  man  of  small  energy  but  of  fine 
tongue,  he  consulted  about  the  first  steps  to 
be  taken  with  the  king  as  well  as  with  their 
own  people  —  both  of  whom  treated  them  at 
first  with  suspicion,  and  even  cont«n^t. 
Presently,  however,  a  series  of  most  disastrous 
and  terrifying  afflictions  visited  Egypt,  and 


190 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


the  king  finally  concluded  that  these  had  been 
brought  upon  the  land  by  the  unknown  God 
—  Jehovah  —  whose  name  Moses  had  in- 
voked. He  accordingly  ordered  the  Israelites 
to  leave  at  once,  and  they  immediately  began 
their  departure,  the  event  in  their  history 
known  as  the  exodus. 

Moses  very  soon  had  occasion  to  prove  that 
he  was  not  only  the  God-inspired  liberator  of 
his  people,  who,  in  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
moment  had  braved  the  great  king  and  his 
discipUned  armies,  but  that  he  possessed  all 
those  rarer  qualities  which  alone  could  enable 
a  man  to  mould  half-brutalized  hordes  of 
slaves  into  a  great  nation.  Calmness,  disin- 
terestedness, patience,  perseverance,  meek- 
ness, coupled  with  keen  energy,  rapidity  of 
action,  unfailing  courage  —  "wisdom  in  coun- 
cil and  boldness  in  war  "  —  constituted  the 
immense  power  which  he  held  over  the  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  who  knew  no  law  in  their 
newly  acquired  liberty,  and  who  were  apt  to 
murmur  and  to  rebel  on  any  or  no  provoca- 
tion. Nor  were  the  hostile  Bedouin  tribes, 
whose  territories  the  new  emigrants  ap- 
proached, easily  overcome  with  untrained 
warriors,  such  as  formed  the  ranks  of  Moses's 
army.  The  jealousy  of  certain  elders  foster- 
ing seditions  within  added  to  his  unceasing 
vexations;  and,  to  fill  the  measure  to  over- 
flowing, indeed,  his  own  brother  Aaron,  whom 
he  had  made  his  representative  during  his 
temporary  absence  on  the  mount  of  Sinai, 
himself  assisted  in  the  fabrication  of  an  idol. 

His  sacred  office  as  legislator  he  in  reality 
first  assumed  in  the  third  month  after  the 
exodus,  when,  after  many  hard  and  trying 
marches  and  countermarches,  made  more 
trying  by  want  of  food  and  of  water,  by 
encounters  with  Pharaoh  and  the  Amale- 
kites,  having  arrived  near  the  mount  of  Sinai, 
he  made  the  people  encamp  all  round,  and 
ascended  the  summit  of  the  mountain  by 
himself.  Shortly  thereafter  he  disclosed  to 
his  people  that  famous  code  of  laws  —  chief 
of  which  was  the  decalogue  —  which  had 
such  a  mighty  influence  in  succeeding  time. 

When  on  the  eve  of  entering  into  the 
promised  land,  the  people  broke  out  in  open 
rebellion,  and  threatened,  by  a  spontaneous 
return  to  the  land  of  slavery,  to  undo  the 
entire  work  of  Moses's  life.  Convinced  that 
they  were  not  as  yet  fit  to  form  a  common- 
wealth of  their  own,  the  liberator  and  law- 
giver had  to  postpone,  for  the  long  space  of 
forty  years,  the  crowning  act  of  his  work ;   and 


in  fact  did  not  himself  live  to  see  them  taking 
possession  of  the  hallowed  territory.  How 
these  years  of  nomadic  journeying  through 
the  desert  were  spent,  save  in  rearing  up  a  new 
generation  of  a  more  manly  and  brave,  as 
well  as  a  more  "civilized,"  stamp,  we  can 
only  conjecture.  All  those  who  had  left 
Egypt  as  men  were  doomed  to  die  in  the 
desert,  either  by  a  natural  death,  or  by  being 
suddenly  "cut  off,"  in  consequence  of  their 
openly  defying  Moses,  and  through  Moses, 
Jehovah. 

On  the  first  month  of  the  fortieth  year  after 
the  exodus,  we  find  Moses  at  the  head  of  an 
entirely  new  generation  of  Hebrews  at  Kadesh, 
in  the  desert  of  Phoran  or  Zin.  Here  his 
sister  Miriam  died.  Here,  also,  for  the  first 
time,  Moses,  seeing  the  new  generation  as 
stubborn  and  "  hard-necked  "  aa  their  fathers, 
is  recorded  to  have  despaired  of  the  divine 
providence;  and  his  disobedience  to  the 
letter  of  the  commandment  given  to  him, 
"  to  speak  to  the  rock,"  is  alleged  as  the  reason 
"  that  his  bones,  too,  hjul  to  fall  in  the  desert." 
His  brother  Aaron  died  at  Mt.  Hor  (near 
Petra,  according  to  Josephus  and  St.  Gerome) 
whither  the  Israelites  had  gone  next. 

Not  long  afterward  Moses  once  more  had 
occasion  to  punish  with  relentless  severity 
the  idolatrous  tendencies  of  the  people,  thus 
showing  that  age  had  had  no  power  of  making 
him  relax  his  strong  rule  over  the  still  half- 
savage  and  sensuous  multitude.  Having 
finally  fixed  the  limits  of  the  land  to  be  con- 
quered, and  given  the  most  explicit  orders  to 
Joshua,  to  Eleazar,  and  the  chiefs  of  the  ten 
tribes  respecting  its  division,  he  prepared  the 
people  for  his  own  impending  death.  He 
recalled  to  their  minds  in  the  most  impressive 
language  their  miraculous  hberation,  and  no 
less  miraculous  preservation  in  the  desert. 
Their  happiness  —  their  life  —  was  bound  up, 
he  told  them,  in  the  divine  law,  commu- 
nicated through  him  by  Jehovah.  A  recapit- 
ulation of  its  principal  ordinances,  with  their 
several  modifications  and  additions  and 
reiterated  exhortations  to  piety  and  virtue, 
forms  the  contents  of  his  last  speeches,  which 
close  with  one  of  the  grandest  poetical  hymns. 
The  law  was  then  handed  over  to  the  priests 
that  they  might  instruct  the  people  in  it 
henceforth ;  Joshua  was  installed  as  successor, 
and  he  blessed  the  whole  people. 

Moses  then  ascended  Mt.  Nebo,  from 
whence  he  cast  a  first  and  last  look  upon 
the  land  toward  which  he  had  pined  all  his 


IN  RELIGION 


191 


life,  and  on  which  his  feet  were  never  to  tread. 
He  died  upon  this  mountain,  when  one  hun- 
dred twenty  years  old,  in  the  full  vigor  of 
manhood,  according  to  the  scriptures,  "and 
no  man  knew  his  burial  place  up  to  this 
day"  —  so  that  neither  his  remains  nor  his 
tomb  were  desecrated  by  "divine  honors" 
being  superstitiously  paid  to  them. 

This  is  a  summary  of  Moses's  life  as  derived 
from  biblical  as  well  as  non-biblical  sources. 
Of  far  greater  import  than  this  imperfect 
chronicle  of  facts  is  his  influence  on  the  human 
race. 

In  one  of  the  churches  of  Rome  —  St.  Peter 
in  Chains  —  rests  a  colossal  statue  of  Moses 
—  the  immortal  work  of  Michaelangelo.  The 
great  lawgiver  is  represented  in  sitting  posture 
holding  in  his  right  hand  the  tables  of  stone, 
his  left  touching  the  long  beard  which  falls 
upon  his  breast.  This  statue  has  been  called 
"the  incomparable  masterpiece  of  its  author, 
and,  perhaps,  of  modern  sculpture."  We  can 
not  affirm  that  the  statue  looks  like  Moses,  but 
no  one  can  stand  in  its  presence  without 
feeling  tempted  to  say  that  it  looks  as  Moses 
ought  to  have  looked.  It  is  the  interpretation 
of  one  great  genius  by  another  great  genius. 

The  subject  of  this  statue,  as  also  of  Carlo 
Dolci's  famous  painting,  is  for  us  of  supreme 
interest.  In  the  ancient  language,  both  of 
Hebrews  and  Christians,  he  was  known  as 
"the  great  lawgiver,"  "the  great  theolo- 
gian," "the  great  statesman";  and  in  the 
pentateuch,  or  first  five  books  of  the  Bible  — 
of  which  he  is  the  reputed  author  —  we  have 
the  first  attempt  to  formulate  a  written  con- 
stitution for  the  government  of  a  people. 
The  Hebrews  call  these  books  the  Torah,  or 
the  "  Law."  They  are  too  well  known  to  need 
special  exposition.  Genesis  is  the  history  of 
creation  and  of  patriarchal  life;  Exodus,  an 
account  of  the  migration  from  Egypt  and  the 
foundation  of  the  Hebrew  law ;  Leviticus  is  a 
book  of  religious  ceremonial  regulations; 
Numbers,  a  book  of  statistics;  and  Deu- 
teronomy, a  continuation  and  completion  of 
the  law. 

Three  distinct  parts  compose  this  Mosaic 
constitution:  the  doctrine  with  respect  to 
God  and  His  attributes;  the  symbolical  law, 
as  the  outward  token  of  His  doctrine;  and 
the  moral  and  social  law.  The  institution  of 
the  sabbath,  the  symbol  of  creation  and  the 
Creator,  forms  the  basis  of  all  religious  observ- 
ances; while  the  remaining  part  of  the  laws 
relates  to  the  intercourse  among  the  members 


of  the  human  commonwenlth.  It  is  then 
things,  taken  together,  which  form  the  baiis 
of  the  Christian  religious  system  of  the  civil- 
ized world  —  the  highest  of  that  daa  known 
to  scholars  under  the  name  of  monotheian. 
We  find  in  apocryphal  works  an  explanatioo 
of  how  Abraham  first  came  to  worship,  in  the 
midst  of  idolaters,  the  one,  invisible  God; 
how  he  first  lifted  up  his  eyes,  and  saw  a 
brilliant  star,  and  said,  "This  is  God";  but 
when  the  star  paled  before  the  brightness  of 
the  moon,  he  said,  "This  is  God."  And  then 
the  sun  rose,  and  Abraham  saw  God  in  the 
golden  glory  of  the  sun.  But  the  sun,  too, 
set,  and  Abraham  said,  "Then  none  of  you  is 
God,  but  there  is  one  above  you,  who  created 
both  you  and  me.  Him  alone  will  I  worship, 
the  maker  of  heaven  and  earth."  Such  is  the 
possible  origin  of  monotheism.  In  the  "Con- 
fessions" of  St.  Augustine  will  be  found  a 
similar  idea. 

In  the  first  of  the  sacred  writings,  Genetiit, 
the  author  appears  as  the  philosopher  or 
theosophist;  in  the  great  ethical  and  civil 
code  known  as  the  "Law,"  he  is  the  teacher 
and  moralist.  But  he  may  also  be  considered 
from  another  point  of  view.  He  estjiblished 
a  government  —  a  government  diflfercnt  from 
that  of  Rome  or  Greece  —  one  of  that  kind  to 
which  Josephus  was  the  first  to  give  the  name 
of  theocracy,  a  government  under  the  control 
of  deity. 

Of  the  cosmogony  of  Genesis  —  that  is, 
the  theory  of  the  origin  of  the  world  —  it  is 
necessary  to  say  but  little.  It  has  been 
impeached,  and  it  has  been  defended.  Of  all 
the  like  theories  ever  attempted,  this  is  the 
only  one  which  will  bear  a  second  reading  — 
the  only  one  which  is  temperate  and  decorous. 
All  others  contain  such  admixtures  of  the 
monstrous  and  the  grotesque  as  to  seem,  by 
comparison,  simply  incoherent. 

A  few  words  will  suffice  to  explain  what  is 
meant  by  the  "Law,"  as  the  Hebrews,  and 
after  them  other  nations,  understood  it.  Sup- 
pose one  should  define  and  write  down  all  the 
relations,  public  and  private,  which  unite  the 
members  of  a  people,  and,  in  addition  to 
these,  all  the  principles  upon  which  those 
relations  are  founded.  The  result  would  be 
an  ensemble,  a  complete  body,  a  system,  more 
or  less  rational,  which  would  be  the  perfect 
expression  of  the  mode  of  existence  of  that 
people.  It  is  such  a  system  as  this  to  which 
the  Hebrews  gave  the  name  of  Torah,  the 
"Law,"  or  the  "Constitution." 


102 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


This  body,  the  "  Law,"  is  made  up  of  several 
parts  containing  distinct  propositions.  Some 
establish  the  general  relations  of  the  citizen, 
others  are  laws  in  the  more  limited  sense. 
Some  command  or  forbid  certain  things, 
attach  a  penalty  for  disobedience,  and  show 
the  guilty  the  punishment  which  the  nation 
will  inflict  or  cause  to  be  inflicted  for  the  sake 
of  the  safety  of  its  members.  Others,  still, 
prescribe  simple  measures  for  the  regulation 
of  affairs,  while,  finally,  others  under  the 
name  of  precepts  trace  out  the  duties  to  be 
performed,  and  show  the  general  evil,  which, 
in  the  natural  order  of  things,  ever  accompa- 
nies infidelity  to  the  principle  of  the  supreme 
good. 

"If  the  lawgiver,  educated  in  all  the  wis- 
dom of  the  Egyptians,  departed  most  widely 
from  the  spirit  of  Egyptian  polytheism  in  the 
fundamental  principle  of  his  religious  insti- 
tutes," says  Milman,  "the  political  basis  of 
his  state  was  not  less  opposite  to  that  estab- 
lished in  the  kingdom  of  the  Pharaohs.  He 
was  the  first,  and  certainly  the  most  successful 
legislator  of  antiquity,  who  assumed  the  wel- 
fare of  the  whole  community  as  the  end  of  his 
constitution." 

With  the  Hebrews  there  were  none  of  those 
disastrous  distinctions  of  caste  established 
among  the  Egyptians;  nothing  of  that  spirit 
of  disdain  in  one  order  for  those  in  another 
order;  neither  those  barbaric  laws,  concen- 
trating in  a  favored  portion  of  the  nation  all 
knowledge  and  all  authority.  With  the  peo- 
ple of  Jehovah  everything  tended  toward  a 
natural  equality;  the  whole  nation  was  one 
great  caste,  that  of  husbandmen,  cultivating 
their  own  property. 

The  social  system  of  Moses  was  a  democ- 
racy, based  upon  the  notion  of  duty.  He 
proclaimed  the  equality  of  men  before  the 
law,  the  sense  of  duty  the  sole  origin  of  law, 
no  such  thing  as  justice,  no  equality  being 
possible  without  it.  The  perfect  equality, 
then,  in  the  sight  of  their  God,  the  Eternal, 
seems  to  be  the  mark  by  which  the  Hebrew 
theocracy  was  distinguished,  strangely  resem- 
bhng  in  many  respects  its  modern  Puritan 
ideal  of  an  industrial  commonwealth. 

The  sanction  on  which  Hebrew  morals 
depended  was,  if  possible,  even  more  extraor- 
dinary. The  lawgiver,  educated  in  Egypt, 
where  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  under  some 
form,  most  hkely  that  of  metempsychosis,  or 
the  transmigration  of  the  soul,  entered  into 
the  popular  belief,  nevertheless  maintained  a 


profound  silence  on  that  fundamental  doc- 
trine, if  not  of  political,  at  least  of  religious 
legislation  —  the  rewards  and  punishments 
of  another  hfe.  He  substituted  temporal 
chastisement  and  temporal  blessings.  On  the 
violation  of  the  constitution  followed  inevi- 
tably blighted  harvests,  famine,  pestilence, 
barrenness  among  their  women,  defeat,  cap- 
tivity ;  on  its  maintenance,  abundance,  health, 
fruitfulness,  victory,  independence. 

In  this  respect  it  presents  a  contrast  to  the 
great  organization  which  succeeded  it,  the 
modern  Christian  church.  This  distinction 
has  been  clearly  defined ;  and  "we  often  see," 
in  the  language  of  Fleury,  "  the  life  of  those 
whose  thought  and  occupation  is  not  of  earth, 
but  in  heaven,  and  who,  while  still  in  the 
flesh,  yet  live  according  to  the  spirit.  In  the 
manners  of  the  Hebrews,  on  the  other  hand, 
we  see  the  best  use  of  temporal  goods,  and  the 
aim  to  pass  in  the  way  the  most  rational  the 
hfe  spent  upon  earth." 

We  come  finally  to  consider  the  crowning 
glory  of  all  the  work  of  Moses,  the  decalogue. 
The  principles  embraced  by  the  ten  com- 
mandments may  be  reduced  to  three : 

1.  The  duty  of  man  never  to  accord  to  his 
fellow  beings,  or  to  any  other  creatures,  that 
kind  of  homage  which  belongs  alone  to  the 
deity. 

2.  The  right  of  the  people  to  assemble  in 
meeting  every  seventh  day,  in  the  interest  of 
the  laws  and  of  the  prosperity  of  the  country ; 
the  duty  of  each  citizen  to  divide  his  time  and 
his  thought  between  civil  and  religious 
interests  in  proportion,  at  the  least,  of  one  of 
six. 

3.  The  duty  of  respect  to  persons  and  to 
property,  the  right  of  each  to  be  himself 
respected. 

It  is  not  in  the  twentieth  chapter  of  Exodus 
alone  that  we  find  the  law ;  there  is  a  chapter 
in  Leviticus,  the  nineteenth,  which  contains 
the  same  doctrine,  though  in  a  less  impressive 
form.  This  is  but  the  simplest  and  plainest 
expression  of  what  are  to-day  acknowledged 
to  be  the  first  principles  of  good  morals. 

What  was  the  substance  of  the  ten  com- 
mandments? What  has  the  human  race 
gained  by  its  adoption  of  what  Burckhardt 
called  "  the  code  of  the  Beni-Israel "?  "  It  is, 
in  one  word,"  says  Dean  Stanley,  "the  decla- 
ration of  the  indivisible  unity  of  morality 
'  with  religion.  It  was  the  boast  of  Josephus 
that  whereas  other  legislators  had  made 
reUgion  to  be  a  part  of  virtue,  Moses  had  made 


IN  RELIGION 


108 


virtue  to  be  a  part  of  religion.  Of  this, 
amongst  all  other  indications,  the  ten  com- 
mandments are  the  most  remarkable  and 
enduring  example." 

The  personal  characteristics  of  Moses  are 
too  faintly  drawn  to  admit  of  very  full  delinea- 
tion; but  several  features  are  indisputably 
marked  out.  He  combined  in  himself  two 
qualities  rarely  found  together  in  the  same 
man:  he  was  hero  as  well  as  legislator.  He 
found  a  people  in  bondage,  and  he  led  them 
out  of  it  and  left  them  free. 

It  has  sometimes  been  attempted  to  reduce 
this  great  character  into  a  mere  passive  instru- 
ment of  the  divine  will,  as  though  he  had  him- 
self borne  no  conscious  part  in  the  actions  in 
which  he  figures,  or  the  messages  which  he 
delivers.  This,  however,  is  as  incompatible 
with  the  general  tenor  of  the  scriptural 
account  as  it  is  with  the  common  language  in 
which  he  has  been  described  by  the  church  in 
all  ages.  The  frequent  addresses  of  the 
divinity  to  him  no  more  contravene  his  per- 
sonal activity  and  intelligence  than  in  the 
case  of  Elijah,  Isaiah,  or  St.  Paul.  In  the 
new  testament  the  legislation  of  the  Jews  is 
expressly  ascribed  to  him :  "  Moses  gave  you 
circumcision";  "Moses,  because  of  the  hard- 
ness of  j^our  hearts,  suffered  you  " ;  "  Did  not 
Moses  give  you  the  law?"  "Moses  accuseth 
you."  St.  Paul  goes  so  far  as  to  speak  of  him 
as  the  founder  of  the  Jewish  religion :  "They 
were  all  baptized  unto  Moses."  And  he  is 
constantly  called  "  a  prophet." 

"No  modern  word,"  says  Dean  Stanley, 
"seems  exactly  to  correspond  to  that  which 
our  translators  have  rendered,  'the  meekest 
of  men ' ;  but  which  rather  expresses  *  endur- 
ing,' 'afflicted,'  'heedless  of  self.'  This,  at 
any  rate,  is  the  trait  most  strongly  impressed 
on  all  his  actions  from  first  to  last.  So  in 
Egypt  he  threw  himself  into  the  thankless 
cause  of  his  oppressed  brethren;  at  Sinai  he 
besought  that  his  name  might  be  blotted  out, 
if  only  his  people  might  be  spared;  in  the 
desert  he  wished  that  not  only  he,  but  all  the 
Lord's  people  might  prophesy.  He  founded 
no  dynasty;  his  own  sons  were  left  in  deep 
obscm'ity;  his  successor  was  taken  from  the 
rival  tribe  of  Ephraim.  He  himself  receives 
for  once  the  regal  title '  the  king  in  Jerusalem ' ; 
but  the  title  dies  with  him.  It  is  as  the 
highest  type  and  concentration  of  this  endur- 
ance and  self-abnegation  that  the  last  view 
from  Pisgah  receives  its  chief  instruction. 
To  labor  and  not  to  see  the  end  of  our  labors ; 


to  sow,  and  not  to  reap ;  to  be  removed  tnm 
this  earthly  scene  before  our  worit  haa  been 
appreciated,  and  when  it  will  be  carried  on, 
not  by  ourselves,  but  by  others,  is  a  law  ao 
common  in  the  highest  characters  of  history, 
that  none  can  be  said  to  be  altogether  exempt 
from  its  operation. 

"Never  was  there  an  undertaking  more 
arduous  than  that  on  which  he  waJs  com- 
missioned. To  lead  forth  a  mob  of  slaves, 
debased  as  only  slavery  can  debase  humanity, 
sunk  below  the  dead  level  of  pagan  I^yptian 
civilization ;  to  form  them  into  a  daring  army, 
a  free  commonwealth,  and  a  believing  church ; 
to  be  exposed  to  all  the  ready  and  violent 
vicissitudes  of  their  desires  and  hopes  and 
fears,  and  so  to  have  to  suffer  their  manners 
in  the  wilderness ;  to  have  them  upbraid  him 
for  their  very  deliverance  when  their  sensual 
natures  lusted  after  the  fleshpots  of  Egypt; 
to  have  them  talk  of  stoning  him  when  the 
wells  were  dry;  to  have  them  dispute  with 
him  for  his  command,  and  rebel  against  his 
rule;  to  have  them  break  their  covenant 
with  Jehovah,  and  turn  to  the  sacred  calf 
of  their  old  Egyptian  oppressors  —  all  this 
was  such  a  burden  as  was  never  laid  on  any 
other. 

"Each  of  the  two  former  selections  of  his 
life  gave  its  own  contribution  to  the  last,  with 
its  glorious  time  of  harvest  and  achievement. 
He  who  was  to  be  victor  over  Pharaoh,  and 
the  emancipator  of  the  Israelites,  was  trained 
in  the  very  military  school  which  he  was  to 
oppose.  Humanely  speaking,  he  could  never 
have  so  dealt  with  Pharaoh  if  he  had  not 
enjoyed  his  Egyptian  advantages.  As  Wil- 
liam the  Silent  was  educated  in  the  closet  of 
Charles  V.,  and  at  the  court  of  Philip  II.,  into 
the  liberator  of  the  united  provinces,  and  thus 
turned  to  account,  in  the  emancipation  of  his 
fellow  countrymen,  the  lessons  in  diplomacy 
and  military  tactics  which  he  had  learned 
from  the  oppressor  himself,  so  Moees,  under 
God,  made  his  learning  in  all  the  wisdom  of 
the  Egyptians  subservient  to  the  great  work 
of  his  life.  Nay,  as  he  was  to  stand  before  the 
nations  the  grand  champion  for  spiritual 
monotheism,  in  the  face  of  idolatry,  mate- 
rialism, and  polytheism,  he  was  first  initiated 
in  the  system  which  he  was  to  oppose.  Just 
as  Saul  of  Tarsus  was  prepared  by  his  educ** 
tion  in  the  school  of  Gamaliel  for  under- 
standing the  real  symbolism  of  Judaism,  and 
thereby  advancing  the  simplicity  and  spiritu- 
ality of  the  gospel  —  so  Moees  was  enabled  by 


194 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


his  Egyptian  learning  to  penetrate  to  the  image  of  Jehovah  to  ally  it  with  the  idolatries 
heart  of  the  religious  symbolism  of  his  time.  |  of  the  nations." 

Thus,  at  length,  he  became  the  instrument  of  |  In  spite  of  all  the  daring  criticism  that  has 
producing  an  external  system  in  which  the  i  been  proposed  concerning  the  personality  and 
eye  was  made  to  minister  to  the  under-  work  of  Moses,  history  shows  few,  if  any, 
standing,  while  yet  there  was  no  sculptured  j  men  of  his  towering  grandeur. 


ZOROASTER 

Oh  Persic  Zoroaster,  lord  of  stars ! 

—  Who  said  these  old  renowns,  dead  long  ago, 

Could  make  me  overlook  the  livine  world 

To  gaze  through  gloom  at  where  tney  stood,  indeed. 

—  Browning. 


7'OROASTER  is  the  Latinized  name  of 
^^  Zarathustra,  the  founder  of  the  Persian- 
Iranian  religion,  usually  designated  Zoroas- 
trianism,  of  which  the  Magian  and  Parsee 
religions  are  forms.  A  wide  range  of  dates  is 
assigned  to  the  activities  of  Zoroaster,  but 
modern  scholars  usually  accredit  him  to  the 
seventh  and  sixth  centuries  B.  C.  Roth,  an 
eminent  scholar,  puts  his  date  about  1000 
B.  C,  while  others  have  placed  him  as  far 
back  as  1500  B.  C. 

Special  significance  attaches  to  Zoroaster 
and  the  religion  he  founded,  because  Persia  is, 
in  a  certain  sense,  the  elder  brother  of  the 
Aryan  family,  first  of  the  Indo-European 
peoples.  Indeed,  the  prominence  of  the 
Indo-European  races  —  from  which  we  are 
descended  —  in  the  great  drama  of  universal 
history  commences  with  the  era  of  the  early 
Persian  empire. 

The  personal  history  of  Zoroaster  is  known 
only  in  outline.  In  the  Zend-Avesta  —  the 
authorship  of  which  is  generally  accredited  to 
him  —  he  appears  under  his  family  name  of 
Spitama,  the  inference  being  that  Zarathustra 
was  a  title,  or  sobriquet,  meaning  "chief," 
"senior,"  or  "high  priest,"  which  were  com- 
mon designations  for  a  spiritual  guide  and 
head  of  a  province.  The  terms  he  applied  to 
himself  are:  Manthran,  a  reciter  of  man- 
thras;  a  messenger  sent  by  Ormuzd;  a 
speaker;  one  who  listens  to  the  voice  of 
oracles  given  by  the  spirit  of  nature;  one 
who  receives  sacred  words  from  Ormuzd 
through  the  flames. 

He  seems  to  have  been  born  in  Bactria,  in 
the  northwestern  part  of  Iran,  and  was  the  son 
of  Pourushaspa.  His  doctrine  then  spread  to 
Media,  and  Persia  proper.  Various  cities  are' 
mentioned  as  his  birthplace,  and  the  ancient 
town  of  Rei,  near  the  modern  Teheran,  is  said 


to  have  been  the  original  home  of  his  mother, 
Dugheda.  Many  legends  and  a  number  of 
miracles  gathered  about  his  birth  and  child- 
hood, and  tradition  leaves  space  for  a  period 
of  religious  preparation  from  his  fifteenth  to 
his  thirtieth  year,  when  he  received  a  revela- 
tion of  the  faith  and  came  forward  as  a 
reformer  of  the  superstitious  beliefs  of  the 
old  Brahmanic  creed. 

He  evidently  traveled  over  a  considerable 
part  of  Iran,  for  mention  is  made  of  his  pres- 
ence at  various  places ;  and  he  was  doubtless, 
also,  the  leader  of  a  group  of  chieftains  —  one 
of  whom  w^as  King  Vishtaspa  —  who  carried 
on  a  political,  military,  and  religious  struggle 
for  the  establishment  of  a  holy  agricultural 
state,  whose  laws  encouraged  pastoral  labor, 
tillage,  and  thrift,  as  against  the  freebooting 
tendencies  of  Turanian  and  Vedic  aggressors. 
That  he  was  legislator,  prophet,  pontiff,  and 
philosopher,  as  tradition  asserts,  is  quite 
within  the  boimds  of  truth ;  but  that  he  was 
the  "abyss  of  all  wisdom  and  truth,  and  the 
master  of  the  whole  living  creation  "  must  be 
taken  as  a  mere  oriental  extravagance, 
though  at  the  same  time  it  shows  the  place 
Zoroaster  occupied  in  Persian  thought. 

"  We  worship  "  —  so  runs  one  of  the  prayers 
in  Fravardin  Yasht  —  "the  rule  and  the 
guardian  angel  of  Zarathustra  Spitama,  who 
first  thought  good  thoughts,  who  first  spoke 
good  words,  who  first  performed  good  actions, 
who  was  the  first  priest,  the  first  warrior,  the 
first  cultivator  of  soil,  the  first  prophet,  the 
first  who  was  inspired,  the  first  who  has  given 
to  mankind  nature,  and  reality,  and  word,  and 
hearing  of  word,  and  wealth,  and  all  good 
things  created  by  Mazda,  which  embellish 
reality;  who  first  caused  the  wheel  to  turn 
among  gods  and  men,  who  first  praised  the 
purity  of  the  living  creation  and  destroyed 


IN  RELIGION 


IM 


idolatry,  who  confessed  the  Zarathustrian 
belief  in  Ormuzd,  the  religion  of  the  living 
God  against  the  devils.  *  ♦  ♦  Through 
whom  the  whole  true  and  revealed  word  was 
heard,  which  is  the  life  and  guidance  of  the 
world.  *  *  *  Through  his  knowledge 
and  speech,  the  waters  and  trees  become 
desirous  of  growing;  through  his  knowledge 
and  speech,  all  beings  created  by  the  Holy 
Spirit  are  uttering  words  of  happiness." 

The  conflict  that  led  to  this  schism  between 
the  Iranians  and  those  Aryan  tribes  which 
immigrated  into  Hindustan  proper,  and 
whose  leaders  afterward  became  founders  of 
Brahmanism,  sprung  from  many  social,  politi- 
cal, and  religious  causes.  The  Aryans  seem 
to  have  originally  led  a  nomad  life,  until  some 
of  them,  reaching,  in  the  course  of  their  migra- 
tions, lands  fit  for  permanent  settlements, 
settled  down  into  agriculturists.  Bactria 
and  the  parts  between  the  Oxus  and  Jaxartes 
seem  to  have  attracted  them  most.  The 
Iranians  became  gradually  estranged  from 
their  brother  tribes,  who  adhered  to  their 
ancient  nomad  life;  and  by  degrees,  the 
whilom  affection  having  turned  into  hatred, 
they  considered  those  peaceful  settlements  a  fit 
prey  for  their  depredations  and  inroads.  The 
hatred  thus  nourished  by  further  degrees 
included  all  and  everything  belonging  to  these 
devastators;  even  their  religion,  originally 
identical  with  that  of  the  settlers.  The  deva 
religion  became  in  their  eyes  the  source  of  all 
evil.  Moulded  into  a  new  form,  styled  the 
Ahura  religion,  the  old  elements  were  much 
more  changed  than  was  the  case  when  Judaism 
became  Christianity.  Generation  after  gener- 
ation further  added  and  took  away,  until 
Zarathustra,  with  the  energy  and  the  clear 
eye  that  belongs  to  exalted  leaders  and  found- 
ers of  religions,  gave  to  that  which  had  origi- 
nally been  a  mere  reaction  and  spite  against 
the  primitive  Brahmanic  faith,  a  new  and 
independent  life,  and  forever  fixed  its  dogmas, 
not  a  few  of  which  have  sprung  from  his  own 
brains. 

The  propagation  of  his  religious  system 
occupied  Zoroaster  down  to  the  time  of  his 
death,  which  tradition  has  fixed  at  the  end  of 
seventy-seven  years.  His  end  seems  to  have 
been  a  violent  one,  and  to  have  taken  place 
during  the  invasion  of  Iran  by  the  Turanians 
who  waged  a  religious  war  against  Vishtaspa. 
Firdausi  and  other  later  writers  locate  the 
place  of  his  death  as  Balkh,  or  Bactria. 

The  present  Avesta,  or  Zend-Avesta  —  the 


bible  of  Zoroastrianism  —  is  only  the  i^niuot 
of  a  greater  religious  literature.  It  includet: 
(1)  A  collection  of  hymna  or  gathas ;  (2) »  col- 
lection of  liturgical  forms;  (3)  a  coUeotioa  of 
religious  laws;  (4)  mythical  fraguMato  d»> 
voted  to  various  divinities;  and  (5)  various 
prayers  and  fragments.  The  gathas,  or 
hynms,  are  verses  from  the  eennoM  of  Zoroas- 
ter, and  they  form  the  oldest  and  most  sacred 
part  of  the  Aveata.  The  vendidad,  or  reli- 
gious laws,  is  similar  to  the  pentateuch  of 
Moses,  and  is  chiefly  directed  against  the 
devas,  or  demons. 

It  is  chiefly  from  the  gathas  that  Zar»> 
thustra's  real  theology,  unmutilated  by  later 
ages,  can  be  learned.  These  are  written  in 
the  language  of  ancient  Persia,  and  profess  to 
give  the  revelations  made  by  Ormusd  to  his 
servant  and  prophet  Zarathustra.  His  sys- 
tem teaches  that  the  world  or  universe  is  the 
scene  of  a  conflict  between  two  principles  — 
the  good,  called  Ormuzd,  and  the  evil,  called 
Ahriman  —  the  god  of  life  and  the  god  of 
death.  Every  good  action  helped  the  one,  every 
evil  action  the  other.  The  soul  of  man,  the  soil 
of  every  field,  were  scenes  of  never-ending 
battle.  Those  who  touched  what  was  impure 
gave  Ahriman  the  more  power  over  them. 

"Ormuzd  was  glorious  with  light,"  he  says 
in  the  gathas,  "pure,  fragrant,  beneficient, 
daring,  all  that  is  pure.  Then  looking  be- 
neath him  he  perceived,  at  the  distance  of 
ninety-six  thousand  parasangs,  Ahriman,  who 
was  black,  covered  with  mud  and  rottenness, 
and  doing  evil.  Ormuzd  was  astonished  at 
the  frightful  air  of  his  enemy.  He  thought 
within  himself,  'I  must  cause  the  enemy  to 
disappear  from  the  midst  of  things.' " 

The  great  dualism  of  good  and  evil,  which 
is  his  fundamental  idea,  does  not  stop,  how- 
ever, at  the  single  generaUty;  it  creates  a 
hierarchy  extending  to  all  created  things, 
animate  and  inanimate,  men,  animals,  insects, 
vegetables;  all  of  which,  according  as  they 
are  pure  or  impure,  attach  themselves  to  God 
the  prince  of  good,  or  to  satan  the  prince  of 
evil.  Fire  and  light  progressively  diminish 
in  intensity ;  where  heat  and  light  cease,  mat^ 
ter  commences,  with  darkness  and  evil,  which 
we  must  attribute  to  Ahriman,  not  to  Ormuid. 
A  countless  host  of  inferior  angels  and  demons 
are  distributed  through  the  two  Iringdnms, 
which  are  in  eternal  war  with  each  other. 
But  Ahriman  and  the  power  of  darkness  will 
in  time  be  vanquished,  and  over  all  the  uni- 
verse will  extend  the  reign  of  light. 


196 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


"This  duality,"  says  M.  Haug,  one  of  the 
highest  authorities  on  the  Zend-Avesta,  "is 
threefold,  and  refers:  first,  to  the  two 
principal  spirits ;  second,  to  the  two  lives,  i.  e., 
this  life  and  the  life  hereafter;  third,  to  the 
two  wisdoms,  i.  e.,  the  knowledge  acquired  by 
study  and  experience,  and  the  inborn  celestial 
wisdom." 

Thus  declares  Zoroaster : 

"  I  will  proclaim  the  two  primeval  spirits  of 
the  world.  I  will  proclaim  the  primeval 
thought  of  this  life.  I  will  proclaim  the  best 
in  this  life.  All  that  have  been  living,  and 
will  be  living,  subsist  by  means  of  his  bounty 
only.  The  soul  of  the  pure  attains  to  immor- 
tality, but  that  of  the  wicked  man  has  to 
undergo  everlasting  punishment.  Such  is  the 
rule  of  Ormuzd,  whose  creatures  we  are." 

Each  of  the  two  primeval  spirits  —  Ormuzd 
and  Ahriman  —  are  represented  in  the  Zend- 
Avesta  as  having  a  council  and  court  of  his 
own,  like  earthly  rulers.  The  number  of 
councilors  was  six,  each  having  to  rule  over 
some  special  province  of  creation ;  but  Ormuzd, 
who  at  first  merely  presided  over  this  council, 
came  gradually  to  be  included  in  their  number, 
and  we  then  read  of  seven  instead  of  the 
usual  six  Ameshaspentas,  or  immortal  saints. 
These  six  supreme  councilors,  who  have  also 
found  their  way  into  the  Jewish  tradition 
embodied  in  the  Talmud,  are,  both  by  etymol- 
ogy and  the  sense  of  the  passages  into  which 
they  figure,  distinctly  seen  to  be  but  abstract 
nouns  or  ideas,  representing  the  gifts  which 
Ormuzd  grants  to  all  those  who  worship  with 
a  pure  heart,  who  speak  the  truth,  and  per- 
form good  actions. 

The  first  of  these  angels  or  principles  (Vohu 
Mano)  is  the  vital  faculty  in  all  living  beings 
of  the  good  creation.  He  is  the  son  of 
Ormuzd,  and  penetrates  the  whole  living 
good  creation.  By  him  are  wrought  all  good 
deeds  and  words  of  men.  The  second  (Ardi- 
behesht)  represents  the  blazing  flame  of  fire, 
the  hght  in  luminaries,  and  brightness  and 
splendor  of  any  and  every  kind.  He  repre- 
sents, as  the  light,  the  all-pervading,  all- 
penetrating  Ormuzd's  omnipresence.  He  is 
the  preserver  of  the  vitality  of  all  hfe  and  all 
that  is  good.  He  thus  represents  providence. 
The  third  presides  over  metals,  and  is  the 
giver  of  wealth.  His  name  is  Sharavar, 
which  means  possession,  wealth.  The  fourth 
(Issandarmat,  or  devotion)  represents  the 
earth.  It  is  a  symbol  of  the  pious  and  obedi- 
ent heart  of  the  true  worshiper,  who  serves 


Ormuzd  with  his  body  and  soul.  The  last 
two  (Khordad  and  Amerdat)  preside  over 
vegetation  and  produce  all  kinds  of  fruit. 

But  apart  from  the  celestial  council  stands 
Sraosha  (Serost,  or  messiah),  the  archangel, 
vested  with  very  high  powers.  He  alone 
seems  to  have  been  considered  a  personality. 
He  stands  between  Ormuzd  and  man,  the 
great  teacher  of  the  prophet  himself.  He 
shows  the  way  to  heaven,  and  pronounces 
judgment  upon  human  action  after  death. 
He  is  styled  "the  sincere,  the  beautiful,  the 
victorious,  who  protects  our  territories,  the 
true,  the  master  of  truth."  "  For  his  splendor 
and  beauty,  for  his  power  and  victory,"  he 
is  to  be  worshiped  and  invoked.  "He 
first  sang  the  five  gathaa  of  Zarathustra 
Spitama  " ;  that  is,  he  is  the  bearer  and  repre- 
sentative of  the  sacred  tradition,  including  the 
sacrificial  rites  and  the  prayers.  He  is  the 
protector  of  all  creation,  for  "he  slays  the 
demon  of  destruction,  who  prevents  the 
growth  of  nature,  and  murders  its  hfe.  He 
never  slumbers,  but  is  always  awake.  He 
guards  with  his  drawn  sword  the  whole  world 
against  the  attacks  of  the  demons,  endowed 
with  bodies  after  sunset.  He  has  a  palace  of 
one  thousand  pillars,  erected  on  the  highest 
sununit  of  the  mountain  Alborj.  It  has  its 
own  light  from  inside,  and  from  outside  it  is 
decorated  with  stars.  He  walks,  teaching 
religion  round  about  the  world."  In  men 
who  do  not  honor  him  by  prayer,  the  bad 
mind  becomes  powerful,  and  impregnates 
them  with  sin  and  crime,  and  they  shall 
become  utterly  distressed  both  in  this  life 
and  in  the  hfe  to  come. 

In  the  same  manner,  Ahriman,  the  evil 
spirit,  was  endowed  with  a  council,  imitated 
from  the  one  just  mentioned,  and  consisting 
of  six  devas,  or  devils,  headed  by  Ahriman 
himself,  who  is  then  styled  Devanam  Devo, 
"arch-devil."  The  first  after  him  is  called 
Ako  Mano,  or  naught  mind,  the  original 
"non-reahty,"  or  evil  principle  of  Zoroaster. 
He  produces  all  bad  thoughts,  makes  man 
utter  bad  words,  and  commit  sin.  The 
second  place  is  taken  by  the  Indian  god,  Indra ; 
the  third,  by  Shiva,  or  Shaurva;  the  fourth, 
by  Naonhaitya  —  lie  collective  name  of  the 
Indian  Ashuras,  or  Dioscuri;  the  fifth  and 
sixth,  by  the  two  personifications  of  "dark- 
ness" and  "poison."  There  are  msiny  devas, 
or  devils,  besides,  to  be  foimd  in  the  Zend- 
Avesta,  mostly  allegorical  or  symboUcal 
names    of    evils    erf    all    kinds.     While    the 


IN  RELIGION 


Wf 


heavenly  council  is  always  taking  measures 
for  promoting  life,  the  infernal  council  is 
always  endeavoring  to  destroy  it.  They 
endeavor  to  spread  lies  and  falsehoods,  and 
coincide,  together  with  their  great  chief,  with 
the  devil  and  the  infernal  hierarchy  of  the 
new  testament. 

The  Zend-Avesta  also  contains  an  account 
of  the  creation  of  sixteen  regions  by  Ormuzd, 
together  with  sixteen  evil  ones  by  Ahriman, 
in  opposition  to  these.    Thus : 

"Ormuzd  spake  to  the  holy  Zoroaster:  I 
created  a  place,  a  creation  of  delight ;  the  first 
and  best  of  regions  and  places  I  created. 
Then  the  Evil  One,  who  is  full  of  death, 
created  an  opposition  to  the  same:  a  great 
serpent  and  winter.  Ten  months  are  there; 
two  summer  months.  And  these  are  cold  as 
to  the  water,  cold  as  to  the  earth,  cold  as  to 
the  trees.  After  this,  to  the  middle  of  the 
earth,  then  to  the  heart  of  the  earth,  comes 
the  winter ;  then  comes  the  worst  evil. 

"The  second  and  best  of  regions  and  places 
have  I  created. 

"Then  the  Evil  One,  who  is  full  of  death, 
created  an  opposition  to  the  same:  a  wasp, 
which  is  very  death  to  the  cattle  and  the 
fields. 

"The  third  and  best  of  regions  and  places  I 
created. 

"  Then  He,  who  is  full  of  death,  created  an 
opposition  to  the  same :  evil  thoughts. 

"The  fourth  and  best  of  regions  and  places 
have  I  created. 

"  Then  the  Evil  Spirit,  who  is  full  of  death, 
created  an  opposition  to  the  same :  devouring 
beasts." 

The  sixteen  regions  thus  created  give  to  us 
a  most  important  geographical  record  of  the 
countries  known  to  the  early  Iranians  — 
Balkh,  Merv,  Herat,  Cabiil,  and  others.  The 
account  goes  on  with  the  entire  sixteen.  In 
the  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  regions 
—  "  the  best  of  regions  and  places "  —  the 
Evil  One  in  opposition  places  unbelief,  sloth- 
fulness,  and  poverty,  evil  defilement,  wicked 
inexpediable  deeds,  etc.  The  remaining  eight 
are  very  similar:  on  the  one  hand,  the  best 
of  regions  and  places,  the  fair  and  the  beauti- 
ful, full  of  pasture  grounds;  on  the  other, 
wicked  signs,  wicked  deeds,  wicked  tokens. 
The  chapter  closes  with  the  words:  "There 
are  also  other  regions,  places,  plains,  and 
lands." 

Other  chapters  describe  the  work  of  crea- 
tion, both  material  and  spiritual.     In  oriental 


religions,  the  creation  of  spirit  preoedet  that 
of  matter ;  but  othpr\^'iBe  the  account  rraom 
bles  slightly  that  given  in  Oeimis.  It  ooeo- 
pied,  however,  three  hundred  sixty-fiTtt 
days,  or  one  year,  divided  into  six  pwioda, 
each  of  which  is  commemorated  with  a  fecti> 
val.  The  world  will  last  twelve  tJi^^tiffiTH 
years :  the  first  three  thousand  is  the  reign  oi 
the  good  principle ;  the  second  three  thoiuaad 
that  of  the  good  and  the  bad  pnnciplea 
together;  while,  at  the  last,  the  triumph  of 
the  good  is  assured. 

The  belief  in  the  latter,  and  in  immortality, 
was  one  of  the  principal  dogmas  of  ZiOTOuier, 
and  it  is  held  by  many  that  it  was  not  through 
Persian  influence  that  it  became  a  Jewish  and 
a  Christian  dogma.  Heaven  is  called  the 
"house  of  hjonns,"  a  place  where  angda 
praise  God  incessantly  in  song.  It  is  alao 
called  the  "best  life,"  or  paradise.  "Hell" 
is  called  the  house  of  destmction.  It  is  the 
abode  chiefly  of  the  priests  of  the  bad  (deva) 
religion.  The  modem  Persians  call  the 
former  Behesht ;  the  latter,  Duzak.  Between 
heaven  and  hell  there  is  a  bridge  of  the 
gatherer  or  judge,  over  which  the  soul  of  the 
pious  passes  unharmed,  while  the  wicked  is 
precipitated  from  it  into  hell.  The  restirreo- 
tion  of  the  body  is  clearly  and  emphatically 
indicated  in  the  Zend-Avesta;  and  it  belongs, 
in  all  probability,  to  Zoroaster's  original  doc- 
trine—  not,  as  has  been  held  by  some,  to 
later  times,  when  it  was  imported  into  his 
religion  by  other  religions. 

It  is  often  asserted  that  men  and  peoples 
are  actuated  to  virtuous  conduct  by  one  or 
more  of  four  motives :  fear,  self-interest,  love, 
and  duty.  It  has  also  been  said  ^ith  equal 
force  that  the  age  of  the  individual,  or  of  the 
society,  will  determine  which  of  these  motivea 
will  predominate.  Infancy  —  whether  in  the 
individual,  or  the  society  — is  specially 
influenced  by  fear ;  mature  age,  by  a  sense  of 
duty.  It  must  be  confessed  that  Persia,  ever 
regarded  as  the  infant  of  the  human  raee, 
exhibits,  in  its  religion,  the  general  character- 
istics of  infancy.  The  sword  of  Ormuzd  ia 
grand  and  terrible ;  the  Parsee  bows  hia  head 
before  a  jealous  god;  he  hears  his  god'a 
reprobation ;  prayers  and  sacrifices  are  incea- 
sant,  the  sacred  fire  must  ever  be  supplied 
with  wood,  with  oil,  with  perfumes. 

Yet  we  find  striking  exceptions,  at  least  in 
theory.  The  moral  and  economic  reforms  of 
Zoroaster  must  be  considered  of  a  highOTdw; 
and,  unlike  Buddhism,  a  holy  life  is  rewarded 


198 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


by  immortality  and  heaven.  The  elements  — 
€arth,  air,  fire,  and  water,  but  especially  fire 
—  received  homage  as  creations  of  Ormuzd. 
The  tillage  of  the  soil  was  regarded  as  the 
highest  of  pursuits;  and  it  is  probable  that 
from  this  teaching  the  somewhat  unorthodox 
Persian  maxim  originated:  "It  is  better  to 
plow  than  to  pray." 

The  following  are  a  few  of  the  moral  sayings 
found  in  the  creed  of  Zoroa.ster : 

"Never  lie;  it  is  infamous,  even  when 
falsehood  may  be  useful. 

"We  ought  not  to  become  answerable  for 
others,  for  we  can  hardly  be  answerable  for 
ourselves. 

"True  happiness  consists  in  a  competence 
of  this  world's  goods,  health,  and  the  appro- 
bation of  a  good  conscience. 

"He  who  sows  the  ground  with  care  and 
diligence  acquires  a  greater  stock  of  religious 
merit  than  he  could  gain  by  the  repetition  of 
ten  thousand  prayers." 

Virtue,  finally,  may  be  summed  up  in  a 
word  —  the  essence  of  all :  "  There  are  three 
rules  of  life,  saith  the  law :  purity  of  thought, 
purity  of  word,  purity  of  action." 

Nowhere,  probably,  has  the  work  of  Zoroas- 
ter been  more  concisely  and  correctly  summed 


up  than  in  the  language  of  James  Anthony 
Froude:  "Zoroaster,  like  Moses,  saw  behind 
the  physical  forces  into  the  deeper  laws 
of  right  and  wrong.  He  supposed  himself 
to  discover  two  antagonistic  powers  con- 
tending in  the  heart  of  man  as  well  as  in  the 
outward  universe  —  a  spirit  of  light  and  a 
spirit  of  darkness,  a  spirit  of  truth,  and  a 
spirit  of  falsehood,  a  spirit  life-giving  and 
beautiful,  a  spirit  poisonous  and  deadly.  To 
one  or  other  of  these  powtirs  man  was  nec- 
essarily in  servitude.  As  the  followers  of 
Ormuzd,  he  became  enrolled  in  the  celestial 
armies,  whose  business  was  to  fight  against 
sin  and  misery,  against  wrong-doing  and 
impurity,  against  injustice  and  Ues  and 
baseness  of  all  sorts  and  kinds ;  and  every  one 
with  a  soul  in  him  to  prefer  good  to  evil  was 
summoned  to  the  holy  wars,  which  would  end 
at  last  after  ages  in  the  final  overthrow  of 
Ahriman.  *  ♦  ♦  The  Persians  caught 
rapidly  Zoroaster's  spirit.  Uncorrupted  by 
luxury,  they  responded  eagerly  to  a  voice 
which  they  recognized  as  speaking  truth  to 
them.  They  have  been  called  the  Puritans 
of  the  old  world.  Never  any  people,  it  is 
said,  hated  idolatry  as  they  hated  it,  and  for 
the  simple  reason  that  they  hated  Ues." 


CONFUCIUS 


Superior,  and  alone,  Confucius  stood, 

Who  taught  that  useful  science, —  to  be  good. 

—  Pope. 


/^ONFUCIUS  is  the  Latinized  name  of  the 
^^  illustrious  Chinese  religionist  and  sage, 
Kung-fu-tse  (variously  spelled),  whose  influ- 
ence has  held  uninterrupted  sway  over  the 
Chinese  people  for  almost  two  thousand  five 
hundred  years.  The  name  really  signifies 
"the  master  Kung,"  the  latter  being  the 
family  name  of  the  sage,  and  "fu-tse"  the 
denomination  apphed  to  him  by  his  disciples. 
Most  authorities  agree  in  a  number  of  details 
relating  to  his  early  life  and  subsequent 
career,  but  the  reverence  in  which  he  is  held 
by  his  countrymen  has  colored  the  facts  with 
a  tincture  of  fiction  not  easy  to  efface  after 
such  a  lapse  of  time. 

He  was  born,  according  to  tradition,  in  the 
village  of  Ch'ueh,  state  of  Lu  —  now  in  the 
province  of  Shantung  —  China,  551  B.  C. 
His  father  died  when  Confucius  was  three 
years  old.    The  former  had  been  an  official 


of  some  rank  and  a  soldier  of  distinguished 
courage.  At  the  age  of  seventy  he  married 
his  second  wife,  the  mother  of  Confucius. 
To  her  wise  counsels  the  son  owed  much. 
At  nineteen  Confucius  had  been  married,  and 
held  a  position  as  district  inspector  of  agri- 
culture. He  showed  such  unwonted  zeal  and 
honesty  in  fulfilling  the  duties  of  his  new 
office  that  the  whole  district  began  to  show 
its  effects.  "  Neglected  fields,"  says  tradition, 
"were  again  cultivated,  and  idleness  and 
misery  gave  place  to  labor  and  abundance." 
His  renown  had  already  begun  to  spread 
beyond  the  narrow  limits  of  his  natal  king- 
dom, when  an  event  occurred,  in  his  twenty- 
fourth  year,  which  changed  the  whole  course 
of  his  after  life.  His  mother  died ;  Confucius 
had  already  become  an  ardent  student  of  the 
religious  rites  and  moral  doctrines  of  the  older 
period  in  Chinese  history,   then  fallen  into 


IN  RELIGION 


IM 


disuse.  He  resigned  his  office,  and  lived  in 
retirement  for  three  years,  mourning  his  loss, 
in  accordance  with  an  old  custom.  This  act 
of  fihal  piety  made  a  strong  impression  upon 
his  fellow  citizens,  and  evidently  led  to  the 
restoration  of  ancient  funeral  rites  in  honor 
of  the  dead;  a  restoration  which  has  been 
more  or  less  strictly  adhered  to  by  the  Chi- 
nese nation  up  to  the  present  day. 

Confucius  believed  that  the  ancient  usages 
and  moral  doctrines  of  the  Chinese  nation 
contained  the  germ  of  all  social  and  political 
virtues,  and  he  longed  to  establish  a  school, 
educate  disciples,  and  publish  books  for  the 
purpose  of  spreading  his  opinions,  and  regen- 
erating his  countrymen. 

In  his  thirtieth  year  he  began  to  put  this 
plan  into  execution.  His  fame  rapidly  spread, 
admirers  and  scholars  increased.  He  trav- 
eled over  China  to  obtain  converts  to  his 
revived  moral  philosophy,  and  to  study  the 
laws  and  customs  of  the  country.  His  repu- 
tation having  preceded  him,  he  was  well  re- 
ceived wherever  he  went.  His  journey,  he 
says,  was  "honorable,  but  sterile";  for, 
while  nearly  all  admitted  the  justice  of  his 
principles,  few  had  the  courage  to  practice 
them.  His  school  of  philosophy,  in  fact, 
though  it  counted  many  influential  adherents, 
was  not  fairly  established  until  the  third  cen- 
tury after  his  death.  On  returning  to  his 
native  place  after  his  wanderings,  he  turned 
his  house  into  a  school  to  receive  his  disciples, 
who  consisted  of  young  men  of  all  stations  in 
life,  but  more  especially  men  of  letters,  man- 
darins, and  government  officers. 

About  501  B.  C.  Confucius  was  appointed 
governor  of  the  state  of  Lu,  where  a  mar- 
velous reformation  in  the  manners  of  the 
people  took  place.  The  next  year  saw  him 
minister  of  works,  and  next  minister  of  crime. 
He  improved  the  condition  of  the  people, 
took  a  special  interest  in  the  poorer  classes, 
their  taxes  and  the  manner  of  collecting  them, 
regarding  the  agricultural  classes  as  the  source 
of  all  riches  and  prosperity,  and  as  deserving 
of  the  special  cares  of  the  legislature.  The 
success  of  his  system  provoked  the  jealousy 
of  a  neighboring  kingdom ;  intrigues  were  set 
on  foot  to  diminish  his  influence,  and,  finally 
compelled  to  retire  from  office,  he  sought 
refuge  in  the  province  of  Wei,  where  he  lived 
in  exile. 

Followed  by  numerous  disciples,  however, 
he  here  continued  the  propagation  of  his 
moral  philosophy.    His  wanderings  were  very 


unpropitious,  however,  and  state  after 
refused  to  be  improved.  He  waa,  in  some 
instances,  persecuted;  once  he  waa  impria- 
oned  and  nearly  starved.  He  waa  finally 
recalled  to  Lu,  in  extreme  poverty,  waa  well 
received,  but  did  not  reenter  political  life. 

In  his  last  years  he  is  said  to  have  put  the 
finishing  hand  to  his  labors  on  the  ancient 
writings  that  posterity,  at  least,  might  be 
instructed.  He  himself  tells  us  that  he  i^ 
formed  the  music  to  which  the  andeot  odes 
were  sung,  and  edited  the  odea  themadves. 
He  died  478  B.  C,  in  his  seventy-aeoond  year, 
about  ten  years  before  Socrates  waa  bora. 
His  wife  and  son  were  already  dead,  but  a 
grandson  has  transmitted  the  family  down 
to  the  present  day. 

Immediately  after  his  death  Confucius 
began  to  be  venerated,  and  succeeding  agea 
adorned  his  name  with  golden  epithets.  The 
finest  temple  in  China  occupies  the  site  of  hia 
residence,  while  in  every  city,  down  to  those 
of  the  third  order,  there  is  a  temple  to  hia 
honor.  The  18th  day  of  the  second  moon  is 
kept  sacred  by  the  Chinese  as  the  anniversary 
of  his  death.  The  statue  of  Confucius  in  the 
chief  temple  represents  him  as  a  man  of  tall 
stature,  large  head,  and  imposing  presence. 
His  descendants  form  a  distinct  class  in 
China,  the  city  of  Kio-fu-ien,  where  he  is 
buried,  being  inhabited  chiefly  by  them. 
They  have  been  distinguished  by  various 
honors  and  privileges,  and  are  the  only  ex- 
ample of  hereditary  aristocracy  in  China. 

In  all  that  Confucius  did  or  taught,  the 
useful  and  practical,  in  a  broad  sense,  formed 
the  sole  object  of  his  labors  and  his  thoughts. 
For  many  ages  the  classic  literature  of  China 
has  consisted  exclusively  of  commentaries  on 
the  five  canonical  books  which  Confucius  pro- 
fessed merely  to  abridge,  and  of  four  others, 
which  were  composed  partly  by  himself  and 
partly  by  his  disciples,  and  which,  togethor 
with  the  former,  constitute  the  nine  Chinese 
classics. 

The  five  canonical  books  are  the  Vtlk- 
king—  originally  a  cosmological  essay,  now, 
curiously  enough,  regarded  as  a  treatise  on 
ethics;  the  Shu-king— &  history  of  the 
deliberations  between  the  emperors  Yaou  and 
Shun,  and  other  personages,  called  by  Con- 
fucius the  "ancient  kings,"  and  for  whose 
maxims  and  actions  he  had  the  highest  vener- 
ation; the  Shirking— a  book  of  sacred 
songs,  consisting  of  poems,  the  best  of  idiicfa 
every    well-educated    Chinaman    leama   by 


I 


200 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


heart;  the  Le-king — the  "Book  of  Rites," 
the  foundation  of  Chinese  manners,  prescrib- 
ing, as  it  does,  the  ceremonies  to  be  observed 
in  all  the  relationships  of  life,  and  the  great 
cause  of  the  unchangeableness  and  artificiality 
of  Chinese  habits;  and  the  "Chun  tsien" — 
a  history  by  Confucius  of  his  own  times,  and 
those  which  immediately  preceded  him.  The 
first  of  the  four  books  is  the  Ta-heo,  or 
"Great  Study,"  a  political  work,  in  which 
every  kind  of  government,  from  the  domestic 
to  the  imperial,  is  shown  to  be  essentially  the 
same  —  viz.,  parental ;  the  second  is  Chung- 
yung,  or  the  "Invariable  in  the  Mean,"  a 
book  devoted  to  teaching  men  what  is  "the 
due  medium,"  or  the  golden  mean,  to  observe 
in  their  conduct;  the  third  is  the  Tun-yu, 
or  "Philosophical  Dialogues,"  containing  the 
recorded  conversations  of  Confucius,  and  the 
best  book  for  obtaining  a  correct  knowledge 
of  his  character;  and  the  fourth  is  the 
Hitse,  written  by  Meng-tse  or  Mencius,  who 
died  317  B.  C,  and  who  was  by  far  the 
greatest  of  the  early  Confucians.  The  main 
object  of  this  work  is  to  inculcate  philan- 
thropic government. 

These  are  the  basis  of  Confucianism,  and, 
rightly  considered,  are  the  most  faithful 
expression  of  the  Chinese  mind,  although 
it  is  not  the  oldest  of  the  extant  Chinese 
religions.  It  is,  however,  the  cornerstone  of 
Chinese  civilization.  It  is  often  said  that 
Confucianism  is  a  system  of  morality  without 
religion,  because  it  is  simply  a  system  of  social 
and  political  life  built  upon  a  slight  founda- 
tion of  philosophy. 

The  direct  teaching  of  Confucius  is  to  be 
found  in  the  treatise  compiled  by  his  imme- 
diate disciples,  in  three  books,  and  called  the 
Shu.  The  first  teaches  the  art  of  govern- 
ing the  people  with  wisdom ;  the  second,  how 
to  avoid  extremes  in  life  by  the  aid  of  knowl- 
edge and  virtue ;  the  third,  "  The  Great  Learn- 
ing," is  a  series  of  dialogues  between  Confucius 
and  his  disciples  on  moral  and  social  subjects. 
His  system  is  not  avowedly  speculative,  but 
practical.  It  contains  no  trace  of  a  personal 
God,  makes  no  pretense  of  explaining  the 
origin  of  things,  but  aims  to  teach  social 
economy,  chiefly  by  moral  precepts.  The 
mythical,  miraculous,  and  ideal  have  no  place 
in  his  philosophy;  it  is  simple  rationalism, 
founding  progress  on  an  increase  of  population, 
and  improvement  in  national  well-being.  No 
founder  of  any  religion  can  boast  of  greater 
success  than  Confucius,  yet,  strictly  speaking, 


he  did  not  originate  a  religious  creed;  he 
built  up  a  moral  philosophy  based  on  the 
material  wants  and  tendencies  of  the  human 
race,  making  all  real  advance  to  consist  in 
self-knowledge.  He  lauds  the  present  world ; 
rather  doubts,  than  otherwise,  the  existence 
of  a  future  one;  and  calls  upon  all  to  culti- 
vate such  virtues  as  are  seemly  in  citizens  — 
industry,  modesty,  sobriety,  gravity,  decorum, 
and  thoughtfulness.  He  also  counsels  men 
to  take  part  in  whatever  religious  services 
have  been  established  from  of  old.  "There 
may  be  some  meaning  in  them,  and  they  may 
affect  your  welfare  in  a  way  you  do  not  know 
of.  As  for  the  genii  and  spirits,  sacrifice  to 
them ;  I  have  nothing  to  tell  regarding  them, 
whether  they  exist  or  not ;  but  their  worship 
is  part  of  an  august  and  awful  ceremonial, 
which  a  wise  man  will  not  neglect  or  despise." 
"Vast  and  deep,"  he  said,  "are  the  subtle 
powers  of  heaven  and  earth;  they  are  one 
with  the  substance  of  things  and  can  not  be 
separated.  There  are  oceans  of  subtle  intelli- 
gence above  and  about  us  on  every  side." 

Confucius  finds  evil  and  good,  wisdom  and 
folly,  in  the  hearts  of  men.  He  cannot  help 
making  this  distinction ;  some  things  are  bad, 
others  good;  such  is  the  oracular  utterance 
of  his  conscience,  which  he  terms  "the  light 
of  intelhgence."  He  does  not,  however,  ad- 
vance a  step  further,  and  make  this  moral 
conviction  the  basis  of  a  religion.  His  "  good  " 
has  no  connection  with  any  God.  It  exists; 
we  are  forced  to  recognize  it  as  such ;  that  is 
all  we  can  know.  Cultivate  it.  Those  great 
laws  of  nature  about  which  we  know  nothing 
except  that  they  are  realities,  are  on  its  side. 
Do  not  foster  what  you  know  to  be  mean  and 
unworthy,  for  "  he  who  offends  against  heaven 
has  no  one  to  whom  he  can  pray."  "  Imperial 
heaven  will  only  assist  virtue." 

From  this  standpoint  Confucius  taught  a 
simple  and  comprehensive  rule  of  life,  both 
private  and  public.  First,  let  every  man 
govern  himself  according  to  the  sacred  max- 
ims; then  his  family  according  to  the  same; 
and,  finally,  let  him  render  to  the  emperor, 
who  is  the  father  of  his  people,  such  filial 
obedience  as  he  demands  of  his  own  children, 
and  worship  him  with  the  same  veneration 
as  he  does  his  own  ancestors;  for  thus  will 
domestic  peace,  social  order,  and  the  safety 
of  the  commonwealth  be  preserved.  To 
further  this  end  (and  in  accordance  with 
his  belief  that  by  instruction  in  the  sacred 
precepts     everything     desirable     could     be 


IN  RELIGION 


Ml 


accomplished),  Confucius  inculcated  the 
necessity  of  universal  education,  and,  in 
consequence,  schools  are  diffused  throughout 
the  length  and  breadth  of  the  empire,  pene- 
trating even  to  the  remotest  villages,  where 
the  maxims  of  the  philosopher  are  taught, 
whose  influence  is  thus  perpetuated  from 
generation  to  generation. 

His  crowning  achievement  as  a  moral 
teacher  was  his  formulation  of  the  golden 
rule,  "What  you  do  not  wish  done  to  your- 
self, do  not  do  to  others,"  and  his  injunction, 
"Have  an  upright  heart;  love  thy  neighbor 
as  thyself." 

So  domestic  is  the  religion  of  the  Chinese, 
as  taught  by  Confucius,  that  their  ancestral 
rites  are  simply  an  extension  of  their  home 
associations;  and  this  is  so  affected  that  the 
grave  has  lost  its  terror,  and  the  tomb  is 
dedicated  to  joy.  The  symbolic  tablet  brings 
closer  intimacy  with  the  unseen  than  the 
grave.  The  ancestral  temple  is  the  center 
of  family  union,  without  distinction  of  rank 
or  wealth;  the  ancestral  hall  is  the  open 
conscience  of  the  people,  where  duties  are 
laid  bare.  Here  is  the  family  sanctuary ;  here 
the  youth  assumes  his  virile  cap;  here  mar- 
riages are  celebrated,  and  betrothals  are 
announced. 


The  forms  of  tablet  for  father  and  mothw 
do  not  differ.  This  filial  piety  of  the  livii^ 
would  fain  establish  a  real  union  with  the 
dead.  Such  invocations  as  the  following  are 
common :  "Thy  body  is  laid  in  the  grave,  but 
thy  spirit  dwells  in  this  temple  of  our  home. 
We  beseech  thee,  honored  one,  to  free  thyaetf 
from  thy  former  body,  and  abide  in  this 
tablet  henceforth  and  forever." 

"So  far  as  we  can  see,"  says  James  Fre^ 
man  Clarke,  "  it  is  the  influence  of  Coofudut 
which  has  maintained,  though  probably  not 
originated,  in  China  that  profound  reverence 
for  parents,  that  strong  family  affection,  that 
love  of  order,  that  regard  to  knowledge  and 
deference  for  literary  men,  which  are  fundi^ 
mental  principles  underl}ring  all  the  Chinen 
institutions.  His  minute  and  practical  8]rs> 
tem  of  morals  studied  as  it  is  by  all  the  learned, 
and  constituting  the  sum  of  knowledge  and 
the  principle  of  government  in  China,  haa 
exerted  and  exerts  an  influence  on  that  in- 
numerable people  which  it  is  impossible  to 
estimate,  but  which  makes  us  admire  the 
power  which  can  emanate  from  a  single  soul. 

"To  exert  such  an  influence  requires  great- 
ness. If  the  tree  is  to  be  known  by  its  fruits, 
Confucius  must  have  been  one  of  the  master- 
minds of  our  race." 


BUDDHA 

In  the  rest  of  Nirvana  all  sorrows  surcease : 
Only  Buddha  can  guide  to  that  city  of  Peace 
Whose  inhabitants  have  the  eternal  release. 

—  W.  R.  Alger. 


"pUDDHA  is  the  title  of  the  Hindu  sage, 
■*-'  Gautama,  or  Siddhartha,  the  founder 
of  Buddhism.  The  term  signifies  "the  wise, 
the  enlightened,"  and  is  applied  in  the  East 
as  an  analogue  of  our  word  "  saint " ;  that  is, 
to  a  class  of  persons  who  lived  saintly  hves, 
undergoing  the  severest  penances,  penetrating 
by  divine  contemplation  to  the  highest  truth, 
teaching  to  their  ■  fellows  the  law  by  which 
men  can  be  saved,  and  who  arrived  at  last  at 
what  is  regarded  by  Buddhists  as  the  highest 
goal  —  nirvana,  heaven,  rest,  eternal  sleep. 

Oriental  scholars  now  generally  concur  in 
fixing  the  time  of  the  great  Buddha  in  the 
sixth  century  B.  C.  His  history  is  overlaid 
with  a  mass  of  extravagant  legend,  and  the 
doubt  has  even  been  raised  as  to  whether  he 
was  an  actual  historical  personage,  and  not 


rather  an  allegorical  figment.  But  there  is 
little  question  now  that  he  was  the  actual  per- 
sonal founder  of  the  religion  that  bears  his 
name. 

The  accepted  history  of  Buddha  is  that  he 
was  the  son  of  a  king  who  voluntarily  became 
an  ascetic.  His  father  was  Suddhodana, 
king  of  Kapilavastu,  which  is  placed  some- 
where on  the  confines  of  Oude  and  NepauL 
He  is  often  called  Sakya,  which  was  the  name 
of  the  family,  and  also  Gautama,  the  name  of 
the  great  "solar"  race  of  which  the  family 
was  a  branch.  The  name  Sakya  often  be- 
comes Sakya-muni,  in  allusion  to  the  sohtary 
habits  assumed  by  the  prince. 

The  prince  Siddhartha  gave  early  indica^ 
tions  of  a  contemplative,  ascetic  disposition; 
and  his  father,  fearing  lest  he  should  desert 


202 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


his  high  station  as  Kshatriya  and  ruler,  and 
take  to  a  religious  life,  had  him  early  married 
to  a  charming  princess,  and  surrounded  with 
all  the  splendor  and  dissipation  of  a  luxurious 
court.  Twelve  years  spent  in  this  environ- 
ment only  deepened  the  conviction  that  all 
that  life  could  offer  was  vanity  and  vexation 
of  spirit.  He  constantly  brooded  over  the 
thought  that  old  age,  withered  and  joyless, 
was  fast  approaching;  that  loathsome  or 
racking  sickness  might  at  any  moment  seize 
him ;  that  death  would  at  all  events  soon  cut 
off  all  present  sources  of  enjoyment,  and  usher 
in  a  new  cycle  of  unknown  trials  and  suffering. 

These  images  hung  like  Damocles'  sword 
over  every  proposed  feast  of  pleasure,  and 
made  enjoyment  impossible.  He  therefore 
resolved  to  try  whether  a  life  of  austerity 
would  not  lead  to  peace;  and,  although  his 
father  sought  to  detain  him  by  placing  guards 
on  every  outlet  of  the  palace,  he  escaped,  and 
began  the  life  of  a  religious  mendicant  when 
about  thirty  years  old.  To  mark  his  breaking 
off  all  secular  ties,  he  cut  off  the  long  locks 
that  were  the  sign  of  his  high  caste ;  and  com- 
menced by  studying  all  that  the  Brahmans 
could  teach  him.  He  found  their  doctrine 
unsatisfactory,  and  turned  ascetic.  Six  years 
of  rigorous  asceticism  were  equally  vain ;  and, 
resolving  to  return  to  a  more  genial  life,  he 
was  deserted  by  his  disciples,  and  then  under- 
went a  fierce  temptation  from  the  demon  of 
wickedness.  But  no  discouragement  or  oppo- 
sition could  divert  him  from  the  search  after 
dehverance.  He  resolved  to  conquer  the 
secret  by  sheer  force  of  thinking.  He  sat  for 
weeks  plunged  in  abstraction,  revolving  the 
causes  of  things.  If  we  were  not  born,  he 
reflects,  we  should  not  be  subject  to  old  age, 
misery,  and  death;  therefore,  the  cause  of 
these  evils  is  birth.  But  whence  comes  birth 
or  continued  existence?  Through  a  long 
chain  of  intermediate  causes,  he  arrived  at 
the  conclusion  that  ignorance  is  the  ultimate 
cause  of  existence;  and,  therefore,  with  the 
removal  of  ignorance,  existence  and  all  its 
anxieties  and  miseries  would  be  cut  off  at 
their  source.  Passing  through  successive 
stages  of  contemplation,  he  realized  this  in 
his  own  person,  and  attained  the  perfect 
wisdom  of  the  Buddha. 

The  scene  of  this  final  triumph  received  the 
name  of  Bodhimanda  (the  seat  of  intelligence), 
and  the  tree  under  which  he  sat  was  called 
Bodhidruma  (the  tree  of  intelligence),  whence 
the  Bo-tree.    Throughout   a  whole   day  he 


remained  under  the  Bo-tree  wrestling  with 
despair  and  doubt.  At  last  the  hght  of  hope 
and  certainty  broke  in  upon  him,  as  he  per- 
ceived that  in  self-conquest  and  universal 
loving  kindness  lay  the  true  path  of  salvation 
from  suffering.  That  instant  he  consciously 
became  Buddha  —  "  ei^lightened."  The  Bud- 
dhists believe  the  spot  to  be  the  center  of  the 
earth. 

Having  arrived  at  the  knowledge  of  the 
causes  of  misery,  and  of  the  means  by  which 
these  causes  are  to  be  counteracted,  the 
Buddha  was  now  ready  to  lead  others  on  the 
road  to  salvation.  It  was  at  Benares  that  he 
first  preached,  or,  in  the  consequential  phrase, 
"  turned  the  wheel  of  the  law  " ;  but  the  most 
important  of  his  early  converts  was  Bimbisara, 
the  sovereign  of  Magadha  (Behar),  whose 
dynasty  continued  for  many  centuries  to 
patronize  the  new  faith.  During  the  forty 
years  that  he  continued  to  preach  his  strange 
gospel,  he  appears  to  have  traversed  a  great 
part  of  northern  India,  combating  the 
Brahmas,  and  everywhere  making  numerous 
converts.  He  died  at  Kusinagara  (in  Oude), 
at  the  age  of  eighty,  and,  his  body  being 
burned,  the  relics  were  distributed  among  a 
number  of  contending  claimants,  and  monu- 
mental tumuli  were  erected  to  preserve  them. 

Twelve  hundred  years  after  the  Buddha's 
death,  Hiouen-Thsang,  the  Chinese  pilgrim, 
found  the  Bodhidruma  —  or  a  tree  that 
passed  for  it  —  still  standing.  Although  the 
religion  of  Buddha  is  extinct  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, there  are,  about  five  miles  from  Gaya 
proper,  in  Behar,  extensive  ruins  and  an  old 
dagoba,  or  a  temple,  which  are  believed  to 
mark  the  place. 

Such  are  the  generally  accepted  facts 
relative  to  Buddha's  hfe.  According  to  tra- 
dition, "a  Ukeness  accurate  to  the  life  was 
done  by  one  of  his  disciples  in  sandal  wood, 
and  served  as  a  model  for  all  statues  and 
portraits  of  him  in  the  North."  But  the 
truth  probably  is  that  later  Hindu  artists 
simply  evolved  a  certain  ideal  likeness  that 
—  as  in  the  case  of  Jesus  —  has  become 
accepted  as  his.  The  peculiarity  to  be  noted 
about  it  is  the  emphasis  of  feminine  rather 
than  masculine  features. 

"He  has  the  twenty-foiu-  marks  of  beauty," 
says  the  native  description;  "his  hair  was 
curly  and  of  deep  black,  the  forehead  broad 
and  smooth,  the  eyelashes  like  those  of  a 
heifer,  the  eyes  of  jet  black.  His  eyebrows 
were  arched  Uke  the  rainbow,  his  eyes  ribbed 


IN  RELIGION 


an 


like  the  leaf  of  the  lotus,  a  perfect  nose,  regu- 
lar cheeks,  beautiful  hands  and  feet,"  and  so 
on.  All  the  later  images  agree  in  the  soft 
feminine  forms;  there  is  an  air  of  great 
serenity,  something  of  the  sphinx  in  the 
expression,  while  the  monstrous  appendages 
in  the  ears  reveal  the  idol.  Many  of  the 
Buddhas  bear  a  strange  resemblance  to  the 
Venus  of  the  Greeks. 

When  Buddha  appeared,  he  signaled  a 
crisis  in  the  history  of  the  East.  The  Hindu 
state  had  reached  its  apogee,  and  was  ready 
for  the  revolution  which  began  its  decline. 
This  revolution  was  a  change  from  aristo- 
cratic sentiment  and  religion  to  democratic 
sentiment  and  religion.  Brahmanism  was 
the  religion  of  the  Brahman  twice-born  castes ; 
Buddhism  was  the  religion  of  all.  Two 
thousand  years  before  Francis  d'Assisi, 
Buddha  established  the  mendicant  order. 
Absolute  poverty,  perpetual  celibacy,  a  total 
renunciation  of  the  things  of  this  world,  a  life 
in  monasteries,  such  was  the  foundation 
which  he  laid. 

When  he  took  up  his  mission,  India  was  cut 
up  into  a  multitude  of  Httle  kingdoms  reduced 
to  poverty  by  a  series  of  petty  wars  between 
adjoining  states.  Each  community  was  still 
further  subdivided  by  its  social  laws  and 
occupations  into  rigid  class-distinctions.  The 
people,  with  nothing  to  hope  for  in  this  life, 
sought  consolation  in  the  superstitious  doc- 
trine of  the  transmigration  of  souls,  being 
completely  under  the  dominion  of  their  priests, 
who  taught  them  to  prepare  for  a  happier 
state  of  existence  in  some  other  form  by  a 
system  of  liberal  payments  to  the  priesthood 
during  this  life. 

The  disciples  of  Buddha,  well  trained  and 
organized,  continued  his  work.  The  doctrine 
and  rules  of  discipline  were  settled  in  general 
councils.  The  first  was  held  soon  after  his 
death ;  the  second  about  a  century  later ;  the 
third,  and  most  important,  about  250  B.  C, 
in  the  reign  of  Asoka.  This  monarch  was  the 
Constantine  of  Buddhism,  and  sent  out  mis- 
sionaries in  all  directions.  His  own  son  car- 
ried the  new  teaching  into  Ceylon,  where, 
after  having  been  for  ten  generations  handed 
down  orally,  it  was  for  the  first  time  com- 
mitted to  writing  in  the  three  great  collections 
known  as  the  "Tripitakas,"  containing,  re- 
spectively, the  rules  of  discipline  of  the  order, 
moral  discourses  for  the  laity,  and  philosophi- 
cal disquisitions. 

From  Ceylon,  Burma  was  converted  in  the 


fifth  century,  and  Siom  nearly  two  onturMi 
later.  These  arc  the  countriat  iHicra  tht 
southern  or  purer  form  of  Buddhim  prevails. 
But  its  most  extensive  conquetts  were  nuKie 
toward  the  north.  By  the  begunii^  ol  the 
Christian  era,  it  had  become  the  religioo  of 
the  northwesterly  parts  of  India;  and  under 
the  patronage  of  Kanishka,  king  of  Kaahmir, 
it  spread  into  Afghanistan,  Tartaxy,  the 
Panjab,  Sindh,  Guzarat,  and  Rajputana.  It 
was  adopted  in  China  in  62  A.  D.  by  one 
of  the  Han  emperors,  and  rapidly  spread 
throughout  that  populous  reahn.  Under  the 
next  great  dynasty,  the  Tang  (61»-905),  the 
sutras  and  commentaries  were  translated  into 
Chinese.  From  China  the  religion  passed  to 
Korea  at  the  close  of  the  fourth  century, 
and  from  Korea  over  to  Japan  in  the  middle 
of  the  sixth. 

In  China  it  was  never  able  to  supersede 
the  ancient  astrolatry,  though,  since  the 
thirteenth  century,  it  has  profoundly  stimu- 
lated and  influenced  philosophical  speculation. 
And  it  still  combines  with  the  Confucianism 
and  Tao-ism  of  those  populations.  In  Japan 
it  soon  absorbed,  and  has  now  practically 
superseded,  the  indigenous  fetichism.  The 
most  abnormal  form  of  northern  Buddhism 
was  developed  in  Tibet.  Introduced  in  the 
seventh  century,  it  was  there  soon  mixed  up 
with  the  native  devil-worship  and  belief  in 
magic.  Perversion  of  doctrine,  kept  pace 
with  the  change  of  the  order  into  a  regular 
priesthood,  whose  rich  endovvTnents  and  com- 
pact organization  made  them  formidable 
rivals  of  the  government ;  imtil,  in  1419,  the 
Dalai  Lama,  the  incarnate  representative  of 
deity,  became  sole  temporal  sovereign  as  well 
as  head  of  the  church. 

In  India  itself  Buddhism  declined  steadily 
after  the  sixth  century.  In  the  twelfth,  the 
Mohammedan  invasion  swept  away  what 
remnants  of  it,  in  Kashmir  and  Orissa,  vict<y 
rious  Brahmanism  had  spared. 

Buddhism  was  not  so  much  a  revolution  in 
existing  beliefs  as  a  new  departure  from  the 
method  following  them.  Breaking  away  from 
established  usage,  Buddha  proclaimed  a 
universal  brotherhood,  one  that  in  theory  per^ 
mitted  distinctions  of  caste,  but  in  practice 
assumed  the  absolute  equality  of  all  men. 
Salvation  came  to  all  through  sdf-denial  and 
charity.  It  was  this  doctrine  of  equality 
which  gave  Buddhism  so  strong  a  hold  on  the 
caste-ridden  people  of  India.  Under  the 
Brahmans  it  was  the  priest  who  was  the  active 


204 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


agent  in  preparing  the  way  for  a  happier  state. 
Buddha  proclaimed  that  every  man's  salva- 
tion depended  on  himself.  Purity  of  conduct, 
faithfully  and  persistently  practiced,  was 
sufficient  to  raise  every  one  to  the  highest 
stage  of  bliss  —  the  nirvana. 

The  three  main  theories  of  Buddhism  are: 
the  transmigration  of  souls,  common  to 
Brahmanism;  the  doctrine  of  nirvana;  and 
the  chain  of  cause  and  effect.  Everything 
material  is  subject  to  dissolution,  and  the 
only  escape  from  this  changeability  of  matter 
is  to  free  the  soul  from  the  passions  and  frail- 
ties of  the  body,  by  severe  self-denial  and  the 
constant  practice  of  charity  in  the  widest 
sense  toward  all  men  and  animals.  So  long 
as  any  leaven  of  the  old  wicked  nature  remains, 
the  soul  is  shifted  about  by  transmigration 
from  one  state  of  being  to  another,  and  can- 
not escape  material  existence  in  some  form,  a 
degraded  being  or  an  animal;  but  when  the 
evil  has  been  wholly  purged  out  by  a  long 
course  of  self-denial,  the  soul  is  set  free  from 
all  union  with  the  material  world,  and  assumes 
the  condition  of  unchangeability  that  may 
almost  be  described  as  non-existence.  The 
term  which  expresses  this  state  —  nirvana  — 
means  the  annihilation  of  all  thought  and 
feeling,  a  state  of  eternal  rest.  The  root  word 
nir  connotes  negation,  and  va  "to  breathe," 
so  that  the  term  nirvana  signifies  to  be  blown 
out  like  a  candle,  or  lifelessness. 

The  Buddhist  heaven  is,  in  fact,  divided 
into  several  regions,  rising  one  above  the 
other,  each  more  ethereal:  (1)  Space  im- 
limited,  where  life  endures  twenty  thousand 
ages;  (2)  that  of  wisdom  unlimited,  where 
life  lasts  forty  thousand  ages;  (3)  that  where 
there  is  absolutely  nothing  —  life  here  lasts 
sixty  thousand  ages;  (4)  that  where  there  is 
neither  thought  nor  non-thought,  nothing 
without  even  the  knowledge  that  there  is 
nothing;  life  endures  eighty  thousand  ages, 
and  beyond  this,  nirvana,  pure  nothing  — 
extinction  completed.  This  scale  of  regions 
indicates  the  progressive  purification  required 
to  attain  the  end.  "Buddha  himself  was  so 
penetrated  and  overcome  with  the  feehng  of 
the  infinite,  that  he  was  lost  to  a  sense  of  the 
world  of  the  seen.  'All  is  perishable,  all  is 
miserable,  all  is  void,'  are  the  words  con- 
tinually on  his  lips." 

The  cause  or  antecedent  of  the  two  great, 
evils  of  the  world  —  old  age  and  death  —  is 
found  to  be,  in  Buddhism,  in  birth  itseK. 
The  cause  of  birth  is  previous  existence,  the 


cause  of  previous  existence  is  attachment, 
and  of  this  attachment,  thirst,  and  this  is 
traced  to  sensation,  and  sensation  is  the 
result  of  the  six  senses.  What  is  the  cause  of 
the  six  senses?  Name  and  form,  namarupa. 
And  the  cause  of  namarupa?  Consciousness. 
And  the  cause  of  this?  Concepts,  imagina- 
tion, the  mirror,  illusion.  And  the  cause  of 
illusion?  Primitive  ignorance,  the  root  of  all 
—  the  original  Unk  from  which  is  forged  the 
entire  chain. 

Its  creed  is  summed  up  in  a  formula  called 
the  "four  great  truths  " :  First,  misery  always 
accompanies  existence;  second,  all  modes  of 
existence,  whether  of  men  or  animals,  in 
earth  or  heaven,  are  the  result  of  passion  or 
desire ;  third,  there  is  no  escape  from  existence 
except  the  destruction  of  desire ;  fourth,  this 
can  be  done  by  following  the  four  paths 
which  lead  to  nirvana.  The  first  path,  or 
stage,  is  the  awakening  of  the  soul  to  the 
truth  that  pain  and  sorrow  belong  to  all 
existence.  In  the  second  stage  the  penitent 
purifies  himself  from  all  vicious  desires,  re- 
vengeful feeUngs,  and  delusion.  In  the  third 
he  becomes  free  from  all  evil  passions,  of 
ignorance,  doubt,  heresy,  vexation,  and 
unkindUness;  and  in  the  fourth  he  reaches 
the  highest  stage,  where  the  soul  is  free  from 
earthly  desires  and  passions  —  a  stage  above 
purity,  justice,  and  even  faith  itself,  described 
by  Buddha  as  the  condition  of  universal 
charity.  Nirvana  is  now  within  the  grasp  of 
the  saintly  penitent,  and  after  this  short  life 
on  earth  he  becomes  free  from  all  material 
existence,  and  enters  the  final  state  of  rest  — 
nirvana. 

The  following  are  its  general  precepts,  or 
rules  of  living:  (1)  One  should  not  destroy 
life.  (2)  One  should  not  steal.  (3)  One 
should  abstain  from  impurity.  (4)  One 
should  not  lie.  (5)  One  should  abstain  from 
intoxicating  drinks.  (6)  One  should  not  eat 
at  forbidden  times.  (7)  One  should  abstain 
from  dancing,  singing,  music,  and  stage  plays. 
(8)  One  should  not  use  garlands,  scents,  or 
ornaments.  (9)  One  should  not  use  a  high  or 
broad  bed.  (10)  One  should  not  receive  gold 
or  silver. 

These  are  the  Buddhist  ten  command- 
ments. The  first  five,  prohibitions  to  kill, 
steal,  commit  adultery,  tell  falsehoods,  and 
drink,  apply  to  all  Buddhists,  while  the  last 
five,  the  austerities,  to  eat  no  animal  food,  or, 
after  midday,  to  abstain  from  use  of  omar- 
ments,  money,  a  bed,  and  the  enjoyments  of 


IN  RELIGION 


901 


dancing,  apply  only  to  those  who  take  the 
vows  of  a  religious  life.  A  saint  was  allowed 
to  possess  but  eight  things  —  three  cloths, 
serving  as  a  garment,  a  girdle,  a  begging  bowl, 
a  strainer,  needle,  and  razor. 

The  cardinal  virtues,  according  to  this  sys- 
tem, are  six  —  charity  and  purity,  patience 
and  courage,  contemplation  and  knowledge. 
The  vices  are  pride,  sensuality,  hatred, 
doubt,  love  of  life  on  earth,  desire  for  life 
in  heaven.  Its  duties  are :  those  of  parents 
to  children — to  train  them  in  virtue,  have 
them  taught  the  arts  and  sciences,  provide 
them  with  wives  and  husbands,  give  them 
their  inheritance.  Those  of  children  to 
parents:  to  guard  their  property,  support 
them  in  old  age,  honor  their  memory.  Those 
of  husband  to  wife :  to  treat  her  with  kindness, 
be  faithful,  cause  her  to  be  honored  by  others, 
give  her  suitable  ornaments  and  clothes. 
Those  of  wife  to  husband:  to  be  hospitable 
to  his  friends,  be  chaste,  be  a  thrifty  house- 
keeper. Those  toward  friends  and  com- 
panions: promoting  their  interests,  giving 
them  presents,  treating  them  as  equals. 
Their  duties  in  return :  adhesion  in  misfortune, 
offering  a  refuge  in  time  of  danger,  guarding 
property,  showing  kindness  to  family.  Liber- 
ality, courtesy,  kindliness,  unselfishness,  this 
is  the  "lynch-pin  of  the  moral  chariot." 

The  chief  discipline  of  Buddhism,  by  which 
the  most  perfect  happiness  possible  is  attain- 
able, is  regarded  as  contemplation  or  ecstasy, 
the  different  stages  of  which  are  thus  defined : 
The  first  stage  is  an  inward  sense  of  happiness, 
born  in  the  soul  of  the  ascetic,  when  he  sud- 
denly finds  within  him  the  power  to  distin- 
guish the  profovmd  nature  of  things;  he 
judges  and  reasons  still,  but  is  freed  from  con- 
ditions of  sin.  The  contemplation  of  nirvana, 
for  which  he  longs,  throws  him  into  an  ecstasy 
which  permits  him  to  ascend  to  the  second 
stage.  Here  his  purity  and  freedom  from 
vice  remain  the  same,  but  judgment  and 
reason  are  set  aside,  and  his  intelligence, 
now  freed  and  fixed  on  nirvana,  experiences 
interior  satisfaction  without  judging  or  com- 
prehending it.  At  the  third  stage  even  the 
pleasure  and  satisfaction  disappear,  a  vague 
sense  of  physical  well-being  supervenes,  the 
pleasure  of  previous  happiness  is  indifferent, 
memory  still  remains,  and  a  confused  con- 
sciousness, notwithstanding  the  detachment, 
nearly  absolute,  to  which  he  has  attained. 
In  the  fourth  and  final  stage,  the  ascetic  no 
longer  feels  this  sense  of  well-being,  for  all 


feeling  sense,  knowledge,  mojnory,  and 
sciousness  are  gone ;  he  haa  arrived  at  per- 
fect impassibility,  the  nearest  i^proach  OQ 
earth  to  the  state  of  the  blessed. 

In  addition  to  his  character  of  the  saint, 
we  also  have  Buddha  in  the  character  of  the 
sage.  Like  the  wise  men  of  Greece,  he  has 
told  us  of  some  of  the  most  difficult  things  in 
the  world :  to  be  poor,  and  yet  to  be  charit- 
able ;  to  be  rich  and  great,  yet  to  be  religious; 
to  lust,  and  yet  banish  desire;  to  escape 
destiny ;  to  be  strong  without  being  rash ;  to 
see  an  agreeable  object  without  seeking  to 
obtain  it;  to  bear  an  insult  without  anger; 
to  be  good,  and  at  the  same  time  to  be  leaned 
and  clever. 

Buddhism  also  embraces  a  cosmology  and  a 
psychology  of  remarkable  subtlety  and  con- 
sistency. As  a  whole  it  is  more  of  a  phi- 
losophy than  of  a  theology.  Yet  it  is  the 
religion  which,  modified  and  combined  with 
other  systems,  has  perhaps  found  most  ac- 
ceptance among  men  outside  of  Christianity, 
Hundreds  of  millions  of  orientals  find  in  it 
not  only  intellectual  light,  but  spiritual  sus- 
tenance and  lofty  moral  guidance.  It  springs 
from  a  higher  stratum  of  thought  than  the 
sky-worship  of  the  Chinese,  the  polytheism 
of  Greece  and  Rome,  or  even  the  monotheism 
of  Moses  and  Mohammed. 

It  holds  w^ithin  it,  however,  the  seeds  of  its 
own  decay,  in  its  absolute  standpoint,  its 
pessimistic  bias,  its  metaphysical  notion  of 
merit  or  karma,  as  the  germinal  cause  of 
moral  rebirths,  and,  above  all,  in  omitting 
from  its  purview  the  social  organism,  and  its 
consequent  inability  to  direct  aright  the 
active  powers  of  man.  Herein  its  funda- 
mental inferiority  to  Christianity  must  be 
recognized.  In  the  latter,  the  belief  in  a 
Supreme  Being,  infinite  in  power  and  love, 
whose  paternal  care  extends  to  the  very 
humblest  of  His  creatures,  is  infinitely  more 
satisfactory  than  the  former  without  a  God, 
and  with  its  doctrine  of  annihilation.  Oms- 
tianity  creates  an  unfailing  source  of  hope  — 
not  only  of  endless  happiness,  but  of  eternal 
progress  toward  perfection.  Buddhism  makes 
self-annihilation  the  final  and  highest  reward 
for  ages  of  self-denial,  privation,  and  suffering. 

With  their  admiration  of  the  Buddha,  it  is 
to  be  noted  that  his  followers  have  never  made 
a  god  of  him,  Gautama  was  only  the  last 
Buddha  —  the  Buddha  of  the  present  cyde. 
He  had  predecessors,  and  in  future  cydes 
another  Buddha  will  appear  to  again  reveal  to 


206 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


renascent  beings  the  way  to  nirvana.  He  is 
simply  the  ideal  of  what  any  man  may  become, 
and  the  great  object  of  Buddhist  worship  is  to 
keep  this  ideal  vividly  in  the  minds  of  the 
believers.  In  the  presence  of  the  statue,  the 
tooth,  or  the  footprint,  the  devout  behever 
vividly  recalls  the  example  of  him  who  trod 
the  path  that  leads  to  deliverance.  This 
veneration  of  the  memory  of  Buddha  is  per- 
haps hardly  distinguishable  among  the 
ignorant  from  worship  of  him  as  a  present 
god ;  but  in  theory  the  ritual  is  strictly  com- 
memorative, and  does  not  necessarily  involve 


idolatry  any  more  than  the  garlands  laid  on 
the  tomb  of  a  parent  by  a  pious  child. 

Wherever  Buddhism  has  held  its  sway  it 
has  left  a  crowd  of  temples,  monasteries,  and 
sacred  buildings  containing  relics  of  Buddha, 
most  of  which  are  now  in  ruins.  Some  fine 
examples  of  their  rock  temples  exist  at  EUora 
and  on  the  islands  of  Salsette  and  Elephanta. 
Max  Miiller,  one  of  the  highest  authorities  on 
oriental  religions,  estimates  that  the  Bud- 
dhists of  the  present  day  number  four  hundred 
eighty  millions,  or  about  half  ,the  population 
of  the  world. 


ST.  PAUL 


A.  D.  AGE  A.  ] 

2     Bom  at  Tarsus,  Asia  Minor, 51 

19     Educated  under  Gamaliel, 17  57 

37     Conversion, 35  62 

40     Preaches  at  Antioch,       38  64 

44     First  missionary  journey, 42  67 


Second  missionary  journey, 49 

Third  missionary'  journey, 66 

In  prison  at  Rome, 60 

Released  from  prison, 62 

Second  trial;  martyred, 06 


TDAUL,  the  great  apostle  of  Christianity 
■*■  among  the  Gentiles,  and  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  the  Christian  church,  was  a  native  of 
Tarsus,  a  Greek  city  of  Cilicia,  in  Asia  Minor, 
where  he  was  probably  bom  about  the  second 
year  of  the  Christian  era.  All  the  dates,  how- 
ever, connected  with  his  life,  are  at  best  con- 
jectural. His  family  were  Jews,  belonging  to 
the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  but  they  enjoyed  the 
right  of  Roman  citizenship.  His  original 
name  was  Saul,  afterward  Latinized  to  Paul, 
and  part  of  his  inheritance  was  the  religion 
of  the  Pharisees,  of  which  he  became  an 
ardent  and  zealous  supporter. 

Strabo  declares  that  the  schools  of  Tarsus 
equaled  those  of  Athens  and  Alexandria. 
Here  Paul  obtained  a  knowledge  of  the  Greek 
language  and  literature,  and  then,  about  19 
A.  D.,  went  to  Jerusalem  to  study  the  law 
of  Moses,  under  the  great  Jewish  doctor, 
Gamaliel.  He  also  learned  the  trade  of  a 
weaver,  or  tent-maker,  in  conformity  with 
the  Jewish  custom,  which  reqmred  that  every 
male  citizen  should  learn  a  trade,  to  gain  his 
living,  if  required. 

A  few  years  after  the  death  of  Jesus,  he 
became,  as  might  have  been  expected  from 
his  training  and  temperament,  a  furious  ad- 
versary of  the  new  sect  of  Christians,  which,, 
it  was  proclaimed,  had  come  to  do  away  with 
the  old  Jewish  laws.  We  are  told  that  the 
Jews  of  the  Cilician  synagogue  at  Jerusalem 


were  among  those  who  disputed  with  Stephen, 
and  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  the  young 
and  brilliant  zealot,  eager  for  disputation, 
was  conspicuous  among  the  crowd  of  Jewish 
students  who  poured  out  of  their  synagogues 
(of  which,  according  to  the  Talmud,  there 
were  four  hundred  eighty  in  the  holy  city), 
in  the  insolence  of  their  youth  and  scholar- 
ship, to  crush  the  ignorant  followers  of  the 
Nazarene.  This  supposition  is  rendered 
highly  probable  by  the  fact  that  he  was 
present  at  the  martyrdom  of  Stephen,  which 
followed  almost  immediately. 

Paul  now  became  a  prominent  actor  in  the 
great  persecution  of  the  Christians  which 
broke  out  in  Jerusalem.  When  the  rumor 
spread  that  some  of  the  worst  offenders  were 
actual  members  of  the  synagogue  in  Damas- 
cus, he  obtained  an  order  to  go  and  arrest 
them,  and  started  for  that  city,  accompanied 
by  Jews  and  soldiers,  about  37  A.  D.  On 
the  road  an  incident  occurred,  which  com- 
pletely changed  the  character  of  the  man, 
and  transformed  him  from  a  fanatical  perse- 
cutor of  the  Christian  faith  into  its  ardent 
supporter.  The  incident  has  been  described 
in  two  ways:  one  supernatural,  the  other 
natural.  According  to  the  first,  the  party 
found  themselves  suddenly  enveloped  in  a 
dazzling  halo  of  light,  and  fell  on  their  faces 
to  protect  their  eyes.  A  voice  demanded  of 
Paul  why  he  persecuted  the  Christians,  and, 


> 

c 

t— 

Is 

I.  o 

Is 

bo  !X 

*." 


IN  RELIGION 


SO0 


in  response  to  his  question,  "Who  are  you?" 
answered,  "Jesus." 

According  to  the  second,  Paul,  overcome 
by  the  heat  and  fatigue  of  the  march,  and 
the  mental  excitement  his  mission  had  brought 
upon  him,  fell  senseless  on  the  road,  and  was 
carried  by  his  companions  to  Damascus, 
where  he  remained  for  several  days  blind,  a 
prey  to  fever  and  delirium.  A  Christian 
named  Ananias  attended  him  during  his  ill- 
ness. Paul  felt  remorse  for  the  cruel  treat- 
ment to  which  he  had  subjected  the  Christians, 
learned  of  Ananias  enough  of  their  principles 
to  change  his  opinions  completely,  became  a 
convert  to  the  new  faith,  and  was  baptized. 
This  latter  account  probably  grew  out  of  the 
fact  mentioned  in  scripture  that  no/  one  but 
the  apostle  heard  words.  He  says  himself, 
"They  that  were  with  me  heard  not  the  voice 
of  Him  that  spake  to  me."  It  is,  therefore, 
held  by  some  theologians  that  the  miracle 
was  subjective. 

Whatever  the  exact  facts  may  be,  there 
certainly  came  a  day  when  the  enthusiasm 
for  Jesus  and  His  doctrines  took  possession  of 
him  with  convincing  force,  after  a  fierce 
internal  conflict,  and  he  realized  that  his 
highest  hopes  for  humanity  lay  in  his  defense 
of  them.  With  sublime  abnegation  he  sur- 
rendered himself  to  the  movement,  avowedly 
its  servant,  but  in  reality  its  leader;  and 
henceforth  he  preached  the  gospel  of  Chris- 
tianity with  a  vigor  and  pertinacity  that  out- 
stripped all  his  fellow  believers. 

After  a  solitary  sojourn  in  Arabia  —  per- 
haps to  calm  his  perturbed  spirit  in  com- 
mvmion  with  God,  and  to  solemnly  prepare 
himself  for  his  new  mode  of  life  —  on  his 
return  to  Damascus,  he  changed  his  name  to 
Paul,  and  resumed  or  began  (it  is  not  quite 
clear  which)  his  apostolic  labors.  Naturally, 
he  became  an  object  of  intense  hostility  to 
the  unbelieving  Jews  in  that  city.  They  re- 
solved to  kill  him;  but  his  friends  contrived 
a  way  of  escape,  and  he  fled  to  Jerusalem, 
where  at  first  h£  was  received  with  suspicion 
by  the  disciples,  but  afterward,  through  the 
kind  offices  of  Barnabas,  with  great  cordiality. 

He  now  "spoke  boldly  in  the  name  of 
Christ,"  disputing  also  against  the  "Grecians  " 
—  i.  e.,  the  Hellenistic  Jews  —  with  dangerous 
success,  for  his  opponents  sought  to  take  his 
life.  Again  he  was  obliged  to  flee,  and  betook 
himself  to  his  birthplace.  Tarsus,  where  he 
seems  to  have  remained  until  Barnabas,  about 
40  A.  D.,  brought  him  to  Antioch  (not  far 


off)  to  assist  in  the  great  work  of  evai^^elink 
tion  going  on  in  that  city.  After  a  Aoei  vUt 
to  Jerusalem  in  the  year  of  the  famine,  44 
A.  D.,  Paul  and  Barnabas  were  set  apart  by 
the  prophets  and  elders  of  the  church  at 
Antioch  for  the  evangelization  of  the  mora 
distant  Jews. 

From  Seleucia  they  proceeded  on  their  firat 
missionary  expedition  to  the  southern  dis- 
tricts of  Asia  Minor,  Pamphylia,  I*isidia,  and 
Lycaonia,  where  they  met,  especially  in  aooM 
places,  with  considerable  success  in  preaching 
the  gospel.  It  is  very  interesting  to  notice 
how  gradually  the  light  of  Christianity  dawned 
on  the  mind  of  the  apostle.  He  did  not  grasp 
all  at  once  its  grand  design.  It  was  not  even 
by  abstract  reflection  that  he  arrived  at  it. 
Circumstances  of  quite  an  outward  sort  forced 
him  to  the  sublime  conclusions  of  his  creed. 
It  was  when  the  Jews  of  Pisidian  Antioch, 
enraged  at  his  preaching  the  gospel  indis- 
criminately to  their  Gentile  fellow  townsmen 
and  themselves,  "contradicted  and  blas- 
phemed "  him,  that  he  boldly  announced 
Christ  as  the  universal  Redeemer. 

After  the  return  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  to 
Antioch,  they  continued  to  labor  in  that  city 
for  a  long  time,  until  dissensions  having  arisen 
about  the  circumcision  of  Gentile  converts, 
he,  along  with  Barnabas  and  others,  was 
chosen  to  go  up  to  Jerusalem  to  get  the  opin- 
ion of  the  apostles  and  elders  there  on  the 
question,  about  51  A.  D.  Paul  and  Barnabas 
now  returned  to  Antioch,  where  they  con- 
tinued to  teach  and  preach,  until  a  yearning 
grew  up  in  the  heart  of  the  former  to  revisit 
his  Gentile  converts  in  Asia  Minor. 

In  his  second  expedition  Paul  was  accom- 
panied by  Silas  instead  of  Barnabas,  and 
traversed  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor  from  south 
to  north,  evangelizing  with  great  suooeas, 
after  which  the  two  missionaries  crossed  the 
iEgean  and  landed  in  Europe,  planting  at 
Philippi,  the  capital  of  Thracian  Macedonia, 
the  first  Christian  church  in  that  continent. 
The  details  of  his  visits  to  Theosalonica, 
Berea,  Athens,  and  Corinth  are  familiar  to 
all  Bible  readers.  We  can  only  notice  his 
appearance  at  Athens,  where  on  Mars'  hiU, 
before  a  crowd  of  the  citizens,  among  whom 
were  Epicurean  and  stoic  philosophers,  he 
delivered  that  magnificent  discourse  in  which 
he  declared  to  the  Athenians  the  character  of 
the  "  unknown  "  God.  On  his  return  to  Asia 
Minor  he  visited  Ephesus,  where,  as  usual,  he 
"  reasoned  "  with  the  Jews  in  their  synagogue ; 


210 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


sailed  thence  to  Caesarea,  in  Palestine,  and 
proceeded  to  Jerusalem  "to  keep  the  feast"  ; 
after  which  he  again  returned  to  Antioch,  the 
center  from  which  his  operations  radiated. 
Thus  closed  his  second  evangelistic  journey. 

The  third  journey  of  Paul  conumenced  prob- 
ably about  57  A.  D.,  and  extended  over  much 
the  same  district  as  the  previous  one.  At 
Ephesus,  where  he  remained  for  a  period  of 
two  years  and  three  months,  his  efforts  were 
powerfully  seconded  by  the  eloquence  of  one 
of  his  converts,  ApoUos.  Driven  from  Ephe- 
sus, he  visited  Achaia  and  Macedonia  again, 
and  by  way  of  Miletus  returned  by  sea  to 
Jerusalem.  There  the  fanaticism  of  the  Jews 
against  him  led  to  disturbances,  whereupon 
he  was  brought  to  Caesarea  to  be  tried  before 
Felix,  the  procurator,  and,  after  two  years' 
imprisonment,  before  King  Agrippa,  when  he 
defended  himself  by  a  noble  and  eloquent 
speech.  Now,  using  his  right  as  a  Roman 
citizen,  Paul  appealed  to  Caesar,  and  in  the 
spring  of  62  A.  D.  arrived  in  Rome,  where  he 
spent  two  years  a  prisoner,  but  in  his  own 
hired  house.  He  was  executed  under  Nero 
about  67  A.  D. —  probably  at  the  end  of  a 
fourth  missionary  journey,  during  which 
tradition  makes  him  visit  Spain  and  other 
countries. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  journeys 
of  Paul  and  his  companions  were  not  made 
like  those  of  modem  missionaries,  at  the 
expense  of  rich  societies,  but  resembled  the 
wanderings  of  joumeymen  mechanics,  seeking 
employment  from  place  to  place.  They  lived 
by  the  labor  of  their  hands  —  Paul  wove 
tent-cloth  —  and  they  remained  to  work  and 
preach  wherever  they  could  find  employment. 
They  traveled  on  foot,  lived  on  little,  were 
frequently  ill-treated,  sometimes  imprisoned, 
and  were  fortunate  indeed  to  escape  with 
their  lives. 

At  his  death  the  total  number  of  Christians 
at  the  various  centers  is  supposed  to  have 
been  about  one  thousand;  these  primitive 
groups  scarcely  numbered  more  than  a  dozen 
members  each,  the  meetings  being  held  in 
private  houses. 

There  are  several  representations  of  the 
apostle  Paul  upon  medals  and  in  ivory  carv- 
ings, as  well  as  numerous  descriptions  of  his 
personal  appearance.  He  was  not  a  hand- 
some man;  his  face  was  not  pleasing,  his 
figure  was  short  and  thick,  and  round  shoul- 
dered. Nor  was  he  an  eloquent  speaker; 
"his  discourse  rarely  traveled  beyond   the 


repeated  assertion  that  Jesus  was  the  true 
Son  of  God,  put  to  death  by  the  priests"; 
but  he  had  an  inexhaustible  fimd  of  energy, 
though  continually  suffering  from  ill-health, 
and  excited  astonishment  by  his  bold  audacity 
in  preaching  a  doctrine  that  might  at  any 
moment  subject  him  to  a  violent  death.  A 
moral  hero  like  this  had  never  before  been 
seen. 

Of  the  twenty-one  epistles  embraced  in  the 
canon  of  the  new  testament,  fourteen  are 
popularly  ascribed  to  Paul.  Of  these,  the 
epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  pronounced  by 
many  critics  to  be  the  work  of  some  other 
hand.  The  genuineness  of  the  pastoral 
epistles,  the  two  to  Timothy  and  the  one  to 
Titus,  of  those  to  the  Colossians  and  Ephe- 
sians,  and  even  those  to  the  Philippians, 
Philemon,  and  Thessalonians,  has  also  been 
caUed  in  question.  It  is  impossible  to  deter- 
mine their  chronological  order.  The  two  to 
the  Thessalonians  are  placed  first  by  most  of 
the  critics  who  admit  their  genuineness,  and 
after  them  the  epistle  to  the  Galatians. 

The  teaching  of  Paul  aimed  at  a  universal 
religion.  It  is  certain  that  he  had  in  him 
something  of  all  three  of  the  great  civilizar 
tions  of  the  ancient  world ;  by  birth  he  was  a 
Jew  and  a  Pharisee,  yet  he  was  bom  in  a 
Greek  city,  a  city  claiming  to  rival  Athens ; 
but  this  Greek  city  was  in  a  Roman  province, 
and  entitled  him  to  the  privileges  of  a  Roman 
citizen.  Thxis  he  was  by  his  origin  and  teach- 
ing fitted  to  be  the  expounder  of  a  cosmopoli- 
tan religion.  After  his  conversion  he  regarded 
his  mission  not  as  Jewish,  but  as  universal. 
His  first  hopes  for  the  r^eneration  of  the 
world  he  had  founded  on  an  extension  of 
Jewish  monotheism;  but  when  he  was  con- 
vinced that  the  crucified  and  risen  Redeemer 
was  for  all  men,  not  for  the  Jewish  tribe 
alone,  he  established  a  community  wider  than 
the  family  or  the  country  under  the  common 
headship  of  Christ,  which  later  became  the 
regenerating  force  of  the  Roman  empire  and 
of  its  northern  invaders.  Henceforth  there 
was  a  new  power  in  the  world,  modifying  the 
political  forces  round  it,  governed  by  new 
principles  and  aiming  at  new  objects.  A 
spiritual  power,  wholly  independent  of  the 
state,  forming  opinion  and  moulding  char- 
acter, but  not  claiming  to  interfere  with  prao 
tical  government,  arose  for  the  first  time  in 
the  world's  history.  The  doctrine  on  which 
it  rested  was  not  such  as  to  satisfy  the  claims 
of  science.    But  the  importance  of  this  new 


IN  RELIGION 


211 


growth,  politically  speaking,  was  immense; 
and  it  responded  to  a  permanent  need  of 
human  society. 

The  vague  benevolence  that  would  ignore 
the  claims  of  relationship  has  no  place  in  his 
teaching.  He  dwells  often  on  the  mutual 
duties  of  parents,  children,  and  servants. 
For  his  own  nation  he  had  a  passionate 
affection.  He  held  the  law  of  Rome  in  pro- 
found respect.  His  teaching  was  real,  human, 
genial.  His  picture  of  the  loving,  charitable 
temper,  upheld  by  him  as  the  highest  spiritual 
gift,  is  perhaps  the  noblest  ideal  ever  pre- 
sented to  man.  And  with  all  this  he  knew 
how  to  exercise  stern  spiritual  authority 
when  necessary.  It  is  important  to  notice 
that,  though  Christian  dogma  was  to  undergo 
much  further  development  in  succeeding 
centuries,  its  central  institution,  the  eucharist, 
was  brought  by  him  into  full  prominence. 

Of  the  great  names  in  early  Christianity, 
St.  Peter  is  often  referred  to  as  the  apostle 
of  catholicity,  St.  John  as  the  apostle  of  love, 
and  St.  Paul  as  the  apostle  of  progress.  Each 
of  these  three  chosen  ones  represented  a 
special  side  of  hutaan  nature  —  will,  emotion, 
and  intellect.  While  St.  Peter  is  the  symbol 
of  the  church  militant,  the  rock  on  which 
the  church  is  built,  St.  John  the  beloved  is 
the  forerunner  of  that  mystic  love,  that  tender 
piety,  ever  and  anon  appearing  in  the  course 
of  its  history  —  in  the  lives  of  St.  Bonaven- 
tura,  St.  Francis,  and  the  author  of  the 
"Imitation."  These  are  classed  together  on 
the  one  hand,  while  its  more  masculine  minds, 
St.  Augustine,  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  Calvin, 
and  Luther,  stand  on  the  other,  and  with 
them,  in  a  preeminent  degree,  St.  Paul. 

But  in  one  quality  he  transcended  them 
all  —  in  his  moral  energy.  Removed  alike 
from  the  extremes  of  fanaticism  on  the  one 
hand,  and  apathy  on  the  other,  his  whole 
life  was  a  noble  instance  of  the  consecration 
of  the  highest  powers  and  the  most  indefat- 
igable energies  to  a  work  in  which  he  had 
no  personal  interest  apart  from  that  of  his 
fellow  Christians! 

"That  life  of  his,"  says  Dean  Farrar,  "as 
it  stands  revealed  to  me  in  his  own  epistles, 
how  sad  it  was,  and  how  frightful  1  From 
that  day  on  which,  blind  and  trembling,  and 
with  the  scars  of  God's  own  thunder  on  his 
soul,  he  had  staggered  into  the  streets  of 
Damascus,  what  a  tragedy  had  encompassed 
him  of  ever  deepening  gloom!  That  first 
peril,  when  he  had  been  let  down  in  a  basket 


through  a  window  —  the  flights  from 
nation  —  the  hot  disputes  at  Antioch  —  the 
expulsion  from  Iconium  —  the  stoning  at 
Lystra  —  the  quarrel  with  his  own  heart's 
brother  —  the  acute  spasms  of  that  impale 
ment  by  the  stake  in  the  flesh  at  Galatia  — 
the  agony  in  Macedonia,  of  outward  fightinp 
and  inward  fears  —  the  five  Jewish  scourgings 
—  the  three  Roman  flagellations  —  the  pol- 
ished scorn  of  Athens  —  the  factious  violokce 
of  Corinth  —  the  streaming  tears  of  the  part^ 
ing  at  Miletus  —  the  gnashing  fury  of  Jewish 
mobs  —  the  illegal  insolence  of  provincial 
tribunals  —  these  were  but  a  fragment,  and  a 
small  fragment,  of  his  trials  and  miseries. 
Even  the  brute  forces  of  nature  seemed  to  be 
against  him  —  he  had  to  struggle  in  her  rush- 
ing water-courses,  to  faint  in  her  sultry  des- 
erts, to  toss  for  long  days  and  nights  in  leakj 
vessels  on  her  tempestuous  seas.  This  was 
the  perilous,  persecuted  life  on  which  he  had 
to  look  back  as  he  sat  chained  to  the  rude 
legionary  in  that  dreary  Roman  priscMi." 

But  how  resplendent  do  his  achievements 
stand  out  against  this  dark  background  of 
suffering  and  deprivation.  Through  the  right- 
eous zeal  which  burned  within,  he  introduced 
Christianity  to  the  civilization  of  Europe,  and 
became  its  chief  champion  to  all  mankind. 
He  exalted  the  practice  of  faith,  hope,  and 
charity  —  by  these  two  acta  creating  a  world- 
religion.  Christ  being  God,  St.  Paul  is  His 
apostle ;  one  the  spiritual  head,  the  other  the 
temporal  founder  of  Christianity.  During  his 
career  he  developed  a  force  and  play  of  spirit, 
a  keenness,  depth,  clearness,  and  cogency  <A 
thought,  a  purity  and  firmness  of  purpose, 
an  intensity  of  feeling,  a  holy  audacity  of 
effort,  a  wisdom  of  deportment,  a  precision 
and  delicacy  of  practical  skill,  a  strength  and 
liberty  of  faith,  a  fire  and  mastery  of  elo- 
quence, a  heroism  in  danger,  a  love,  and  seif- 
forgetfubess,  and  patience,  and  humility,  and 
altogether  a  sublime  power  and  richness  of 
endowment,  which  have  secured  for  him 
the  reverence  and  wonder  of  all  time. 

Imagine  the  world  without  St.  Paul  I  It 
would  mean  the  detention  of  the  goq>el,  per- 
haps for  centuries,  on  the  borders  of  Asia, 
which  he  has  made  the  center  of  the  conver- 
sion and  civilization  of  the  worid.  Imagine 
the  Bible  without  St.  Paull  It  would  mean 
Christian  truth  only  half  revealed ;  Christian 
life  only  half  understood;  Christian  charity 
only  half  known;  Christian  faith  only  half 
victorious. 


212 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


ST.  AUGUSTINE 


354 
371 
373 
379 
383 
384 
386 
387 


Born  at  Tagaste,  Numidia, 

Studied  at  Carthage, 17 

Adopted  Manichseism, 19 

Teaches  rhetoric  at  Carthage,  ...  25 

Went  to  Rome, 29 

Removes  to  Milan, 30 

Converted  to  the  Christian  faith,     .  32 
Baptized  by  St.  Ambrose;   death  of 

his  mother, 33 


A.  D.  Aoa 

388  Returns  to  Africa, 34 

391  Ordained  priest, 37 

395  Bishop  of  Hippo, 41 

397  Confeasionea,  "Confessions,"      ...      43 

413-426  De   CivUate   Dei,    "The    City    of 

God," ,,    .   59-72 

430  Hippo  besieged  by  Genseric ; '  died 

at  Hippo, 76 


CT.  AUGUSTINE,  or,  in  Latin,  Lucius 
^  AuRELius  AuGUSTiNUS,  was  the  most 
eminent  of  the  Latin  church  fathers,  and  one 
of  the  greatest  of  theologians.  The  son  of 
Patricius,  a  pagan  nobleman,  and  the  saintly 
Monica,  an  earnest  Christian,  he  was  bom  at 
Tagaste,  in  Numidia,  November  13,  354  A.  D. 

Augustine's  father,  a  man  of  violent  temper, 
though  at  the  same  time  of  a  kindly  disposi- 
tion, died  before  his  son  reached  manhood. 
His  mother  was  a  model  of  gentleness  and 
virtue,  the  child  of  Christian  parents,  and 
from  her  youth  up  accustomed  to  live  under 
the  influence  of  Christian  principles.  She 
sought  to  win  her  husband  over  to  Chris- 
tianity, and  also  to  imbue  the  mind  of  their 
son  with  religious  truth,  and  to  train  him  in 
the  ways  of  piety  and  virtue.  For  a  time, 
however,  it  appeared  as  though  her  care  had 
been  bestowed  in  vain.  Like  many  another 
pious  mother,  she  had  to  go  through  the 
severe  discipline  of  seeing  her  child  apparently 
hastening  to  ruin  before  she  was  permitted  to 
reap  the  reward  of  her  anxieties  and  her  labors. 

Meanwhile,  Augustine's  intellectual  culture 
was  going  forward.  His  father  was  anxious 
that  he  should  become  a  fine  scholar,  probably 
chiefly  for  the  reason  that  he  noticed  not  a 
few  persons  in  his  day  who  were  obtaining 
large  rewards  by  their  wits.  Accordingly, 
Augustine  was  sent  to  school  at  Madaura,  and 
subsequently  to  Carthage,  at  the  age  of 
seventeen,  to  complete  his  studies.  When  he 
left  home  for  Carthage,  a  joyous,  ardent,  and 
resolute  student,  a  bright  career  of  worldly 
prosperity  seemed  to  open  before  him.  But 
strong  as  Augustine  was,  the  temptations  of 
Carthage  were  stronger.  His  nature,  deep, 
impetuous,  and  passionate,  thirsted  for  excite- 
ment. He  had  just  reached  the  age  when 
happiness  is  conceived  to  be  synonymous  with 
pleasure,  and  Carthage,  the  second  city  of  the 
empire,  rank  as  Rome  in  its  sensual  corrup- 
tion, held  him  captive  under  its  spell.  In  his 
"Confessions,"  he  paints  the  frightful  abyss 
into  which  he  felt  himself  plunged.     Nor  does 


he  seek  to  excuse  himself;  on  the  contrary, 
the  shadow  of  his  guilt  is  thrown  forward  over 
all  his  boyish  life,  and  he  displays  even  a 
morbid  zeal  and  acuteness  in  pointing  out 
what  others,  less  censorious,  might  term  the 
frivolous  errors  of  his  childhood,  but  which 
seemed  to  Augustine  the  parents  of  his  subse- 
quent vices,  and,  therefore,  equally  bad  and 
equally  reprehensible. 

He  tells  us  that  he  loved  the  Latin  authors, 
but  hated  the  Greek  —  a  circumstance,  he 
says,  he  never  could  fully  account  for,  but 
which,  he  adds  with  much  naivete,  was 
probably  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  learning 
the  Greek,  to  him  a  foreign  language,  and  to 
the  harshness  of  his  teacher,  who  enforced 
his  lessons  "with  savage  terrors  and  punish- 
ments." He  applied  himself  with  character- 
istic vigor  to  the  study  of  eloquence  and  phi- 
losophy. The  perusal  of  Cicero's  treatise 
entitled  Hortensius,  in  his  nineteenth  year, 
first  awakened  him  to  a  nobler  state  of  being 
than  he  had  hitherto  aimed  at.  The  study 
also  of  Aristotle's  categories,  he  says,  exerted 
a  potent  and  beneficial  effect  upon  his  mind. 
This  treatise  he  read  in  his  twentieth  year; 
and  about  the  same  time  he  mastered,  by  his 
own  efforts,  rhetoric,  logic,  geometry,  arith- 
metic, and  music.  He  now  became  impelled 
by  a  love  of  truth  to  pursue  his  studies,  having 
before  only  aspired  to  be  an  adroit  master  of 
words. 

To  use  the  language  of  Neander:  "The 
conflict  now  began  in  his  soul  which  lasted 
through  eleven  years  of  his  life.  The  sim- 
plicity of  the  sacred  scriptures  possessed  no 
attractions  for  his  taste  —  a  taste  formed  by 
rhetorical  studies  and  the  artificial  discipUne 
of  the  declamatory  schools  —  especially  as  his 
mind  was  now  in  the  same  tone  and  direction 
as  that  of  the  emperor  Julian,  when  the 
latter  was  conducted  to  the  Platonic  theoso- 
phy.  Moreover,  he  found  so  many  things  in 
the  doctrines  of  the  church  which,  from  want 
of  inward  experience,  could  not  be  otherwise 
than  uninteUigible  to  him,  while  he  attempted 


ST.  AUGUSTINE 

From  the  fainting  of  Fra  Filifpo  Lippi 


e    ,»,  »      » 


IN  RELIGION 


2U 


to  grasp,  by  the  understanding  from  without, 
what  can  be  understood  only  from  the  inner 
life,  from  the  feeling  of  inward  wants,  and 
one's  own  inward  experiences.  So,  under 
these  circumstances,  the  delusive  pretensions 
of  the  Manichaean  sect,  which,  instead  of  a 
bUnd  belief  on  authority,  held  out  the  promise 
of  clear  knowledge  and  a  satisfactory  solution 
of  all  questions  relating  to  things  human  and 
divine,  presented  the  stronger  attractions  to 
his  inexperienced  youth." 

In  373  Augustine  became  a  professed 
Manichaean.  Returning  to  his  native  town, 
he  lectured  for  a  short  time  on  rhetoric  — 
that  is  to  say,  on  literature.  Afterward,  in 
379,  he  returned  to  Carthage  to  pursue  his 
profession  under  more  favorable  auspices. 
Here  he  wrote,  in  his  twenty-seventh  year,  his 
first  work,  De  Apto  et  Pulchro,  "On  the 
Befitting  and  the  Beautiful "  —  a  treatise  on 
aesthetics,  which  has  unfortunately  been  lost. 
About  the  same  time  his  spiritual  nature 
became  keener  and  more  imperative  in  its 
demands.  The  futile  speculations  of  the 
visionary  sect  to  which  he  had  attached  him- 
self now  became  apparent.  He  had  a  series 
of  interviews  and  conversations  with  Faustus, 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  teachers  of  Mani- 
chaeism ;  and  these  so  utterly  disappointed  his 
expectations  that  he  left  the  society  in  dis- 
gvist  and  sad  bewilderment,  after  having 
wasted  ten  years  in  a  fruitless  search  for 
wisdom  and  truth. 

In  383  he  went  to  Rome,  followed  by  the 
tears,  the  prayers,  and  the  anxieties  of  his 
excellent  mother,  who  was  not,  however, 
bereaved  of  hope,  for  both  her  faith  and  her 
love  were  strong.  After  a  short  stay,  Augus- 
tine left  Rome,  and  proceeded  to  Milan,  where 
he  became  a  teacher  of  rhetoric.  No  change 
could  have  been  more  fortunate.  Here  he 
came  under  the  influence  of  Ambrose,  bishop 
of  Milan,  a  man  of  eminence  alike  for  his 
piety  and  eloquence.  To  him  Augustine  was 
attracted  in  the  first  instance  by  his  kindness 
to  him.  "  The  maq  of  God,"  says  he,  "  received 
me  like  a  father,  and  loved  the  stranger  like  a 
true  bishop.  And  I  began  to  love  him,  at  first, 
indeed,  not  as  a  teacher  of  the  truth,  which  I 
had  no  hope  of  then  finding  in  the  church,  but 
as  a  man  who  had  been  kind  to  me." 

He  became  an  assiduous  attendant  on 
Ambrose's  ministry,  not,  as  he  confesses,  from 
any  great  interest  he  took  in  the  matter  of  his 
discourses,  but  because  he  was  delighted  with 
the  elegance  and  suavity  of  his  style,  and,  as 


a  teacher  of  rhetoric,  wished  to  study  him  m 
a  master  of  oratory.  Gradually,  howerw,  he 
found  that  there  was  something  beyond  Um 
mere  elocution  of  the  preacher  deserving  his 
attention.  He  felt  convinced  that  the  Chris- 
tian faith  could,  in  many  points,  be  suooeaiH 
fully  defended  against  the  Manidueans. 

At  this  time,  however,  his  mind  was  in  any- 
thing but  a  settled  state.  He  was,  in  faot, 
neither  a  Manichaean  nor  a  Christian.  Thoi^ 
he  placed  himself  under  Christian  instruction, 
he  was  in  reality  a  sceptic,  "  in  doubt  about  all 
things,  and  fluctuating  from  one  thing  to 
another  through  all."  Still  he  adopted  the 
wise  expedient  of  thoroughly  exploring  the 
Christian  doctrine,  if,  haply,  he  might  find  a 
resting-place  in  it  for  his  intellect  and  heart. 
He  was  a  diligent  hearer  of  Ambrose,  from 
whom  he  imbibed  with  much  readiness  the 
maxim  often  enunciated  by  him,  "The  letter 
killeth,  but  the  spirit  giveth  life."  But  he 
demanded  a  certainty  of  conviction  before  he 
would  embrace  Christianity,  which  the  nature 
of  the  case  did  not  admit.  He  wanted  mathe- 
matical certainty,  such  as  we  have  for  the 
belief  that  "seven  and  three  are  ten."  Con- 
sequently, he  still  remained  in  doubt  and 
perplexity,  like  a  man  afraid  of  falling  over  a 
precipice  should  he  advance. 

He  seems  at  this  time,  also,  to  have  been 
still  under  the  influence  of  that  sensuality 
which  had  tyrannized  over  him  at  an  earlier 
period  of  his  life,  and  to  have  led  a  life  by  no 
means  pure.  He  was  helped  to  a  healthier 
state  of  mind  by  the  perusal  of  several  treep 
tises  of  Plato  and  the  Platonists,  which,  he 
says,  "enkindled  within  me  an  inconsiderable 
conflagration."  The  effect  of  these  on  his 
mind  was  to  counteract  the  materaliiing 
tendency  of  Manichaeism,  and  to  prepare  him 
for  the  reception  of  the  spiritualities  of  Qiris- 
tianity.  Platonism  of  itself  could  not  satisfy 
him.  He  rested  in  it  for  a  while,  but  ere  long 
found  that  it  was  not  adequate  to  his  inner 
needs.  It  taught  him  to  seek  "incorporeal 
verity,"  and  helped  him  "to  prattle  as  if  he 
were  a  proficient,"  but  it  could  not  satisfy  the 
conscience  nor  purify  the  heart.  "I  waa 
puffed  up,"  he  says,  "with  knowledge;  for 
where  was  that  charity  which  buikleth  on  the 
foundation  of  humility,  which  foundation  is 
Christ  Jesus?  Else  how  could  these  books 
teach  me  it?" 

Reinvigorated,  however,  by  his  Platonic 
studies,  he  turned  with  fresh  ardw  to  the 
perusal   of   scripture,  and  especially  to  the 


216 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


epistles  of  St.  Paul.  These  he  read  with  a 
mind  gradually  opening  to  divine  truth,  and 
growing  with  a  conformity  to  the  mould  of 
doctrine  therein  taught ;  and  to  this,  aided  by 
the  teaching  of  Ambrose  and  the  conversa- 
tions of  Simplician,  a  presbyter  of  the  church 
of  Milan,  his  ultimate  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity is  to  be  instrumentally  ascribed. 
Having,  after  many  struggles,  and  as  the 
result  of  grave  deliberation,  resolved  publicly 
to  profess  himself  a  Christian,  he  was  baptized 
by  Ambrose  on  April  25,  387  A.  D. 

A  friend  and  fellow  townsman,  named 
Alypius,  and  his  natural  son  Adeodatus,  born 
while  he  was  pursuing  his  studies  at  Carthage, 
were  baptized  along  with  him.  His  mother, 
Monica,  to  whom  he  had  conveyed  the  news 
of  his  conversion,  was  present  at  this  ceremony 
having  hastened  from  Africa  to  Milan;  to 
her  it  was  an  exultation,  when  her  mourning 
was  turned  into  gladness,  and  a  full  reward 
for  all  her  instructions,  anxieties,  and  prayers, 
was  poured  into  her  bosom.  As  if  the  great 
end  of  her  life  was  now  gained,  she  did  not 
long  survive  this  event.  Her  son  resolved  to 
return  with  her  to  Africa,  but  she  was  taken 
ill  during  her  journey  at  Ostia,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Tiber,  and  in  387  died  there,  after  a 
short  illness,  in  the  fifty-sixth  year  of  her  age. 

After  the  death  of  his  mother,  Augustine 
remained  some  time  at  Rome,  where  he  wrote 
treatises  against  the  Manichaeans,  and  on  free 
will.  His  character  and  principles  of  action 
had  now  become  fixed,  and  he  brought  the 
whole  majesty  of  his  intellect  to  bear  upon  the 
side  of  Christianity.  He  returned  in  the 
year  388  to  Tagaste,  where  he  sold  the 
remains  of  his  paternal  property,  gave  the 
proceeds  to  the  poor,  and  gave  himself  up  to 
religious  meditation. 

In  391  he  was  ordained  a  priest  by  Valerius, 
bishop  of  Hippo;  and  during  the  next  four 
years,  though  earnestly  engaged  in  the  work  of 
preaching,  contrived  to  write  three  different 
works.  In  395  he  was  made  colleague  of 
Valerius,  as  bishop  of  Hippo.  Then  ensued 
a  period  of  hot  strife,  known  in  church  history 
as  the  Donatist  and  Pelagian  controversies,  in 
which  he  took  the  main  part  on  the  orthodox 
side.  It  is  from  these  writings  against  Pela- 
gius  that  we  obtain  the  fullest  view  of  his 
theological  system.  Augustine,  as  may  natu- 
rally be  supposed,  having  passed  through  so 
fierce  a  fire  of  personal  experience  on  religious 
questions,  would  be  very  jealous  both  of  what 
he  knew  to  be  the  truth,  and  of  what  he  only 


thought  to  be  the  truth.  This,  added  to  his 
acute  and  profound  intellect,  made  him,  in 
spite  of  the  poverty  of  his  historical  erudition, 
a  most  formidable  and  relentless  antagonist. 
In  397  appeared  his  Confessiones,  a  deep, 
earnest,  and  sacred  autobiography  of  one  of 
the  greatest  intellects  the  world  has  seen.  In 
413  he  commenced  his  De  CivUate  Dei,  and 
finished  it  in  426.  It  is  generally  considered 
his  most  wonderful  work. 

Augustine  held  his  place  as  bishop  of  Hippo 
until  the  year  430,  when  he  died  in  the  seventy- 
sixth  year  of  his  age.  His  end  was  peaceable, 
though  amid  scenes  of  violence  and  suffering. 
The  Vandals  under  Genseric  had  laid  siege  to 
Hippo  during  that  year,  and  for  many 
months  exposed  its  inhabitants  to  peril 
and  straits.  The  aged  bishop,  pained  by  the 
scenes  which  constantly  met  his  ^e,  and 
anticipating  still  greater  disasters,  earnestly 
besought  of  God  deliverance  for  the  people 
from  their  enemies,  and  for  himself  a  speedy 
emancipation  from  all  earthly  burdens  and 
cares.  His  prayer  for  himself  was  heard ;  in 
the  third  month  of  the  siege,  on  the  28th  of 
August,  he  was,  to  use  the  words  of  Gibbon, 
"gently  released." 

Augustine  was  a  very  voluminous  writer, 
and  a  large  proportion  of  his  writings  still 
remain.  Of  these  the  most  important  are  his 
"Confessions,"  Rdradationes,  or  "Retracta- 
tions," "The  City  of  God,"  and  his  homilies 
and  comments  on  portions  of  scripture  — 
particularly  his  "Commentary  on  the  Sermon 
on  the  Mount." 

His  "Confessions"  contain  a  history  of  the 
earlier  period  of  his  life,  interspersed  with 
reflections,  and  addressed  to  God,  which,  if 
they  somewhat  interrupt  the  course  of  the 
narrative,  more  than  compensate  for  this  by 
the  insight  they  give  us  into  the  heart  and  soul 
of  the  man.  His  "Retractations"  was  the 
work  of  his  old  age,  and  contains  a  sort  of 
review  of  all  his  previous  writings  and  opin- 
ions, in  which,  with  characteristic  candor,  he 
retracts  and  condenms  what  his  maturer 
judgment  led  him  to  deem  erroneous  or 
imperfect. 

"  The  City  of  God  "  is  perhaps,  as  a  whole, 
his  greatest  production.  It  is  an  elaborate 
defense  of  Christianity,  and  a  refutation  of 
pagan  mythology  and  philosophy,  under- 
taken in  consequence  of  an  attempt  on  the 
part  of  the  pagans  to  cast  the  odium  of  the 
sacking  of  Rome  by  the  Goths  on  Christianity. 
On  this  work  Augustine  spent  thirteen  years, 


IN  RELIGION 


917 


and  it  remains  a  monument  of  his  knowledge, 
eloquence,  and  mental  strength.  "  'The  City 
of  God,'  "  says  Milman,  "  is  at  once  the  funeral 
oration  of  the  ancient  society,  and  a  gratula- 
tory  panegyric  on  the  birth  of  the  new.  It 
acknowledged,  it  triumphed  in  the  irrevocable 
fall  of  the  Babylon  of  the  West,  the  shrine  of 
idolatry;  it  hailed,  at  the  same  time,  the 
universal  dominion  which  awaited  the  new 
theocratic  polity.  The  earthly  city  had 
imdergone  its  predestined  fate ;  it  had  passed 
away,  and  all  its  vices  and  superstitions  — 
with  all  its  virtues  and  its  glories  (for  the  soul 
of  Augustine  was  not  dead  to  the  noble 
reminiscences  of  Roman  greatness)  —  with 
its  false  gods  and  its  heathen  sacrifices:  its 
doom  was  sealed,  and  forever.  But  in  its 
place  had  arisen  the  city  of  God,  the  church 
of  Christ;  a  new  social  system  had  emerged 
from  the  ashes  of  the  old:  that  system  was 
founded  by  God,  was  ruled  by  divine  laws,  and 
had  the  divine  promise  of  perpetuity." 

The  grandeur  of  the  occasion  on  which  this 
book  was  conceived,  and  of  its  general  sub- 
ject, is  unsurpassed  in  literature.  In  410 
Rome  was  taken  and  sacked  by  the  Goths 
under  Alaric.  The  wail  sent  up  from  the 
empire  included  the  indignant  complaint  of 
many  that  the  public  disasters  were  due  to  the 
forsaking  of  the  ancient  gods.  Thus  the 
whole  issue  between  polytheism  and  Catholic 
monotheism  was  raised  before  a  world-wide 
audience,  deeply  interested,  and  deeply 
excited.  Augustine,  "outflaming  with  zeal 
for  God's  house,"  stepped  forth  as  the  cham- 
pion of  Christianity,  and  produced  this  monu- 
mental work. 

As  an  interpreter  of  scripture,  Augustine 
does  not  rank  as  high  as  he  does  as  a  theolo- 
gian —  a  polemic.  He  lays  down  excellent 
rules  of  exegesis,  but  does  not  himself  adhere 
to  them,  and  consequently  it  is  rather  for 
their  homiletical  and  spiritual  merits  than  for 
their  exegetical  worth  that  his  commenta- 
ries are  in  repute.  It  is  in  the  department  of 
ethical  and  polemical  theology  that  his  merit 
lies.  He  was  the  father  alike  of  the  mediaeval 
scholasticism  and  of  the  theology  of  the 
mystics. 

The  central  tenets  of  his  creed  were  the  cor- 
ruption of  human  nature  through  the  fall  of 
man,  the  consequent  slavery  of  the  human 
will,  predestination,  election,  and  reprobation, 
and  the  perseverance  of  the  saints.  It  was 
not  by  his  controversial  writings  merely,  but 
by  his  profound  conception  of  Christianity 


and  the  religious  life,  and  by  hispcreonal  fenror 
and  force  of  character  that  Augustine  nnwildwi 
the  spirit  of  the  Christian  church  for  oeoturict, 
so  that,  at  the  reformation,  I*rot«8t«nta  and 
Catholics  alike  appealed  to  his  authority. 

No  mind  has  exerted  greater  influence  oo 
the  church  than  that  of  Augustine.  He  wm 
a  man  of  powerful  and  acute  intellect,  whidi 
he  had  cultivated  by  diligent  study.  His 
writings  are  somewhat  rugged,  but  full  of 
force  and  fire ;  and  in  many  of  his  works  there 
is  an  undercurrent  of  sentiment  and  tender- 
ness which  lends  an  indescribable  charm  to 
the  whole.  His  conduct  after  hc[  became  a 
Christian  was  marked  by  scrupulous  integrity 
and  purity,  and  impressed  all  who  bchckl  it 
with  a  conviction  of  the  sincerity  of  his  pro- 
fession. As  a  bishop  he  was  conscientious 
and  diligent;  unmoved  by  worldly  ambition, 
he  remained  "faithful  to  his  first  bride,  his 
earliest  though  humble  see  " ;  and  when  dan- 
gers surrounded  his  flock,  he  refused  to  desert 
them,  but,  like  a  true  pastor,  remained  to 
share  with  them  in  their  privations,  and  to 
lend  them  what  aid  and  encouragement  his 
presence  could  supply.  The  holy  light  of 
faith  and  hope  that  was  in  him  was  not  extin- 
guished by  his  death,  but  only  ascended  to  a 
higher  place,  and  has  been  shining  through 
the  centuries  ever  since. 

"  No  Christian  teacher  since  the  days  of  the 
apostles,"  says  Dr.  William  Bright,  "has 
influenced  Christian  thought  so  powerfully  as 
St.  Augustine.  This  influence  has  sometimes 
been,  so  to  speak,  imperial:  the  'doctor  of 
grace '  has  reigned  in  the  schools  of  theology ; 
his  Benedictine  editors  in  the  seventeenth 
century  described  him  as  'the  oracle  of  the 
church ' ;  and,  as  Archbishop  Trent  has  told 
us,  a  Spanish  sermon  was  proverbially  said  to 
lack  its  best  ingredient  if  it  contained  nothing 
out  of  Augustine." 

"The  vehement  temperament,"  adds  Walt«r 
Bagehot,  "the  bold  assertion,  the  ecstatic 
energy  of  men  like  St.  Augustine  or  St.  Paul, 
burn  into  the  minds  and  memories  of  men,  and 
remain  there  at  once  and  forever.  Such  men 
excel  in  the  broad  statement  of  great  truths 
which  flash  at  once  with  vivid  evidence  on  the 
minds  which  receive  them.  The  very  words 
seem  to  glow  with  life ;  and  even  the  sceptical 
reader  is  half  awakened  by  them  to  a  kindred 
and  similar  warmth.  Such  are  the  men  who 
move  the  creeds  of  mankind,  and  stamp  a 
likeness  of  themselves  on  ages  that  succeed 
them." 


21«        •                                    MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 

MOHAMMED 

A.  D.                                                                                                      AGE  A.  D.                                                                                                      AOB 

6707  Bom  at  Mecca,  Arabia. 625     Subdued  the  Koreish, 56 

582     Traveled  in  Arabia  and  Syria,    ....      12  629     Conquered  Mecca ;    defeated  tke  Chris- 

595     Married;   shepherd  and  trader,  ....     25  tians  at  Muta, 59 

610     Announced  his  revelations  as  a  prophet,     40  630     Great  increase  of  followers, 60 

622  The  hegira,  or  flight  to  Medina,     ...     52  632     Died  at  Medina, 62 

623  Expelled  the  Jews  from  Medina,    ...     53 


"V/f  OHAMMED,  or  Mahomet,  the  founder 
^  *•  of  Mohammedanism,  was  bom  about 
570  A.  D.,  at  Mecca,  Arabia.  According  to 
tradition,  he  was  an  Ishmaelite  —  a  descend- 
ant of  Ishmael,  son  of  the  Hebrew  Abraham 
and  Hagar.  His  father,  Abdallah,  a  poor 
merchant,  though  he  belonged  to  the  tribe 
of  the  Koreish  —  one  of  the  noblest  of  Mecca, 
the  sacred  city,  and  center  of  Arabian  com- 
merce—  died  two  months  after  the  birth  of 
his  son.  At  the  age  of  six  years  he  lost  his 
mother,  Amina,  and  was  carried  to  his  grand- 
father, Abd  al-Muttalib,  Two  years  later 
he  also  lost  his  grandfather,  and  was  then 
adopted  by  his  uncle,  Abu  Tahb,  who  held 
the  key  to  the  Kaaba,  and  who  remained 
Mohammed's  best  friend  and  protector 
throughout  his  whole  life. 

The  accounts  of  his  early  life  are  of  too 
legendary  a  nature  to  deserve  entire  credit; 
but  it  seems  certain  that  he  first  gained  a 
scanty  livelihood  by  tending  the  flocks  of  his 
uncle,  and  other  Meccans,  and  that  he  made 
trading  journeys  with  the  former  to  southern 
Arabia,  and  to  Syria.  At  the  time  of  these 
journeys  he  was  about  twelve  years  of  age; 
and  it  is  believed  that  through  them  he 
learned  many  facts  about  the  religions  of 
western  Asia.  He  was  already  marked  out 
from  his  fellows  by  abstinence  from  coarse 
pleasures,  and  by  unstained  loyalty,  and 
had  received  the  name  Al-Amin,  "  the  faith- 
ful." 

In  his  twenty-fifth  year  he  entered  the 
service  of  a  rich  widow,  named  Khadija, 
Ukewise  descended  from  the  Koreish,  and 
accompanied  her  caravans  —  in  an  inferior 
capacity,  perhaps  as  camel-driver  —  to  the 
fairs.  Up  to  that  time  his  circumstances 
were  very  poor.  Suddenly  his  fortune  changed. 
The  wealthy,  but  much  older,  and  twice 
widowed  Khadija  offered  him  her  hand,  which 
he  accepted.  She  bore  him  a  son,  Al-Kasim 
—  whence  Mohammed  adopted  the  name  Abu 
al-Kasim  —  and  foiu-  daughters:  Zainab, 
Rukaija,  Umm  Kulthum,  and  Fatima;  and 
afterward  a  second  son,  whom  he  called 
Abd  Manaf,  after  an  idol  worshiped  among 


his  tribe.  Both  his  sons,  however,  died  early. 
Mohammed  continued  his  merchant's  trade 
at  Mecca,  and  in  his  thirty-fifth  year  he  is 
said  to  have  been  chosen,  by  chance  only, 
arbiter  in  a  quarrel  about  the  replacing  of 
the  sacred  black  stone  in  the  Kaaba. 

For  several  years  it  was  noticed  that  he 
often  withdrew  himself  to  a  lonely  cave  out- 
side the  city,  and  remained  there  for  hours 
and  days  wrapped  in  intense  thought.  There, 
at  the  mountain  of  Hira,  near  Mecca,  when 
he  was  forty  years  of  age,  he  had  his  first 
vision,  in  which  —  according  to  the  tradition 
—  the  angel  Gabriel  commanded  him  to  recite 
the  message  given  to  him.  "The  work  of  his 
life  was  revealed  to  him  in  flashes  of  prophecy, 
scorching  like  bolts  from  heaven,  whitening 
his  hair  and  for  the  time  paralyzing  his 
strength.  In  the  name  of  God,  it  was  laid 
upon  him  to  preach  the  true  religion." 

At  this  time,  in  Arabia,  no  central  govern- 
ment had  been  set  up  through  the  vast  penin- 
sula. Various  tribes,  partly  nomad,  partly 
sedentary,  held  sway  through  ill-defined  dis- 
tricts. A  certain  unity  was  maintained  by 
language,  by  community  of  custom,  by  mer- 
cantile and  religious  pilgrimages. 

"The  period  before  the  advent  of  Moham- 
med," says  Ockley,  "is  called  by  the  tribes 
the  age  of  darkness  or  ignorance.  The 
'sciences'  cultivated  by  them  were  that  of 
their  genealogies;  a  knowledge  of  the  stars 
to  foretell  the  changes  of  the  weather,  and 
the  interpretation  of  dreams.  The  accom- 
pHshments  on  which  the  Arabs  valued  them- 
selves chiefly  were  eloquence,  a  perfect  skill 
in  their  own  tongue,  expertness  in  the  use  of 
arms,  horsemanship,  and  hospitality.  The 
exercise  of  arms  and  horsemanship  they  were 
obliged  to  practice  and  encourage,  by  reason 
of  the  independence  of  their  tribes,  whose 
frequent  jarrings  made  war  almost  continual, 
and  they  chiefly  ended  their  disputes  in  field 
battles.  It  was  a  usual  saying  among  them 
that  God  had  bestowed  four  peculiar  things 
on  the  Arabs:  that  their  turbans  should  be 
to  them  instead  of  diadems,  their  tents  in- 
stead   of    walls    and    houses,    their    swords 


IN  RELIGION 


31» 


instead  of  intrenchments,  and  their  poems 
instead  of  written  laws. 

"Their  minds,  however,  were  liberal,  their 
hearts  cheerful,  their  pedigrees  pure  and 
genuine ;  the  words  flowed  from  their  mouths 
like  arrows  from  a  bow,  but  milder  than  the 
breezes  of  spring,  and  sweeter  than  honey. 
Their  ideal  man  was  pictured  to  be  'free  and 
liberal,  an  eloquent  poet,  and  a  successful 
robber.'  " 

Mecca  was  a  reUgious  center.  From  time 
immemorial  it  had  been  the  sacred  city; 
pilgrimages  to  Mecca  had  been  for  the  Arabs 
what  the  Olympic  games  were  to  the  Greeks. 
Here  was  the  sharp  conflict  of  religious  ideas 
—  Jews,  Christians,  Magi,  mingled  with  in- 
numerable oriental  idolatries,  all  centered  in 
Mecca  and  the  temple  had  become  a  pantheon. 
In  it  were  statues  of  Abraham,  Ishmael, 
statues  of  angels  and  of  the  Virgin,  sacred 
stones,  representations  of  planets  and  stars,  a 
deity  for  every  day  in  the  year.  Indeed, 
Abraham  was  regarded  as  the  founder  of  this 
temple,  and  here  Hagar  took  refuge  with 
Ishmael  when  driven  forth.  Jews  were  set- 
tled in  many  of  the  surrounding  towns,  and 
had  told  the  story  of  their  nation,  and  their 
religion,  and  Christian  ascetics  lived  in  the 
desert  places. 

Meditating  amid  these  influences,  Moham- 
med's mind  was  seriously  affected.  Of  a 
singularly  impressionable  temperament,  the 
times  weighed  heavily  upon  him;  and,  when 
his  mission  in  life  was  revealed  to  him,  he 
determined  to  lift  the  tribes  around  him  above 
their  lawless  life  of  pillage,  sensuality,  and 
idolatry,  by  unveiling  the  presence  of  an  all- 
powerful  God  who  judged  the  earth,  and  who 
sent  Mohammed,  the  last  of  a  long  line  of 
prophets,  to  bring  all  nations  to  Islam  — the 
perfect  surrender  of  the  will  to  God. 

His  first  revelation  he  communicated  to  no 
one  but  his  wife,  daughters,  step-son,  and  one 
friend,  Abu  Bekr.  In  the  fourth  year  of  his 
mission,  however,  he  had  made  forty  prose- 
lytes, chiefly  slaves  and  very  humble  people; 
and  now  some  verses  were  revealed  to  him, 
commanding  him  to  come  forward  publicly 
as  a  preacher.  God's  mercy  was  principally 
to  be  obtained  by  prayer,  fasting,  and  alms- 
giving. The  Kaaba  and  the  pilgrimage  were 
recognized  by  the  new  creed.  The  prohibition 
of  certain  kinds  of  food  belongs  to  this  first 
period,  when  Mohammed  was  imder  the 
influence  of  Judaism ;  the  prohibition  of  gam- 
bling, usviry,  and  wine  came  after  the  hegira. 


His  earliest  teachings,  written  down  by 
amanuenses,  consisted  of  brief,  rhymed  no- 
tences,  and  for  a  time  the  Meccans  oouidflrad 
him   a   common   "poet"   or   "soothsayer," 

perhaps  not  in  his  right  senses. 

Gradually,  however,  fearing  for  the  sacred* 
ness  of  Mecca,  they  rose  in  fierce  opposition 
against  the  new  prophet  and  his  growing 
adherents.  Many  of  the  converted  slaves  and 
freedmen  underwent  terrible  punishments; 
some  suffered  so  much  that  they  abjured  their 
creed.  Mohammed's  faithful  wife  Khadija 
died,  and  his  uncle  and  protector,  Abu  Talib ; 
and  he  was  reduced  to  utter  poverty. 

He  now,  with  his  followers,  emigrated  to 
Taif,  where  he  sought  to  improve  his  position ; 
but  this  resulted  in  failure,  and  it  was  with 
difficulty  that  he  escaped  with  his  life.  Dur- 
ing this  epoch  he  had  the  well-known  dream 
of  his  journey  to  Jerusalem  and  in  the  heavens 
on  the  back  of  the  Borak  (Miraj),  the  relation 
of  which  caused  even  his  stanchest  adherents 
to  smile  at  his  hallucination.  Shortly  after 
his  return  from  Taif  he  married  Sauda,  and 
afterward  so  increased  the  number  of  hia 
wives  that  at  his  death  he  still  left  nine,  of 
whom  Ayeshah,  the  daughter  of  Abu  Bekr, 
and  Hafsa,  the  daughter  of  Omar,  are  best 
known. 

In  the  midst  of  his  vain  endeavors  to  find 
a  hearing  in  his  own  city,  and  those  near  it, 
he  succeeded,  during  a  pilgrimage,  in  convert- 
ing several  men  from  Medina,  whose  inhabit- 
ants had  long  been  accustomed  to  hear,  from 
the  mouths  of  the  numerous  Jews  living  in 
the  city  and  its  neighborhood,  the  words 
revelation,  prophecy,  God's  word,  messiah, 
to  the  Meccans  mere  soimds  without  any 
meaning.  The  seed  sown  into  the  minds  of 
these  men  bore  a  fruitful  harvest.  The  next 
pilgrimage  brought  twelve,  and  the  third 
more  than  seventy  adherents  to  the  new 
faith  from  Medina,  and  with  these  he  entered 
into  a  close  alliance.  Mohammed  now  con- 
ceived the  plan  of  seeking  permanent  refuge 
in  the  friendly  city  of  Medina,  and  about  622 
he  fled  thither,  about  one  hundred  families  of 
his  faithful  flock  having  preceded  him  KOM 
time  before,  accompanied  by  Abu  Bekr,  and 
reached,  not  without  danger,  the  town  after- 
ward called  Medinat  Annabi,  "city  of  the 
prophet,"  by  way  of  eminence.  This  was 
the  great  movement,  called  in  history  the 
hegira,  and  from  it  dates  the  beginning  of 
the  Arabian  nation,  as  well  as  the  Moham- 
medan era. 


220 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Now  everything  was  changed  to  the  advan- 
tage of  the  prophet  and  his  religion;  and  if 
formerly  the  incidents  of  his  life  are  shrouded 
in  comparative  obscurity,  they  are  from  this 
date  known  often  to  their  most  insignificant 
details.  Formerly  a  despised  "madman  or 
imposter,"  he  now  assumed  at  once  the  posi- 
tion of  highest  judge,  lawgiver,  and  ruler  of 
the  city  and  two  most  powerful  Arabic  tribes. 
His  first  care  was  directed  toward  the  con- 
solidation of  the  new  worship,  and  the  inner 
arrangements  in  the  congregation  of  his  flock. 
His  next  chief  endeavor  was  to  proselyte  the 
numerous  Jews  who  inhabited  the  city,  to 
whom,  besides  having  received  their  principal 
dogmas  into  his  religion,  he  made  many 
important  concessions  also  in  the  outer  ob- 
servances of  Islam,  and  concluded  alliances 
with  many  of  their  tribes ;  but  he  was  sorely 
disappointed  in  his  hopes  to  convert  them. 
They  ridiculed  his  pretension  to  be  the  mes- 
siah,  and  so  enraged  him  by  their  constant 
taunts  that  he  soon  abrogated  his  concessions, 
and  became  their  bitterest  enemy  up  to  the 
hour  of  his  death. 

The  most  important  act  in  the  first  year  of 
the  hegira  was  his  permission  to  go  to  war 
with  the  enemies  of  Islam  —  especially  the 
Meccans  —  in  the  name  of  God.  The  first 
battle,  between  three  hundred  fourteen  Mos- 
lems and  six  hundred  Meccans,  was  fought 
at  Badr,  in  December,  623 ;  the  former  gained 
the  victory  and  made  many  prisoners.  A 
great  number  of  adventurers  now  flocked  to 
Mohammed,  and  he  successfully  continued 
his  expeditions  against  the  Koreish  and  the 
Jewish  colonies.  In  January,  625,  the  Mec- 
cans defeated  him  at  Ohod,  where  he  was 
dangerously  wounded.  The  siege  of  Medina 
by  the  Meccans  in  627  was  frustrated  by 
Mohammed's  ditch  and  earthworks.  In  628 
he  made  peace  with  the  Meccans,  and  in  629 
celebrated  the  pilgrimage  with  two  thousand 
followers  for  three  days  at  Mecca. 

His  missionaries  at  this  time  began  to  carry 
his  doctrines  abroad  to  Chosroes  II.,  to 
Heraclius,  to  the  king  of  Abyssinia,  the  vice- 
roy of  Egypt,  and  the  chiefs  of  several  Arabic 
provinces.  Some  received  the  new  gospel; 
but  the  king  of  Persia,  and  Amru,  one  of  the 
Arabian  chiefs,  rejected  his  proposals  with 
scorn,  and  the  latter  had  the  messenger  exe- 
cuted. This  was  the  cause  of  the  first  war 
between  the  Christians  and  the  Moslems,  in 
which  the  latter  were  beaten  with  great  loss 
by  Amru.    The  Meccans  now  thought  the 


long-desired  moment  of  revenge  at  hand,  and 
broke  the  peace  by  committing  several  acts  of 
violence  against  the  Chuzaites,  the  allies  of 
Mohammed.  The  latter,  however,  marched 
at  the  head  of  ten  thousand  men  against 
Mecca  before  its  inhabitants  had  time  to 
prepare  for  the  siege,  took  it,  and  was  pub- 
licly recognized  by  them  as  chief  and  prophet. 
With  this  the  victory  of  the  new  religion  waa 
secured  in  Arabia. 

While  employed  in  destroying  all  traces  of 
idolatry  in  the  besieged  city,  and  fixing  the 
minor  laws  and  ceremonies  of  the  true  faith, 
Mohammed  heard  of  new  armies  which  sev- 
eral warlike  Arabic  tribes  marched  against 
him,  and  which  were  concentrated  near  Taif. 
Again  he  was  victorious,  and  his  dominion 
and  creed  extended  further  and  further  every 
day.  From  all  parts  flocked  the  deputations 
to  do  homage  to  him  in  the  name  of  the  various 
tribes,  either  as  the  messenger  of  God,  or  at 
least  as  the  prince  of  Arabia,  and  the  year  8 
of  the  h^ira  was,  therefore,  called  the  year 
of  the  deputations.  Once  more  he  made 
most  extensive  preparations  for  a  war  against 
the  Byzantines;  but  not  being  able  to  bring 
together  a  sufllicient  army,  he  had  to  be  satis- 
fied with  the  homage  of  a  few  minor  princes 
on  his  way  to  the  frontiers,  and  to  return 
without  having  carried  out  his  intention. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  10th  year  of  the 
hegira  he  undertook,  at  the  head  of  at  least 
forty  thousand  Moslems,  his  last  solemn 
pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  and  there  on  Mount 
Arafat  instructed  them  in  all  the  important 
laws  and  ordinances,  chiefly  of  the  pilgrimage ; 
and  the  ceremonies  observed  by  him  on  that 
occasion  were  fixed  for  all  times.  He  again 
solemnly  exhorted  his  beUevers  to  righteous- 
ness and  piety,  and  chiefly  recommended 
them  to  protect  the  weak,  the  poor,  and  the 
women,  and  to  abstain  from  usury. 

After  returning  from  Mecca,  he  occupied 
himself  again  with  the  carrying  out  of  his 
expedition  against  Syria,  but  fell  dangerously 
ill  very  soon  after  his  return.  One  night, 
while  suffering  from  an  attack  of  fever,  he 
went  to  the  cemetery  of  Medina,  and  prayed 
and  wept  upon  the  tombs,  praising  the  dead, 
and  wishing  that  he  himself  might  soon  be 
delivered  from  the  storms  of  this  world.  For 
a  few  more  days  he  went  about ;  at  last,  too 
weak  further  to  visit  his  wives,  he  chose  the 
house  of  Ayeshah,  situated  near  a  mosque,  as 
his  abode  during  his  sickness.  He  continued 
to  take  part  in  the  public  prayers  as  long  as 


IN  RELIGION 


aai 


he  could.  At  last,  feeling  that  his  hour  had 
come,  he  once  more  preached  to  the  people, 
recommending  Abu  Bekr  and  Osama,  the  son 
of  Zaid,  as  the  generals  whom  he  had  chosen 
for  the  army.  He  then  asked,  like  Moses, 
whether  he  had  wronged  any  one,  and  read  to 
them  passages  from  the  Koran,  preparing  the 
minds  of  his  hearers  for  his  death,  and  ex- 
horted them  to  peace  among  themselves,  and 
to  strict  obedience  to  the  tenets  of  the  faith. 

A  few  days  afterward  he  asked  for  writing 
materials,  probably  in  order  to  fix  a  successor 
to  his  office  as  chief  of  the  faithful ;  but  Omar, 
fearing  he  might  choose  Ali,  while  he  himself 
inclined  to  Abu  Bekr,  would  not  allow  him 
to  be  furnished  with  them.  In  his  last  wan- 
derings he  only  spoke  of  angels  and  heaven. 
He  died  in  the  lap  of  Ayeshah,  June  8,  632. 
His  only  surviving  child  was  Fatima,  the  wife 
of  Ali,  and  the  ancestress  of  all  the  sherifs,  or 
nobles,  of  the  Mohammedan  world. 

His  death  caused  an  immense  excitement 
and  distress  among  the  faithful,  and  Omar, 
who  himself  would  not  believe  it,  tried  to 
persuade  the  people  that  he  was  still  alive. 
But  Abu  Bekr  said  to  the  assembled  multi- 
tude: "Whoever  among  you  has  served 
Mohammed,  let  him  know  that  Mohammed  is 
dead;  but  he  who  has  served  the  God  of 
Mohammed,  let  him  continue  in  His  service, 
for  He  is  still  alive,  and  never  dies."  While 
his  corpse  was  yet  unburied,  the  quarrels  about 
his  successor,  whom  he  had  not  definitely 
been  able  to  appoint,  commenced;  and, 
finally,  Abu  Bekr  received  the  homage  of  the 
principal  Moslems  of  Medina.  Mohammed 
was  then  buried  in  the  night,  after  long  dis- 
cussions from  the  9th  to  the  10th  of  June  in 
the  house  of  Ayeshah,  which  afterward  be- 
came part  of  the  adjoining  mosque. 

In  personal  appearance,  Mohammed  is 
described  as  of  middle  height,  rather  lean, 
but  broad  shouldered,  and  altogether  of  strong 
build;  slightly  curled  black  hair  —  at  least 
before  his  conversion  —  flowed  round  his 
strongly  developed  head.  His  eyes,  overhung 
with  thick  eyelashes,  were  large  and  coal- 
black  ;  his  nose,  large  and  slightly  bent,  was 
well  formed.  A  long  beard  added  to  the 
dignity  of  his  appearance.  His  countenance 
was  mild  and  pensive,  and  his  laugh  rarely 
more  than  a  smile.  In  his  walk  he  moved  his 
whole  body  violently,  "as  if  descending  a 
mountain."  His  gait  and  presence  were  alto- 
gether of  an  extremely  imposing  nature.  He 
was  of  a  nervous  and  melancholic  tempera- 


ment, and  throughout  his  life  wm  subject  to 
epileptic  attacks.  He  poanned  great  natural 
eloquence,  a  keen  intellect,  an  ovendwlmii^ 
fluency  of  speech,  and  indomitable  oouraga. 
Once,  in  the  thick  of  persecution,  when  nrgad 
by  his  uncle  to  desist  from  his  cruaade,  he 
replied :  "  If  they  brought  me  the  sun  to  my 
right  hand  and  the  moon  to  my  left,  to  force 
me  from  my  work,  I  would  not  leave  it  till 
the  Lord  had  made  my  cause  good,  or  till  I 
perished." 

In  his  habits  he  was  extremely  simple.  He 
visited  the  sick,  followed  any  bier  he  metp 
accepted  the  invitation  of  a  slave  to  dinner; 
mended  his  own  clothes,  milked  his  goats, 
and  waited  upon  himself.  He  never  with- 
drew his  hand  first  out  of  another  man's  palm, 
and  turned  not  before  another  had  turned. 
Tradition  says  he  was  most  generous,  most 
truthful ;  the  most  faithful  protector  of  those 
he  protected;  the  sweetest  and  most  agree" 
able  in  conversation;  those  who  saw  him 
were  suddenly  filled  with  reverence;  tboee 
who  came  near  him  loved  him;  they  who 
described  him  would  say,  "  I  have  never  seso 
his  like  either  before  or  after." 

What  Confucius  was  to  the  Chinese,  Zoro- 
aster to  the  Persians,  Pythagoras  and  the 
Seven  Sages  to  the  Greeks,  Moses  to  the 
Hebrews,  Mohammed  was  to  the  Arabians. 
When  the  religious  elements  are  ready,  a 
great  man  has  always  arisen  in  history  to  put 
them  together;  the  mass  is  organized  into  a 
system,  a  code,  a  bible,  and  upon  this  nucleus 
a  nation  is  bom.  Confucius,  like  Pythagoras, 
was  philosopher  and  legislator;  Buddha  was 
priest  and  philosopher ;  Moses,  Zoroaster,  and 
Numa  were  priests  and  legislators;  Orpheus 
was  reputed  priest  and  poet ;  but  Mohammed 
was  poet,  priest,  philosopher,  legislator,  and 
conqueror,  all  in  one.  He  was  a  theocrat  of 
the  fullest  type. 

Coming  last  of  the  theocrata,  he  had  special 
advantages,  and  he  used  them  well.  Before 
his  death  all  Arabia  had  submitted,  and 
threats  had  been  sent  to  the  great  potentates 
of  the  world,  the  rulers  of  Rome  and  Persia. 
Once  before  the  Arab  hordes  had  encoun- 
tered the  Roman  l^ons.  The  life  and  soul 
of  these  aggressions  was  Omar,  an  early  con- 
vert, a  daring  warrior,  the  "  St.  Paul  of  Islam," 
the  real  hero  of  the  crescent.  Mohammed 
died,  but  the  crusade  went  on.  Syria,  PenU, 
and  Egypt  bowed  before  the  shibboleth, 
"Koran,  tribute,  or  sword."  Damascus  was 
stormed  and  taken,  then  Jerusalem,  then 


222 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Balbeck,  Antioch,  Alexandria,  all  Persia; 
Islamism  nearly  overran  the  world.  It  was 
checked  in  the  West  by  Charles  Martel,  and 
in  the  East  by  Leo  the  Isaurian,  but  it 
had  won  an  empire  hke  that  of  Alexander 
or  Caesar. 

The  origin  of  most  religions  is  lost  in  an 
obscurity  of  myth  and  miracle;  that  of 
Mohammedanism  is  as  clear  as  day.  Of  all 
the  religions  of  the  world,  it  is  the  one  that 
has  the  least  mystery  about  it,  and  especially 
is  there  no  mystery  about  its  founder. 
Mohammed's  whole  religious  system,  tem- 
poral as  well  as  spiritual,  is  embodied  in  the 
Koran,  which  is  the  standard  of  faith,  as  well 
as  the  basis  of  Mohammedan  law.  Commen- 
tators divide  the  Koran  into  three  general 
heads:  (1)  Directions,  relating  either  to 
religion,  as  prayers,  fasting,  pilgrimage;  or 
to  civil  polity,  as  marriages,  inheritances, 
judicatures.  (2)  Histories,  chiefly  from  the 
sacred  writings  of  the  Hebrews.  (3)  Admo- 
nitions, under  which  head  are  comprised 
exhortations  to  receive  Mohammedanism,  to 
fight  for  it,  to  practice  its  precepts,  prayer, 
alms,  etc. ;  the  moral  duties,  such  as  justice, 
temperance,  etc.;  promises  of  everlasting 
felicity  to  the  obedient,  dissuasion  from  sin, 
threatenings  of  the  punishments  of  hell  to  the 
unbeUeving  and  disobedient.  The  style  of 
the  work  is  wild  and  rhapsodical  in  the  early 
part,  prosaic  and  narrative  in  the  second, 
oflBcial  and  authoritative  in  the  last. 

The  parts  of  the  Koran,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered, were  not  composed  at  will  by  Moham- 
med, as  ordinary  books  are  made;  but  its 
chapters,  without  exception,  came  to  his  mind 
while  in  a  certain  excited  mental  state, 
ecstasy,  or  trance,  in  which  he  had  visions  of 
angels,  saw  lights,  heard  voices,  and  had 
truths  put  into  his  mind. 

Mohammedanism,  as  a  whole,  recognizes 
four  main  articles,  one  belonging  to  the  dogma 
or  theory,  the  rest  to  the  worship  or  practice. 
The  former  is  the  coiifession  of  faith  which 
every  Moslem  considers  as  the  summary  of 
his  religion,  viz.:  "There  is  no  God  but  the 
true  God,  and  Mohammed  is  His  messenger  " ; 
but  this  article  includes  six  distinct  elements : 
(1)  belief  in  God;  (2)  belief  in  His  angels; 
(3)  belief  in  His  scriptures ;  (4)  belief  in  His 
prophets;  (5)  belief  in  the  resurrection  and 
judgment  day;  (6)  belief  in  the  absolute 
decree  of  God,  and  in  the  predestination  of 
good  and  evil. 

The  four  articles  including  worship   and 


practice  are:  (1)  prayer;  (2)  alms;  (3)  fastr- 
ing ;  (4)  pilgrimage  to  Mecca. 

Under  the  head  of  the  prophets,  the  Koran 
teaches  that  God  has  revealed  Himself  to 
various  men  in  divers  ages  of  the  world.  He 
gave  the  pentateuch  to  Moses ;  the  psalms  to 
David ;  the  gospels  to  Christ,  and  the  Koran 
to  Mohammed.  The  happiness  promised  to 
Mohammedans  in  paradise  is  wholly  material : 
fine  gardens,  rich  draperies  sparkling  with 
gems  and  gold,  delicious  fruits  and  wines  that 
neither  cloy  nor  intoxicate;  but,  above  all, 
affording  the  fruition  of  all  the  delights  of 
love,  is  the  society  of  women  having  large 
black  eyes,  and  every  trait  of  exquisite  beauty, 
who  shall  ever  continue  young  and  perfect. 

As  to  the  punishments  threatened  to  the 
wicked,  they  are  hell  fire,  breathing  hot  winds, 
drinking  foul  and  boiling  water,  eating  briars 
and  thorns,  and  the  bitter  fruit  of  the  tree  of 
Zacom,  which  shall  feel  in  their  stomachs  hke 
burning  pit<?h.  Concerning  the  decrees  of 
God,  it  is  held  that  everything  that  has  or 
will  come  to  pass  has  been  from  all  eternity 
written  on  the  secret  tablet,  a  white  stone  of 
immense  size  preserved  in  heaven  near  the 
throne  of  God.  "  Whatever  is  written  against 
thee  will  come  to  pass;  what  is  written  for 
thee  shall  not  fail;  resign  thyself,  therefore, 
to  God,  and  know  thy  Lord  to  be  powerful; 
His  decrees  will  certainly  take  place;  His 
servants  ought  to  be  silent."  The  time  of 
every  man's  death  is  so  unalterably  fixed 
that  he  cannot  die  before  the  appointed  hour, 
and,  when  that  hour  is  come,  no  caution 
whatever  can  prolong  his  life  one  moment. 
Even  those  in  battle  would  certainly  have 
died  at  the  same  time  if  they  had  been  in 
their  houses.  The  effect  of  this  teaching  was 
to  make  the  people  fearless  and  ready  to 
fight. 

Of  the  four  fundamental  points  of  practice, 
the  foremost  is  prayer.  This  duty  is  to  be 
performed  five  times  a  day.  In  the  morning 
before  simrise;  when  noon  is  past;  a  little 
before  simset;  a  little  after  sunset;  and 
before  the  first  watch  of  the  night.  Previous 
to  prayer,  the  faithful  are  to  purify  them- 
selves by  washing.  On  the  point  of  fasting 
they  are  to  go  each  day,  during  the  month  of 
Ramadan,  from  sunrise  to  sunset  without 
food,  drink,  or  any  indulgence.  The  last 
practical  duty  is  going  on  the  pilgrimage  to 
the  holy  city  of  Mecca,  which  every  one  is 
obhged  to  perform  once  in  his  hfetime.  Next 
in  discipUne  is  the  matter  of  alms.    Here  the 


IN  RELIGION 


natural  liberality  of  the  Arab  is  made  mani- 
fest. It  is  his  disposition  to  be  more  liberal 
and  hospitable  than  others,  and  to  give  riches 
away  as  fast  as  he  obtains  them.  This  habit 
of  prodigality  was  elevated  by  Mohammed 
into  a  religious  law. 

Although  Mohammed  ranks  far  above  all 
other  Arabic  writers  as  a  poet,  his  character 
as  a  prophet  far  transcends  that  of  the 
Hterary  artist.  For  four  hundred  years  the 
terrible  voice  of  the  prophet  quenched,  in 
Arabia,  all  song  and  poesy.  When  the  im- 
pvilse  came  to  him  to  "cry  out!  recite! 
preach ! "  the  epoch  of  poetry  gave  way  to 
one  of  prose. 

"He  preached  Islam,"  says  Deutsch,  "and 
he  preached  it  by  rending  the  skies  above 
and  tearing  open  the  ground  below,  and  by 
abjuring  heaven  and  hell,  the  living  and  the 
dead.  The  Arabs  had  ever  been  proficient 
in  the  art  of  swearing,  but  such  swearing 
had  never  been  heard  in  and  out  of  Arabia. 
By  the  foaming  waters  and  by  the  grim  dark- 
ness, by  the  flaming  sun  and  the  setting  stars, 
by  Mount  Sinai  and  by  Him  who  spanned  the 
firmament,  by  the  human  soul  and  the  small 
voice,  by  the  Kaaba  and  by  the  book,  by  the 
moon  and  the  dawn  and  the  angels,  by  the 
ten  nights  of  dread  mystery  and  by  the  day 
of  judgment.  That  day  of  judgment,  at  the 
approach  whereof  the  earth  shaketh,  and  the 


mountains  are  scattered  into  dust,  and  the 
seas  blaze  up  in  fire,  and  the  children's  hair 
grows  white  with  anguish,  and  like  loetMU 
swarms  the  souls  arise  out  of  their  graves, 
and  Allah  cries  to  hell,  'Art  thou  filled  full?' 
and  hell  cries  to  Allah,  *  More,  give  me  more  I  * 
*  ♦  «  while  paradise  opens  its  bliaful 
gates  to  the  righteous  and  glory  ineffsMs 
awaits  them." 

"All  is  vain,  that  is  not  God."  This  was 
his  teaching,  and  this  in  the  beginning  was 
his  life ;  and  there  is  something  sublime  in 
the  luminous  path  which  his  enthustastio 
spirit  struck  out  for  itself  through  the  be- 
wildering maze  of  adverse  faiths  and  wild 
traditions  that  the  world  will  never  cease  to 
admire. 

James  Freeman  Clarke,  in  Ten  Qrmt  Be^ 
gions,  points  out  thus  the  relations  of  the 
three  Semitic  creeds.  Judaism  and  Moham- 
medanism both  leave  God  outside  the  world. 
"  Above  all,  as  its  creator  and  ruler,  above  all 
as  its  judge,  but  not  through  all  and  in  all. 
The  idea  of  an  infinite  love  must  be  added 
and  made  supreme  in  order  to  give  us  a  being 
who  is  not  only  above  all  but  through  all,  and 
in  all.  This  is  the  Christian  monctheism. 
Mohammed  teaches  a  God  above  us,  Moses 
teaches  a  God  above  us  and  yet  with  us. 
Christ  teaches  a  God  above  us,  God  with  us, 
and  God  in  us." 


GREGORY  VII. 


A.  D.  AOE 

1020?  Bom  at  Saona,  Italy, 

1038     Entered  monastery  of  Clvmy,    ....  18 

1046     Invited  to  Rome, 26 

1050     Cardinal  sub-deacon, 30 

1054     Papal  legate  to  German  emperor;  also 

to  France, 34 

1073     Elected  pope  as  Gregoiy  VII., ....  53 

1075     Opposes  Henry  IV.  of  Germany,      .    .  65 


1076  Henry  deposes  Gregory;   Gregory  ex- 

communicates Henry, M 

1077  Absolved  Henry  IV., 67 

1080     Renewed     the    excommunicatioo    of 

Henry  IV. M 


1084  Besieged  by  Henry  IV.  in  CMtle  ot 

St.  Angelo, 

1085  Died  at  Salerno,  in  eadle, 


St.'Angelo,  .    .   '. M 


pOPE  GREGORY  VII.,  otherwise  known 

'■  as  HiLDEBRAND,  shajcs  with  Innocent  III. 
the  distinction  of  being  one  of  the  two  greatest 
Roman  pontiffs.  He  was  preeminently  the 
historical  representative  of  the  temporal 
claims  of  the  chiu-ch  during  the  middle  ages, 
which  culminated  in  the  great  pontificate  of 
Innocent  III. 

He  was  born  about  1020,  at  Saona,  a  village 
on  the  southern  border  of  Tuscany,  near  Siena, 
Italy.  The  history  of  his  early  years  is  some- 
what obsciu-e.    Whether  his  family  belonged 


to  the  burgher  or  the  noble  class  is  disputed 
by  his  biographers.  His  o^ti  name,  Hild^ 
brand,  is  suggestive  of  a  Germanic  extraction ; 
but  by  birth  and  education,  at  least,  he  was 
Italian.  Of  his  remoter  ancestry  nothing  is 
definitely  known. 

His  youth  was  passed  at  Rome,  in  the 
monastery  of  St.  Mary  on  the  Aventine,  ci 
which  his  uncle  Laurence  —  afterward  bishop 
of  Amalfi  — was  abbot.  From  Rome  he 
passed  into  France,  where  he  entered  the 
celebrated  Benedictine  monastery  of  Cluny, 


224 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


about  1038,  in  the  schools  of  which  his  educa- 
tion was  completed.  From  the  strict  ascetic 
observances  he  there  practiced,  he  probably 
acquired  those  austere  habits  which  were  a 
distinguishing  mark  of  his  entire  life. 

About  1046  Hildebrand  was  called  to  Rome 
where  he  was  made  prior  of  the  abbey  of  St. 
Paul's  without  the  walls,  and  chaplain  of  the 
newly  elected  pope,  Gregory  VI.  He  shortly 
afterward  accompanied  Gregory  VI.  into  his 
German  exile,  and,  apparently  under  the 
patronage  of  the  emperor  Henry  III.,  con- 
tinued his  studies  at  Cologne.  By  his 
preaching  there  and  elsewhere  he  obtained  a 
reputation  for  great  eloquence,  and  visited 
the  court  of  Henry  III.  He  attended  the 
council  at  Worms  in  1049,  and  is  said  in  a  very 
special  way  to  have  come  under  the  notice  of 
Bruno,  bishop  of  Toul,  then  on  his  way  to 
Rome  to  take  possession  of  the  chair  of  St. 
Peter,  which  he  occupied  for  some  years  under 
the  title  of  Leo  IX.  It  was  at  Hildebrand's 
instance  that  Bruno,  who  had  been  nominated 
by  the  emperor  merely,  consented  to  refrain 
from  assuming  the  pontificial  vestments,  and 
to  present  himself  to  the  Romans  in  the  garb 
of  a  simple  pilgrim,  until  he  should  have  been 
elected  in  a  more  regular  manner.  This 
ascendancy  which  Hildebrand  had  thus 
acquired  over  this  active  and  devoted  pontiff, 
he  never  afterward  lost;  and  he  virtually 
directed  the  conduct  and  succession  of  the 
holy  see  through  the  reigns  of  five  pontiffs, 
during  the  eventful  years  1048-73. 

In  1050  he  became  cardinal  sub-deacon,  and 
in  the  following  years  he  was  intrusted  with 
various  missions  of  great  importance,  and,  by 
inspiring  into  the  government  of  the  church 
the  great  principles  to  which  his  life  was 
vowed,  he  prepared  the  way  for  the  develop- 
ment of  his  own  theory  of  the  papacy.  He 
began  by  taking  a  prominent  part  in  the 
important  synods  of  Rheims  and  Mainz,  as 
well  as  in  those  of  Rome.  On  the  death  of 
Leo  IX.  in  1054,  the  Roman  people  had  signi- 
fied a  desire  that  the  sub-deacon  should  suc- 
ceed him.  This  honor  and  responsibility, 
however,  Hildebrand  declined;  but  he  was 
one  of  the  three  legates  who  went  to  Germany 
to  consult  with  the  emperor  about  the  choice 
of  a  successor.  The  negotiations,  which  lasted 
eleven  months,  ultimately  issued  in  the  elec- 
tion of  Gebhard  of  Eichstatt,  a  relative  of  the 
emperor,  who  up  to  that  time  had  followed  a 
distinctly  anti-papal  policy,  but  who,  imme- 
diately after  his  reception  and  consecration 


at  Rome  in  1055,  as  Victor  II.,  became  as 
entirely  reconciled  to  the  policy  of  Hildebrand 
as  Leo  had  been.  It  was  during  this  pontifi- 
cate that  Hildebrand,  as  papal  legate,  attended 
the  French  synods  held  for  the  purpose  of 
representing  the  heresy  of  Berengarius,  and 
was  instrumental  in  having  many  bishops 
deposed  for  simony. 

On  the  election  of  Pope  Stephen  IX.,  Hilde- 
brand was  sent  to  Germany,  in  1057,  to 
defend  the  choice  before  the  empress  Agnes, 
and  in  this  mission,  which  was  ultimately  suc- 
cessful, several  months  were  spent.  Again, 
in  1058,  he  succeeded  in  defeating  the  hostile 
party  of  Benedictine  X.,  and  in  securing  the 
tiara  for  Nicholas  II.  During  the  pontificate 
of  the  latter,  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
Lateran  council  which  effected  the  momentous 
change  in  the  mode  of  papal  election,  getting 
rid  of  the  turbulent  popular  element.  Once 
more,  in  1061,  he  successfully  labored  for  the 
election  of  Alexander  II.  to  the  papal  chair, 
and  in  Alexander's  name  upheld,  against  the 
German  sovereign,  the  purity  and  liberty  of 
the  church,  and  the  obligation  of  the  mar- 
riage vow ;  sent  the  conqueror  of  England  his 
consecrated  banner;  and  required  his  arch- 
bishop to  come  to  Rome  for  the  pallium. 

At  length,  in  1073,  on  the  death  of 
Alexander,  Hildebrand  was  himself,  as  it 
were,  compelled  by  the  tumultous  demands 
of  the  mob  to  accept  the  vacant  tiara ;  but  he 
refused  to  receive  consecration  until  the 
sanction  of  the  emperor  had  been  obtained. 
This  did  not  arrive  for  more  than  a  month, 
although  meanwhile  he  had  been  practically 
exercising  many  of  the  papal  functions; 
finally,  however,  he  was  ordained  to  the 
priesthood,  and  some  days  afterward  sol- 
emnly consecrated  pope  with  the  title  of 
Gregory  VII.,  a  name  which  he  chose  in  testi- 
mony of  his  veneration  for  the  memory  and 
character  of  his  earliest  patron,  Gregory  VI. 

Once  more  firmly  established  on  the  papal 
throne,  Gregory  lost  no  time  in  giving  the 
utmost  possible  practical  effect  to  the  two 
leading  ideas  of  his  life:  the  establishment 
of  the  supremacy  of  the  papacy  within  the 
church  and  the  effective  assertion  of  the 
supremacy  of  the  church  over  the  state. 
Regarding  as  the  great  evil  of  his  time  the 
thoroughly  secularized  condition  of  the  church 
in  a  great  part  of  Europe,  and  especially  in 
Germany  and  northern  Italy,  he  directed 
against  this  all  his  efforts. 

The  position  occupied  by  the  higher  clergy 


IN  RELIGION 


226 


aa  feudal  proprietors,  the  right  of  investiture 
which  was  claimed  by  the  crown,  the  conse- 
quent dependence  of  the  clergy  upon  the 
sovereign,  and  the  temptation  to  simony 
which  it  involved,  were,  in  the  mind  of 
Gregory,  the  cause  of  the  evils  under  which 
Europe  was  groaning.  Of  all  these,  he 
regarded  investiture  as  the  fountain  and  the 
source.  While,  therefore,  he  labored  by 
every  species  of  enactment,  by  visitations,  by 
encychcal  letters,  and  by  personal  exhorta- 
tions, precepts,  and  censures,  to  enforce  the 
observance  of  all  the  details  of  discipline  — 
celibacy,  the  residence  of  the  clergy,  the 
instruction  of  the  people  —  and  to  repress 
simony,  it  was  against  the  fundamental  abuse 
of  investiture  that  his  main  efforts  were 
directed. 

In  March,  1074,  a  synod  was  held  in  Rome 
which  condemned  the  simony  that  had  grown 
so  prevalent  throughout  the  church,  and  also 
enacted  the  old  stringent  laws  of  celibacy 
which  had  become  almost  a  dead  letter, 
especially  in  Germany  and  in  the  north  of 
Italy.  Simoniacal  or  married  priests  were 
declared  to  be  deposed  and  their  priestly 
functions  invalid.  The  resistance  of  the 
clergy  to  these  decrees  was  utterly  in  vain; 
papal  legates  visited  every  country,  and, 
supported  by  the  popular  voice,  compelled 
submission.  At  a  second  synod  it  was  deter- 
mined that  any  ecclesiastic  who  in  future 
should  accept  office  from  the  hands  of  a  lay- 
man incurred  the  penalty  of  deposition, 
while  the  secular  lord  who  bestowed  investi- 
ture was  to  be  excommunicated.  The  decree 
was  aimed  immediately  at  certain  German 
bishops,  Henry's  personal  advisers,  but 
hardly  less  directly  at  Henry  himself. 

The  emperor,  finding  his  hands  at  the 
moment  fully  occupied  with  the  suppression 
of  a  revolt  among  the  Saxons,  was  politic 
enough  to  conceal  his  resentment  for  a  time, 
and  to  dismiss  his  advisers.  As  soon  as  the 
war  had  been  brought  to  a  close,  however,  his 
defiance  found ,  ample  expression.  Mean- 
while Gregory  was  not  unopposed  even  in 
Italy,  and  during  the  Christmas  festivities  of 
1075  a  revolt  in  Rome  itself  was  organized 
by  Cencius,  who  had  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  those  nobles  who  were  opposed  to 
reform.  But  the  pope  had  the  popular 
enthusiasm  on  his  side,  and  ultimately  the 
insurgents  were  compelled  to  fly. 

A  papal  embassy  was  next  sent,  early  in 
1076,  to  Henry  at  Goslar,  citing  him  to  appear 


personally  at  Rome,  at  a  council  to  be  held  in 
the  second  week  of  Lent,  and  there  answer  for 
his  simony,  sacrilege,  and  oppression.  Henry's 
rage  at  this  knew  no  bounds;  he  dismissed 
the  legates  with  insult,  and  at  a  diet  held  at 
Worms,  in  January  of  that  year,  he  replied  by 
declaring  Gregory  deposed  on  the  ground  of 
tyranny,  magic,  and  other  charges,  by  sending 
notification  of  this  fact  to  the  Roman  clergy, 
and  by  taking  steps  for  appointing  a  successor 
to  the  dethroned  pontiff.  Gregory  now  lost 
no  time  in  excommunicating  all  the  bishops 
who  had  attended  the  diet  of  Worms,  in 
solemnly  deposing  and  excommunicating  the 
emperor,  and  in  absolving  his  subjects  from 
their  oath  of  allegiance. 

This  counteraction  produced  a  powerful 
effect  upon  the  German  princes  and  people, 
many  of  whom  had  good  cause  to  resent 
Henry's  tyrannies.  One  by  one  the  bishops 
who  had  announced  their  withdrawal  from 
Gregory's  obedience  now  signified  their  con- 
trition, and  at  a  diet  held  at  Tribur,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1076,  the  election  of  a  new  emperor 
began  to  be  discussed.  Resistance  being  in 
the  meantime  impossible,  Henry  resolved 
upon  humbling  himself  to  the  utmost.  In  the 
dead  of  winter  he  set  out  to  make  his  submis- 
sion. Gregory  was  in  waiting  for  him  at 
Canossa,  where,  from  January  25  to  27,  1077, 
that  famous  penance  which  Europe  has  not 
yet  forgotten  was  imposed. 

Absolved  only  on  condition  that  he  would 
not  assume  the  royal  dignity  until  his  case  had 
been  investigated  and  decided,  Henry  had  no 
sooner  left  the  papal  presence  than  he  b^an 
to  plot  his  revenge.  His  submission  was  only 
feigned;  and  upon  his  subsequent  triumph 
over  his  rival,  Rudolf  of  Swabia,  Henry 
resumed  hostilities  with  the  pope.  In  1080 
he  was  again  declared  deposed,  and  recipro- 
cated by  appointing  the  anti-pope,  Guibert, 
archbishop  of  Ravenna,  under  the  name  of 
Clement  III.  With  a  powerful  army,  the 
emperor  proceeded  to  escort  Guibert  to  Rome. 
In  three  successive  summers  the  attack  on 
Rome  was  renewed,  but  it  was  not  imtil 
March,  1084,  that  the  treachery  of  some  of 
the  nobles  of  the  city  opened  the  gate  to  the 
invader.  Gregory  was  now,  at  last,  com- 
pelled to  take  refuge  in  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo, 
where  he  was  besi^ed  by  Henry's  forces, 
while  Guibert  was  established  on  the  pontifical 
throne  as  his  successor.  After  receiving  coro- 
nation from  Clement,  Henry  determined  to 
return   at   once   to   Germany,   especially  as 


226 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Robert  Guiscard  was  known  to  be  approach- 
ing. Released,  accordingly,  by  the  arrival  of 
the  Norman  duke,  Gregory  excommunicated 
once  more  both  Henry  and  Clement.  The 
wretched  condition  to  which  Rome  was  now 
reduced,  obliged  Gregory  to  withdraw  first  to 
Monte  Cassino,  and  ultimately,  in  May,  1084, 
to  place  himself  under  Robert's  protection  at 
Salerno,  where  he  died,  May  25,  1085,  after  a 
comparatively  brief  pontificate  of  not  much 
more  than  ten  years.  His  last  words  are  a 
deeply  affecting,  yet  a  stern  and  unbending 
profession  of  the  faith  of  his  whole  life,  and  of 
the  profound  convictions  under  which  even 
his  enemies  acknowledge  him  to  have  acted : 
"I  have  loved  justice  and  hated  iniquity; 
therefore,  I  die  in  exile." 

Gregory's  career  lay  in  the  first  of  the  three 
centuries  which  fulfilled  the  maturity  of 
Catholicism.  He  found  the  field  prepared  by 
the  labors  of  a  thousand  years.  The  doctrine 
and  worship  of  the  church  were  almost  com- 
plete, awaiting  their  last  perfections,  the 
paramount  adoration  of  the  Virgin  and  the 
glory  of  sacred  art.  The  ranks  of  the  clerical 
order,  including  the  monastic  class,  were  fully 
established  and  their  normal  functions  pre- 
scribed. The  West  was  relieved  from  the 
interference  of  the  Eastern  church  and  court, 
and  from  further  northern  invasions;  the 
feudal  system  was  taking  shape  as  the  common 
polity;  the  Catholic  faith  prevailed  without 
rival  everywhere,  the  pagan  shores  of  the 
Baltic  and  Moorish  Spain  excepted ;  and  the 
papacy  was  enthroned  in  the  sacred  city  of 
the  world,  furnished  with  potent  title-deeds, 
and  endowed  with  an  ample  patrimony  vmder 
the  nominal  protection  of  a  holy  Roman 
emperor  and  all  Christian  princes :  the  pope's 
divine  commission  was  undoubted,  though  its 
limits  were  undefined.  It  was  Gregory's 
province  to  define  them.  In  Gregory's  con- 
ception of  the  constitution  of  Christian 
society,  the  spiritual  power  was  the  first  and 
highest  element.  It  was  to  direct,  to  com- 
mand the  temporal,  and,  in  a  certain  sense,  to 
compel  its  obedience;  but  the  arms  which  it 
was  authorized  to  use  for  the  purpose  of 
coercion  were  the  arms  of  the  spirit  only. 
In  other  words,  his  aspiration  was  to  subordi- 
nate politics  to  morals;  and  to  this  end  he 
devoted  his  unbending  efforts  to  suppress  the 
vices  which  deformed  society,  and  to  restrain 
the  t3Tanny  which  oppressed  the  subject  as 
much  as  it  enslaved  the  church. 

The  theory  of  church  polity  which  he  thus 


represented  is  differently  judged  by  the  dif- 
ferent religious  schools ;  but  it  is  confessed  by 
all,  even  by  those  who  now  most  vehemently 
reject  it,  to  have  been  grand  in  its  conception, 
and  unselfish  in  its  object. 

"The  theory  of  Augustine's  'City  of  God,'  " 
says  Milman,  "no  doubt  swam  before  his 
mind,  on  which  a  new  Rome  was  to  rise  and 
rule  the  world  by  religion."  But  so  exalted 
and  imperial  a  design,  opportune  and  neces- 
sary as  it  was,  could  not  be  carried  out  far 
enough  to  realize  the  Christian  dream  for 
universality.  Its  partial  success,  and  the 
noble  effort  back  of  it  availed  to  promote  the 
humanizing  career  of  Catholicism.  It  strength- 
ened the  hand  of  every  spiritual  authority  in 
Christendom  down  to  the  humblest  parish 
priest,  and  with  it  the  church  continued  to 
advance  in  plenary  power,  and  general  utility. 
Moreover,  whatever  may  be  said  of  the  power 
in  itself,  or  of  the  length  to  which  it  has  at 
times  extended,  the  occasion  and  the  object 
of  its  exercise  in  the  hands  of  Gregory  were 
always  such  as  to  command  the  sjTiipathy  of 
the  philosophical  student  of  the  history  of  the 
middle  ages.  He  taught  his  age  "  that  there 
was  a  being  on  earth  whose  special  duty  it 
was  to  defend  the  defenseless,  to  succor  the 
succorless,  to  afford  a  refuge  to  the  widow 
and  orphan,  and  to  be  the  guardian  of  the 
poor." 

The  life  work  of  Gregory  may  be  thus 
summed  up  in  the  words  of  Sir  James  Stephen : 
— "  He  found  the  papacy  electoral  by  the 
Roman  people  and  clergy ;  he  left  it  electoral 
by  a  college  of  papal  nomination.  He  found 
the  emperor  the  virtual  patron  of  the  holy 
see;  he  wrested  that  power  from  his  hands. 
He  found  the  secular  clergy  the  allies  and 
dependants  of  the  secular  power;  he  con- 
verted them  into  the  inalienable  auxiliaries 
of  his  own.  He  foimd  the  higher  ecclesiastics 
in  servitude  to  the  temporal  sovereigns;  he 
delivered  them  from  that  yoke  to  subjugate 
them  to  the  Roman  tiara.  He  fo\md  the 
patronage  of  the  church  the  mere  desecrated 
spoil  and  merchandise  of  princes ;  he  reduced 
it  within  the  dominion  of  the  supreme  pontiff. 
He  is  celebrated  as  the  reformer  of  the  impure 
and  profane  abuses  of  his  age;  he  is  more 
justly  entitled  to  the  praise  of  having  left  the 
impress  of  his  own  gigantic  character  on  the 
history  of  all  the  ages  which  have  succeeded 
him." 

The  victories  of  the  church  were  his  joys; 
her  defeats,  his  sorrows. 


IN  RELIGION  fgf 

ST.  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

*■•  D-  AOB  A.  D.  .__ 

]l^    Bom  at  Aflsisi.  Italy,     ••.....      ••  1210    Order  eanctionad  by  Pom  laaoamA 

1206     Made    a    pilgrimage    to    Rome,    and  IH  '    •'a»»   ""■'"■'• 

vowed  himself  to  poverty  and  re-  1219     First  general  ■'■('iiiiLh 2 

tono     TT   ^^TW    h'      ■•    •      J, ^  *223     Order  confirmed  by  Pom  HooiriW   '     41 

1208     Founds  the  Franciscan  order,  .    ...     26  1226     Died  near  Aaaisi,     .        .    7^^!;   .     44 


CT.  FRANCIS  of  Assisi,  founder  of  the 
^  celebrated  Franciscan  order,  and  who 
represented,  in  his  Ufe,  "the  might  and 
majesty  of  self-sacrifice,"  was  born  at  Assisi, 
near  Perugia,  in  Italy,  in  the  year  1182.  His 
baptismal  name  was  Giovanni  Francesco 
Bernardone,  and  his  father,  Pietro  Ber- 
nardone,  was  a  rich  merchant.  His  mother 
belonged  to  a  noble  family  of  Provence,  in 
the  south  of  France,  and  was  a  woman  of 
marked  piety. 

At  the  early  age  of  fourteen,  Francis  en- 
g£iged  in  his  father's  business,  which  brought 
him  into  close  trade  relations  with  the  people 
of  southern  France,  and  he  soon  became 
famihar  with  both  the  language  and  the 
romances  of  the  French  troubadours.  He 
was  a  youth  of  high  spirit  and  natural  enthu- 
siasm, which  was  matched  with  a  remarkable 
love  of  gayety  and  prodigality ;  but  even  then 
his  bounty  to  the  poor  was  one  of  the  largest 
sources  of  his  wastefulness.  He  engaged 
eagerly  in  exercises  of  chivalry  and  of  arms; 
and  in  one  of  the  petty  feuds  of  the  time 
he  was  taken  prisoner,  and  detained  for  a 
year  in  captivity  at  Perugia. 

An  illness  whdch  he  contracted  during  his 
confinement  in  prison  turned  his  thoughts 
from  earth,  and  forced  on  him  those  first 
religious  musings  which  created  within  him 
a  profound  desire  to  put  on  a  new  life.  He 
returned  to  military  pursuits,  however,  until  a 
second  illness  at  Spoleto  decided  his  career  for 
life.  He  now  resolved  to  fulfill  hterally  the 
counsels  of  the  gospel,  and  under  an  impulse 
which  he  received  while  listening  to  a  sermon 
he  took  a  vow  never  to  refuse  alms  to  a  beg- 
gar. In  1206,  when  twenty-four  years  of 
age,  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  St.  Peter's,  in 
Rome,  and  thereafter  he  renounced  his  inherit- 
ance, broke  from  his  family,  and  consecrated 
himself  to  religion  and  to  poverty  —  which 
latter,  in  the  mystic  language  thenceforth 
familiar  to  him,  he  designated  as  "his  bride." 

On  his  return  to  Assisi,  Francis  exchanged 
his  clothes  with  a  poor  mendicant,  and,  dis- 
regarding all  remonstrance  and  ridicule,  he 
ever  afterward  continued  to  wear  the  meanest 


attire.  He  gave  to  a  priest,  who  was  rebuild- 
ing a  ruined  church,  the  price  of  his  bone 
which  he  sold  for  the  purpose,  and  even 
sought  to  appropriate  to  the  same  uae  fomt 
of  his  father's  money,  which,  however,  tbe 
priest  refused  to  accept.  To  avoid  hi«  fatber'a 
anger,  he  took  refuge  in  a  cave,  in  which  be 
spent  a  month  in  sohtary  prayer,  and  from 
which  he  returned  more  than  ever  coafinDed 
in  his  enthusiasm. 

His  father  now  confined  him  —  but  in  vain 
—  in  a  dark  room  of  his  own  house,  and  cited 
him  before  the  magistrates  to  compel  him  to 
renounce  his  inheritance  before  he  should 
devote  it  to  such  purposes  as  his  religious 
enthusiasm  would  suggest.  Francis  declined, 
however,  to  recognize  any  civil  jurisdiction 
in  the  matter,  and  it  was  then  brought  by  bia 
father  before  the  bishop,  upon  which  occasion 
the  gentle  ascetic  renounced  his  entire  patri- 
mony, even  to  the  clothes  he  wore.  "Until 
now,"  Francis  declared,  "I  have  been  the  son 
of  Bemardini,  but,  henceforth,  I  have  but 
one  Father,  Him  that  is  in  heaven." 

Thereafter,  no  humiliation,  no  self-sacrifioe, 
was  too  extreme  for  Francis.  He  begged  at 
the  gates  of  monasteries;  he  discharged  the 
most  menial  offices;  he  served  the  lepers  in 
the  hospital  at  Gubbio  in  their  most  revolting 
necessities,  and  with  the  tenderest  assiduity. 
He  worked  with  his  own  hands  at  the  building 
of  the  church  of  St.  Damian,  and  at  that  of 
Sta.  Maria  degli  Angeli,  which  he  afterward 
called  his  "Portiuncula,"  or  "little  inherit- 
ance " ;  and  as  the  last  act  of  self-spoliation, 
and  the  final  acceptance  of  the  gift  of  poverty, 
he  threw  aside  his  wallet,  his  staff,  and  hi» 
shoes,  and  arrayed  himself  in  a  single  brown 
timic,  of  coarse  woolen  cloth,  girt  with  a  cord 
of  hemp.  This  was  in  his  twenty-sixth  year, 
in  1208;  and  from  this  year  the  foundation 
of  the  Franciscan  order  actually  dates.  His 
enthusiasm  by  d^rees  excited  emulation. 
Two  of  his  feUow  townsmen,  Bernard  Quin- 
tavalle  and  Peter  Cattano,  were  his  first  asso- 
ciates. They  were  followed,  althouj^  alowly, 
by  others.  In  1210,  when  his  brotherhood 
had  increased  to  eleven  in  number,  he  drew 


228 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


up  for  them  a  rule,  selected  in  the  true  spirit 
of  religious  enthusiasm,  by  thrice  opening  at 
random  the  gospels  upon  the  altar,  and  taking 
the  passages  thus  indicated  as  the  basis  of  the 
young  rehgious  order. 

The  new  brethren  repaired  to  Rome,  where 
their  rule  was  approved  viva  voce  by  Pope 
Innocent  III.  in  1210.  The  two  following 
years  were  spent  by  the  brotherhood  in 
preaching  and  exhorting  the  people  through 
the  rural  districts  of  their  native  and  the 
adjoining  provinces.  Francis  himself  returned 
to  Assisi  in  1212,  at  which  time  he  finally 
settled  the  simple  constitution  of  his  order, 
the  church  of  Sta.  Maria  degli  Angeli  being 
assigned  to  them  as  their  home.  In  common 
with  the  older  forms  of  monastic  life,  the 
Franciscan  order  was  founded  on  the  three 
vows  of  chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience; 
but  of  these  the  second  was,  in  the  eyes  of 
Francis,  the  first  in  importance  and  in  spiritual 
efficacy.  In  other  orders,  the  practice  of  pov- 
erty consisted  in  the  mere  negation  of  riches. 
With  Francis  it  was  an  active  and  positive 
principle.  In  other  orders,  although  the  indi- 
viduals could  not  possess,  it  was  lawful  for 
the  community  to  hold  property  in  common. 
Francis  repudiated  all  idea  of  property,  alike 
for  his  order  and  for  its  members.  He  even 
disclaimed  for  them  the  property  in  those 
things  which  they  retained  for  personal  use 
—  the  clothes  which  they  wore,  the  cord  with 
which  they  were  girded,  the  very  breviary 
from  which  they  chanted  the  divine  office. 
The  very  impossibility  to  human  seeming  of 
these  vows  was  their  strength. 

The  passionate  fervor,  mystic  tenderness, 
and  martyr-like  self-abandonment  of  the  new 
order  spread  with  irresistible  contagion  over 
Europe.  Numbers  crowded  to  the  standard 
of  Francis.  They  were  divided  into  various 
grades  of  both  sexes.  Whole  cities  enrolled 
themselves  among  his  followers.  He  sent 
them  off  in  parties  to  different  provinces  of 
Italy.  Five  of  the  brotherhood  repaired  to 
Morocco  to  preach  to  the  Moors,  and,  as  the 
.  first  martjrrs  of  the  order,  fell  victims  to  their 
holy  daring.  Success  removed  all  the  hesita- 
tion with  which  the  order  was  at  first  regarded, 
and  in  1216  the  order  was  solemnly  approved 
by  Pope  Innocent.  From  this  date  it  in- 
creased with  extraordinary  rapidity.  At  the 
first  general  assembly,  held  in  1219,  five  thou- 
sand members  were  present;  five  hundred 
more  were  claimants  for  admission. 

After  the  order   had   been   confirmed   in 


1223  by  Pope  Honorius,  Francis  himself 
inaugurated  the  future  missionary  character 
of  his  brotherhood  by  going  to  the  East,  and 
preaching  the  gospel  in  the  presence  of  the 
sultan  himself.  But  the  only  fruit  of  his 
mission  was  a  promise  from  the  sultan  of 
more  indulgent  treatment  for  the  Christian 
captives,  and,  for  the  Franciscan  order,  the 
privilege  which  they  have  since  enjoyed,  as 
guardians  of  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 

It  is  after  his  return  to  Italy  that  his 
biographers  place  the  celebrated  legend,  which, 
to  friends  or  to  enemies,  has  so  long  been  a 
subject  of  veneration  or  of  ridicule  —  his 
receiving,  while  in  an  ecstasy  of  prayer,  the 
marks  (stigmata)  upon  his  own  person  of  the 
wounds  of  our  divine  Redeemer.  The  scene 
of  this  event  is  laid  on  Monte  Alverno,  a 
place  still  sacred  in  the  traditions  of  the  order ; 
and  the  date  is  September  17,  1224.  Two 
years  later,  after  a  short  but  intense  career 
of  passionate  preaching,  and  mystical  self- 
torment,  in  which  his  almost  fanatical  zeal 
disappears  in  a  halo  of  sweetness  and  sim- 
plicity, St.  Francis  died,  near  Assisi,  October 
4,  1226.  On  the  approach  of  his  last  hour, 
he  requested  that  he  should  be  carried  upon 
a  bier  to  the  church,  where  he  had  himself 
placed  on  the  bare  ground,  thus  realizing  in 
his  own  death  the  most  literal  extreme  of  the 
doctrine  which  he  had  made  in  life  the  basis 
of  his  system.  He  was  canonized  by  Pope 
Gregory  IX.  in  1228. 

For  a  season  after  his  death  the  exquisite 
pathos  of  his  life  and  nature,  and  the  beauty 
of  the  religious  virtues  which  he  taught, 
created  a  genuine  revival  of  purity  and  zeal 
from  one  end  of  the  mediaeval  church  to  the 
other.  Christendom  was  filled  with  the  gray 
friars,  and  the  mendicant  order  embraced  in 
its  ranks  many  saints,  martyrs,  sovereigns, 
and  illustrious  men  and  women,  and  filled  for 
some  centuries  the  poetry  and  art  of  the 
middle  ages. 

The  published  wTitings  of  St.  Francis  that 
have  come  down  to  us  consist  of  letters,  ser- 
mons, ascetic  treatises,  proverbs,  moral  apo- 
thegms, and  hymns.  The  latter  are  among 
the  earhest  metrical  specimens  of  the  Italian 
language.  They  are  exceedingly  simple,  and 
full  of  the  tenderest  expressions  of  the  love 
of  God.  His  prose  is  often  more  poetical 
than  his  poetry  itself,  abounding  in  allegory 
and  poetical  personification.  Few  writers 
have  ever  turned  the  love  and  admiration  of 
external  nature  to  a  purpose  so  beautifully 


IN  RELIGION 


devotional;  for  St.  Francis  even  "claimed 
brotherhood  with  sun  and  wind,  and  hailed 
the  last  pale  visitor  as  Sister  Death." 

Within  half  a  century  after  the  death  of 
St.  Francis,  the  number  of  Franciscans  was 
estimated  at  about  two  hundred  thousand, 
with  eight  thousand  convents  in  twenty-three 
provinces.  The  simplicity  of  the  rule  left 
room  for  the  greatest  variety  of  opinions. 
This  showed  itself  during  the  lifetime  of  the 
founder,  one  party  wishing  to  have  the  vow 
of  poverty  mitigated,  the  other  strenuously 
opposing  any  such  change.  At  the  election 
of  almost  every  new  general  we  find  the  two 
parties  in  competition,  the  popes  themselves 
sometimes  siding  with  the  one,  sometimes  with 
the  other. 

Numerous  secessions  took  place,  but  none 
were  permanently  successful  until  the  under- 
taking of  Paoletto  di  Foligno,  in  1368,  to 
restore  the  strict  observance  of  the  rule.  His 
followers  were  called  observants,  and  those 
who  adhered  to  the  milder  rule,  conventuals. 
Henceforth,  these  two  names  distinguished  the 
two  great  parties.  Notwithstanding  the  de- 
sire of  the  pope  that  no  further  separations 
should  occur,  several  congregations  arose, 
styled  minorites  of  the  stricter  observance, 
and,  though  forming  separate  provinces  from 
the  main  body  of  the  regular  observants, 
were  always  under  the  same  general.  They 
were  called  Alcantarines  in  Spain  from  St. 
Peter  of  Alcantara,  reformed  in  Italy  and 
Germany,  and  recollects  in  France,  England, 
Ireland,  Belgium,  and  Holland.  The  Capu- 
chins, originally  a  congregation  of  reformed 
Franciscans,  became  afterward  an  independ- 
ent order. 

St.  Francis  also  established  an  order  of 
nuns,  who  are  generally  called  from  its  first 
abbess,  Clara  of  Assisi,  poor  Clares  or  Clarisses. 
Another  branch  were  the  tertiarians  or  peni- 
tents of  the  third  order  of  St.  Francis.  The 
habit  of  the  observants  consists  of  a  cowl,  a 
cord  as  a  girdle,  and  sandals.  Its  color  differs 
in  different  localities.  In  England  and  Ire- 
land it  is  gray,  whence  they  were  called  gray 
friars. 

Early  in  the  eighteenth  century,  the  Fran- 
ciscans numbered  nearly  one  hundred  twenty 
thousand  friars,  with  seven  thousand  houses, 
and  some  thirty  thousand  nuns,  with  nine 
hundred  convents.  These  numbers  were  con- 
siderably reduced  after  the  French  revolu- 
tion, but  the  order  remains  even  now  one  of 
the  strongest  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church. 


The  supreme  government  of  the  FnndKui 
order,  which  is  commonly  said  to  be  the 
especial  embodiment  of  the  democratic  ele- 
ment in  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  ia  veated 
in  an  elective  general,  who  rcsidee  at  Rome. 
The  subordinate  sujMiriors  are,  first,  the  "pro- 
vincial," who  presides  over  ail  the  brethren 
in  a  province;  and  secondly,  the  "guardian," 
who  is  the  head  of  a  single  conveDt  or  com- 
munity. These  officers  are  elected  for  only 
two  years.  The  provincial  alone  has  power 
to  admit  candidates,  who  are  subjected  to  a 
probation  of  two  years,  after  which  tbtey  are, 
if  approved,  permitted  to  take  the  vowa  of 
the  order.  Those  of  the  members  who  are 
advanced  to  holy  orders  undergo  a  prepare* 
tory  course  of  study,  during  which  they  are 
called  "scholars";  and,  if  eventually  pro- 
moted to  the  priesthood,  they  are  styled 
"fathers"  of  the  order;  the  title  of  the  other 
members  being  "brother"  or  "lay  brother." 

A  very  important  feature,  however,  of  the 
organization  of  the  Franciscan,  as  it  subse- 
quently became  of  other  orders,  is  the  enroll- 
ment of  non-conventual  members,  who  con- 
tinue to  live  in  society  without  the  obligation 
of  celibacy,  and  in  general  are  bound  only  by 
the  spirit,  and  not  by  the  letter  of  the  rule. 
These  are  the  tertiarians,  or  members  of  the 
third  order  of  St.  Francis. 

It  is  impossible  to  overestimate  the  value 
of  this  institution  in  the  disorganized  social 
condition  of  that  age.  The  tertiarians  were 
bound,  as  the  very  first  condition  of  enroll- 
ment, to  restore  all  ill-gotten  goods;  to  be 
reconciled  with  all  those  with  whom  they  had 
been  at  feud;  to  devote  themselves  to  the 
practice  of  works  of  Christian  charity;  to 
avoid  all  imnecessary  expenditure;  to  re- 
nounce the  use  of  personal  ornaments ;  to  hear 
mass  daily;  to  serve  the  sick  and  the  hos- 
pitals; to  instruct  the  ignorant;  and,  in  a 
word,  to  practice  as  far  as  possible  in  the 
world  the  substance  of  the  virtues  of  the 
cloister.  The  order  in  this  form  undoubtedly 
exercised  a  very  powerful  influence  in  medi- 
seval  society.  It  counted  members  in  every 
rank,  from  the  throne  to  the  cottage;  and, 
although  it  was  in  some  instances  deformed 
by  abuses  and  superstitious  practices,  U»e 
aggregate  results  were  undoubtedly  beneBcial 
in  the  extreme. 

As  a  literary  order,  the  Frandscans  have 
chiefly  been  eminent  in  theology.  The  great 
school  of  the  Scotista  takea  its  name  from 
John  Duns  Scotus,  a  Franciscan  friar,  and  it 


230 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


has  been  the  pride  of  this  order  to  maintain 
his  distinctive  doctrines  both  in  philosophy 
and  in  theology  against  the  rival  school  of 
the  Thomists,  to  which  the  Dominican  order 
gave  its  allegiance.  Indeed,  all  the  greatest 
names  of  the  eariy  Scotist  school  are  Fran- 
ciscans—  St.  Bona  venture,  Alexander  of 
Hales,  and  Occam.  The  single  name  of 
Roger  Bacon,  the  marvel  of  mediaeval  letters, 
the  divine,  the  philosopher,  the  linguist,  the 
experimentalist,  the  practical  mechanician, 
would  in  itself  have  sufficed  to  make  the 
reputation  of  his  order,  had  his  contempo- 
raries not  failed  to  appreciate  his  merit. 
Two  centuries  later  the  great  Cardinal 
Ximenes  was  a  member  of  this  order.  The 
popes  Nicholas  IV.,  Alexander  V.,  Sixtus 
IV.,  the  still  more  celebrated  Sixtus  V.,  and 
the  well-known  Ganganelli,  Clement  XIV., 
also  belonged  to  the  order  of  St.  Francis.  In 
history,  this  order  is  less  distinguished;  but 
its  own  annalist,  Luke  Wadding,  an  Irish 
Franciscan,  bears  a  deservedly  high  reputa- 
tion as  a  historian.  Jacopone  da  Todi,  author 
of  Stabat  Mater,  a  Franciscan,  is  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  of  the  mediaeval  hymn- 
writers;  and  in  later  times  the  distinguished 
Lope  de  Vega  closed  his  eventful  career  as  a 
member  of  the  third  order  of  St.  Francis. 

The  Franciscans  were  the  earliest  mission- 
aries to  America,  having  come  over  with 
Columbus  on  his  second  voyage  in  1493. 
The  recollects  figured  largely  in  the  mission- 
ary history  of  Canada  for  many  years,  and 
the  historic  explorer,  Hennepin,  was  also  a 
missionary  of  the  Franciscan  order. 


Dante,  in  his  Paradiso,  tells  us  that  the 
divine  foresight  ordained  for  the  church  two 
princes  to  be  her  guides,  one  on  each  side. 
The  one  —  St.  Francis  —  was  all  seraphic  in 
ardor ;  the  other  —  St.  Dominic  —  was  a 
cherubic  hght  of  wisdom  on  earth.  He  also 
makes  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  pronounce  a  noble 
eulogy  on  St.  Francis,  in  recognition  of  the 
fundamental  harmony  of  their  souls. 

In  our  own  time,  no  one,  perhaps,  has  more 
keenly  appreciated  this  seraphic  guide  than 
Canon  Farrar.  "Of  all  the  men  who  have 
ever  lived,"  he  says,  "there  is  probably  no 
one  who  has  ever  made  it  so  absolutely  his 
aim,  as  did  St.  Francis,  to  reproduce  in  letter 
as  well  as  in  spirit  the  very  Ufe  of  Christ. 
Among  the  villages  and  hills  of  Umbria  he 
strove  to  live  with  his  few  first  followers  the 
very  same  life  that  our  Lord  had  lived  with 
His  apostles  on  the  shores  of  Galilee  and  in 
the  villages  of  Palestine." 

In  addition  to  this,  observes  Maccall :  "  It 
would  be  absurd  to  claim  such  men  as  St. 
Francis  for  one  church  or  religion  more  than 
another.  They  are  the  property  of  the  uni- 
versal human  race.  What  was  most  beautiful 
in  Jeremy  Taylor,  what  was  sweetest  in 
Fenelon,  what  was  profoundest  in  Jacob 
Bohme,  what  was  purest  in  Oberlin,  what 
was  bravest  in  Chalmers,  had  so  clearly  the 
mark  of  God,  that  a  sad  and  sinful  thing  it 
would  be  if  the  pride  of  sects  were  to  make  a 
monopoly  thereof.  God's  apostles  are  for 
the  world;  and  let  all  the  world  bow  down 
in  honor,  in  gratitude,  and  in  praise  for  a 
blameless  and  gentle  saint  Hke  St.  Francis." 


LUTHER 


▲.  D. 

1483 
1505 

1507 
1608 
1511 
1517 
1519 


Bom  at  Eisleben,  Prussian  Saxony,    . 
Graduated  from  university  of  Erfurt; 

entered  Augustine  monastery,      .    .  22 

Ordained  priest, 24 

Professor  of  philosophy  at  Wittenberg,  25 

Visited  Rome, 28 

Published  theses  on  indulgences, ...  34 
Controversy  with  Dr.  Eck;    appealed 

to  general  council, 36 


A.  D.  AOB 

1520  Leo  X.  issued  bull  against  him,   ...  37 

1521  Excommunicated  by  Leo  X.;    began 

version  of  Bible, 38 

1522  Translation    of    new   testament   pub- 

lished,     39 

1525     Introduced  reformed  worship  at  Wit- 
tenberg; married, 42 

1530     Diet  at  Augsburg 47 

1546     Visited  Eisleben;  died  at  Eisleben,.    .  63 


]V/f  ARTIN  LUTHER,  the  greatest  of  the 
•*•  German  Protestant  reformers,  and  trans- 
lator of  the  Bible,  was  born  at  Eisleben,  in 
Prussian  Saxony,  on  St.  Martin's  eve,  Novem- 
ber 10,  1483 ;  and,  from  the  day  upon  which 
he  was  born,   received   the   name,   Martin. 


His  father  was  a  poor  miner,  and  his  mother  a 
woman  of  exemplary  virtues.  Shortly  after 
the  birth  of  their  son,  his  family  left  Eisleben 
for  Mansfeld.  Here  Martin  was  sent  to 
school;  and  both  at  home  and  in  school 
his  training  was  of  a  severe  and  hardening 


IN  RELIGION 


character.  His  father  sometimes  whipped 
him,  he  says,  "  for  a  mere  trifle  until  the  blood 
came,"  and  he  was  subjected  to  the  scho- 
lastic rod  fifteen  times  in  one  day ! 

Scholastic  and  parental  severity  was  the 
rule  in  those  days;  but  whatever  may  have 
been  the  character  of  Luther's  schoolmaster 
at  Mansfeld,  there  is  no  reason  to  believe 
that  his  father  was  a  man  of  exceptionally 
stern  character.  While  he  whipped  his  son 
soundly,  he  also  tenderly  cared  for  him,  and 
was  in  the  habit  of  carrying  him  to  and  from 
school  in  his  arms  with  gentle  solicitude. 
Luther's  elementary  education  was  com- 
pleted at  Magdeburg  and  Eisenach,  and  at 
the  latter  place  he  gained  the  favor  of  a  good 
foster-mother  by  the  name  of  Cotta,  who 
provided  him  with  a  comfortable  home  during 
his  stay  there. 

Meanwhile,  Luther's  father  had  advanced 
from  a  hardy  laborer  in  the  mines  to  owner  of 
a  couple  of  blast  furnaces,  and  this  prosperous 
condition  enabled  him  to  still  further  aid  the 
son's  education.  He  was  anxious  that  his  son 
should  study  law,  and  Martin  entered  the 
university  of  Erfuft  in  1501.  The  fashionable 
scholastic  philosophy  occupied  him  here  for 
a  series  of  years,  and  the  whole  university 
admired  his  genius.  During  the  second  year 
of  his  studies  at  Erfurt,  while  ransacking  the 
college  library  and  devouring  its  volumes,  he 
found  a  copy  of  the  Latin  Bible,  a  book  he  had 
never  seen  before.  This,  too,  he  read  with 
his  usual  avidity,  and  found  to  his  astonish- 
ment that  there  were  more  gospels  and 
epistles  than  in  the  lectionaries.  His  heart 
was  deeply  touched,  and  there  was  awakened 
within  him  apparently  a  new  spiritual  life. 
He  continued  his  studies  with  great  zeal,  and 
was  graduated  with  a  master's  degree  in  1505. 

Not  long  afterward  his  severe  studies  pro- 
duced an  alarming  illness,  which  brought  him 
face  to  face  with  death,  and  created  serious 
and  permanent  religious  impressions,  which 
were  so  deepened  by  the  death  of  a  very 
intimate  friend  and  fellow  student  by  a  stroke 
of  lightning  that  he  at  once  resolved  to 
become  a  monk,  and  leaving  all  his  property 
behind  him,  except  a  Vergil  and  a  Plautus,  and 
giving  his  astonished  friends  a  hearty  farewell 
banquet,  he  entered  the  monastery  of  the 
hermits  of  St.  Augustine. 

Here  he  spent  the  next  three  yesxs  of  his 
life  —  years  of  peculiar  interest  and  signifi- 
cance; for  it  was  during  this  time  that  he 
laid,  in  the  study  of  the  Bible  and  of  St. 


Augustine,  the  foundation  of  thoae  doctriiul 
convictions  which  were  afterwanl  to  rouM 
and  strengthen  him  in  his  strugg^  againit  the 
papacy.  He  describes  very  vivkUj  the 
spiritual  crisis  through  which  he  paased,  the 
burden  of  sin  which  so  long  lay  upon  him, 
"too  heavy  to  be  borne  ";  and  the  relief  that 
he  at  length  found  in  the  clear  appreheoiioo 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  "forgiveness  of  sins'* 
through  the  grace  of  Christ. 

In  the  year  1507  Luther  was  ordained  a 
priest,  and  in  the  following  year  he  removed 
to  Wittenberg,  destined  to  derive  its  chief 
celebrity  from  his  name.  He  became  a 
teacher  in  the  new  university,  founded  there 
by  the  elector  Frederick  of  Saxony.  At  first, 
in  1508,  he  lectured  on  dialectics  and  physics, 
but  his  heart  was  already  given  to  theology, 
and  in  1509  he  became  a  bachelor  of  the- 
ology, and  commenced  lecturing  on  the  holy 
scriptures.  His  lectures  made  a  great  impres- 
sion, and  the  novelty  of  his  views  already 
began  to  excite  attention.  "This  monk," 
said  the  rector  of  the  university,  "  will  puzzle 
our  doctors,  and  bring  in  a  new  doctrine." 
Besides  lecturing,  he  began  to  preach  with  a 
vigor,  impetuosity,  and  eloquence  that  soon 
attracted  immense  crowds.  His  sermons, 
therefore,  reached  a  wider  audience,  and 
produced  a  still  more  powerful  influence  than 
his  lectures.  His  words,  as  Melanchthon 
said,  were  "born  not  on  his  lips,  but  in  his 
soul,"  and  they  moved  profoundly  the  souls 
of  all  who  heard  them. 

In  1511  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Rome^ 
and  he  has  described  very  vividly  what  he 
saw  and  heard  there.  His  mind  suffered  a 
severe  shock  when  he  witnessed  the  religious 
conditions  in  the  Italian  metropolis,  and 
"caused  the  veil  to  fall  from  his  eyes."  Yet 
his  devout  and  unquestioning  reverence  —  for 
he  was  yet  in  his  own  subsequent  view  "a 
most  insane  papist"  —  appears  in  strange 
conflict  with  his  awakened  thoughtfuhiess 
and  the  moral  indignation  at  the  abusss  of 
the  papacy  beginning  to  stir  in  him. 

After  Luther's  return  from  Rome  to  Witten- 
berg, 1512,  he  was  made  a  doctor  of  theology, 
and  his  career  as  a  reformer  may  be  said  to 
have  commenced.  The  abuse  of  indulgences 
in  Saxony  had  reached  a  scandalous  height. 
The  idea  that  it  was  in  the  power  of  the 
church  to  forgive  an  had  gradually  grown 
into  the  belief  that  their  dispensation  to  the 
faithful  exonerated  them  from  the  conse- 
quences of  their  transgressions.    The  sale  of 


234 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


these  pardons  had  become  organized  into  a 
system  by  the  zealous  John  Tetzel,  a  Domini- 
can friar,  who  had  established  himself  at 
Jaterboch,  on  the  borders  of  Saxony.  Indeed, 
some  of  the  people  of  Wittenberg,  who  had 
confessed  to  Luther,  refused  to  abandon  their 
sins,  and  pleaded  the  indulgences  which  they 
had  bought. 

The  spirit  of  Luther  was  fired  —  the  spark 
was  laid  to  the  train  which  ended  in  a  mighty 
explosion.  He  preached  and  remonstrated, 
and  on  October  31,  1517,  nailed  to  the  door 
of  the  Castle  church  at  Wittenberg  his  cele- 
brated ninety-five  theses,  and  sent  a  copy  of 
them  to  the  archbishop  of  Magdeburg.  The 
consequent  discussions  with  Tetzel  at  Witten- 
berg, and  his  debates  upon  the  same  subject 
at  Heidelberg,  only  increased  and  deepened 
the  agitation,  and  added  to  Luther's  popu- 
larity. He  now  devoted  himself  ^o  the  study 
of  church  history  and  canon  law  to  support 
the  course  he  had  taken.  At  the  same  time  he 
wrote  popular  religious  tracts,  among  them 
an  "Exposition  of  the  Ten  Commandments," 
and  of  the  "Lord's  Prayer."  He  gained  the 
support  of  Bucer  and  Melanchthon  in  1518, 
thenceforth  two  of  his  most  distinguished 
co-reformers,  and  elaborated  his  theses  into  a 
body  of  resolutions. 

Meanwhile,  Tetzel  retreated  from  Saxony 
to  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  where  he  published 
a  set  of  countertheses,  and  burned  those  of 
Luther.  The  students  at  Wittenberg  retali- 
ated by  burning  Tetzel's.  By  and  by 
Luther  was  summoned  to  Rome  by  Pope 
Leo  X.,  and  ordered  to  appear  and  answer 
for  his  theses  at  Augsburg,  before  the  papal 
legate.  Cardinal  Cajetan.  At  the  several 
interviews  he  stood  firm  and  resolved,  and 
returned  in  triumph  to  his  cell  and  his  lecture- 
room  in  Wittenberg. 

The  excitement  was  now  so  prodigious  that 
the  courteous  elector  of  Saxony  wished  him 
to  leave  the  city,  and  Luther  at  last  appealed 
from  the  pope  to  a  general  council.  But 
Miltitz,  another  legate,  was  appointed,  and,  at 
a  meeting  which  took  place  at  Altenburg, 
Luther  was  led  to  write  a  humble  and  apolo- 
getic letter  to  Leo.  The  letter  was  unheeded 
by  the  reformer  himself,  however,  and  he 
almost  immediately  plunged  into  a  disputa- 
tion with  Dr.  Eck  at  Leipzig  in  1519,  known 
in  history  as  the  Leipzig  disputations.  He 
also  hurled  several  violent  and  effective 
pamphlets  against  the  doctrinal  system  of  the 
Roman  church,  and  issued  his  famous  address 


to  the  Christian  nobles  of  Germany.  These 
works  found  a  wonderful ^and  immediate  cir- 
culation. Erasmus  and  Hutten  now  joined 
the  conflict.  Germany  was  convulsed  with 
excitement.  Eck  fled  from  place  to  place, 
glad  to  escape  with  his  life,  and  Luther  was 
everyi\'here  the  hero  of  the  hour. 

Pope  Leo  X.  was  disposed  at  first  to  treat 
the  subject  hghtly;  but  he  was  at  last  com- 
pelled to  issue,  June  15,  1520,  a  bull  of  excom- 
munication against  Luther,  if  he  should  not 
recant  within  sixty  days.  The  papal  bull, 
containing  forty-one  theses  issued  against 
him,  Luther  burned  before  a  multitude  of 
professors,  students,  and  citizens  in  Witten- 
berg. 

Luther's  separation  from  the  Roman  church 
was  complete  in  1521.  Charles  V.  was 
anxious  to  apprehend  and  punish  the  turbu- 
lent and  daring  reformer,  but  by  the  influence 
of  the  elector  of  Saxony  his  cause  was  tried 
at  Worms.  On  his  way  to  Worms,  Spalatin, 
apprehensive  for  his  safety,  despatched  a 
messenger  to  forewarn  and  dissuade  him 
from  continuing  his  journey,  but  the  magnani- 
mous champion  replied,  "Go  tell  your  master, 
that  though  there  were  as  many  devils  in 
Worms  as  tiles  upon  the  housetops,  I  will 
enter  it."  On  April  16th  he  reached  the  city, 
attired  in  his  friar's  cowl;  multitudes  met 
him  and  he  entered  it  attended  by  two  thou- 
sand persons.  Before  his  three  hundred  four 
august  judges,  the  emperor  and  his  nobility, 
his  courage  did  not  fail.  He  entered  upwu  an 
elaborate  vindication  of  his  past  procedure, 
and  steadily  appealed  to  the  authority  of  the 
scripture.  "Unless  I  be  convinced,"  he  said, 
"by  scripture  and  reason,  I  neither  can  nor 
dare  retract  anything,  for  my  conscience  is  a 
captive  to  God's  word,  and  it  is  neither  safe 
nor  right  to  go  against  conscience.  There  I 
take  my  stand.  I  can  do  no  otherwise.  So 
help  me  God." 

On  his  return  from  Worms,  Luther  pursued 
the  road  that  led  to  Mohra,  that  he  might  see 
his  aged  grandmother.  But  when  he  resumed 
his  journey  the  next  day,  and  was  passing 
through  the  depths  of  the  Thuringian  forest, 
he  was  roughly  seized  by  five  horsemen,  and 
carried  to  the  castle  of  Wartburg,  and  a  whole 
year  he  lay  there  in  solitude,  while  his  friends 
mourned  his  absence  or  death.  But  his 
powerful  patrons  had  in  this  way  provided  for 
his  safety.  This  period  of  forced  retirement 
was  not  misspent.  Within  the  year  he  made 
a  German  translation  of  the  new  testament 


IN  RELIGION 


SIS 


which  was  published  in  1522.  He  also  wrote 
various  treatises,  and  injured  his  health  by 
sedentary  habits  and  hard  study.  His 
imagination  became  morbidly  excited,  and 
he  thought  he  heard  and  saw  the  evil  one 
mocking  him  while  engaged  in  his  literary 
tasks.  On  one  occasion  he  hurled  his  ink- 
stand at  the  intruder,  and  made  him  retreat. 
The  subject  of  the  personality  and  presence  of 
Satan  was  a  familiar  one  with  Luther,  and  he 
frequently  refers  to  it  in  his  "Table  Talk." 

In  1522  the  outbreak  of  serious  disturb- 
ances among  his  own  followers  induced  him 
to  return  to  Wittenberg,  where  he  rebuked 
the  unruly  spirits  who  had  acquired  power  in 
his  absence,  and  resumed  with  renewed 
energy  his  interrupted  work.  The  reforma- 
tion was  now  properly  ushered  in,  and  at  no 
period  of  his  life  did  he  take  a  nobler  stand 
than  that  which  he  took  at  this  time  against 
lawlessness  on  the  one  hand  and  tyranny  on 
the  other. 

His  next  act  of  importance  was  by  no  means 
so  commendable.  Although  he  had  been  at 
first  united  in  a  common  cause  with  Erasmus, 
estrangement  had  gradually  sprung  up  be- 
tween the  great  scholar  of  Rotterdam  and 
himself.  This  estrangement  came  to  an  open 
breach  in  the  year  1525,  when  Erasmus  pub- 
lished his  treatise  "On  the  Freedom  of  the 
Will."  Luther  immediately  followed  with  his 
countertreatise  "On  the  Servitude  of  the 
Will."  The  controversy  raged  loudly  between 
them ;  and  in  the  vehemence  of  his  hostility 
to  the  doctrine  of  Erasmus,  Luther  indulged 
in  assertions  of  a  very  questionable  kind, 
besides  indulging  in  wild  abuse  of  his 
opponent's  character. 

In  the  same  year  —  1525  —  Luther  was 
married  by  Pomeranus  to  Katharina  von 
Bora,  one  of  the  nine  nuns,  who,  under  the 
influence  of  his  teaching,  had  left  the  convent 
about  two  years  before.  She  was  a  woman 
of  noble  family,  and,  although  fifteen  years 
younger  than  he,  proved  a  kind  and  affec- 
tionate wife.  The  step  rejoiced  his  enemies, 
and  even  alarmed  some  of  his  friends  like 
Melanchthon.  But  it  greatly  contributed  to 
his  happiness,  while  it  served  to  enrich  and 
strengthen  his  character.  All  the  most  inter- 
esting and  touching  glimpses  we  get  of  him 
henceforth  are  in  connection  with  his  wife  and 
children. 

Two  years  after  his  marriage  he  fell  into  a 
dangerous  sickness  and  depression  of  spirits, 
from  which  he  was  only  aroused  by  the  dan- 


gers besetting  Christendom  from  the  tdrmaat 
of  the  Turks.  Every  year,  almost,  mw  him 
publish  a  book  or  boolu.  The  trandatkn  ol 
the  Bible  had  occupied  a  large  portioD  of  hit 
time,  for  it  was  the  mainstay  of  the  refonn»> 
tion;  and  commentaries  on  almost  all  the 
books  of  the  Bible  proceeded  from  his  un- 
wearied pen.  Councils  were  in  those  days 
reckoned  a  grand  speciQc  for  healing  ecclesi- 
astical discord,  and  there  were  not  a  few  in 
the  life  of  Luther :  Worms  in  1521,  Nurembuif 
in  1522-23,  when  the  German  princes  pre- 
sented a  list  of  "a  hundred  grievances"; 
another  at  the  same  place  in  the  following 
year,  at  which  the  members  resolved  to  work 
out  as  far  as  possible  the  decisions  of  that  of 
Worms;  and  that  of  Augsburg  in  1525, 
adjourned  to  Spires  in  1526,  at  which  a  general 
council  was  demanded.  Another  diet  was 
convoked  to  meet  in  February,  1529,  and  the 
imperial  party  having  the  mastery,  decreed 
to  suppress  the  reformation  by  force.  Against 
this  decree  the  deputies  solemnly  proUtied, 
and  the  reforming  band  received  from  this 
circumstance  the  appropriate  name  of  Prole»- 
tants.  Luther  and  Zwingli  now  quarreled 
about  the  nature  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  and 
maintained  a  worse  than  idle  contest,  even 
meeting  personally  for  disputation  at  Marburg. 
The  diet  of  Augsburg  met  in  1530,  the  confes- 
sion prepared  by  Melanchthon  was  submitted 
to  it,  and  Protestantism,  in  spite  of  all  obsti^ 
cles,  was  firmly  established  among  the  German 
nations. 

From  this  time  on  the  life  of  Luther  has 
comparatively  little  interest.  He  continued 
to  reside  at  Wittenberg  during  his  remaining 
years.  In  his  sixty-second  year  his  health 
began  to  give  way,  and  the  strong  man  was 
bowed  down.  After  an  altercation  with  the 
lawyers  about  clandestine  marriages,  and  cer- 
tain female  fashions  in  dress,  he  indignantly 
left  Wittenberg  for  Eisleben  in  the  month  <rf 
January,  1546.  The  river  Issel  being  swollen, 
he  was  five  days  ujjon  the  road.  On  Febru- 
ary 17th,  after  reaching  Eisleben,  he  com- 
plained of  oppressive  pain  in  his  diest. 
Momentary  relief  from  it  was  soon  obtained ; 
but  he  was  again  attacked  in  the  night,  and 
after  brief  but  earnest  religious  exercises,  and 
thrice  repeating  the  inspired  words,  "Into 
Thy  hands  I  commit  my  spirit  —  God  of 
truth  Thou  hast  redeemed  me,"  he  expired 
between  two  and  three  o'clock  in  the  nK>niing. 
His  disease  is  supposed  to  have  been  angina 
pectoris,  but  some  say,  cancer  of  the  i 


k 


236 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


He  was  buried  in  the  Schloss-Kirche,  or  court 
church,  in  Wittenberg. 

Luther  was  a  man  of  short  stature,  com- 
pact physical  frame,  with  broad  shoulders,  a 
large  and  massive  brow,  a  firm-set  mouth,  and 
falcon  eyes.  His  voice  was  clear  and  of  great 
power.  Melanchthon  is  said  to  have  ex- 
claimed upon  beholding  his  picture,  "Each 
of  thy  words  was  a  thunderbolt."  Yet  he 
was  a  man  of  loving  and  generous  heart  — 
playful  and  happy  with  his  wife  and  family  or 
friends.  He  liked  hilarity,  and  his  great  mind 
rejoiced  to  unbend. 

He  was  very  fond  of  music,  and  had  great 
capabilities  for  it.  He  sedulously  studied  its 
theory,  and  wrote  many  hymns  and  set  them 
to  music ;  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  German  hymnology  and  music.  His  most 
famous  hymn,  Ein  feste  Burg  ist  unser  GoU, 
the  war  song  of  the  reformation,  was  written 
in  1529  on  the  basis  of  the  46th  psalm. 

But  amidst  all  his  literary  labors  his  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  stands  preeminent.  Fully 
aware  of  the  difficult  and  responsible  task,  he 
craved  assistance  in  every  form  and  from 
every  available  quarter.  When  the  Hebrew 
terms  belonging  to  botany  and  zoology  per- 
plexed him,  he  consulted  the  physician, 
Sturciad,  and  he  also  obtained  useful  informa- 
tion from  his  friend,  Spalatin,  who  not  only 
instructed  him  in  natural  history,  but  sent 
him  specimens  from  the  superb  collection  of 
gems  which  belonged  to  the  elector  of  Saxony. 
He  even  employed  butchers  to  dissect  animals 
in  his  presence,  that  he  might  be  able  to  dis- 
criminate and  render  accurately  the  various 
sacrificial  terms  of  the  Levitical  code.  But 
especially  did  he  summon  erudite  and  skilled 
professors  of  theology  to  his  aid.  They  met 
from  time  to  time,  each  having  prepared  him- 
self for  the  interview  by  a  thorough  elabora- 
tion of  the  literary  materials  belonging  to  his 
department  of  investigation. 

At  those  repeated  and  prolonged  consulta- 
tions Luther  invariably  presided,  and  he  had 
always  spread  out  before  him  his  own  manu- 
script, the  ink  of  which  was  scarcely  dry, 
the  Hebrew  Bible,  and  the  Latin  vulgate. 
On  his  one  hand  sat  Melanchthon,  with  the 
Greek  scriptures  before  him,  and  on  his  other 
was  placed  Casper  Cruciger,  with  his  notes 
made  from  the  Chaldee  Targums.  Bugenha- 
gen,  usually  called  Pomeranus,  from  the 
coimtry  of  his  birth,  was  also  by  their  side, 
ready  with  his  suggestions  from  the  rabbinical 
writings  and  the  old  Greek  versions.    These 


scholars  did  their  work  with  marvelous 
precision  and  fidelity,  for  they  sometimes 
returned  fourteen  successive  days  to  the 
reconsideration  of  a  doubtful  clause  or  word. 

His  other  works  are  very  voluminous,  partly 
in  Latin,  and  partly  in  German.  Among 
those  of  more  general  interest  are  his  "Table 
Talk,"  his  "Letters,"  and  "Sermons." 

The  two  great  branches  of  the  Christian 
church  quite  naturally  take  widely  divergent 
views  of  Luther  and  his  work.  To  the  one  he 
is  a  great  religious  hero;  to  the  other,  a 
schismatic,  a  heretic,  and  a  defiant  contro- 
versialist. To  affirm  either  one  of  these  views, 
and  deny  the  other,  is  not  within  the  contem- 
plation of  this  sketch.  All  will  agree  that 
Luther  was  an  extraordinary  man  —  earnest, 
courageous,  sincere. 

His  character  presents,  indeed,  an  imposing 
combination  of  great  qualities.  That  he 
sometimes  spoke  roughly  and  wrote  harshly, 
no  one  better  knew  than  himself.  Endowed 
with  broad  human  sympathies,  massive 
energy,  manly  and  affectionate  simplicity,  and 
rich,  if  sometimes  coarse,  humor,  he  is  at 
the  same  time  a  spiritual  genius.  His  intui- 
tions of  divine  truth  were  bold,  vivid,  and 
penetrating,  if  not  comprehensive;  and  he 
possessed  the  art  which  God  alone  gives  to 
the  finer  and  abler  spirits  that  He  calls  to  do 
special  work  in  this  world,  of  kindling  other 
souls  with  the  fire  of  his  own  convictions,  and 
awakening  them  to  a  higher  consciousness  of 
religion  and  duty.  He  was  a  leader  of  men, 
therefore,  and  a  reformer  in  the  highest  sense. 
His  powers  were  fitted  to  his  appointed  task ; 
it  was  a  task  of  Titanic  magnitude,  and  he  was 
a  Titan  in  intellectual  robustness  and  moral 
strength.  It  was  only  the  divine  energy 
which  swayed  him,  and  of  which  he  recognized 
himself  the  organ,  that  could  have  accom- 
plished what  he  did. 

Reckoned  as  a  mere  theologian,  there  are 
others  who  take  higher  rank.  There  is  a  lack 
of  patient  thoughtfulness  and  philosophical 
temper  in  his  doctrinal  discussions;  but  the 
absence  of  these  very  qualities  gave  wings  to 
his  bold,  sometimes  crude  conceptions,  and 
enabled  him  to  triumph  in  the  struggle  for  fife 
or  death  in  which  he  was  engaged.  To 
initiate  the  religious  movement  which  was 
destined  to  renew  the  face  of  Europe,  and 
give  a  more  enduring  Ufe  to  the  Saxon  nations, 
required  a  gigantic  will,  which,  instead  of 
being  crushed  by  opposition,  or  frightened 
by  hatred,  should  only  gather  strength  from 


IN  RELIGION 


Hxe  fierceness  of  the  conflict  before  it.  To 
clear  the  air  thoroughly,  as  he  himself 
said,  thunder  and  lightning  are  necessary; 
and  he  was  well  content  to  represent  these 
agencies  in  the  great  work  of  the  reforma- 
tion in  the  sixteenth  century.  Upon  the 
whole,  it  may  be  said  that  history  pre- 
sents few  greater  characters  —  few  at  once 
that  excite  more  love  and  admiration,  and 
in  which  we  see  tenderness,  humor,  and  a 
certain  pictvu-esque  grace  and  poetic  sen- 
sibility more  happily  combine  with  a  lofty 


and  magnanimous,  if  MtnetiiiMt  n^jfed  mb* 

limity. 

Carlyle  in  his  Heroes  and  Hero-Wor$kip  hM 
probably  struck  the  truest  keynote  to  Luther't 
greatness.  "  I  call  this  Luther  a  true-gr««k 
man;  great  in  intellect,  in  courage,  affeo> 
tion,  and  integrity;  one  of  our  meet  lorabfe 
and  precious  men.  Great,  not  M  a  hewn 
obelisk;  but  as  an  Alpine  mountain  —  to 
simple,  honest,  spontaneous,  not  setting  up 
to  be  great  at  all ;  there  for  quite  another 
purpose  than  being  great ! " 


LOYOLA 


A.  D. 

1491 


1505 


Bom  at  castle  of  Loyola,  Guipuz- 

coa,  Spain, 

Entered  court  of  Ferdinand  V.,  as 

page, 14 

1521  Wounded  in  defense  of  Pamplona,    .     30 

1522  Resolved  to  devote  himself  to  the 

church, 31 

1523  Visited  Rome  and  Jerusalem,  ...     32 
1526-27  Studied  at  universities  at  Alcald 

and  Salamanca, 35-36 

1527         Imprisoned  during  inquisition  at 

Salamanca, 36 


A.  D.  AMI 

1528        Liberated ;  went  to  Paria,  and  an- 

tered  the  university, S7 

1534         Master  of  arts  from  univenlty  Ot 

Paris ;  founds  order  of  Jeaonii, .    .     4S 

1536-37  Order   promoted   at   Venice  mmI 

Rome, 45-40 

1541         Elected  general  of  the  order,    ...     SO 

1548  Published  his  Exercitia  Spiritualia 
or  "Spiritual  Exerclws";  and 
"Constitution  of  the  Order,"    .    .     57 

1556        Died  at  Rome, 55 


IGNATIUS  DE  LOYOLA  is  the  name  by 
*  which  history  knows  Inigo  Lopez  de 
Recalde,  celebrated  Spanish  reformer  and 
foimder  of  the  order  of  Jesuits.  He  was  the 
youngest  son  of  Bertram  de  Recalde,  a  Span- 
ish nobleman,  and  Marina  Salez  de  Baldi,  and 
was  born  at  the  ancestral  castle  of  Loyola,  in 
the  Basque  province  of  Guipuzcoa,  Spain,  in 
1491,  He  inherited  an  ardent,  imaginative 
temperament,  and  in  his  youth  was  a  votary 
of  chivalrous  romance,  such  as  inspired  the 
pen  of  Cervantes. 

After  the  scant  training  of  that  age  in 
letters,  and  destined  to  the  profession  of  arms, 
Ignatius  was  sent,  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  to 
the  court  of  Ferdinand  V.  to  learn  the  rudi- 
ments of  war  and  gallantry.  The  restraint 
and  inactivity  of  the  court,  however,  were 
repellent  to  his  -natiiral  enthusiasm.  He  de- 
sired and  sought  activity;  and,  under  the 
auspices  of  his  relative,  the  duke  of  Najura, 
he  entered  upon  that  military  career,  which 
subsequently  proved  the  turning  point  of  his 
Ufe. 

The  details  of  his  career  as  a  soldier  are  of 
little  importance  in  his  history,  although  they 
display  in  a  very  marked  degree  both  the 
excellency  and  the  irregularities  of  his  tem- 
perament, thrown  indirectly  among  the  temp- 


tations as  well  as  the  duties  of  a  military  life. 
Of  his  bravery  and  chivalrous  spirit  many 
remarkable  instances  are  recorded,  chief  of 
which,  perhaps,  was  his  bearing  at  the  d»> 
fense  of  Pamplona  against  the  attack  of  the 
French  in  1521.  On  this  occasion  he  dis- 
played his  wonted  valor,  and,  while  standing 
in  the  breach  of  the  castle,  he  was  struck  by 
a  cannon  shot,  which  wounded  both  legs,  one 
being  fractured  by  a  cannon  ball,  and  the 
other  injured  by  a  splinter.  He  was  then 
taken  prisoner  by  the  French,  and  a  tedious 
confinement  followed.  This  was  in  part  occa^ 
sioned,  as  some  assert,  by  his  great  anxiety 
to  preserve  the  symmetry  of  the  limb,  which 
led  him  to  undergo  a  second  operation,  to 
remove  a  deformity  which  had  been  occa> 
sioned  by  an  ill-set  bone.  To  relieve  his 
weariness  he  called  for  some  books  of  chiv- 
alry, and  when  these  were  exhausted  their 
place  was  supplied  with  the  "  Lives  of  Sainte," 
and  other  devotional  works.  He  read  the 
latter  with  extraordinary  eagemees.  He 
admired  the  zeal  of  those  holy  men;  he  sjnn- 
pathized  in  their  sufferings;  he  envied  their 
glory ;  and  he  aspired  to  their  eternal  recom- 
pense. His  thoughts  and  widies  were  thue 
turned  into  a  new  channel,  and  he  entered 
on  the  path  of  spiritual  warfare,  with  hk 


238 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


natural  ardor  stimulated  and  inflamed  by 
religious  devotion. 

Accordingly,  he  arose  from  his  bed  of  sick- 
ness, resolved  to  renounce  the  pursuits  and 
pleasures  of  the  world,  and  to  dedicate  him- 
self to  the  service  of  God.  Still  it  was  not 
without  a  desperate  struggle  that  he  could 
accomplish  this  resolution.  He  had  a  passion 
for  military  fame;  he  had  questionable  alli- 
ances which  it  was  necessary  to  abandon; 
and  his  earthly  ties  were  as  strong  as  his 
temperament  was  violent.  But  the  new-born 
influence  of  religion  overcame  all  obstacles. 
March  24,  1522,  he  passed  the  night  in  prayer 
and  fasting  in  the  church  of  tUe  Holy  Virgin 
at  Montserrat;  and,  having  hung  up  his  arms 
on  the  altar,  he  consecrated  himself,  according 
to  all  the  forms  of  chivalry,  to  her  service. 
At  the  same  time  he  made  a  vow  to  perform 
a  pilgrimage  barefoot  to  Jerusalem;  and  he 
carried  his  immediate  penance  to  such  ex- 
tremes of  austerity  as  to  enervate  his  frame 
and  to  endanger  his  life. 

The  spiritual  glories  of  St.  Francis  or  St. 
Dominic  now  took,  in  his  aspirations,  the 
place  which  had  been  before  held  by  the 
knights  of  mediseval  romance.  With  souls 
like  his  there  is  no  middle  course :  he  threw 
himself,  with  all  the  fire  of  his  temperament, 
upon  the  new  aspirations  which  these  thoughts 
engendered.  When  he  set  out  from  Mont- 
serrat, the  first  step  which  he  took  was  to 
serve  the  poor  and  the  sick  in  the  hospital  of 
the  neighboring  town  of  Manresa.  There  his 
zeal  and  devotion  attracted  such  notice  that 
he  withdrew  to  a  solitary  cavern  in  the  vicin- 
ity, where  he  pursued  alone  his  course  of  self- 
prescribed  austerity,  until  he  was  carried 
back,  utterly  exhausted,  to  the  hospital  in 
which  he  had  before  served.  To  this  physical 
exhaustion  succeeded  a  state  of  mental  de- 
pression, amounting  almost  to  despair,  from 
which,  however,  he  arose  with  spiritual  powers 
renewed  and  invigorated  by  the  very  struggle. 
In  1523  he  repaired  from  Manresa  by  Barce- 
lona to  Rome,  whence,  after  recei\nng  the 
papal  benediction  from  Adrian  VI.,  he  pro- 
ceeded on  foot,  and  as  a  mendicant,  to  Venice, 
and  there  embarked  for  Cyprus  and  the  holy 
land.  He  would  gladly  have  remained  at 
Jerusalem,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  propa- 
gation of  the  gospel  among  the  infidels ;  but, 
not  being  encouraged  in  this  design  by  the 
local  authorities,  he  returned  to  Venice  and 
Barcelona  in  1524. 

It  is  curious,  in  reviewing  the  lives  of  some 


of  those  eminent  men  who  have  left  lasting 
traces  of  their  exertions,  to  observe  how  their 
own  inclinations,  had  Providence  allowed 
them  their  course,  would  sometimes  have  led 
them  away  from  the  work  which  they  were 
commissioned  to  accompUsh.  Had  Wesley 
proved  a  successful  missionary,  which  was  his 
earliest  enterprise,  the  society  which  bears 
his  name  might  never  have  existed.  Had 
Loyola  been  permitted  to  spend  his  energies 
in  attempts  at  converting  the  Jews,  or  Turks, 
his  life  might  have  been  of  short  duration, 
and  his  name  might  never  have  been  heard 
beyond  the  limits  of  Palestine. 

When  his  pilgrimage  was  completed,  and 
he  was  restored  to  his  native  countrj',  his 
passion  for  religious  enterprise  and  distinction 
did  not  in  any  degree  abate;  but  he  soon 
discovered  that  his  literary  acquirements  were 
wholly  insufficient  for  his  purpose.  He  began, 
therefore,  at  Barcelona,  when  thirty-three 
years  of  age,  to  prepare  himself  by  study  for 
the  work  of  religious  teaching,  and,  with  this 
in  view,  he  was  not  ashamed  to  return  to  the 
very  rudiments  of  grammar.  He  followed 
up  these  elementary  studies  by  a  further 
course,  first  at  the  new  university  founded 
by  Cardinal  Ximines  at  Alcali,  and  after- 
ward at  Salamanca. 

At  Alcald  he  pursued  his  studies  with  great 
ardor  until  the  year  1527.  He  attempted  at 
the  same  time  the  sciences  of  logic,  physic, 
and  theology,  and  was  bent  on  accomplishing 
by  a  single  effort  what  results  to  other  men 
from  the  patient  employment  of  much  time 
and  labor.  But  it  was  too  late  in  life  to 
accomplish  much  without  supreme  effort. 
His  mind  had  been  already  formed  to  more 
active  pursuits,  and  he  could  with  diflSculty 
bend  it  to  the  acquisition  of  learning.  He 
acquired  a  confused  mass  of  knowledge,  but 
his  endeavor  to  grasp  so  much,  at  so  great  a 
disadvantage,  still  left  him  far  abaft  in  true 
scholarship. 

He  discovered  his  failure  and  thence  for- 
ward directed  his  energies  to  a  more  attain- 
able end;  and,  though  he  did  not  relax  his 
struggles  after  learning,  he  seems  rather  to 
have  looked  for  success  from  the  influence 
which  personal  intercourse  generally  enabled 
him  to  acquire  over  those  about  him.  Some 
lectures,  however,  which  he  delivered  at 
Alcald,  gave  offense  to  the  authorities  of  that 
university;  and  after  an  imprisonment  of 
forty-two  days  he  was  prohibited  from  pub- 
lic preaching,  until  he  should  have  completed 


IN  RELIGION 


380 


a  course  of  four  years  in  theology.  It  seems, 
too,  that,  together  with  two  or  three  com- 
panions, he  had  assumed  a  peculiar  dress, 
which  they  were  ordered  to  lay  aside. 

From  Alcald  he  removed  to  Salamanca; 
but  there,  too,  he  had  no  sooner  resumed  his 
preaching  than  the  inquisitors  laid  hands  on 
him;  and,  after  a  second  confinement,  with 
severer  treatment,  he  and  his  companions 
were  again  dismissed,  under  a  sentence  not 
widely  differing  from  the  preceding.  On 
these  occasions  it  was  not  so  much  the  char- 
acter of  his  sermons  which  gave  the  offense, 
as  the  circumstance  that  they  were  delivered 
by  a  layman. 

Thus  discouraged  in  his  native  country,  he 
hoped  to  find  a  wider,  or  at  least  a  safer,  field 
for  his  exertions  in  France.  Accordingly,  he 
departed  for  Paris,  and  arrived  there  in  the 
beginning  of  February,  1528.  His  means 
were  extremely  small,  but,  with  what  had 
been  provided  by  the  generosity  of  his  friends, 
he  continued  his  studies  at  the  university  of 
Paris,  and  received  his  degree  of  master  of 
arts  in  1534.  Here,  too,  at  the  university, 
which  then  contained  more  than  ten  thousand 
students  of  various  nationalities,  and  was  fer- 
menting with  religious  reform,  he  gathered 
the  first  members  of  his  future  society  — 
the  "company  of  Jesus" — ^ which  exercised 
such  an  immense  influence  upon  the  religious, 
moral,  and  social  condition  of  the  modem 
world  under  the  later  name  of  Jesuits. 

In  1534,  Loyola,  Peter  Le  Fevre,  James 
Lainez,  Francis  Xavier,  Nicholas  Bobadilla, 
Alfonso  Salmeron,  and  Simon  Rodriguez 
formally  met  in  the  chapel  of  Montmartre 
in  Paris,  and  took  vows  to  make  a  pilgrimage 
to  the  holy  land,  and,  failing  in  that,  to  offer 
their  lives  to  the  service  of  the  pope.  By 
arrangement  they  met  again  in  Venice  in  1536, 
and  the  pilgrimage  having  become  impossible 
through  the  outbreak  of  a  war  with  the  Turks, 
they  journeyed  to  Rome  the  next  year  to  take 
further  measures  for  the  establishment  and 
enlargement  of  the  new  order.  They  submit- 
ted to  the  pope,  Paul  III.,  the  rule  of  the 
proposed  order,  the  great  aim  of  which  was 
expressed  in  their  adopted  motto :  "To  God's 
greater  glory";  and  the  vow  of  which,  in 
addition  to  the  threefold  obligations  common 
to  all  Catholic  religious  orders,  of  chastity, 
poverty,  and  obedience,  comprised  a  fourth, 
whereby  the  members  bound  themselves  un- 
reservedly to  go  as  missionaries  to  any  coxm- 
try  which  the  pope  might  indicate  to  them. 


The  new  rule  waa  approved  by  a  bull  dated 
September  27,  1540;  and  in  the  foUowii^ 
year  the  association  waa  prartically  inaii^u- 
rated  at  Rome,  by  the  election  of  Loyola  aa 
its  first  general,  with  tenure  for  life  and  abso- 
lute powers.  He  and  his  subjects  made  their 
profession  in  the  church  of  St.  Paul,  April 
22,  1541.  His  own  vow  waa  aa  follows:  "I 
hereby  promise  to  the  all-powerful  God,  and 
to  the  pope,  his  vicar  upon  earth,  in  presence 
of  the  blessed  Virgin,  his  mother  and  of  the 
company,  perpetual  poverty,  celibacy,  and 
obedience,  according  to  the  rule  of  life  «»- 
tained  in  the  bull  of  the  society  of  our  Lord 
Jesus,  and  the  constitutions  alrca<ly  and  here- 
after to  be  published.  I  promise  that  I  will 
cause  young  persons  to  be  instructwi  in  the 
faith  according  to  the  same  bull  and  to  the 
constitutions." 

The  pope  immediately  availed  himself  of 
the  services  thus  offered  him,  and  sent  the  six 
disciples  on  various  missions  into  different 
parts  of  Europe.  Loyola  alone  remained  at 
Rome,  and  employed  himself  in  offices  of 
piety.  He  lectured  publicly  on  religious  sub- 
jects ;  he  discharged  many  duties  of  humanity 
and  charity;  he  took  measures  for  the  con- 
version of  the  Jews  at  Rome ;  he  established 
a  retreat  for  women  reclaimed  from  sin;  he 
founded  an  asylum  for  orphans;  and  the 
leisure  which  he  could  spare  from  these  holy 
works  he  devoted  to  composing  the  "Con- 
stitution of  the  Order." 

These  were  founded  on  the  principle  of 
uniting  spiritual  meditation  with  active  habits 
of  practical  piety ;  so  that,  while,  on  the  one 
hand,  he  enjoined  mental  prayer,  frequent 
self-examination,  and  religious  retirement,  on 
the  other,  he  engaged  his  disciples  to  uae 
every  exertion  for  the  instruction  and  sanctt- 
fication  of  the  rest  of  mankind.  He  com- 
manded them  to  be  perpetually  active  in 
preaching  and  missions,  in  the  conversion  of 
infidels  and  heretics,  in  the  inspection  of 
prisons  and  hospitals,  in  the  direction  of 
consciences,  and  the  instruction  of  youth. 

To  this  end  he  discouraged  every  severity 
of  mortification,  and  all  superfluity  both  in 
their  public  and  private  devotions.  He  pro- 
hibited the  possession  of  property  by  any  of 
his  establishments,  except  colleges,  whidi  he 
permitted  to  be  endowed  for  the  advantage 
of  necessitous  students ;  and  he  closed,  aa  far 
as  he  waa  able,  all  the  various  sources  of 
ecclesiastical  emolument. 

In  this  mere  sketch  of  the  life  of  Loyola, 


240 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


the  internal  constitution  of  his  order  must  be 
passed  over.  The  particular  laws  by  which 
it  was  regulated,  the  gradual  development  of 
its  principles,  and  the  beneficent  results,  as 
well  as  the  abuses  which  flowed  from  them, 
belong  to  the  wider  domain  of  church  history. 
It  is  enough  to  give  some  faint  notion  of  its 
earliest  progress.  Six  years  after  the  con- 
firmation of  the  order  of  Jesuits,  a  college 
was  opened  to  them  in  Spain  by  Francis 
Borgia,  duke  of  Gandia,  and  endowed  with 
the  same  privileges  as  those  of  Alcald  and 
Salamanca.  This  was  the  first  of  a  great 
number  of  Jesuit  colleges.  Its  statutes  were 
prescribed  by  Loyola. 

In  the  same  year,  to  give  some  pledge  for 
the  sincerity  of  his  vow  of  self-denial,  and  to 
secure  his  followers  against  one  of  the  com- 
monest temptations  of  ambition,  he  prevailed 
upon  the  pope  to  exclude  them  and  their 
successors,  by  a  pei*petual  edict,  from  the 
possession  of  bishoprics,  abbeys,  and  every 
description  of  benefice.  This  restriction  not 
only  stamped  them  with  a  peculiar  character, 
and  recommended  them  to  popular  favor  as 
singular  instances  of  self-devotion,  but  also 
left  them,  for  the  furtherance  of  the  especial 
objects  of  the  society,  the  leisure,  talents,  and 
industry  which  might  otherwise  have  been 
employed  in  the  pursuit  of  ecclesiastical  dig- 
nities, or  the  performance  of  pastoral  duties. 
But  it  was  not  always  faithfully  observed, 
even  during  the  lifetime  of  Loyola. 

After  the  first  step  had  been  taken,  the 
progress  of  the  company  of  Jesus  surpassed 
in  rapidity  all  that  is  recorded  of  the  infancy 
of  the  older  establishments.  It  was  scarcely 
planted  in  Spain  before  it  spread  to  Ferrara, 
and  other  parts  of  Italy.  In  1548  it  got  a 
footing  at  Messina  and  Palermo.  In  1550 
it  was  introduced  into  Bavaria;  and  in  the 
same  year  it  was  still  further  confirmed  by  a 
bull  of  Julius  III.,  and  enriched,  as  it  had 
previously  been,  by  abundant  benefactions 
from  the  apostolic  treasury. 

Two  years  afterward  the  order  founded  a 
Germanic  college  at  Rome,  and  by  this  time 
it  could  boast  of  similar  institutions  in  many 
of  the  most  civilized  cities  of  Europe.  Nor 
was  its  influence  confined  to  Eiu"ope  only. 
Its  missionaries  had  already  penetrated  into 
India,  Africa,  and  America.  In  the  year 
1553  they  presented  themselves  in  Cyprus, 
at  Constantinople,  and  Jerusalem,  and  were 
carried  by  the  same  impulse  into  Abyssinia 
and  China.    France  alone  avowed  her  sus- 


picion of  their  principles,  and  refused  them 
admission ;  nor  were  the  utmost  endeavors  of 
Loyola  himself  able  to  achieve  this  object. 
However,  the  perseverance  of  his  followers, 
supported  by  their  general  success,  succeeded 
even  there,  and  in  February,  1564,  less  than 
a  decade  after  his  death,  they  opened  their 
celebrated  college  in  the  Rue  St.  Jacques  at 
Paris. 

This  sudden  and  rapid  prosperity  brought 
cheer  to  Loyola  when  he  most  needed  it. 
He  was  prematurely  worn  out  by  his  long 
continued  austerities  and  arduous  responsi- 
bilities. Up  to  this  time  his  disciples  repre- 
sent him  as  the  only  spring  of  all  the  move- 
ments of  the  order,  and  the  sole  spirit  of  the 
mighty  body  which  had  already  spread  its 
influence  to  every  quarter  of  the  world.  The 
exactions  of  the  great  task  claimed  his  life 
as  the  penalty,  and,  surrounded  by  his 
disciples,  he  peacefully  expired  in  Rome, 
July  31,  1556.  His  remains  now  lie  in  the 
church  of  the  Gesii,  Rome.  Gregory  XV. 
canonized  him  in  1622  as  Saint  Ignatius. 

In  person,  Loyola  was  of  middle  stature, 
rather  low  than  tall.  His  brow  was  large, 
complexion  brown,  eyes  deep  set  and  full  of 
fire,  head  bald,  and  his  nose  aquiline.  He 
walked  with  a  slight  halting  gait  in  conse- 
quence of  the  wound  he  received  at  Pam- 
plona. His  demeanor  was  one  of  animated 
piety,  and  the  zeal  of  the  enthusiast  marked 
his  every  action  in  spite  of  his  penance  and 
vigils. 

His  well-known  "  Spiritual  Exercises,  "which 
was  his  chief  work  and  has  been  translated 
into  many  languages,  is  believed  to  have  been 
written  during  his  residence  at  Manresa,  soon 
after  his  return  from  Jerusalem  in  1522. 
The  merits  of  the  work  appealed  strongly  to 
Pope  Paul  III.,  who  issued  a  special  bull  in 
its  praise  and  confirmation,  and  it  subse- 
quently became  the  guide  and  inspiration  of 
his  followers.  This  work,  however,  was  not 
given  to  the  world  at  large  until  1548. 

Like  all  men  who  have  produced  great 
results,  Loyola  has  been  made  the  subject  of 
very  conflicting  estimates.  By  his  enemies 
he  has  been  described  as  "a  vain,  illiterate 
enthusiast,  without  talents,  without  knowl- 
edge, a  mere  machine  in  the  hands  of  a  crafty 
and  worldly  hierarchy."  Such  an  opinion  is 
its  own  best  answer.  The  true  perspective 
of  history  shows  him  to  have  been  one  of  the 
greatest  characters  of  his  age.  Whatever 
abuses  may  have  followed  in  the  working  out 


IN  RELIGION 


Ml 


of  his  system  —  and  for  this  he  surely  was 
not  to  blame  —  he  wielded  "the  powers  of 
the  earth  for  the  service  of  heaven"  with  a 
discipline,  and  a  dauntless  courage  that  has 
been  the  admiration  of  centuries.  He  arrested 
the  dissolution  of  religion  by  genuine  devo- 
tion; and  his  followers  fought  the  battles  of 
their  church  by  possessing  themselves  of  all 
the  strongholds  which  command  the  public 
mind  —  the  pulpit,  the  press,  and  the  insti- 
tutions of  learning.  Through  these  agencies, 
and  above  all  by  their  missions,  they  spread 
light  in  various  lands,  and  have  proved  a 
bond  of  union  between  civilization  and  the 
savage  state. 

"It  is  Loyola  who  has  shown  the  world," 
in  the  judgment  of  Isaac  Taylor,  "what  might 
be  meant  by  the  phrase,  'spiritual  polity.' 
It  is  he  who  has  shown  how  to  smelt  soul  ore 
into  one  mass  —  a  mass  uniformly  crystal- 
lized, and  shining  on  its  surface,  and  mathe- 
matical in  its  figure,  and  thoroughly  malleable 
and  ductile,  and  a  good  conductor  of  sounds. 
It  is  he  who  has  brought  to  perfection  the 
process  —  often  attempted  —  of  forging  hun- 
dreds of  individual  wills  into  so  true  a  con- 
tinuity of  substance  that  the  volitions  of 
single  mind  should  pass,  like  galvanic  cur- 
rents, through  the  whole,  and  become  intel- 
ligible and  effective  at  the  remotest  distances. 


"His  biographers  aanire  us  that  be  was 
accustomed  frequently  to  cast  his  eyes  heavcD> 
ward ;  yet  he  was  neither  the  my^o  nor  the 
contemplatist  —  his  institute  is  aU  earthwaitl 
bent.  Spiritualism  would  have  been  to  him 
idleness ;  he  could  occupy  himwlf  with  noth- 
ing that  had  no  product.  The  depths  which 
he  fathomed  were  not  those  abyssal  <^  the 
moral  worlds  whereinto  somber  and  solitary 
meditation  plunges;  but  those  near-atrhand 
deeps  of  human  nature  which  a  few  minds 
are  gifted  to  reach,  aa  at  a  step,  by  intuition 
of  the  way.  As  our  Shakespeare  knew  human 
nature  to  paint  it  truly  in  all  its  moods, 
so  Loyola  knew  it  to  rule  it  absolutely  in  all 
those  moods. 

"  Loyola  could  never  have  been  the  reformer 
of  established  systems ;  for  he  worshiped  every 
shred  of  the  ecclesiastical  tatters  of  past  ages. 
But  he  was  the  inventor  of  a  scheme  essen- 
tially his  own,  and  with  marvelous  sagadty, 
and  a  tact  fertile  in  resources,  he  contrived 
to  lodge  the  prodigious  novelty  —  the  society 
of  Jesus  —  within  the  very  adytum  of  the  old 
system,  and  to  do  so  without  noise,  without 
any  displacement  of  parts,  or  the  breaking 
off  even  of  a  moulding!  By  his  hands  a 
house  was  built  within  a  house;  yet  none 
had  heard  the  din  of  the  builder's  tools  while 
it  was  in  progress." 


CALVIN 

A.  D.  AGE  A.  D. 

1609         Bom  at  Noyon,  France, 1538 

1521-26  Studied    at    Paris,    Orleans,    and 

Bourges, 12-17  1540 

1528  Advocated  doctrine  of  reformation,      19  1541 

1529  Preached  at  Noyon;    returned  to  1553 

Paris, 20  1559 

1533-34  Fled  from  Paris;  resigned  benefice  1561 

at  Noyon, 24-25 

1636         Arrived  at  Geneva;    lectured  on  1564 
theology;   published  his  "Insti- 
tutes" at  Basel, 27 


Aoa 

Banished  from  Geneva;  preached 

at  Strassburg, 29 

Married;  attended  diet  at  Worms,   .  31 

Returned  to  Geneva, 83 

Appeared  against  Servetua,  ....  44 

Founded  the  academy  at  Oeneva,  .  fiO 
Invitation  to  Paria;  ^' New  Teat*- 

ment  Commentanea,"    ....  52 

Died  at  Geneva,  Switserland,  ...  66 


JOHN  CALVIN,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
^  of  the  Protestant  reformers,  and  a  noted 
theologian,  was  born  at  Noyon,  Picardy, 
France,  July  10,  1509.  His  father,  Gerard 
Calvin  —  or  Cauvin,  as  it  was  in  French  — 
was  secretary  of  the  diocese,  and  procureur- 
fiscal  of  the  district  of  Noyon,  and  his  mother 
was  Jeanne  Lefranc. 

One  of  a  family  of  six  —  four  sons  and  two 
daughters  —  he  was,  with  his  two  sxu^iving 
brothers,    destined    by    his    father    for    the 


church ;  and  when  but  twelve  years  of  age 
he  was  appointed  to  a  benefice  in  the  cathedral 
church  of  Noyon.  At  the  age  of  seventeen 
to  this  benefice  was  added  the  curacy  of 
Marteville.  These  benefices  Calvin  held  as  a 
means  of  support  during  the  period  of  his 
education,  and  even  for  a  short  time  after 
he  had  entered  upon  his  career  as  a  reformer. 
Calvin's  education  was  greatly  aided  by  the 
noble  family  of  Montmor,  in  whose  neighbor- 
hood he  lived,  and  by  whom  he  was  invited  to 


242 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


share  in  the  studies  of  their  children.  In  a 
way  he  was  adopted  by  them;  and,  when 
they  went  to  Paris  in  his  fourteenth  year,  he 
accompanied  them.  Here  he  entered  the 
College  de  la  Marche,  then  under  the  regency 
of  Mathurin  Cordier  —  better  known  as  Cor- 
derius  —  and  it  was  under  this  distinguished 
master  that  Calvin  laid  the  foundation  of  his 
wonderful  mastery  of  the  Latin  language. 
During  this  early  period,  even,  he  was  dis- 
tinguished by  great  mental  activity,  and 
grave  severity  of  manner,  which  led  his 
companions  to  surname  him  the  "accusa- 
tive." 

It  seems  that  about  this  time  Calvin's  father 
changed  his  plans  with  reference  to  his  son's 
career,  and  sent  him  to  Orleans  to  study  law 
at  the  university  under  Peter  de  Stella,  one 
of  the  most  famous  jurists  of  his  day,  and 
afterward  president  of  the  parliament  of 
Paris.  At  Orleans  he  continued  the  same  life 
of  rigorous  temperance  and  earnest  studious- 
ness  for  which  he  was  already  noted.  Beza 
tells  us  that  he  spent  half  the  night  in  study, 
and  devoted  the  morning  to  meditation  on 
what  he  had  acquired.  These  undue  habits 
of  study  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  ill- 
health  which  marked  his  later  years. 

It  was  while  at  Orleans  that  he  began  to 
study  the  scriptures,  and  received  his  first 
impulse  toward  those  theological  studies  which 
afterward  distinguished  his  name.  Peter 
Robert  Olivetan,  a  relative  of  Calvin,  was 
there  engaged  in  making  a  translation  of  the 
Bible,  and  it  was  through  this  contact  that 
the  religious  instinct  was  awakened  within 
him  which  was  soon  to  prove  the  master- 
principle  of  his  life.  From  this  time  on  he 
began  to  question  his  traditional  faith,  and, 
although  he  continued  his  legal  studies  for 
a  time,  it  was  evident  that  his  main  interest 
was  religious  and  theological. 

From  Orleans  he  went  to  Bourges  to  con- 
tinue his  studies,  and  here  a  more  pronounced 
change  took  place  in  his  character.  Zeal  for 
the  truth,  as  he  now  apprehended  it,  became 
the  passion  of  his  life.  He  learned  Greek, 
began  to  preach  the  reformed  doctrines, 
passed  over  into  the  ranks  of  Protestantism, 
and  openly  avowed  himself  a  disciple  of  the 
reformation. 

In  1529  he  preached  at  Noyon,  and  shortly 
thereafter  proceeded  to  Paris,  which  had 
become  a  center  of  the  "  new  learning  "  under 
the  teachings  of  Le  Fevre  and  Farel,  and  the 
influence  of  the  queen  of  Navarre,  sister  of 


Francis  I.  Here  he  published,  at  his  own 
expense,  an  edition  of  Seneca's  De  Clementia, 
with  the  view  of  conciliating  Francis,  who 
had  taken  active  measures  to  quell  the  rising 
spirit.  But  he  was  compelled  to  flee  from 
Paris  in  1533,  on  account  of  a  sermon  on 
justification  by  faith  which  openly  provoked 
the  Sorbonne.  He  also  resided  for  a  time  at 
Angouleme,  where  he  began  his  "  Institutes," 
returned  to  his  native  place,  where  he  resigned 
the  preferment  he  held  in  the  Roman  church, 
and  for  a  year  or  two  led  a  wandering  life, 
sheltered  in  various  places. 

Under  the  anticipated  patronage  of  the 
queen  of  Navarre,  he  returned  to  the  French 
capital  in  1534;  but  the  persecution  against 
the  Protestants  raged  with  such  fury  that  the 
fate  of  his  previous  visit  again  pursued  him, 
and  he  betook  himself  to  Basel,  where,  in 
1536,  he  published  in  Latin  the  first  edition 
of  the  "Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion," 
with  the  famouB  preface  addressed  to  Francis 
I.  The  concentrated  vigor  of  this  address, 
its  intensity  of  feeling,  rising  into  indignant 
remonstrance,  and  at  times  a  pathetic  and 
powerful  eloquence,  made  it  one  of  the  most 
memorable  documents  in  connection  with  the 
reformation. 

From  Basel,  Calvin  went  to  Ferrara,  where, 
at  the  court  of  the  duchess  Ren6e,  daughter 
of  Louis  XII.,  an  adherent  of  the  reforma- 
tion, he  found  a  refuge  in  common  with  many 
others.  Driven  thence  by  the  inquisition,  he 
returned  to  France,  and,  as  he  still  found  no 
security  there,  in  August,  1536,  he  went  to 
Geneva  on  his  way  back  to  Basel,  as  if  by 
accident,  and  with  this  city  henceforth  his 
name  is  immortally  identified. 

Arrived  in  Geneva,  he  met  there  his  friend, 
Louis  Tillet,  who  communicated  the  fact  of 
his  arrival  to  Farel,  then  in  the  very  midst  of 
his  struggle  to  promote  the  reformation  in 
the  city  and  neighborhood.  Farel  hastened 
to  see  him,  and  urge  upon  him  the  duty  of 
remaining  where  he  was,  and  imdertaking  his 
share  of  the  work  of  God,  under  the  burden 
of  which  he  was  threatened  with  failure. 
Calvin  did  not  at  first  respond  to  the  call. 
He  was  given,  he  himself  says,  to  his  "own 
intense  thoughts  and  private  studies."  He 
wished  to  devote  himself  to  the  service  of  the 
reformed  churches  generally,  rather  than  to 
the  care  of  any  particular  church. 

A  life  of  intellectual  and  theological  labor 
was  that  which  at  that  time  was  most  con- 
genial   to   him.     By   some    strange    insight. 


IN  RELIGION 


aa 


however,  Farel  penetrated  to  the  higher  fit- 
ness of  the  young  stranger  who  stood  before 
him,  and  he  ventured,  in  the  spirit  of  that 
daring  enthusiasm  which  characterized  him, 
to  hiy  the  curse  of  God  upon  him  and  his 
studies,  if  he  refused  his  aid  to  the  church  of 
Geneva  in  her  time  of  need.  This  seemed  to 
Calvin  a  divine  menace.  "It  was,"  he  said, 
"  as  if  God  had  seized  me  by  His  awful  hand 
of  heaven."  He  abandoned  his  intention  of 
pursuing  his  journey,  and  joined  eagerly  with 
Farel  in  the  work  of  reformation. 

Such  was  the  beginning  of  Calvin's  great 
career  in  Geneva.  Having  entered  upon  his 
task,  he  soon  infused  an  energy  into  it  which 
crowned  the  struggling  efforts  of  Farel  with 
success.  Farel  had  already  introduced  the 
reform  worship;  the  citizens  had  asserted 
their  independence  against  the  duke  of  Savoy, 
whose  regime  had  called  forth  the  patriotic 
as  well  as  the  religious  feelings  of  the  people. 
The  magistrates  and  people  eagerly  joined 
with  the  reformers  in  the  first  heat  of  their 
freedom  and  zeal.  A  Protestant  confession 
of  faith  was  drawn  out,  approved  of  by  the 
council  of  two  hundred,  the  largest  govern- 
ing board  of  the  city,  and  then  proclaimed  in 
the  cathedral  church  of  St.  Peter's  as  binding 
upon  the  whole  body  of  the  citizens.  Great 
and  marvelous  changes  were  wrought  in  a 
short  time  upon  the  manners  of  the  people; 
where  license  and  frivolity  had  reigned,  a 
strict  moral  severity  began  to  characterize 
the  whole  aspect  of  society. 

The  strain,  however,  was  too  sudden  and 
too  extreme.  A  spirit  of  rebellion  to  the  rule 
of  Calvin  and  Farel  broke  forth ;  they  refused 
to  yield  to  the  wishes  of  a  party  animated  by 
a  more  easy  and  liberal  spirit  than  themselves, 
and  known  in  the  history  of  Geneva  under 
the  nickname  of  Libertines;  and  the  conse- 
quence was  that  they  were  both  expelled 
from  the  city  after  less  than  two  years' 
residence. 

Calvin  retreated  to  Strassburg,  where  he 
had  meant  to  go  when  arrested  in  his  course 
at  Geneva.  Here  he  settled,  and  devoted 
himself  to  theological  study,  and  especially 
to  his  critical  labors  on  the  new  testament. 
Here,  also,  in  October,  1540,  he  married 
Idelette  de  Bures,  the  widow  of  a  converted 
Anabaptist.  The  marriage  appears  to  have 
proved  a  happy  one,  although  not  of  long 
duration.  They  had  but  one  child,  a  son, 
who  died  in  infancy. 

The  Genevans  found,  after  a  short  time, 


that  they  could  not  well  get  on  without  Calvin. 
His  rule  might  be  rigid;  but  an  authority, 
even  such  as  his,  which  might  gall  from  iU 
severity,  waa  better  than  no  settled  authority 
at  all.  So,  in  September,  1 54 1 ,  at  the  repeated 
solicitation  of  the  magistracy,  who  had  alto 
procured  the  intervention  of  Bern  and  Baad, 
Calvin  returned  to  Geneva  with  the  fair  and 
full  understanding  that  his  discipline  was  to 
be  carried  out.  His  ideal  was  a  church  in 
which  reform  should  embrace  not  only  doo> 
trine  and  ritual,  but  the  whole  life.  The 
state  is  to  aid,  not  rule  this  spiritual  institu- 
tion, although  both  church  and  state  concur 
in  the  sphere  of  morals.  To  this  end  the 
presbyterial  system  was  fully  inaugurated, 
which  became  a  model  for  the  government  of 
the  reformed  churches.  The  consistory,  or 
presbytery,  a  body  composed  of  twice  as  many 
laymen  as  clergymen,  the  laymen  annually 
elected  by  the  church,  gradually  abewbed  Om 
power  of  the  general  council  elected  by  the 
people.  The  consistory  was  the  real  tribunal 
of  morals,  and  its  inquisitorial  power  extended 
to  the  whole  population.  It  could  not  punish 
beyond  excommunication,  but  the  civil  power 
was  to  do  the  rest.  The  system  waa  for  a 
time  eminently  successful.  Geneva  became 
the  most  moral  town  in  Europe.  At  the  same 
time  public  worship  was  ordered  with  extreme 
simplicity,  all  that  appealed  to  the  senses  and 
imagination  being  excluded. 

Such  power  as  Calvin  now  exercised  could 
not  be  maintained,  except  in  a  thorough 
despotism  with  a  standing  army.  Frequent 
collisions  occurred  between  the  consistory 
and  the  council,  and  in  the  former  the  author- 
ity of  Calvin  was  far  from  being  absolute. 
His  struggle  with  the  Libertines  lasted  four- 
teen years.  During  that  long  struggle  occur- 
red also  Calvin's  controversies  with  Castellio, 
Bolsec,  and  Servetus  —  the  most  melancholy 
events  which  took  place  under  his  sway. 
The  polemical  truculence  displayed  in  his 
controversy  with  his  one-time  friend  Cas- 
tellio, and  his  part  in  the  condemnation 
of  Servetus,  whose  speculations  on  the  Trinity 
were  abhorrent  to  him,  reveal  phases  of 
intolerance  that  can  never  be  reconciled  with 
the  other  evidences  of  greatness  in  his  char- 
acter. 

Michael  Servetus  had  entered  into  various 
connections  with  Calvin,  even  from  the  time 
of  his  early  residence  in  Paris.  He  subse- 
quently sent  him  various  dociunents  oootain- 
ing  the  views  he  held,  finally  developed  and 


244 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


published  under  the  title  RestitiUio  Christian- 
ismi,  or  "Christianity  Restored."  Calvin 
never  concealed  his  abhorrence  of  these  views, 
and  as  early  as  1546  threatened  that  if 
Servetus  should  come  to  Geneva,  "he  would 
do  what  he  could  to  bring  him  to  condign 
punishment." 

The  history  of  his  seizure  and  condemnation 
at  Vienne  by  the  Catholic  authorities,  and 
especially  of  Calvin's  share  in  the  correspond- 
ence which  led  to  his  seizure,  is  very  com- 
plicated and  obscure.  It  has  been  maintained 
that  Calvin  was  the  instigator,  through  a 
creature  of  his  own  by  the  name  of  Trie,  of 
the  whole  transaction;  it  is  certain  that  he 
forwarded  to  the  authorities,  through  Trie, 
private  documents  which  Servetus  had  ii^- 
trusted  to  him,  with  a  view  to  the  heretic's 
identification,  and  as  materials  for  his  con- 
demnation. Servetus  was  sentenced  to  be 
burned,  but  effected  his  escape,  and,  after 
several  months'  wandering,  he  was  found  at 
Geneva.  It  was  his  intention  to  proceed  to 
Italy,  where  he  hoped  his  opinions  might 
meet  with  some  degree  of  toleration,  and  he 
arrived  at  Geneva  on  his  way.  This  is  the 
explanation  of  an  event  otherwise  unaccount- 
able. Having  ventured  to  church,  according 
to  the  common  account,  he  was  recognized, 
apprehended,  and  conveyed  to  prison  by 
Calvin's  order,  just  as  he  was  about  to  leave 
the  city. 

The  particulars  of  his  trial  cannot  be 
detailed  here.  It  lasted,  with  various  inter- 
ruptions, for  two  months.  He  attacked  Cal- 
vin with  the  foulest  epithets,  and  Calvin 
retorted  with  a  virulence  and  foulness  quite 
equal  to  his  own.  At  length,  on  October  26, 
1553,  sentence  was  passed  upon  Servetus, 
condemning  him  to  death  by  fire.  Calvin 
used  his  influence  to  have  the  mode  of  death 
alleviated,  but  without  success.  On  the  very 
next  morning  the  sentence  was  put  into 
execution.  On  an  extended  eminence  at 
some  distance  from  the  city  of  Geneva, 
Servetus  was  fastened  to  a  stake,  surrounded 
by  heaps  of  oakwood  and  leaves,  with  his 
condemned  book  and  the  MS.  he  had  sent  to 
Calvin  attached  to  his  girdle ;  amid  his  agon- 
izing cries  the  fire  was  kindled,  and  the 
wretched  man  expiated  his  heresy  amidst  the 
flames. 

No  one  now  attempts  to  justify  Calvin's 
share  in  the  burning  of  Servetus.  The  other 
reformers,  even  the  gentle  Melanchthon,  vin- 
dicated the  sad  tragedy.    It  will  not  suflace 


to  say  that  Calvin  was  drawn  into  the  meas- 
ure, or  that  the  fate  of  Servetus  was  in  accord- 
ance with  the  law  of  the  state,  and,  therefore, 
beyond  the  control  of  the  reformer.  Calvin 
distinctly  understood  his  own  part  in  the 
business,  and  felt  that  compassion  was  to 
yield  to  conscience.  The  only  apology  for 
him  is  that  he  was  not,  in  the  matter  of 
religious  liberty,  in  advance  of  his  age.  He 
was  no  exception  to  the  general  rule.  Cran- 
mer  sent  Joan  of  Kent  to  the  stake,  and  he 
himself  in  a  few  years  followed.  Five  Gene- 
van disciples  of  Calvin  were  burned  in  France 
about  the  same  time  that  Servetus  was  com- 
mitted to  the  flames  of  Geneva.  John  Knox 
and  Peter  Dens  use  the  very  same  argument 
and  imagery  for  the  capital  punishment  of 
heretics.  It  took  a  long  time,  indeed,  for  the 
warring  schismatics  of  the  Christian  church 
to  learn  that  man  is  responsible  to  God  alone 
for  his  belief,  and  that  liberty  of  conscience 
is  a  universal  birthright. 

After  the  execution  of  Servetus,  and  the 
expulsion  of  the  Libertines  two  years  later, 
Calvin's  power  in  Geneva  was  firmly  estab- 
lished, and  he  used  it  vigorously  and  benefi- 
cently for  the  defense  of  Protestantism 
throughout  Europe.  By  the  mediation  of 
Beza  he  made  his  influence  felt  in  France 
in  the  great  struggle  that  was  there  going  on 
between  the  hierarchical  party,  with  the 
Guises  at  its  head,  and  the  Protestants,  led 
by  Cond6  and  Coligny,  and,  in  1561,  he 
received  an  invitation  to  Paris.  In  that  year, 
however,  his  energies  began  to  fail.  The 
incessant  and  exhausting  labors  to  which  he 
gave  himself  could  not  but  tell  on  the  strong- 
est constitution:  how  much  more  on  one  so 
fragile  as  hisl  Amid  many  sufferings,  how- 
ever, and  frequent  attacks  of  sickness,  he 
manfully  pursued  his  course  for  twenty-eight 
years;  nor  was  it  until  his  frail  body,  torn 
by  many  and  painful  diseases,  had,  as  it  were, 
fallen  to  pieces  around  him,  that  his  indom- 
itable spirit  relinquished  the  conflict. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  year  1564  his 
sufferings  became  so  severe  that  it  was  mani- 
fest his  earthly  career  was  rapidly  drawing 
to  a  close.  On  February  6th  of  that  year 
he  preached  his  last  sermon,  having  with 
great  difficulty  found  breath  enough  to  carry 
him  through  it.  He  was  several  times  after 
this  carried  to  church,  but  never  again  was 
able  to  take  any  part  in  the  service.  He 
nobly  refused  to  receive  his  stipend,  now  that 
he  was  no  longer  able  to  discharge  the  duties 


IN  RELIGION 


au 


of  his  oflSce.  In  the  midst  of  his  suflferings, 
however,  his  zeal  and  energy  kept  him  in 
continual  occupation;  when  expostulated 
with  for  such  unseasonable  toil,  he  replied, 
"Would  you  that  the  Lord  should  find  me 
idle  when  He  comes?  " 

After  he  had  retired  from  public  labors  he 
Ungered  for  some  months,  enduring  the 
severest  agony  without  a  murmur,  and  cheer- 
fully attending  to  all  the  duties  of  a  private 
kind  which  his  diseases  left  him  strength  to 
discharge.  A  deep  impression  seems  to  have 
been  made  on  all  who  visited  him  on  his 
deathbed;  they  saw  in  him  the  noble  spec- 
tacle of  a  great  spirit  that  had  done  its  life- 
work,  calmly  and  trustfully  passing  through 
the  gates  of  suffering  into  the  long-desired 
and  firmly  expected  repose.  He  quietly  ex- 
pired in  the  arms  of  his  faithful  friend  Beza, 
on  the  evening  of  May  27,  1564,  in  the  fifty- 
fifth  year  of  his  age. 

Calvin  was  of  middle  stature;  his  com- 
plexion was  somewhat  pallid  and  dark;  his 
eyes,  to  the  latest,  clear  and  lustrous,  bespoke 
the  acumen  of  his  genius.  He  was  sparing 
in  his  food  and  simple  in  his  dress;  he  took 
but  httle  sleep,  and  was  capable  of  extra- 
ordinary efforts  of  intellectual  toil.  His 
memory  was  prodigious,  but  he  used  it  only 
as  the  servant  of  his  higher  faculties.  As  a 
reasoner  he  has  seldom  been  equaled,  and 
the  soundness  and  penetration  of  his  judgment 
were  such  as  to  give  to  his  conclusions  in 
practical  questions  almost  the  appearance  of 
predictions,  and  to  inspire  in  all  his  friends 
the  utmost  confidence  in  the  wisdom  of  his 
counsels. 

The  literary  work  which  he  performed  is 
almost  incredible,  especially  when  we  con- 
sider his  other  labors.  He  established  the 
academy  at  Geneva  in  1559,  of  which  Beza 
was  the  first  rector.  Here  he  taught  theology 
to  the  numerous  students  that  flocked  to  it, 
from  Scotland,  Holland,  and  Germany.  He 
preached  nearly  every  day,  besides;  and 
conducted  an  immense  correspondence.  When 
his  works  were  finally  collected  and  published, 
they  amounted  to  fifty-two  volumes,  and 
comprised  commentaries  on  nearly  the  whole 
Bible.  His  "Institutes,"  the  most  important 
of  his  works,  was  also  his  earliest.  In  it 
Calvin  elaborated  the  system  of  theology 
based  upon  the  sovereignty  of  the  will  of 
God,  and  including,  as  integral  parts,  the 
doctrines  of  predestination,  election,  and 
reprobation.    His  energetic  decisiveness  and 


moral  zeal  spoke  in  every  page  of  it.  The 
work  was  hailed  with  enthusasm  by  the 
German  reformers,  and  it  really  brought  into 
one  body  of  divinity  the  scattered  and  un- 
systematized reformed  opinions  of  all  Europe. 

It  was  not  until  many  years  later,  however, 
that  the  name  of  Calvin  came  to  be  attached 
to  a  certain  set  of  doctrinal  opinions,  and  not 
until  the  rise  of  Arminius  and  the  synod  of 
Dort,  in  1618,  that  these  opinions  may  be 
said  to  have  been  polemically  marked  off 
from  others  with  which  they  are  generally 
contrasted,  and  to  which  they  are  reoogniaed 
as  standing  in  opposition. 

The  difference  of  thought  expreaeed  in  the 
Arminian  and  Calvinistic  systems  is  as  <M 
as  the  history  of  Christian  doctrine.  In 
almost  every  point  Augustine  may  be  said 
to  have  anticipated  Calvin;  while  Pelagius 
and  the  eastern  divines,  such  as  Chrysostom, 
represented  a  type  of  opinion  upon  the  whole 
consonant  to  that  which  in  more  modem 
times  has  been  opposed  to  Calvinism.  In 
the  Roman  Catholic  church,  since  the  refor- 
mation, the  same  opposition  of  thought  has 
presented  itself  in  the  famous  contest  of 
Jansenism  and  Jesuitism. 

The  main  point  of  distinction  in  the  two 
systems  or  modes  of  Christian  opinion  is  as 
to  the  operation  of  divine  grace  in  the  salva- 
tion of  sinners.  In  the  one  system,  this 
operation  is  considered  as  predetermined  and 
absolute;  in  the  other,  as  merely  prescient, 
and  in  some  sense  conditioned.  Predestina- 
tion and  irresistible  grace  are  the  keynotes  of 
Calvinism  —  its  two  main  points.  Others 
were  added  in  opposition  to  Arminianism  — 
viz.,  original  sin,  particular  redemption,  and 
the  perseverance  of  the  saints ;  but  the  first 
of  these  is  not  peculiarly  Calvinistic,  and  the 
last  two  are  merely  corollaries  from  the  doc- 
trines of  predestination  and  grace.  Predea- 
tination  is,  in  fact,  the  one  distinguishing 
doctrine  of  the  system,  as  it  was  of  Augus- 
tinianism,  of  which  Calvin  was  merely  the 
revival.  But  in  his  skill  as  an  expositor  <rf  the 
scriptures,  and  in  his  terse  and  elegant  style, 
he  possessed  advantages  to  which  Augustine 
was  a  stranger.  The  divine  will,  apprdiended 
as  decretive  and  predestinating,  is  necessarily 
irresistible  in  its  efficacy,  select  in  its  objects, 
and  persevering  in  its  results.  The  character- 
istic of  Calvinism,  therefore,  is  that  it  is  a 
speculative  Christian  system,  springing  from 
a  single  great  principle,  carried  out  rigor- 
ously into  all  its  logical  consequences. 


246 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


The  church  of  England  in  its  earlier  his- 
tory was  Calvinistic  in  its  creed,  although 
mediaeval  and  Catholic  in  its  ritual.  Puritan- 
ism was  nothing  else  than  a  movement  to 
reduce  it  altogether  to  a  Calvinistic  model. 
In  the  reaction  which  followed  this  movement, 
the  church  of  England,  while  retaining  its 
original  articles,  nearly  parted  with  its  Cal- 
vinistic faith ;  and  throughout  the  eighteenth 
century  its  chief  divines  were  conspicuously 
Arminian  or  latitudinarian.  But  with  the 
revival  of  the  evangehcal  party  in  the  end 
of  the  century,  Calvinism  revived;  and  it 
maintains  to-day  a  powerful  influence  over 
both  the  Anglican  church  and  the  various 
Presbyterian  bodies. 

Very  different  estimates,  it  may  be  imag- 
ined, have  been  formed  of  Calvin's  character, 
according  to  the  point  of  view  from  which  it 
is  contemplated.  None,  however,  can  dis- 
pute his  intellectual  greatness,  or  the  powerful 
services  which  he  rendered  to  the  cause  of 
Protestantism.  Stern  in  spirit,  and  unyield- 
ing in  will,  he  is  never  selfish  or  petty  in  his 
motives.  Nowhere  amiable,  he  is  everywhere 
strong.  Arbitrary  and  cruel  when  it  suits 
him,  he  is  yet  heroic  in  his  aims,  and  benefi- 
cent in  the  scope  of  his  ambition.  Earnest 
from  the  first,  looking  upon  life  as  a  serious 


reality,  his  moral  purpose  is  always  clear  and 
definite  —  to  live  a  life  of  duty,  to  shape 
circumstances  to  such  divine  ends  as  he 
apprehended,  and,  in  whatever  sphere  he 
might  be  placed,  to  work  out  the  glory  of 
God. 

As  intimated  above,  he  rendered  a  double 
ser\ice  to  Protestantism,  which,  apart  from 
anything  else,  would  have  made  his  name 
illustrious ;  he  systematized  its  doctrine,  and 
he  organized  its  ecclesiastical  discipline.  He 
was  at  once  the  great  theologian  of  the 
reformation,  and  the  founder  of  a  new 
church  polity,  which  did  more  than  all  other 
influences  together  to  consolidate  the  scat- 
tered forces  of  the  reformation,  and  give 
them  an  enduring  strength.  As  a  religious 
teacher,  as  a  social  legislator,  and  as  a  writer, 
especially  of  the  French  language,  then  in 
process  of  formation,  his  fame  is  second  to 
none  in  his  age,  and  must  always  conspicu- 
ously adorn  the  history  of  civilization. 

"I  have  been  a  witness  of  him  for  sixteen 
years,"  says  Beza,  "and  I  think  I  am  fully 
entitled  to  say  that  in  this  man  there  was 
exhibited  to  all  an  example  of  the  life  and 
death  of  the  Christian,  such  as  it  will  not  be 
easy  to  depreciate,  such  as  it  will  be  diflScult 
to  emulate." 


WESLEY 


▲.  X>.  AGE 

1703         Born  at  Epworth,  England,      

1720  p:rtered  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  .    .      17 

1725         Ordained  deacon, 22 

1727         M.  A.,  Oxford, 24 

172a-29  Ordained  priest;  tutor  at  Oxford,  25-26 

1735         Missionary  in  Georgia 32 

1738  Returned    to    England,    and    met 

Peter  Bohler, 35 


A.  D.  AOB 

1738  Visit<?d  Hermhut,  Saxony ;   founded 

Methodism 35 

1739—44  Preached  the  new  evangelism,  .    .   36-41 

1744  Took  part  in  the  first  conference,    .      41 

1749         Visited  Ireland 46 

1761  Married;   visited  Scotland,    ....      48 

1771         Separated  from  his  wife 68 

1791         Died  at  London, 88 


/ 


JOHN  WESLEY,  distinguished  English 
^  preacher  and  reformer,  and  founder  of  the 
Methodists,  was  born  at  Epworth,  Lincoln- 
shire, England,  June  17,  170^/^He  was 
descended  from  a  line  of  ministers  of  the 
church  of  England,  of  Puritan  principles, 
some  of  whom  had  suffered  for  their  dissent 
from  the  orthodox  faith.  His  father,  Samuel 
Wesley,  however,  rather  strictly  conformed 
to  the  church  of  England,  and  for  many 
years  was  rector  of  Epworth  and  Wroote  in 
Lincolnshire.  His  mother,  Susannah  Annes- 
ley,  was  the  daughter  of  an  ejected  minister, 
and  a  woman  of  remarkable  intelligence  and 


ferv'ent  piety,  who  devoted  herself  unstintedly 
to  both  the  secular  and  religious  education 
of  her  children. 

Six  years  after  John's  birth  the  rectory  at 
Epworth  was  set  on  fire  by  some  refractory 
parishioners,  and  the  boy  —  one  of  nineteen 
children  —  was  forgotten  in  the  first  con- 
fusion. He  was  presently  discovered,  how- 
ever, at  a  window,  and  by  great  exertion  was 
rescued  at  the  very  moment  which  promised 
to  be  his  last.  In  after  life  he  seems  to  have 
seen  the  hand  of  Providence  in  this  preser\'a- 
tion,  and  made  it  the  subject  of  much  reflec- 
tion and  gratitude. 


C5? 


n 

a: 

z 

o 

o 

H 


^  Tcn 


IN  RELIGION 


9M 


When  ten  years  of  age,  John  was  sent  to 
school  at  the  famous  Charterhouse  in  London, 
and  at  seventeen  entered  Christ  Church, 
Oxford.  At  Oxford  he  was  a  very  diligent 
and  successful  student,  and  gained  distinction 
as  a  skillful  logician  and  acute  disputant. 
After  much  conscientious  hesitation  as  to  his 
motives  and  fitness  for  entering  the  clerical 
profession  —  which  was  finally  decided  by  the 
influence  of  his  mother  —  he  applied  himself 
to  the  study  of  religion^^Be  was  particularly 
impressed  by  the  reading  of  Jeremy  Taylor's 
Holy  Living  and  Holy  Dying,  and,  in  1725,  he 
resolved  "to  dedicate  his  hfe  and  his  death, 
his  whole  thoughts,  feelings,  and  energies  to 
the  service  of  God.'Jr'ln  that  year  he  was 
ordained  a  deacon  in  the  estabUshed  church, 
and   the   following   year   he   was  appointed 


Greek  lecturer  and  moderator  of  the  classicsjrhe  formed  an   indiscreet,   though  innocent, 


/In  1727  Wesley  received  his  M.  A.  degree^ 
and  left  Oxford  to  assist  his  father  at  Wroote. 
While  serving  there  he  was  advanced  to 
priest's  orders  in  1728.  He  then  returned 
to  Oxford  as  a  tutor  and  fellow  of  Lincoln 
college,  along  with  his  younger  brother, 
Charles,  where  he  had  the  opportunity  of 
assembling  around  him  a  little  society  of 
religious  friends  or  disciples,  over  whom  his 
superior  talents  and  piety  gave  him  a  natural 
influence.  These,  through  their  strict  and 
methodical  manner  of  hving,  acquired  from 
their  fellow  students  the  appellation  of 
"  Methodists " —  a  name  derived  from  the 
schools  of  ancient  science,  and  thus  destined, 
through  its  capricious  appUcation  by  a  few 
thoughtless  boys,  to  designate,  subsequently, 
a  large,  and  vital  portion  of  the  Christian 
world^^he  intercourse  of  the  Wesley  broth- 
ers a^his  time  with  William  Law,  the  author 
of  the  Serious  Call,  had  a  great  influence  on 
their  opinions  and  conduct.  They  walked 
two  or  three  times  a  year  from  Oxford  to 
visit  Law  at  his  house  near  London. 

y/ln  1735  Wesley  was  induced  to  undertake 
a  missionary  journey  to  America,  to  preach 
to  the  Indians  and  colonists^yile  accordingly 
accompanied  General  Oglethorpe  to  Georgia, 
where  for  two  years,  in  a  new  and  imtried 
field,  he  conducted  an  itinerant  mission.  -  His 
contact  with  Moravians,  who  were  his  fellow 
passengers,  to  America  and  afterward  his 
fellow  laborers  in  the  colony,  tended  to 
stimulate  his  religious  zeal.  His  habits  at 
this  period  were  deeply  tinged  with  asceticism. 
In  Ids  extreme  self-denial  and  mortification 
in  respect  to  diet,  clothing,  and  the  ordinary 


comforts  of  life,  he  iiffoot«i  a  more  Uun 
monastic  austerity,  and  rcaliiod,  even,  the 
tales  of  hermitical  fanaticism.  He  even  di»- 
claimed  against  the  study  of  cUtasieal  authon, 
and  discourage*!  as  sinful  any  application  to 
profane  literature.  And  the  extravaganoe  of 
his  zeal  took  a  direction,  such  indeed  as  might 
be  expected  from  his  birth  and  education, 
but  ill  adapted  to  recommend  him  to  the 
affections  of  the  colonists.  He  adhered  with 
the  obstinacy  of  a  bigot  to  the  rubric  of  the 
church;  he  refused  to  administer  baptiam 
except  by  immersion ;  he  withheld  the  com- 
munion from  a  pious  dissenter,  unleas  htt 
should  first  consent  to  be  rebaptixed;  he 
declined  to  perform  the  burial  aervioe  over 
another. 
To  add  to  the  difficulties  of  his  position^ 


attachment  for  a  young  woman,  Sophia 
Canston,  daughter  of  the  chief  magistrate  of 
Savannah,  whom  he  wished  to  marry.  On 
the  advice  of  the  Moravian  bishop  and  elders 
he  managed  to  overcome  his  infatuation,  and 
the  object  of  his  affection  soon  married  an- 
other. Piqued  by  the  general  turn  of  affairs, 
Wesley  refused  her  admission  to  the  com- 
munion, and  her  husband  instituted  against 
him  an  action  at  law.  This  led  to  some  very 
serious  scenes,  and  "shaking  the  dust  off  his 
feet,"  as  he  said,  Wesley  made  a  sudden,  ^od 
xsA^aam^*'>mmiilb^\e  departure  for  England. 

The  exalted  piety  of  the  Moravian  mis- 
sionaries, with  whom  Wesley  had  come  in 
contact,  had  wrought  deeply  on  his  feelings, 
and  given  them  some  influence  over  his  future 
course.  On  his  return  to  England  in  1738, 
already  impressed  with  some  sense  of  his  own 
unworthiness,  and  his  failure  as  a  missionary, 
he  became  closely  connected  with  Peter 
Bohler,  a  man  of  talents  and  authority,  and 
a  Moravian.  With  Bohler  he  could  by  no 
means  justify  the  results  of  his  miasioiimry 
experience,  simply  on  the  ground  that  the 
Indiana  had  expressed  no  wish  for  converatoD. 
If  his  conscience  were  thus  easily  satiaBed, 
argued  Bohler,  he  was  yet  very  far  from 
Christian  perfection.  Thus,  indeed,  he  c«^ 
tainly  appears  to  have  learned  from  this  first 
experiment  on  his  own  powers  that  he  was 
not  yet  qualified  for  the  office  of  miariooaiy. 
He  was  thoroughly  convinced  that  he,  who 
would  have  converted  others,  was  not  yet 
converted  himself. 

So,  through  the  instructiMis  <rf  Bohler, 
Wesley  entered  upon  a  season  of  prajrer,  with 


250 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


all  the  ardor  of  his  enthusiastic  soul.  On  the 
evening  of  May  24,  1738,  as  one  of  the  mem- 
bers of  a  society  in  Aldersgate  street  was 
reading  in  his  presence  Luther's  "Preface  to 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,"  he  experienced 
such  a  change  of  religious  feeling,  that,  not- 
withstanding all  his  previous  zeal,  he  after- 
ward regarded  this  as  the  time  of  his  con- 
version. "About  a  quarter  before  nine," 
says  Wesley,  "while  he  was  describing  the 
change  which  God  works  in  the  heart  through 
faith  in  Christ,  I  felt  my  heart  strangely 
warmed;  I  felt  I  did  trust  in  Christ,  Christ 
alone,  for  salvation!  and  an  assurance  was 
given  me  that  He  had  taken  away  my  sins, 
even  mine,  and  saved  me  from  the  law  of  sin 
and  death."  However,  when  he  returned 
home,  he  had  still  some  more  struggles  with 
the  evil  one,  and  was  again  buffeted  by 
temptations;  but  he  was  now  triumphant 
through  earnest  prayer.  "And  herein,"  he 
adds,  "I  found  the  difference  between  this 
and  my  former  state  chiefly  to  consist.  I  was 
striving,  yea  fighting,  with  all  my  might 
under  the  law,  as  well  as  under  grace;  but 
then  I  was  sometimes,  if  not  often,  conquered ; 
now  I  am  always  conqueror."  This  is  justly 
considered  as  a  remarkable  day  in  the  history 
of  Methodism;  and  Wesley  himself  attached 
so  much  importance  to  the  change  that  had 
been  wrought  to  him,  that  he  did  not  scruple 
to  proclaim,  to  the  great  scandal  of  some  of 
his  unregenerate  friends,  that  he  had  never 
been  a  Christian  until  then.  /^ 

His  first  act  after  his  conversion  was  to 
set  out  in  1738  on  a  visit  to  the  celebrated 
Moravian  brotherhood,  established  under  the 
patronage  of  Cotmt  Zinzendorf,  at  Hermhut, 
in  Saxony.  There  he  employed  a  fortnight 
in  examining  the  doctrines  and  disciplines  of 
that  sect,  and  then  returned,  as  he  went,  on 
foot.  "I  would  gladly  have  spent  my  life 
there;  but  my  Master  calling  me  to  labor  in 
another  part  of  His  vineyard,  I  was  con- 
strained to  take  my  leave  of  this  happy  place." 
He  had  acquired  a  knowledge  of  their  system, 
and  was  thus  quidified  to  apply  to  his  own 
purposes  any  part  of  it  which  might  hereafter 
serve  them. 

Wesley  returned  from  his  visit  to  Germany 
burning  with  religious  enthusiasm,  and  pres- 
ently entered  into  the  path  which  Whitefield, 
his  friend  and  disciple,  had  opened  for  him. 
The  latter,  who  was  a  few  years  younger  than 
Wesley,  and  like  him  educated  at  Oxford, 
had  begun  a  short  time  before  to  address  the 


people  in  the  open  air  at  Kingswood  near 
Bristol.  Wesley,  after  some  httle  hesitation, 
followed  his  example,  and  commenced  his 
field  preaching  in  the  same  place.  Here  was 
the  first  indication  of  any  approach  to  a  sepa- 
ration from  the  church  of  England,  and  thas, 
in  fact,  were  laid  the  foundations  of  the  sect 
of  Methodists;  yet  such  was  not  the  design, 
perhaps,  of  either  of  its  founders  —  certainly 
not  of  Wesley. 

Wesley's  plan  was  to  awaken  the  spirit  of 
religion  slumbering  within  the  church;  to 
revive  the  dying  embers  of  vital  Christianity ; 
to  infuse  into  the  languid  system  new  hfe  and 
energy;  and  to  place  before  the  i)eople  the 
essentials  of  their  faith  and  to  rouse  their 
religious  instructions  to  a  proper  view  of  their 
profession  and  sense  of  duty.  It  was  rather 
an  order  than  a  sect  that  he  designed  to 
found  —  an  order  subsidiary  to  the  Enghsh 
church,  and  bearing  something  of  the  same 
relation  to  it  that  the  various  Cathohc  orders 
bore  to  the  church  of  Rome.  Its  purpose 
was  r^eneration,  and  not  a  change  in  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  principles  of  the  church  of 
England,  any  more  than  the  Franciscans  or 
the  Dominicans  contemplated  supplanting 
the  doctrines  of  Catholicism.  At  any  rate, 
it  was  certain  that  the  emulation,  which  he 
could  not  fail  to  rouse,  would  in  the  end  be 
serviceable  to  the  interests  of  true  religion; 
and  it  is  very  possible  that,  in  the  depth  of 
his  enthusiasm,  he  held  every  other  consider- 
ation entirely  subordinate  to  this. 

The  first  effects  of  his  pubhc  preaching 
have  not  been  surpassed  by  anything  that  we 
read  in  the  history  of  religious  zeal.  On  one 
occasion,  we  are  told,  when  he  was  portraying 
with  unusual  vehemence  the  doctrine  of 
vmiversal  redemption,  "  immediately  one,  and 
another,  and  another,  sank  to  the  earth; 
they  dropped  down  on  every  side  as  though 
thunderstruck."  Sometimes,  after  he  began 
to  preach,  many  of  his  beUevers  fell  into 
violent  convulsions,  and  lay  struggling  around 
him.  At  other  times  his  voice  was  lost 
amidst  the  groans  and  cries  of  his  distracted 
hearers.  Wesley  encouraged  the  storm  which 
he  had  raised;  he  shared  the  "holy  enthu- 
siasm "  which  he  imparted ;  and  in  every  new 
manifestation  he  saw  nothing  but  the  hand 
of  God  confirming  by  miraculous  interposi- 
tion the  holiness  of  his  mission. 

At  a  very  early  period  he  divided  his 
followers  at  Bristol  into  male  and  female 
bands  for  the  purposes  of  mutual  confession 


IN  RELIGION 


351 


and  prayer.  The  establishment  of  love  feasts 
was  equally  early.  Presently,  Friday  was  set 
apart  by  him  for  prayer  and  fasting,  and  a 
house  was  erected  for  the  meeting  of  his 
disciples.  Things  were  already  advancing 
toward  schism.  The  directors  of  the  estab- 
lished church  discouraged  the  extravagance 
of  the  teacher,  and  pitied  the  madness  of  the 
people.  Many  clergymen  refused  their  pul- 
pits to  men  who  might  turn  them  to  strange 
purposes.  This  gave  a  pretext  to  Wesley 
for  seeking  means  of  instructing  the  people 
independent  of  the  church. 

In  the  meantime,  he  discovered  that  there 
were  differences  between  himself  and  those 
with  whom  he  had  hitherto  been  most  closely 
connected  —  the  Moravians,  and  Whitefield 
and  his  followers.  These  differences  were  the 
more  difficult  to  reconcile  because  they  con- 
cerned points  of  doctrine.  Wesley  differed 
widely  from  the  Moravians  on  the  doctrine  of 
Christian  perfection  and  the  means  of  grace. 
Count  Zinzendorf  visited  England  in  person 
and  a  number  of  conferences  with  Wesley 
ensued.  No  concessions  seemed  possible  on 
either  side,  and  the  controversy  ended  in  an 
entire  and  final  breach  between  Wesley  and 
the  Moravians. 

The  dispute  with  Whitefield,  occasioned  by 
the  predestinarian  doctrines  now  nakedly 
advanced  by  him,  was  conducted  with  con- 
siderable bitterness,  and  came  to  a  similar 
termination.  The  separation  from  White- 
field,  however,  was  not  so  complete  as  to 
preclude  a  temporary  reconciliation,  which 
was  effected  some  years  afterward ;  but  the 
difference  was  clearly  proved  to  be  real  and 
irreconcilable;  and  the  permanent  division 
of  Methodism  may,  in  fact,  be  dated  from 
the  year  1740. 

From  this  time  Wesley  became  the  sole 
head  and  inspiration  of  a  separate  religious 
body,  and  devoted  his  talents  to  giving  it 
organization  and  perpetuity.  Headquarters 
were  established  in  1740  in  a  building  called 
the  "Foundry,"  ne^T  Finsbury  square, London, 
and  there  for  many  years  was  the  see  of 
Methodism.  From  here  Wesley  swept  aside 
ecclesiastical  traditions,  rejected  apostolical 
succession,  ordained  with  his  own  hands 
presbyters  and  bishops,  and  made  his  disciples 
an  evangefistic  body.  In  his  work  of  evan- 
gelization which  he  then  carried  on  in  Eng- 
land, he  was  indefatigable.  "No  founder  of 
a  sect  or  order,  no  legislator,"  says  Southey, 
"ever  understood  the  art  of  preserving  his 


authority  more  perfectly  than  Wesley.  Bit 
restless  spirit  had  now  found  its  proper  sphere, 
where  it  might  move  uncontrolled  and  enjoy 
a  prospect  boundless  as  his  desire  of  doing 
good  —  the  ambition  which  poosened  him." 
It  was  inevitable  that  great  success  should 
follow  his  labors.  His  system  of  itinerant 
preaching,  and  the  fact  that  ho  required  no 
confession  of  faith  for  admission  into  the 
fellowship  of  his  church,  were  wise  innova- 
tions in  any  religious  body.  He  gave  his 
strength  to  working-class  neighborhoods; 
hence  the  mass  of  his  converts  were  coUien, 
miners,  foundrymen,  weavers,  spinners,  fidMr> 
men,  artisans,  yeomen,  and  day-laborers  in 
towns.  The  door  was  thus  opened  to  all 
mankind.  The  new  member  was  never  called 
upon  to  secede  from  the  body  to  which  he 
had  previously  belonged.  He  might  bear  the 
denomination  he  chose  among  the  visible 
members  of  Christ's  church,  so  long  as  he 
renounced  his  vices  and  his  pleasures,  and 
engaged  with  regenerate  heart  in  the  woric  of 
his  salvation. 

,.Atettai»a(tine  —  about  1742  —  Wesley  and 
his  disciples  attained  that  degree  of  impor- 
tance which  qualified  them  to  become  objects 
of  persecution.  On  two  or  three  occasions 
the  person  of  the  master  himself  was  in  some 
danger  from  popular  fury ;  and  it  may  perhaps 
have  been  preserved  by  his  singular  presence 
of  mind,  and  the  awe  which  he  knew  how  to 
inspire  in  his  fellow  creatures.  But  these 
violent  eruptions  of  indignation,  as  they  were 
founded  on  no  semblance  of  reason,  and 
opposed  by  the  civil  authorities,  were  partial 
and  of  short  duration;  and  their  influence, 
as  far  as  they  had  any,  was  probably  favor- 
able to  the  progress  of  Methodism.  Some 
calumnies  that  were  raised  against  Wesley 
from  more  resp>ectable  quarters,  touching  his 
tendency  to  papacy  and  his  disaffection  to  the 
reigning  dynasty,  arising  from  entire  mis- 
understanding or  pure  malevolence,  w«« 
immediately  repelled,  and  speedily  silenced 
and  forgotten. 

In  the  year  1744  Wesley  invited  his  brother 
Charles,  four  other  clergymen  who  cooperated 
with  him,  and  four  of  his  lay  preachers  to  ft 
conference.  This  was  the  origin  of  the  as- 
sembly or  council,  which  was  afterward  held 
annually,  and  became  the  governing  body 
for  the  r^ulation  of  the  general  affairs  of  the 
society.  Four  years  subsequently  a  school 
was  opened  at  Kingswood  for  the  education 
chiefly  of  the  sons  of  the  preachers.    In  the 


262 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


extreme  severity  of  some  of  the  rules  which 
he  imposed  on  this  establishment,  Wesley 
seems  to  have  been  guided  by  an  ambitious 
design  to  set  apart  his  own  people  from  the 
rest  of  the  community,  rather  than  by  the 
common  principles  of  education,  or  the  com- 
mon feeUngs  of  nature. 

From  London,  as  a  center,  Wesley  made 
long  and  frequent  journeys,  usually  on  horse- 
back, preaching  generally  twice  a  day  and 
often  four  times  on  Sunday.  His  journeys 
were  soon  extended  beyond  England  —  to 
Ireland  in  1749,  and  to  Scotland  in  1751. 
Ten  to  thirty  thousand  people  would  wait 


patiently  for  hours  to  hear  him ;    and  his  denomination. 

itineraries  were  triumphal  processions  fronaf^    Wesley  was  now  eighty-one  years  old,  and 


one  end  of  the  country  to  the  other.  During 
his  unparalleled  apostolate  he  traveled  two 
hundred  fifty  thousand  miles,  and  preached 
forty  thousand  sermons,     y 

In  1751  Wesley  married  a  widow  named 
Vazeille,  who  had  four  children,  and  possessed 
an  independent  fortune.  The  marriage  proved 
an  unhappy  one.  He  was  greatly  annoyed 
by  her  jealousy;  she  opened  his  letters,  re- 
vealed his  secrets,  and  deserted  him,  after 
proving  his  foulest  slanderer  and  bitterest 
enemy.  After  a  few  months  of  continued 
discord  and  vexation  a  separation  took  place, 
which  became  final  in  1771.  "I  have  not 
left  her ;  I  have  not  put  her  away ;  I  will  not 
recall  her,"  he  said.  The  same  calmness  of 
temper  and  perfect  self-possession,  which  so 
remarkably  distinguished  him  in  his  public 
proceedings,  seem  not  to  have  abandoned 
him  even  in  the  more  pressing  severity  of  his 
domestic  trials. 

In  1770,  under  Wesley's  direction,  the  con- 
ference adopted  resolutions  which  provoked 
the  indignation  of  his  orthodox  Calvinistic 
friends.  A  spectacular  controversy  then  fol- 
lowed between  him  and  two  of  the  most 
eminent  divines  of  his  time  —  Bishops  Living- 
ston and  Warburton  —  on  the  ultimate  salva- 
tion of  the  heathen.  In  this  controversy 
Wesley  maintained  that  "the  heathen  who 
had  never  heard  of  Christ  could  be  saved  if 
they  feared  God  and  worked  righteousness 
according  to  the  light  they  had."  He  be- 
lieved Marcus  AureUus  would  be  saved ;  and 
spoke  of  the  "execrable  wretches"  who 
wrangled  at  the  various  coxmcils. 
/In  1784,  when  it  seemed  desirable  to  create 
a  head  for  his  body  of  followers  in  America, 
who  should  be  invested  with  the  highest 
spiritual   authority,   Wesley  designated   Dr. 


Coke,  and  issued  to  him  letters  of  ordination 
He  announced  in  substance  that  regarding 
himself  providentially  called,  at  that  time,  to 
set  apart  some  persons  for  the  work  of  the 
ministry  in  America,  he,  therefore,  under  the 
protection  of  the  Almighty  God,  and  with  an 
eye  single  to  His  glory,  had  set  apart,  as  a 
superintendent,  by  the  imposition  of  his 
hands  and  prayer,  Thomas  Coke,  a  doctor  of 
civil  law,  and  a  presbyter  of  the  church  of 
England.  This  is  properly  considered  the 
second  important  epoch  in  Methodism,  and 
was  the  foundation  of  the  Episcopal  form  of 
government    which    after^^ard    marked    the 


/ 


he  lived  for  seven  years  longer  in  the  perfect 
enjoyment  of  his  health  and  exercise  of  his 
faculties  almost  to  the  very  end.  He  died 
March  2,  1791.  yHis  remains  lay  in  state  for 
several  days  iiiTiis  chapel  in  the  City  Road, 
where  they  were  also  buried.  He  left  no 
property  except  the  copyright  and  current 
editions  of  his  works,  which  he  bequeathed  for 
the  use  of  the  religious  body  he  had  created. 
The  whole  number  of  his  followers  at  the 
time  of  his  death  is  stated  at  about  one 
hundred  thirty-five  thousand,  of  whom  more 
than  fifty-seven  thousand  six  hundred  were 
Americans. 

In  personal  appearance,  Wesley  was  under 
average  height,  but,  according  to  Tyerman, 
was  "beautifully  proportioned,  without  an 
atom  of  superfluous  flesh,  yet  muscular  and 
strong,  with  a  forehead  clear  and  smooth,  a 
bright,  penetrating  eye,  and  a  lovely  face 
which  retained  the  freshness  of  its  complexion 
to  the  latest  period  of  his  life."  His  style  in 
the  pulpit  was  fluent,  clear,  and  argumenta- 
tive, not  impassioned  like  Whitefield's.  His 
natural  ardor  and  eagerness  were  moderated 
by  great  sagacity  and  calmness  of  judgment; 
and  it  was  through  these  qualities  that  he 
exercised  a  very  imperial  domination  over  the 
preachers  of  the  Methodist  body.  He  pos- 
sessed agreeable  manners,  a  conciliating  and 
forgiving  temper,  and  a  spirit  of  marked 
benevolence. 

The  entire  income  from  his  literary  work  — 
amounting  to  thirty  thousand  pounds  —  he 
distributed  in  charity  during  his  Ufe.  In 
addition  to  the  school  already  noticed,  he 
founded  an  orphan's  home  at  Newcastle, 
charity  schools  in  London,  and  a  dispensary 
in  Bristol.  Yet  he  managed  to  do  a  pro- 
digious    amount     of     hterary    work.      His 


IN  RELIGION 


writings  are  chiefly  polemical  and  religious. 
He  wrote  short  English,  French,  Latin,  Greek, 
and  Hebrew  grammars;  a  compendium  of 
logic;  extracts  from  Phaedrus,  Ovid,  Vergil, 
Horace,  Juvenal,  Persius,  Martial,  and  Sallust ; 
an  English  dictionary ;  commentaries  on  the 
old  and  new  testaments ;  a  short  Roman  his- 
tory;  a  history  of  England ;  an  ecclesiastical 
history ;  a  compendium  of  social  philosophy ; 
and  a  Christian  library  of  fifty  volumes, 
for  the  benefit  of  his  itinerant  preachers. 
He  edited  the  "Imitation  of  Christ,"  and 
the  principal  works  of  Bunyan,  Baxter, 
Edwards,  Rutherford,  Law,  Madame  Guyon, 
and  others;  endless  abridged  biographies; 
an  abridged  edition  of  Brooke's  novel,  The 
Fool  of  Quality ;  a  compendium  of  physic  — 
not  to  speak  of  collections  of  psalms,  hymns, 
and  tunes,  his  own  sermons  and  journals,  and 
a  monthly  magazine. 

Wesley  lived  to  fix  and  consolidate,  by  the 
calmer  deliberation  of  his  later  years,  the 
effects,  which  might  otherwise  have  been 
transient,  of  his  early  enthusiasm.  It  required 
many  talents,  as  well  as  many  virtues,  to 
accomplish  this  — •  and  Wesley  was  abun- 
dantly endowed  with  both. 

His  own  labors  and  those  whom  he  inspired 
to  imitate  his  example  were  of  the  noblest 
description  and  met  with  remarkable  success. 
The  reformation  of  life  which  his  preaching 
produced,  for  example  among  the  Kingswood 
colliers  and  the  Cornwall  wreckers,  is  a  testi- 
mony to  the  power  of  religion  which  cannot 
be  too  highly  estimated.  The  subsequent 
zeal,  indeed,  which  has  since  characterized 
the  body  which  he  founded  as  to  its  mission 
in  the  world  is  only  the  logical  development 
of  its  first  leaders  —  for  they  originally 
regarded  their  society  in  England  as  simply 
"one  vast  mission."  Neither  Wesley  nor  his 
followers,  it  seems,  at  first  desired  to  consider 
themselves  a  "sect,"  or  new  church,  in  the 
common  usage  of  the  term,  but  were  warmly 
attached  to  the  old  national  church,  and 
considered  themselves  among  her  true  chil- 
dren. 
^  When  Wesley  died,  his  "  societies "  had 
spread  over  the  United  Kingdom,  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe,  the  states  of  America,  and 
the  West  Indies,  but  were  somewhat  lacking  in 
unity.  Since  then  they  have  so  increased,  in 
something  over  a  century  since  his  death, 
that  the  living  disciples  of  this  great  reformer 
and  evangelist  form  a  body  of  twenty  mil- 
lions throughout  the  English-speaking  world. 


Wesley  defined  the  doctrine*  of  his  denomi- 
nation in  the  tract  entitled  A  Plain  Account 
of  the  People  called  MethodiaU.  The  point* 
chiefly  insisted  upon  were  four:  First,  that 
orthodoxy,  or  right  of  opinions,  is  At  latii 
but  a  very  slender  part  of  religion,  if  it  can  bo 
allowed  to  be  any  part  of  it  at  all;  that 
neither  does  religion  consist  of  negatitei,  in 
bare  harmlessncss  of  any  kind,  nor  tatnfy  in 
externals,  in  doing  good,  or  using  the  w»*^«** 
of  grace,  in  works  of  piety  (so-odled)  or  of 
charity;  that  it  is  nothing  short  of  or  dif- 
ferent from  the  "mind  that  was  Christ,"  the 
image  of  God  stamped  upon  the  heart, 
inward  righteousness  attended  with  the  peace 
of  God,  and  "joy  in  the  Holy  Ghost." 
Second,  that  the  only  way  under  heaven  to 
this  religion  is  to  "repent  and  believe  the 
gospel "  —  or,  as  the  apostle  words  it, "  repent- 
ance toward  God,  and  faith  in  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ."  Third,  that  by  this  faith 
"he  that  worketh  not,  but  believeth  on  Hun 
that  justifieth  the  ungodly,  is  justified  freely 
by  His  grace,  through  the  redemption  which 
is  in  Jesus  Christ."  And,  lastly,  that  "being 
justified  by  faith  "  we  taste  of  the  heaven  to 
which  we  are  going ;  we  are  holy  and  happy ; 
we  tread  down  sin  and  fear,  and  "sit  in 
heavenly  places  with  Christ  Jesus." 

Probably  no  man  ever  exerted  so  great  an 
influence  on  the  religious  condition  of  the  peo- 
ple of  England  as  Wesley,  and  his  influence 
has  extended  to  the  remotest  parts  of  the  world. 
"  No  single  figure  influenced  so  many  minds, 
no  single  voice  touched  so  many  hearts." 

"  The  Christ  of  the  Cross  and  of  the  Throne," 
said  Dr.  John  Clifford  on  the  occasion  of  the 
Wesley  centenary,  "has  received  gifts  of  meo 
for  men,  some  apostles  and  prophets,  and 
some  pastors  and  evangelists.  And  of  thoae 
men  He  has  in  His  grace  bestowed  in  then 
later  centuries,  John  Wesley  holds  a  place  at 
primary  as  it  is  arresting,  and  as  unchallenged 
as  it  is  immeasurably  and  prophetically 
fruitful.  He  is  the  chief  prophet  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  prophetism  of  the 
new  testament  in  all  its  sublime  qualities 
and  successes  reaches  its  maximum  in  him, 
and  places  him  at  the  spring  head  of  the 
spiritual  life  of  our  modem  England.  •  ♦  ♦ 
No  man  with  an  eye  for  spiritual  facts  can 
look  into  Wesley's  history  without  seeing 
God ;  and  he  who  looks  continuously  is  likely 
to  feel,  as  Newton  did  after  looking  at  the 
sun,  that  the  image  of  God  is  so  burned  into 
his  soul  that  he  can  see  nothing  else." 


SOCRATES 

First  Socrates, 
Who  firmly  good  in  a  corrupted  state, 
Against  the  rage  of  tyrants  single  stood, 
Invincible!   calm  reason's  holy  law. 
That  voice  of  God  within  th'  attentive  mind. 
Obeying,  fearless,  or  in  life,  or  death : 
Great  moral  teacher!   wisest  of  mankind  I 

—  Thomson. 


COCRATES,  celebrated  Greek  philosopher, 
^  and  founder  of  moral  philosophy,  was  born 
at  or  near  Athens,  Greece,  about  470  B.  C. 
Some  writers  definitely  assign  the  year  469; 
others,  dates  ranging  from  469  to  471.  He 
was  the  son  of  Sophroniscus,  a  sculptor,  and 
himself  followed  this  artistic  profession  in  the 
early  part  of  his  life.  His  mother,  Phaenarete, 
was  a  midwife,  and  he  frequently  compared 
his  method  of  teaching,  in  after  years,  to  her 
vocation. 

The  period  over  which  the  lifetime  of 
Socrates  extended  was  the  most  brilliant  in 
Athenian  history.  He  saw  Athens  at  its 
zenith,  and  he  Uved  to  see  its  fall.  A  few 
years  before  his  birth  the  great  Persian  war 
had  come  to  an  end.  Sparta  had  renounced 
the  headship  of  the  Greek  states  in  favor  of 
Athens;  and  Pericles  began  to  take  part  in 
public  affairs  the  same  year  that  Socrates 
was  born.  iEschylus  was  still  living.  Sopho- 
cles won  his  first  prize  in  468,  and  Euripides 
began  to  exhibit  in  455.  The  genius  of 
Phidias  and  Polygnotus  created  and  adorned 
the  Parthenon;  and  Athens  was  made  the 
most  splendid  of  Greek  cities.  Orators  and 
rhetoricians  were  attracted  to  its  streets  and 
groves,  and  under  the  name  of  sophists  won 
an  important  place  in  its  intellectual  history. 

Few  events  of  Socrates'  life  are  recorded 
with  much  definiteness.  He  had  the  usual 
education  of  the  Athenian  citizen,  which 
included  readings  from  the  Greek  poets,  and 
the  elements  of  the  sciences  then  known. 
To  the  study  of  physics  he  gave  special 
attention,  but,  finding  no  satisfaction  in  the 
current  speculations  and  guesses  in  that  field, 
he  abandoned  it,  and  turned  his  attention 


exclusively  to  the  study  of  man  and  morals. 
The  most  important  influence  on  his  mental 
development  was  his  intercourse  with  the 
sophists  who  frequented  Athens.  Among 
these  was  Archelaus  —  a  disciple  of  Anax- 
agoras ;  Parmenides,  and  "  the  double-tongued 
and  all-objecting  Zeno." 

Before  he  began  the  serious  business  of  his 
life  —  teaching  —  Socrates  had  led  an  active 
life  among  his  fellow  citizens.  He  distin- 
guished himself  as  a  soldier  at  the  battles  of 
Potidaea,  Delium,  and  AmphipoHs.  His  con- 
stitution was  singularly  robust,  and  enabled 
him  to  surpass  all  his  comrades  in  the  endur- 
ance of  toil,  hunger,  thirst,  and  hardships  of 
war  and  weather.  He  went  barefoot,  and 
wore  the  same  light  clothing  all  the  year 
round.  His  courage  was  not  confined  to  the 
battle  field.  He  stood  equally  fearless  and 
unmoved  before  a  tyrant  and  in  the  face  of 
a  mob.  Nothing  could  terrify  him  into  doing 
what  he  deemed  to  be  unjust. 

Somewhere  about  the  middle  period  of  his 
life  he  relinquished  his  profession  as  a  sculp- 
tor, and  ga\e  himself  up  to  the  career  that 
made  him  famous.  It  is  evident  that  he 
married,  unhappily  for  himself,  about  this 
time.  His  wife  —  Xanthippe  —  who  has 
passed  into  history  as  the  typical  scold  — 
bore  him  three  sons,  one  of  whom  was  a  mere 
lad  at  the  time  of  his  father's  death.  Socrates 
himself  is  reported  to  have  said  that,  knowing 
her  violent  temper,  he  married  and  endured 
her  chiefly  for  self-discipline. 

Unlike  other  philosophers,  Socrates  did  not 
travel  in  pursuit  of  knowledge;  he  did  not 
write;  he  had  no  school;  he  neither  asked 
nor  would  receive  pay  for  his  instructions. 


fc  > 

^    > 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


m 


In  the  spirit  of  a  prophet  or  an  apostle  he 
girt  himself  to  work  with  an  immovable  con- 
viction that  he  was  divinely  called  to  it. 
His  habit  was  to  go  about  the  streets  of 
Athens  and  talk  with  any  one  who  came  in 
his  way,  young  or  old,  rich  or  poor.  In 
outward  aspect  he  presented  a  strange  con- 
trast to  the  professional  and  paid  teachers  of 
the  day,  the  sophists.  These,  wealthy  and 
well  dressed,  and  accompanied  by  flocks  of 
admiring  disciples ;  he,  poor,  and  poorly  clad, 
ugly  to  a  ridiculous  degree,  and  conversing 
with  men  of  all  classes  on  any  subject  familiar 
to  them,  or  that  afifected  human  life  —  jus- 
tice, courage,  temperance,  and  all  the  duties 
and  relations  of  a  citizen.  He  was  likened 
to  the  popular  figures  of  Silenus,  which,  out- 
wardly ugly,  held  within  them  images  of  the 
gods. 

His  reputation  grew,  and  people  came  from 
distant  Grecian  cities  to  hear  him  talk.  In 
the  story  of  his  own  life,  which  he  told  at  the 
close  of  it,  he  says  that  one  of  his  friends, 
Chaerephon,  put  the  question  to  the  oracle 
at  Delphi,  whether  any  other  man  was  wiser 
than  Socrates?  The  answer  given  was  that 
there  was  none  wiser.  Not  being  conscious 
of  the  possession  of  wisdom,  Socrates  was 
perplexed,  imtil  at  last,  after  testing  the  sup- 
posed knowledge  of  many  distinguished  men, 
he  interpreted  the  reply  of  the  oracle  as 
meaning  that  whereas  other  men  thought  they 
knew,  he  was  one  of  the  few  conscious  of  their 
own  ignorance.  From  this  time  he  gave  him- 
self up  more  sedulously  to  the  work  of  con- 
vincing men  by  cross-examination  as  to  the 
vagueness  of  their  knowledge  on  those  things 
which  it  was  most  important  for  them  to 
know,  the  things  relating  not  to  each  man's 
special  trade  or  profession,  but  to  that  which 
was  common  to  all  —  the  conduct  of  life. 

Beginning  with  familiar  conversation  on 
any  matter  of  passing  interest,  he  led  his 
companion  to  an  attempt  at  defining  the 
subject  which  he  wished  him  to  examine,  as 
justice,  courage,^  or  temperance;  he  then 
asked  questions  to  test  his  answer,  and  so 
brought  him  to  see  that  his  definition  was 
imperfect,  including  some  things  that  had 
nothing  to  do  with  the  matter,  excluding 
others  that  were  essential;  a  second  and 
third  attempt  was  then  made,  to  be  followed 
up  in  a  like  manner.  Aristotle  remarks  that 
Socrates  was  the  first  thinker  who  paid  atten- 
tion to  accurate  definitions.  The  process 
stimulated  thought  in  many  ways;   and  by 


his  friend  and  disciple,  Plato,  it  was  applied 
to  every  subject  of  intellectual  reeearch. 
But  Socrates  discouraged  speculation  upon  all 
subjects  that  had  not  a  direct  and  pracUcal 
bearing  upon  man's  action  and  duty. 

He  was  especially  fond  of  the  young,  aad 
was  successful  to  an  extraordinary  degree  in 
winning  their  hearts.  His  aim  was  always  to 
lead  them  in  a  path  equally  remote  from  a 
despairing  scepticism  like  that  of  the  sophista, 
and  from  a  groveling  superstition  such  as  was 
spreading  among  the  people.  It  is  not  easily 
apprehended  what  a  rapture  of  admiration, 
reverence,  and  love  was  called  forth  by  this 
Silenus,  shrining  a  divinity.  Strong  men  in 
middle  age,  as  well  as  the  young,  yielded 
to  the  witchery  of  his  voice,  and  bowed, 
often  weeping,  before  this  searcher  of  their 
hearts. 

He  believed  himself  to  be  under  the  guid- 
ance of  an  inner  voice  which  habitually  re- 
strained him  from  this  or  that  course  of  action 
in  which  he  would  otherwise  have  engaged. 
It  forbade  him,  for  instance,  to  enter  into 
the  ordinary  contests  of  political  life.  Again, 
when  he  was  put  upon  his  trial,  the  voice 
dissuaded  him  from  preparing  any  elaborate 
defense.  He  spoke  of  this  habitually  in 
famihar  conversation ;  and  it  lent  color  after- 
ward to  the  accusations  of  his  enemies  that 
he  was  making  innovations  in  the  established 
religion.  He  was,  nevertheless,  scrupulously 
careful  in  conforming  to  all  recognized  rites 
and  ceremonies,  and  in  exhorting  men  to 
reverence  the  gods. 

It  is  not  clear  what  was  the  exact  position 
of  Socrates  as  to  the  religion  of  the  state. 
That  he  believed  in  one  supreme  God,  Creator 
and  Ruler  of  the  universe,  is  clear.  That 
when  he  touched  the  tales  of  mythology  he 
did  so  with  delicate  latent  laughter  and  con- 
tempt is  also  clear.  But  no  record  is  made 
of  any  distinct  avowal,  either  of  belief  or 
disbelief,  in  the  gods  recognized  by  the  state. 
The  charge  of  introducing  new  divinities  is 
believed  to  refer  to  his  constant  assertion  of 
an  inward  voice  which  he  recognized  as  a 
divine  guide,  which,  however,  never  incited 
to  action,  but  only  warned  and  restrained. 
This  inward  voice  was  afterward  spoken  of 
as  the  daemon  of  Socrates,  and  has  been  the 
theme  of  endless  discussions. 

He  appears  to  have  held  no  public  office 
until  his  sixty-third  year.  In  that  year  he 
took  his  place  as  one  of  the  fifty  senators 
taken  by  lot  from  the  tribe  Antiochus.    It  so 


268 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


happened  that  the  senators  of  this  tribe  had  \ 
the  task  of  presiding  over  the  popular  as-' 
sembly  on  a  very  important  occasion.     Cer-| 
tain  generals,  who  had  gained  a  great  naval  I 
victory  over  the  Spartans  at  Arginusae,  were] 
accused  of  having  neglected  to  rescue  the 
drowning  soldiers  on  their  own  side.     Great 
popular  excitement  arose ;  a  proposition  was 
made  to  the  assembly  to  set  aside  the  regular 
formalities  prescribing  that  each  accused  per- 
son should  be  separately  tried  before  sworn 
jurors,  and  to  leave  it  to  a  vote  of  the  people 
there  assembled  whether  these  generals  should 
be  condemned  to  death.     It  was  for  the  pre- 
siding senators  to  put  this  question  to  the 
vote.    Socrates,    undeterred    by    threats    of 
sharing  their  fate,  stood  alone  in  refusing  to 
be  a  party  to  the  illegality,  and  the  vote  was 
carried  under  his  solemn  protest.     Not  less 
courageous  was  his  conduct  when  the  oli- 
garchy known    as    the    thirty  tyrants   had 
estabhshed  themselves  in  Athens, 

It  was  impossible  that  such  a  man  should 
escape  the  usual  lot  of  prophets  and  reformers. 
Socrates  made  enemies  of  many  men  whom 
he  humihated  by  his  remorseless  criticism,  or 
by  his  public  denunciation  of  their  vices; 
others  disliked  and  dreaded  him,  on  account 
of  his  seemingly  ambiguous  position  toward 
the  government  and  religion  of  his  country. 

The  men  whom  he  sought  out  for  cross- 
examination,  he  tells  us  himself,  were  the 
most  famous  artists,  poets,  orators,  and 
statesmen  —  those  at  once  most  sensitive  to 
the  humiliation  of  his  intellectual  surgery, 
and  most  capable  of  making  their  enmity 
effective.  We  must  recollect,  too,  that  in 
the  old  age  of  Socrates,  the  Athenians  were 
suffering  the  degradation  of  the  tyranny 
which  resulted  from  their  defeat  in  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  war,  and  that  at  the  time  of  his 
accusation,  as  they  were  exulting  in  deUver- 
ance  from  the  yoke  of  their  tyrants  and  in 
return  to  their  ancient  institutions,  they  were 
all  the  more  disposed  to  have  their  suspicions 
roused  by  an  accusation  of  leadership  in  an 
enterprise  which  threatened  intellectual  as 
well  as  religious  revolution. 

As  early  as  423  B.  C.  a  formidable  assault 
was  made  by  Aristophanes  in  one  of  his 
masterpieces,  Tfie  Clouds.  Aristophanes  was 
a  man  of  an  earnest  conservative  temper 
in  poUtics  and  religion,  and  in  this  play  he 
held  up  Socrates  to  ridicule  as  the  arch- 
sophist,  and  the  ringleader  of  Athenian 
freethinkers.     The    great    teacher    was    pre- 


sented on  the  stage  and  made  not  only 
ridiculous,  but  odious  as  a  corrupter  of 
religion  and  morals.  The  blow  told.  The 
satirist  gave  definite  form  and  utterance  to 
hostile  feeling  already  existing,  and  even 
suggested  the  course  ultimately  taken. 

Socrates,  however,  was  allowed  for  twenty 
years  longer  to  pursue  his  course  unmolested 
by  the  government.  When  the  Peloponnesian 
war  came  to  an  end,  and  the  thirty  tyrants 
were  masters  of  Athens,  Critias,  his  old  pupil, 
being  one  of  them,  Socrates  was  subjected  to 
some  persecution ;  and,  on  the  reestablishment 
of  the  democratic  government,  a  formal  prose- 
cution was  instituted.  The  leader  in  the 
cause  was  one  Anytus,  a  wealthy  trader  and 
an  influential  pohtician.  With  him  were 
associated  Meletus,  a  poet,  and  Lycon,  an 
orator.  The  charges  brought  against  Soc- 
rates, now  an  old  man  of  seventy,  were  sub- 
stantially the  same  as  those  put  fon^ard  by 
Aristophanes  in  The  Clouds:  that  he  did 
not  believe  in  the  gods  which  the  state  be- 
lieved in,  that  he  introduced  new  gods,  and 
that  he  corrupted  the  youth  by  his  teaching. 
Death  was  proposed  as  the  penalty. 

Socrates  declined  to  make  use  of  a  speech 
composed  for  him  by  the  orator,  Lysias; 
and  he  avoided  making  in  his  own  speech 
the  customary  appeals  to  the  passions.  He 
spoke  with  the  confidence  inspired  by  a  good 
conscience,  and  at  the  same  time  with  a 
consciousness  that  his  condemnation  was  a 
foregone  conclusion.  The  spirit  and  sub- 
stance of  his  defense  is  probably  presented 
to  us  in  the  piece  known  as  the  Apology  of 
Socrates,  attributed  to  Plato.  Socrates  was 
condemned,  but  only  by  a  small  majority  of 
his  judges.  In  his  speech,  after  sentence,  in 
mitigation  of  the  penalty,  he  repeated  his 
avowal  of  ignorance  of  matters  which  were 
to  others  themes  of  confident  boasting  and 
dogmatism.  He  told  the  judges  that  to  die 
was  a  pleasure,  because  he  was  going  to  hold 
converse  with  the  gods.  He  claimed  as  his 
due  from  the  state  honor  rather  than  punish- 
ment. Such  a  bold,  frank  defense  proved  so 
offensive  to  the  court  that  it  not  only  re- 
mained inexorable,  but  decreed  death  by  a 
still  larger  majority.  Fidelity  and  firmness 
in  the  martyr  are  always  in  the  eyes  of  the 
persecutor  pride,  obstinacy,  and  wilfulness, 
and  make  his  offense  the  greater.  Socrates 
was  sent  back  to  the  prison  to  await  the  end. 
He  was  to  drink  the  cup  of  hemlock.  This 
would,  in  the  usual  course,  have  followed  on 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


the  day  after  the  sentence;  but  the  sacred 
vessel  which  carried  the  annual  Athenian 
offering  to  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delos  had 
just  set  sail,  and  during  its  absence  no  execu- 
tion could  take  place.  For  thirty  days  the 
life  of  the  teacher  was  prolonged,  and  during 
this  time  his  friends  had  free  access  to  him. 
Means  of  escape  were  offered  by  some  of 
them,  but  he  declined  to  avail  himself  of  the 
offer.  Death  had  no  terrors  for  him,  and 
he  conversed  with  his  friends  to  the  last  with 
unaffected  serenity  and  the  cheerfulness  of 
faith  and  hope.  On  the  last  day  Socrates  set 
before  his  friends  the  ground  of  his  belief  in 
the  immortality  of  the  soul. 

The  conversation  is  preserved  for  us,  with 
other  details  of  the  closing  scene  in  the  dia- 
logue of  Plato,  named  after  PhjEdo,  the 
beloved  disciple  of  the  master.  The  sunset 
on  the  fatal  evening,  as  the  executioner  pre- 
sented the  cup  to  the  firm  hand,  directed  by 
the  unyielding  countenance;  the  silence 
broken  by  his  parting  words  as  life  ebbed 
away  and  the  darkness  gathered  over  his 
eyes ;  the  illustrious  form  recognized  as  lifeless 
by  the  sorrowing  attendants  —  these  are 
familiar  pictures  to  the  readers  of  the  Phoedo. 
The  sublime  pathetic  story  has  moved  readers 
to  tears  generation  after  generation.  The 
wonder  and  beauty  of  it  will  shine  through 
the  poorest  version ;  and  the  mysteries  of  life 
and  death  catch  some  gleams  from  its  glory. 

Socrates  was  no  sooner  in  his  grave  —  399 
B.  C. —  than  the  Athenian  democracy  re- 
pented of  their  sacrifice,  and  his  accusers 
suffered  from  the  power  they  had  invoked. 
His  martyr  death  put  the  seal  to  his  philoso- 
phy, and  inaugurated  the  most  splendid  period 
of  intellectual  greatness  which  the  world  has 
yet  seen  —  the  philosophical  age  of  Plato  and 
Aristotle.  The  schools  of  Athens  rose  over 
the  grave  of  Socrates,  and  for  more  than  a 
thousand  years  maintained  there  the  light 
which  his  Athenian  persecutors  only  made 
more  conspicuous  by  their  intolerance. 

Powerful  as  was  the  personal  influence  of 
Socrates  in  his  own  day,  this  sinks  into  insig- 
nificance when  compared  with  the  vast  results 
of  his  teaching  in  after  ages.  Through  his 
greatest  disciple,  Plato,  his  spirit  became 
identical  with  the  spirit  of  philosophy,  and 
the  great  schools  which  sprang  up  after  his 
death  were  the  offspring  of  his  teaching.  As 
already  stated,  Socrates  committed  nothing 
to  writing.  He  left  no  books;  but  the  dia- 
logues of  Plato  —  especially  the  Crito,  and 


Phcedo  —  mAy  be  regarded  as  the  substance 

of  his  philosophy.  Xenophon,  in  his  3/cmor- 
abilia,  has  also  contributed  liberally  to  our 
knowledge  of  the  man  and  his  teachings. 
His  work,  in  general,  in  its  influence  on  the 
subsequent  course  of  human  thought,  maj 
be  summed  up  under  three  heads:  subject, 
method,  and  doctrine. 

As  to  subject,  he  effected  a  signal  revolu- 
tion, which  may  be  metaphorically  expressed 
in  the  saying  of  Cicero,  that "  Socrates  brought 
down  philosophy  from  the  heavens  to  the 
earth."  The  previous  philosophies  consisted 
of  vast  and  vague  speculations  on  nature  as 
a  whole,  blending  together  cosmogony,  astron- 
omy, geometry,  physics,  metaphysics,  into  a 
very  imperfect  whole.  Socrates  had  studied 
this  system,  and  it  left  on  his  mind  a  feeling 
of  emptiness  and  unsuitability  for  any  prac- 
tical human  purpose.  He  could  not  go  to 
any  public  assemblage  without  hearing  ques- 
tions raised  respecting  the  just  and  the  un- 
just, the  honorable  and  the  base,  the  expe- 
dient and  the  hurtful.  He  found,  moreover, 
that  the  opposing  disputants  were,  without 
knowing  it,  very  confused  in  their  ideas  as  to 
the  meanings  of  those  large  words  in  which 
the  weightiest  interests  entered. 

Accordingly,  Socrates  was  the  first  to  pro- 
claim that  "the  proper  study  of  mankind  is 
man";  human  nature,  human  duties,  and 
human  happiness  made  up  a  field  of  really 
urgent  and  profitable  inquiry.  In  astronomy, 
he  saw  a  certain  utility  for  navigation,  and 
for  the  reckoning  of  time,  to  which  extent  he 
would  have  it  known  by  pilots  and  watchmen ; 
geometry  was  useful  in  its  literal  sense  of 
land  measuring ;  arithmetic  he  allowed  in  like 
manner  as  far  as  practically  useful;  but 
general  physics,  or  the  speculations  of  phi- 
losophers, from  Thales  downward,  as  to  the 
origin  of  all  things  out  of  water,  fire,  air,  and 
so  on,  he  wholly  repudiated. 

"Do  these  inquirers,"  he  asked,  "think  that 
they  ah-eady  know  human  affairs  well  enough, 
that  they  thus  begin  to  meddle  with  divine? 
Do  they  think  that  they  shall  be  able  to 
excite  or  calm  the  winds  at  pleasure,  or  have 
they  no  other  view  than  to  gratify  an  idle 
curiosity?"  He  considered  it  not  only  un- 
profitable but  impious  to  attempt  to  com- 
prehend that  department.  The  gods,  he 
thought,  managed  all  those  things  after  their 
own  fashion,  and  refused  to  submit  them  to 
invariable  laws  of  sequence,  such  as  men 
might  discover  by  dint  of  study;   the  only 


260 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


means  of  knowledge  permitted  was  religious 
sacrifice  and  prayer,  and  the  consultation  of 
the  oracles.  While  this  was  the  appointed 
way  in  reference  to  divine  things,  it  was 
equally  appointed  that  human  things  should 
be  learned  by  diligence  in  study  and  investi- 
gation. 

In  regard  to  method,  Socrates  was  the 
author  of  still  greater  innovations.  It  was 
to  little  purpose  that  men  applied  themselves 
to  human  affairs,  if  they  conceived  them 
loosely,  and  with  no  regard  to  evidence.  He 
introduced  at  least  one  element  of  logical 
precision  into  the  handhng  of  questions,  by 
insisting  on  accuracy  in  definition  and  classi- 
fication. His  mode  will  be  seen  in  the  state- 
ment of  Xenophon.  "Socrates  continued 
incessantly  discussing  human  affairs,  investi- 
gating—  What  is  piety?  What  is  impiety? 
What  is  the  honorable,  the  base?  What 
is  the  just,  the  unjust?  Men  that  knew 
these  matters,  he  accounted  good  and  honor- 
able; men  that  were  ignorant  of  them,  he 
assimulated  to  slaves." 

His  investigation  thus  took  the  form  of 
ascertaining  the  exact  meaning  —  that  is,  the 
definition  —  of  ■  the  leading  terms  in  ethics 
and  in  politics,  the  settling  of  what  John 
Stuart  Mill  calls  the  connotation  of  a  general 
word,  which  determines  how  to  apply  it 
rightly  to  each  individual  case.  The  very 
idea  of  defining  a  general  term,  now  so  ob- 
vious, never  seems  to  have  suggested  itself 
to  any  one  previous  to  Socrates.  His  man- 
ner of  seeking  out  those  definitions  is  also 
characteristic,  and  links  itself  to  his  con- 
versational method,  convicting  men  in 
general  of  ignorance  in  things  that  they 
thought  they  knew.  Professing  himself  to 
be  able  to  furnish  no  exact  definition  — 
which  professed  ignorance  was  called  the 
Socratic  irony  —  of  justice,  temperance,  cour- 
age, etc.,  and  finding  others  —  particularly 
the  so-called  sophists  —  quite  confident  in 
their  ability  to  supply  the  want,  he  asked 
some  one  to  state  his  definition;  and,  on  its 
being  given,  he  put  a  few  further  interroga- 
tions, as  he  said,  by  way  of  making  sure  that 
he  understood  the  meaning,  but  with  the 
speedy  effect  of  driving  the  respondent  into 
a  humiliating  self-contradiction. 

His  method  is  most  fully  exemplified  in 
certain  of  the  Platonic  dialogues,  as  the  first 
Aldbiades,  Laches,  Charmides,  or  Euthy' 
pkron.  According  to  Xenophon,  he  could 
pass  from  his  severe  cross-examining  method. 


with  its  humiliating  shock  of  convicted 
ignorance,  and  address  to  his  hearers  plain 
and  homely  precepts,  inculcating  self-control, 
temperance,  piety,  duty  to  parents,  brotherly 
love,  fidelity  in  friendship,  diligence,  and 
other  virtues  —  such  direct  admonitory  in- 
fluence being  common  to  him  with  the 
sophists.  He  probably  went  beyond  the  or- 
dinary teaching  of  the  sophists  in  exhorting 
men  "to  limit  their  external  wants,  to  be 
sparing  in  indulgence,  and  to  cultivate,  even 
in  preference  to  honors  and  advancement,  the 
pleasures  arising  from  a  performance  of  duty, 
as  well  as  from  self-examination  and  the 
consciousness  of  internal  improvement."  This 
strain  of  exhortation,  his  manner  of  life  in 
harmony  therewith,  and  the  virtual  self- 
immolation  of  his  death  may  be  considered 
as  the  foimdation  of  the  cynic  and  the  stoic 
philosophies. 

As  regards  doctrine,  Socrates  was  dis- 
tinguished chiefly  by  his  theory  of  virtue. 
Virtue,  he  said,  consisted  in  knowledge.  To 
do  right  was  the  only  road  to  happiness, 
and  as  every  man  sought  to  be  happy,  vice 
could  arise  only  from  ignorance  or  mistake  as 
to  the  means;  hence  the  proper  corrective 
was  an  enlarged  teaching  of  the  consequences 
of  actions. 

Any  fair  interpretation  of  knowledge,  how- 
ever, would  now  regard  this  as  a  one-sided 
view  of  human  conduct.  It  takes  note  of 
only  one  condition  of  virtue.  It  omits,  what 
is  also  essential,  the  state  of  the  emotions  or 
dispositions,  which  may  be  directed  either  to 
exclusively  self-regarding  ends,  or  to  ends 
involving  also  the  good  of  others.  There  is 
an  obvious  connection  between  the  doctrine 
and  the  Socratic  analogy  of  virtue  to  the  pro- 
fessions. The  virtue  of  an  artisan  is  almost 
exclusively  contained  in  his  skill  or  knowl- 
edge ;  his  dispositions  can  usually,  though  not 
always,  be  depended  on,  through  the  pressure 
of  his  immediate  self-interest.  But  the  prac- 
tice of  Socrates  was  larger  than  his  theory; 
for,  as  already  remarked,  his  exhortations 
were  addressed  to  men's  feelings  or  senti- 
ments as  well  as  to  their  intellect.  His 
political  doctrines  were  biased  by  the  same 
analogy  of  special  professions.  The  legiti- 
mate king  or  governor  was  he  alone  that  knew 
how  to  govern  well. 

The  philosophy  of  Socrates  is  often  epi- 
grammatically  stated  in  the  injunction: 
"Know  thyself";  but  in  his  teachings 
equally  stand  out  the  formulas:    "Virtue  is 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


261 


knowledge  " ;  "  Virtue  may  be  taught " ;  "  No 
one  wilfully  goes  wrong  " ;  "Virtue  results  in 
happiness." 

"There  can  be  no  doubt,"  says  the  his- 
torian Grote,  "that  the  individual  influence 
of  Socrates  permanently  enlarged  the  hori- 
zon, improved  the  method,  and  multi- 
plied the  ascendant  minds  of  the  Grecian 
speculative  world,  in  a  manner  never  since 
paralleled.      Subsequent    philosophers    may 


have  had  a  more  elaborate  doctriDe,  and  a 
larger  number  of  disciples  who  imbibed  thdr 
ideas;  but  none  of  them  applied  the  —m^i 
stimulating  method  with  the  same  efficacy; 
none  of  them  struck  out  of  other  minds  that 
fire  which  sets  light  to  original  thought ;  none 
of  them  either  produced  in  others  the  paina 
of  intellectual  pregnancy,  or  extracted  from 
others  the  fresh  and  unborrowed  ofTspring  of 
a  really  parturient  mind." 


B.  c. 
429 


409 

399 


395 


PLATO 

AGE  B.  C. 

Bom  at   Athens,  or   in   the   island    of  389 

iEgina,  Greece, 387 

Came  under  the  influence  of  Socrates,    .      20 

Went    to    Megara,    and    resided    with  367 

Euclid, 30  347 

Returned  to  Athens,  after  traveling  in 
Italy,  Cyrene,  and  Egypt, 34 


Visited  Sicily, 40 

Returned     to    Athena;     founded  the 

academy  at  Athens, 42 

Made  a  second  visit  to  Sicily,     ....  03 

Died  at  Athens, 82 


TDLATO,  or,  to  use  his  proper  name,  Aris- 
■*•  TOCLES,  was  one  of  the  greatest  philoso- 
phers of  all  time;  and  it  is  a  remarkable 
circumstance  that  of  the  man  Plato  and  of 
the  details  of  his  life  we  are  almost  wholly 
ignorant.  His  written  works  have  come  down 
to  us  in  singular  completeness,  and  surpris- 
ingly free  from  corruption  in  the  text;  but 
in  them  he  never  speaks  in  his  own  person, 
nor  is  any  biographical  information  about 
him  to  be  gathered  from  them.  He  hved  to 
a  great  age,  in  one  of  the  most  literary  cities 
of  the  ancient  world,  was  very  widely  known 
and  held  in  highest  honor,  and  for  all  that 
we  have  no  information  about  him  bearing  the 
stamp  of  contemporary  authority.  No  dates 
are  assignable  to  any  of  his  dialogues  with 
much  certainty,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to 
find  in  them  a  clue  to  the  growth  of  his  mind. 
The  philosopher  still  lives  in  his  works,  the 
man  has  vanished.  As  one  has  said,  "There 
is  no  personal  Plato," 

Many  interesting  particulars  of  Plato's  hfe, 
it  is  true,  are  ^iven  in  some  extant  letters 
attributed  to  him;  but  the  genuineness  of 
these  letters  has  been  much  disputed.  The 
difficulty  of  the  biographer  from  dearth  of 
facts  is  increased  by  the  abundance  of  ficti- 
tious stories  told  by  later  writers.  We 
therefore  give  briefly  the  usually  accepted 
theory  of  Plato's  life. 

He  was  born  at  Athens,  or  in  iEgina,  about 
429  B.  C,  the  year  in  which  Pericles  died. 
He  was  the  son  of  Ariston  and  Perictione, 


both  of  ancient  and  noble  family.  His  own 
name  was  Aristocles,  the  surname  "Plato" 
being  simply  applied  to  him  as  indicative  of 
his  broad  forehead  —  or,  as  some  say,  his 
broad  shoulders.  His  mother's  ancestors  were 
connected  with  the  family  of  Solon,  his 
father's  were  reputed  to  be  connected  with 
the  mythical  C!odrus.  He  was  a  nephew  of 
Critias,  one  of  the  thirty  tyrants  of  Athens, 
and  also  of  Charmides,  one  of  the  ten  oli- 
garchs. Of  robust  constitution  and  thoroughly 
trained  in  gymnastics,  he  could  take  part  in 
the  contests  at  the  Pythian  and  Isthmian 
games.  His  mind  was  no  less  carefully  cul- 
tivated. He  made  quick  progress  in  his 
studies,  dipped  into  the  current  philosophies, 
and  wrote  poems,  epic,  dramatic,  and  lyrical. 
These  he  afterward  burned.  Some  of  his 
epigrams,  however,  are  preserved. 

The  most  important  fact  in  his  life,  and  its 
dominating  force,  which  took  the  helm  and 
steered  him  to  the  end,  was  his  connection 
with  Socrates.  It  began  when  he  was  about 
twenty  years  of  age,  and  terminated  only 
with  the  death  of  his  master.  It  remains 
uncertain  whether,  as  usually  supposed,  he 
spent  the  ten  years,  from  409  to  399  B.  C, 
in  study  alone,  or  in  the  society  of  Socrates. 
It  seems  hardly  possible  that  in  such  a  crisia 
he  should  not  have  taken,  like  other  young 
Athenians,  his  share  in  military  service.  He 
was  deeply  interested  in  public  afifairs,  and 
was  no  stranger  to  political  ambition.  But 
his  truthful  and  pure  nature  shrank  from 


262 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


contact  with  the  corrupt  governments  with 
which  he  had  experience;  and  he  was  ulti- 
mately driven  by  the  prosecution  of  Socrates 
into  studious  seclusion.  After  attending  his 
beloved  master  during  his  trial  and  last  days, 
he  quitted  Athens,  resolved  to  keep  clear  of 
politics  and  to  give  himself  wholly  to  phi- 
losophy. 

He  retired  first  to  Megara  about  399  B.  C, 
then  visited  Cyrene  and  Egypt,  returning  to 
Athens  about  395  B.  C. ;  and  some  years  later 
he  visited  Italy  and  Sicily.  In  these  journeys 
he  met  with  the  Pythagorean  philosophers, 
whose  doctrines  powerfully  influenced  his 
mind.  He  visited  ^tna  about  389  B.  C, 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Dion,  and  was  intro- 
duced to  the  tyrant  Dionysius  the  Elder. 
Plato  is  said  to  have  offended  the  latter  by 
his  bold  speaking,  and  to  have  been  not  only 
sent  angrily  away,  but  even  sold  into  slavery. 
If  so,  he  was  soon  ransomed,  and  reached 
Athens  again  about  387  B.  C. 

He  now  settled  there,  and  began  his  chosen 
task  as  a  teacher  of  philosophy.  He  had  a 
small  house  and  a  garden  about  a  mile  from 
the  city  on  the  road  to  Eleusis.  It  adjoined 
the  "Academia,"  the  precinct  sacred  to  the 
hero  Academus ;  and  here  was  founded,  says 
Grote,  "the  earliest  of  those  schools  of  phi- 
losophy which  continued  for  centuries  forward 
to  guide  and  stimulate  the  speculative  minds 
of  Greece  and  Rome."  Pupils  were  attracted 
from  all  cities  and  parts  of  Greece.  The 
greatest  among  them  was  Aristotle.  Demos- 
thenes may  have  been  there.  The  great 
geometrician  and  astronomer,  Eudoxus,  was 
one  of  them.  Plato  adopted  in  his  teaching 
the  method  of  Socrates ;  and  like  Socrates  he 
taught  gratuitously,  receiving  remuneration 
only  when  offered  by  the  rich.  The  quiet 
seclusion  of  his  school  presented  a  striking 
contrast  to  the  publicity  which  Socrates 
sought. 

After  the  death  of  Dionysius  the  Elder, 
Plato,  at  the  instance  of  his  friend  Dion,  again 
went  to  Sicily,  about  367  B.  C,  with  a  view 
to  assist  the  younger  Dionysius  in  establishing 
a  better  government.  The  project  failed, 
Dion  was  banished,  and  Plato  returned  home. 
A  second  visit  hkewise  ended  in  failure. 
These  relations  with  the  tyrant  of  Sicily 
brought  down  severe  censure  on  the  philoso- 
pher; and  his  last  years  were  saddened  both- 
by  the  disappointment  of  his  high  hopes  and 
the  reproaches  of  his  enemies.  Plato  died 
about  348  or  347  B.  C.    The  school  which  he 


had  founded  and  presided  over  for  forty  years 
was  carried  on  in  the  same  place  until  the 
siege  of  Athens  by  Sulla,  87  B.  C,  when  it 
was  removed  within  the  city.  Cicero,  it  is 
recorded  on  good  authority,  visited  the  school 
and  the  academy. 

Plato  never  married,  had  no  child,  took  no 
part  in  political  affairs  or  in  social  gayeties. 
He  hved  the  hfe  of  thought,  and  liis  habitual 
seriousness  passed  into  the  proverbial  expres- 
sion — "  as  sad  as  Plato." 

Plato's  hfe  coincided  with  the  most  eventful 
period  of  Greek  history.  Not  long  before  his 
birth  the  Peloponnesian  war  had  begun, 
which,  after  confused  struggles  protracted 
through  a  quarter  of  a  century,  ended  with 
the  fall  of  Athens  in  404  B.  C.  The  tyranny 
of  the  thirty,  the  restoration  of  the  democracy, 
and  the  death  of  Socrates  followed  within  the 
next  few  years.  During  the  period  of  ten 
years  following  Plato's  death  the  most  mem- 
orable change  in  Greek  history  was  the  exten- 
sion of  the  Macedonian  power  under  Philip 
of  Macedon,  who,  in  338  B.  C,  became  master 
of  the  whole  of  Greece. 

Plato  survived  Socrates  about  fifty  years, 
and  all  his  works  were  composed  during  this 
period.  He  was  the  most  Socratic  of  all  the 
disciples  of  Socrates ;  and  his  reverence  for  his 
master  is  shown  by  the  place  assigned  to  him 
in  his  works.  These  are  all  in  the  form  of  dia- 
logues, of  which,  with  one  exception,  Socrates 
is  the  central  figure,  the  speaker  of  all  thought- 
out  conclusions.  Each  dialogue  is  an  inde- 
pendent work,  and  inconsistencies  are  to  be 
found  not  only  between  separate  dialogues,  but 
even  within  the  limits  of  a  single  one.  At- 
tempts have  been  made  to  classify  these  works, 
both  logically  and  chronologically,  but  without 
success.  In  range  of  speculation,  and  in  the 
harmonious  union  of  the  philosophic  with  the 
poetic  spirit,  the  works  of  Plato  stand  alone. 

First  of  all  come  those  short  dialogues  in 
which  Plato  does  not  go  beyond  what  the 
actual  Socrates  might  have  said.  The  most 
important  of  this  group  is  the  Protagoras. 
The  Apology,  or  "Defense  of  Socrates  on  his 
Trial,"  has  probably  more  historical  accuracy 
than  any  other  composition  of  Plato's  — 
since  he  tells  us  he  was  present  at  the  trial  — 
and  may  have  been  \vTitten  soon  after  Soc- 
rates' death.  The  Phcedo  —  the  last  conver- 
sations of  Socrates,  on  the  immortality  of  the 
soul  —  is  probably  of  later  date.  Some  mod- 
ern scholars  assign  the  great  metaphysical 
dialogues  —  Parmenides,  Theoetetiis,  Sophistes, 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


*J88 


Politicus  —  to  the  time,  between  399  and 
386  B.  C,  when  Plato  began  his  teaching  at 
the  academy.  Others,  with  more  probabiUty, 
consider  these  dialogues  and  the  Philehus  to 
belong  to  a  later  period  than  the  Republic. 
The  Phcedrus,  Symposium  ("Banquet"),  Gor- 
gias,  Republic,  and  Phcedo,  in  which  —  along 
with  the  ThecEtetus  —  Plato's  literary  skill  is 
at  its  very  highest,  may  perhaps  all  be 
assigned  to  the  period  of  his  life  after  forty, 
but  before  his  old  age.  The  works  that  give 
the  fullest  account  of  his  philosophical  and 
aocial  system  are  the  Republic,  the  Timceus, 
and  the  Laws. 

As  with  Socrates,  so  with  Plato  the  aim  is 
not  so  much  to  teach  particular  truths  as  to 
stimulate  inquiry  and  impart  a  method. 
Idlers  were  warned  away  from  the  severe 
intellectual  disciphne  of  the  academy  by  the 
inscription  over  its  entrance,  "Let  no  one 
enter  who  is  not  a  geometrician."  The 
severity  of  thought  in  Plato's  writings  is, 
however,  relieved  by  the  charm  of  inimitable 
style,  by  consummate  dramatic  art,  and  by 
the  play  of  fancy  and  imagination.  A  light, 
buoyant  humor,  irony,  sarcasm,  banter,  now 
broad  and  now  delicate,  picturesque  illustra- 
tion, and  occasionally  elaborate  and  gorgeous 
fable,  alternate  with  and  relieve  the  stern 
reasoning  processes. 

The  starting  point  of  Plato's  philosophy, 
as,  indeed,  it  must  be  of  all  philosophy,  prop- 
erly so  called,  is  the  theory  of  knowledge. 
This  is  set  forth  in  the  Theoetetus,  the  Sophistes, 
and  the  Parmenides;  and  in  the  Cratylus  the 
foundations  are  laid  for  a  science  of  language, 
as  the  necessary  product  of  a  creature  ener- 
gizing by  ideas.  The  Platonic  theory  of 
knowledge,  as  developed  in  the  Theatctus, 
embraces  one  of  the  most  constant  and 
notable  of  Plato's  doctrines  —  that  of  ideas. 
He  makes  no  formal  division  of  philosophical 
science,  but  evidently  regards  it  substantially 
under  the  threefold  division  of  logic  (or 
dialectics),  metaphysics,  and  ethics  or  politics. 
Dialectics  he  regarded  as  a  science  par  emi- 
nence, and  it  was  through  its  process  that  the 
mind,  according  to  his  reasoning,  reached  its 
conception  of  ideas. 

By  ideas  he  meant  the  essences,  or  eternal 
archetypes,  of  which  all  merely  outward, 
ever-changing  objects  are  but  copies  or  like- 
nesses, and  the  innate  notions  of  which  in 
our  minds  are  recollections  awakened  by 
means  of  perception  of  these  copies.  In 
other  words,  they  are  forms  or  types  of  things 


which  are  common  to  ail  individuab  of  a 
species,  aU  the  species  of  a  genun,  all  the 
genera  of  a  family,  and  all  the  families  of  a 
class,  generate  classification  —  that  is,  knowl- 
edge of  the  permanent  in  phenomena  —  and 
definition,  which  is  merely  the  articulate 
verbal  expression  of  this  permanency.  They 
pervade  the  world  of  sense,  yet  are  not  sen- 
sation, being,  as  it  were,  the  substance  of 
which  it  is  the  shadow,  giving  to  it  whatever 
of  partial  reality  it  possesses.  A  man  only 
knows  when  he  has  gotten  at  the  reasons  or 
causes  of  things,  when  he  sees  facts  not  in  an 
isolated  way,  but  connected  by  the  "chain  of 
causation";  he  must  be  dealing  with  what 
is  permanent  and  universal. 

According  to  Plato,  both  the  one  (the  per- 
manent) and  the  manifold  (the  changing) 
have  their  place  in  the  universe,  the  former 
in  the  world  of  ideas,  the  intelligible  world, 
with  which  science  deals,  the  latter  in  the 
world  of  sense,  with  which  mere  opinion 
is  content.  These  ideas  are  not  mere  con- 
cepts of  our  minds:  they  are,  in  Plato's 
phrase,  "the  most  real  existences." 

Every  general  term,  as  horse,  man,  table, 
denoting  a  group  of  objects,  had  in  Plato's 
philosophy  a  real  existence  corresponding  to 
it,  of  which  any  particular  horse,  man,  or 
table  was  but  an  imperfect  transitory  copy. 
Men  when  uneducated  were  Uke  dwellers  in  a 
cave  chained  with  their  backs  to  its  mouth. 
A  fire  behind  them  threw  shadows  of  passing 
objects  on  the  ground  before  them,  and  then 
shadows  they  took  for  the  realities  of  things. 
A  prisoner,  set  free  from  the  cave  and  taken 
to  the  daylight,  would  be  dazzled  and  blinded, 
and  it  would  be  long  before  he  got  to  know 
about  real  objects,  and  about  the  sun  which 
gave  them  light,  and  brought  the  changes  of 
the  seasons,  and  growth  and  life  in  the  world. 
If  such  a  man  went  down  again  into  the  cave 
he  would  be  again  blinded;  none  of  his 
fellow  prisoners  would  believe  his  visions,  and 
he  would  be  less  able  than  they  to  discourse 
eloquently  about  shadows.  Such  is  the  con- 
trast between  the  trained  mind  of  the  philoso- 
pher, cognizant  of  ideas,  and  the  untrained 
mind  of  the  multitude. 

The  ideas,  however,  are  not  themselvei 
all  of  equal  excellence;  but  supreme  above 
the  others  are  the  forms  of  the  true,  the  beau- 
tiful, and  the  good,  in  which  triad  again  the 
last  takes  the  highest  place,  and  becomes 
perhaps  identical  with  the  deity,  who  thus, 
under    the    Platonic    conception,  seems    to 


264 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


fluctuate  between  a  personal  being  and  the 
highest  and  noblest  of  the  ideas.  And  as  the 
ideas  are  the  only  object  of  true  science, 
and  preparation  to  commune  with  them, 
especially  with  the  good,  the  noblest  of  them 
all,  is  the  great  end  of  philosophical  striving, 
so  in  the  last  analysis  science  and  virtue 
coincide,  and  the  ideas  furnish  the  basis  not 
only  of  all  science,  but  of  piety  and  morahty. 
He  does  not  accept  the  Cyrenaic  view  that 
pleasure  is  the  good;  but  neither  does  he 
agree  with  the  cynics  that  all  pleasure  is  evil. 
Pleasures  are  good  or  bad,  high  or  low,  accord- 
ing to  the  part  of  the  soul  to  which  they 
belong. 

The  Republic,  starting  from  the  attempt  to 
prove  that  righteousness  is  preferable  to  up- 
rightness, whatever  pains  and  calamities  may 
go  with  the  first,  or  pleasure  with  the  second, 
depicts  an  ideal  government,  in  which  the 
governing  class,  corresponding  to  the  reason- 
ing faculty  in  man,  is  trained  and  educated 
for  the  work  in  the  most  perfect  way.  For 
this  class  the  institutions  of  private  property 
and  the  family  are  to  be  suppressed.  The 
children  are  to  be  children  of  the  state.  Both 
sexes  are  to  receive  the  same  gymnastic  and 
intellectual  training.  In  the  education  of 
their  intellect  the  great  object  is  to  set  them 
free  from  the  tyranny  of  sense  and  prepare 
them  for  the  perception  of  ideas. 

The  object  of  all  wise  polity,  therefore,  is 
that  philosophers  should  be  the  governing 
class  because  of  their  powers  to  estimate  at 
their  true  worth  the  shadowy  pursuits  and 
pleasures  of  the  multitude.  His  picture  of 
the  ideal  state  has  won  for  Plato  the  dis- 
tinction of  being  the  first  scientific  socialist, 
inasmuch  as  the  individual  and  the  family, 
marriage,  property,  and  all  are  to  be  sacrificed 
to  the  interests  of  the  state.  The  work  is 
pervaded  by  a  profoundly  religious  spirit. 

In  the  Timceus  a  description  is  given  of  the 
origin  of  the  universe  and  of  the  human  body. 
Plato  here  introduces  his  conception  of  the 
Demiurgus,  or  constructive  workman,  who, 
by  impressing  the  eternal  forms  or  ideas  upon 
preexistent  formless  matter,  produced  the 
second  order  of  gods,  the  stars  and  planets, 
by  whom  afterward  man  with  his  mixed 
nature,  compounded  of  earthly  and  divine, 
was  created.  It  was  this  treatise  that  con- 
vinced the  Alexandrine  Jews  and  Christians 
that  Plato  had  borrowed  his  leading  coneep)- 
tions  from  Moses. 

In  the  Laws,  Plato  portrays  a  common- 


wealth, not  purely  ideal  as  in  the  Republic, 
but  such  as  might  be  actually  realized  in  the 
Grecian  world.  He  supposes  it  to  be  a  colony 
founded  in  the  island  of  Crete,  and  composed 
of  settlers  representing  all  varieties  of  the 
Hellenic  race.  He  enters  into  minute  details 
of  legislation  and  of  education,  from  which 
we  gather  that  his  guiding  principle  was  to 
secure  stabihty  even  at  the  risk  of  tyranny. 
No  great  public  reform,  he  says,  can  be 
accomplished  without  large  interference  with 
public  and  private  life.  Private  property  is 
to  be  allowed,  but  is  to  be  fenced  in  with 
restrictions  that  few  socialist  schemes  have 
exceeded.  The  number  of  landholders  is  to 
be  rigidly  fixed;  marriage  is  to  be  compul- 
sory, the  number  of  children  strictly  limited ; 
and  one  son  only  is  to  succeed  to  the  landed 
property  of  the  father.  But,  above  all, 
everything  connected  with  education  and 
religion  is  to  be  sedulously  guarded  from 
change. 

As  in  Egypt,  so  in  Greece,  according  to  the 
Laws,  all  songs,  dances,  and  festive  ceremonies 
must  first  receive  the  approval  of  official 
censors,  who  are  to  be  men  above  the  age  of 
fifty,  and  when  so  approved  must  never  after- 
ward be  changed.  All  the  existing  dramatic 
literature  of  Greece  must  be  freely  and  sys- 
tematically expurgated.  Much  reading  of  any 
kind  is  to  be  discouraged.  Arithmetic,  geom- 
etry, and  astronomy  are  to  be  taught,  not  for 
their  practical  utility,  but  to  inspire  true 
thoughts  as  to  the  universe  and  the  great 
divinities,  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets.  The 
belief  that  the  planets  moved  irregularly 
should  be  regarded  as  blasphemous.  Bodily 
exercises,  under  the  same  stringent  relations, 
are  to  be  systematically  encouraged  in  both 
sexes,  and  their  efficacy  in  restraining  sexual 
impulse  is  strongly  insisted  on. 

In  his  criminal  legislation,  heresy  —  that 
is,  erroneous  beliefs  about  the  gods  —  occu- 
pies a  very  prominent  place.  Even  when  the 
life  has  been  morally  blameless,  the  punish- 
ment is  five  years'  imprisonment,  persistence 
in  unbelief  being  pimishable  with  death. 
Heresy,  combined  with  vicious  conduct,  sor- 
cery or  charlatanry,  is  punishable  as  the  worst 
of  crimes.  It  is  certain  that  the  legislation 
here  proposed  by  Plato  would  have  condemned 
Socrates,  his  great  preceptor,  many  times 
over. 

Plato  is  often  styled  an  idealist.  But  this 
is  true  of  the  spirit  rather  than  of  the  form 
of  his  doctrine;  for  strictly  he  is  an  intense 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


9M 


realist,  and  differs  from  his  great  pupil,  Aris- 
totle, far  less  in  his  mere  philosophical  method 
than  in  his  lofty  moral  and  religious  aspira- 
tions, which  were  perpetually  winging  his 
spirit  toward  the  beautiful  and  the  good.  In 
other  words,  the  philosophy  of  Plato  is  essen- 
tially a  poetical  and  an  artistical  philosophy ; 
for  poetry,  painting,  and  music  all  grow  out  of 
idealism,  or  those  lofty  inborn  conceptions  by 
which  genius  is  distinguished  from  talent.  It 
is  also,  at  the  same  time,  a  scientific  philoso- 
phy, for  the  purest  science,  as  mathematics  — 
on  which  Plato  is  well  known  to  have  placed 
the  highest  value  —  is  a  science  of  mere  ideas 
or  forms  conditioned  by  the  intellect  which 
deduces  their  laws;  and,  above  all,  it  is 
essentially  a  moral  and  a  theological  phi- 
losophy, for  practice,  or  action,  is  the  highest 
aim  of  man,  morality  is  the  ideal  of  action, 
and  God,  as  the  cause  of  all,  is  the  ideal  of 
ideals. 

Neither  Plato  nor  any  of  the  great  Greeks 
looked  on  their  intellectual  exercises  and 
recreations  as  an  end  in  themselves.  With 
them  philosophy  did  not  mean  mere  knowl- 
edge or  mere  speculation,  but  it  meant  wis- 
dom, and  wisdom  meant  wise  action,  and 
wise  action  meant  virtue.  The  philosophy  of 
Plato,  therefore,  with  all  its  transcendental 
flights,  of  which  we  hear  so  much,  was  essen- 
tially a  practical  philosophy.  All  his  discus- 
sions on  the  theory  of  knowledge  and  the 
nature  of  ideas  are  undertaken  mainly  that  a 
system  of  eternal  divine  types,  as  the  only 
reliable  knowledge,  may  serve  as  a  foundation 
for  a  virtuous  life,  and  the  only  consistent 
course  of  action.  Virtue,  with  Socrates  and 
Plato,  is  only  practical  reason.  As  in  the 
proverbs  of  Solomon  all  vice  is  folly,  so  in 
the  philosophy  of  Plato  the  imperial  virtue 
is  wisdom  or  practical  insight.  The  other 
two  great  Greek  and  Platonic  virtues  — 
moderation  or  soundmindedness,  and  justice, 
or  the  assigning  to  every  act  and  every 
function  its  proper  place — are  equally  exem- 
plifications of  8,  reasonable  order  applied  to 
action,  such  an  order  as  alone  and  everywhere 
testifies  the  presence  of  the  mind. 

The  theory  of  morals  as  worked  out  from 
such  principles  is,  of  course,  as  certain  as  the 
necessary  laws  of  the  reason  which  it  ex- 
presses ;  and,  accordingly,  the  Platonic  moral- 
ity, like  the  Christian,  is  of  that  high  order 
which  admits  of  no  compromise  with  passing 
prejudice  or  local  usage.  The  contrast  be- 
tween the  low  moral  standard  of  local  respect- 


ability and  that  which  is  in  hannony  with  the 
universal  laws  of  pure  reason  stands  out  m 
strikingly  in  Plato  as  the  morality  of  the 
sermon  on  the  mount  in  the  gospels  docs 
against  the  morality  of  the  Scrib^  and  Phari- 
sees. Splendid  passages  to  this  effect  occur 
in  various  parts  of  Plato's  \\Titings,  particu- 
larly in  the  Republic  and  the  Gorgia*. 

In  perfect  accord  with  the  Platonic  theory 
of  noble  action  is  his  doctrine  with  r^ard  to 
pure  emotion  and  elevated  passion.  Love 
with  Plato  is  a  transcendental  admiration  of 
excellence  —  an  admiration  of  which  the  soul 
is  capable  by  its  own  high  origination  and  the 
germs  of  godlike  excellence,  which  are  im- 
planted into  it  from  above.  The  philosophy 
of  love  is  set  forth  with  imaginative  grandeur 
in  the  Phcedrus,  and  with  rich  dramatic 
variety  in  the  "Banquet,"  of  which  dialogue 
there  is  an  English  translation  by  the  English 
poet,  Shelley. 

In  his  works,  also,  we  find  the  first  formal 
development  of  the  spirituality  of  the  soul, 
and  the  first  attempt  to  demonstrate  its 
immortality.  His  moral  conclusions  are  of 
the  loftiest  and  most  rigorous  character,  and 
are  announced  clearly,  positively,  and  per- 
sistently. In  some  cases  his  teaching  is  a 
surprising  anticipation  of  a  higher  doctrine 
that  was  to  come.  A  tendency  to  a  trinity 
of  doctrines  runs  through  it  all.  In  psychol- 
ogy we  have  the  trinity  of  reason,  passion, 
and  appetite ;  in  ethics,  of  wisdom,  courage, 
and  temperance;  in  ontology,  of  being,  be- 
coming, and  not  being;  in  knowledge,  of 
science,  opinion,  and  sensation ;  in  cosmogony, 
of  God,  the  soul  of  the  world,  and  matter; 
in  the  state,  of  magistrates,  warriors,  and 
laborers.  So  remarkable  was  this  fact  to 
early  Christian  thinkers  that  they  readily 
accepted  by  way  of  explanation  the  story  of 
his  eastern  travels  and  communication  with 
the  Jews.  The  same  fact  led  Coleridge  to 
speak  of  him  as  "  that  plank  from  the  wreck 
of  paradise  thrown  upon  the  shores  of  idol- 
atrous Greece." 

The  influence  of  Plato's  thoughts  on  suc- 
ceeding centuries  was  great  and  prolonged; 
but  it  was  largely  due  to  the  dramatic  skill 
and  poetic  style  in  which  they  were  delivered* 
To  the  building  up  of  human  life  on  the  basis 
of  science  they  contributed  nothing.  But 
they  inspired  ardor  for  social  r^encration; 
and  when  transplanted  into  the  soil  of  Alex- 
andria they  formed  one  of  the  channels 
through  which  Jewish  and  Christian  thought 


260 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


penetrated  into  the  western  world.  His 
works  were  extensively  studied  by  the  church 
fathers,  one  of  whom  joyfully  recognizes,  in 
the  great  teacher  of  the  academy,  the  school- 
master who,  in  the  fullness  of  time,  was  des- 
tined to  educate  the  heathen  for  Christ,  as 
Moses  did  the  Jews. 

His  philosophy  disappeared  from  the  world 
for  a  time,  with  Proclus,  the  last  Platonist  of 
the  famous  Alexandrian  school,  about  the 
close  of  the  fifth  century,  when  his  works 
were  brought  to  Italy  and  expounded  at 
Florence  by  learned  Greeks  from  Constanti- 
nople. In  the  intervening  ten  centuries  the 
seat  of  philosophy  was  usurped  by  the  off- 
spring of  Catholic  theology  and  Aristotelian 
logic,  scholasticism ;  and  his  doctrine  of  ideas 
formed  the  basis  of  the  famous  controversy 
during  the  middle  ages  between  realist  and 
nominalist. 

After  the  French  revolution,  particularly, 
the  study  of  Plato  was  pursued  with  renewed 
vigor  in  Germany,  France,  England,  and 
America;  and  many  distinguished  authors, 
without  expressly  professing  Platonism  —  as 
Coleridge,  Wordsworth,  Mrs.  Browning,  Rus- 


kin,  and  others  —  formed  a  strong  and  a 
growing  party  of  adherents,  who  could  find 
no  common  banner  under  which  they  could 
at  once  so  conveniently  and  so  honorably 
muster  as  that  of  Plato. 

More  important,  perhaps,  than  any  results, 
either  moral  or  metaphysical,  which  have 
been  brought  to  maturity  by  Plato,  are  the 
inexhaustible  germs  of  latent  wealth  which 
his  writings  contain.  Every  time  his  pages 
are  turned,  they  throw  forth  new  seeds  of 
wisdom,  new  scintillations  of  thought  —  so 
teeming  is  the  fertility,  so  irrepressible  the 
fullness  of  his  genius.  All  philosophy,  specu- 
lative and  practical,  has  been  foreshadowed 
by  his  prophetic  intelligence,  often  dimly,  but 
always  so  attractively  as  to  whet  the  curiosity 
of  those  who  have  chosen  him  for  their  guide. 

To  whatever  censure  his  philosophy  may 
be  justly  exposed,  we  cannot  sufficiently 
applaud  that  seducing  eloquence,  which  Quin- 
tilian  has  called  "  Homerical,"  and  that  beauty 
of  style  which  appeared  so  admirable  to 
Cicero  that  he  declared,  "If  Jupiter  himself 
had  been  willing  to  adopt  the  language  of  man- 
kind, he  would  have  spoken  as  Plato  wrote." 


ARISTOTLE 


B.  C. 

384 

367 

364 

847 

344 

342 


Born  at  Staf^ira,  Macedonia, 

Went  to  Athens, 17 

Began  study  under  Plato, 20 

At  death  of  Plato  went  to  Atameus,     .  37 

Visited  Mitylene, 40 

Invited  to  court  of  Philip  of  Macedon; 

teaches  Alexander  the  Great,      ...  42 


338 
334 


323 
322 


Rhetoric, 46 

Returned     to     Athens;      opened     his 

school 60 

Accused  of  impiety;  escaped  to  Chalcis,  61 

Died  at  Chalcis, 63 


ARISTOTLE,  founder  of  the  celebrated 
•**  peripatetic  school  of  philosophy  at 
Athens,  and  one  of  the  greatest  intellectual 
forces  in  the  history  of  the  world,  was  bom 
at  Stagira,  Macedonia,  in  the  year  384  B.  C. 
He  belonged  to  a  family  in  which  the  practice 
of  medicine  seems  to  have  been  hereditary. 
It  is  asserted  that  on  the  side  of  his  mother, 
Phaestis,  he  was  a  descendant  of  Esculapius. 
His  father,  Nikomachus,  was  the  friend  and 
physician  of  Amyntas  II.,  king  of  Macedonia, 
father  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  and  grandfather 
of  Alexander  the  Great. 

Aristotle  lost  both  his  parents  while  he  was 
quite  young,  and  was  brought  up  xmder  the 
care  of  Proxenus,  a  prominent  citizen  of 
Atarneus,  a  city  in  Asia  Minor.  When  he 
had  completed  his  seventeenth  year,  he  re- 


!  paired  to  Athens,  then  the  inteUectual  center 
of  the  entire  civilized  world,  as  well  as  of 
Greece.  Plato,  with  whom  he  doubtless 
intended  to  study,  was  then  absent  in  Syra- 
cuse as  adviser  at  the  court  of  Dionysius. 
Aristotle  therefore  pursued  his  studies  by 
means  of  books,  and  with  the  aid  of  other 
teachers  that  he  could  find,  during  the  first 
three  years  of  his  stay.  On  the  return  of 
Plato,  he  placed  himself  under  his  instruction, 
and  soon  made  his  master  aware  of  the 
remarkable  penetration  and  reach  of  his 
intellect.  Plato  spoke  of  Aristotle  as  the 
"intellect  of  the  school,"  and  he  rapidly 
gained  a  place  of  honor  and  distinction  in 
the  estimation  of  both  his  great  teacher  and 
his  companions. 

He   remained    at    Athens   twenty    years. 


Aui^iwiLL.    1  CACHING  ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT 

From  the  fainting  hy  y.  L.   G.   Ferris 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


7» 


during  which  the  only  facte  recorded,  in  aildi- 
tion  to  his  studying  with  Plato,  are  that  he 
set  up  a  class  of  rhetoric,  and  that  in  so  doing 
he  became  the  rival  of  the  celebrated  orator 
and  rhetorical  teacher,  Isocrates,  whom  he 
appears  to  have  attacked  with  great  severity. 
It  was  in  the  schools  of  rhetoric  that  the 
young  men  of  Athens  received  the  principal 
part  of  their  education  for  public  life.  They 
learned  the  art  of  speaking  before  the  dicas- 
teries,  or  courts  of  law,  and  the  public  as- 
sembly, with  force  and  elegance;  and  inci- 
dentally acquired  the  notions  of  law  and 
public  policy  that  regulated  the  management 
of  affairs  at  the  time.  We  can  easily  suppose 
that  Aristotle  would  look  with  contempt  upon 
the  shallowness  —  in  all  that  regarded  thought 
or  subject  matter  —  of  the  common  rhetorical 
teaching,  of  which,  doubtless,  the  prevailing 
excellence  would  lie  in  the  form  of  the  address 
being  artistic  rather  than  profound  or  erudite. 
One  of  the  disciples  of  Isocrates,  defending  his 
master  against  Aristotle,  wrote  a  treatise 
wherein  allusion  is  made  to  a  work  —  now 
lost  —  on  proverbs,  the  first  recorded  publi- 
cation of  the  philosopher. 

The  death  of  Plato  in  347  B.  C.  was  the 
occasion  of  Aristotle's  departure  from  Athens. 
It  was  not  extraordinary  or  unreasonable  that 
Aristotle  should  hope  to  succeed  his  master 
as  the  chief  of  his  school,  named  the  academy. 
We  now  know  that  no  other  man  then  living 
had  an  equal  title  to  that  preeminence. 
Plato,  however,  left  his  nephew,  Speusippus, 
as  his  successor.  We  may  suppose  the  dis- 
appointment thus  arising  to  have  been  the 
principal  circumstance  that  determined  Aris- 
totle to  stay  no  longer  in  Athens.  There  are 
also  other  reasons  that  may  be  assigned, 
arising  out  of  his  relations  with  the  Mace- 
donian royal  family  at  a  time  when  the 
Athenians  and  Philip  of  Macedon  had  come 
into  open  enmity. 

Whatever  may  be  the  explanation,  he  went 
in  his  thirty-seventh  year,  after  a  stay  of 
nearly  twenty  years  in  Athens,  to  the  Mysian 
town  of  Atarneus,  in  Asia  Minor,  opposite 
the  island  of  Lesbos.  Here  he  lived  with 
Hermeias,  the  chief  of  the  town,  a  man  of 
singular  energy  and  ability,  who  had  con- 
quered his  dominion  for  himself  from  the 
Persians,  at  that  time  masters  of  nearly  all 
Asia  Minor.  Aristotle  had  taught  him  rhet- 
oric at  Athens,  and  he  became  in  return  the 
attached  friend  and  admirer  of  his  teacher. 

At  this  small  but  interesting  court,  sur- 


rounded by  the  scenes  of  his  early  studiet, 
Aristotle  spent  three  happy  years,  enjoying 
the  society  of  intellectual  friends,  and  devot- 
ing himself  with  unremitting  aawduity  to  the 
study  of  nature.  Here,  too,  he  had  formed 
ties  warmer  than  those  of  friendship.  Pythias, 
the  niece  of  the  king,  had  gained  his  affection, 
and  when  the  unfortunate  sovereign  had  been 
betrayed  by  some  worthless  individuals  who 
had  enjoyed  his  hospitality,  and  had  forfeited 
his  life  as  a  rebel  against  the  king  of  Persia, 
Aristotle  fled  to  Lesbos  with  the  family  of  his 
friend,  and  was  soon  afterward  married  to 
his  niece.  In  a  noble  ode  he  haa  commemo- 
rated the  merits  of  the  friend  and  benefactor 
who  was  thus  lost  to  him  through  the  treach- 
ery of  a  Greek  renegade.  His  wife,  Pythias, 
died  about  ten  years  later  in  Macedonia, 
leaving  him  a  daughter  of  the  same  name, 
and  a  son,  Nikomachus.  To  his  son  Aristotle 
dedicated  his  chief  works  on  ethics  —  called, 
from  that  circumstance,  the  Nikomacheaai 
Ethics. 

During  his  residence  at  Mitylene,  in  Lcsboe, 
to  which  he  went  about  344  B.  C,  Aristotle 
seems  to  have  received  from  Philip,  king  of 
Macedon,  the  flattering  invitation  to  superin- 
tend the  education  of  Alexander,  his  son. 
The  compliment  thus  paid  to  his  talents  and 
character  was  too  high  to  be  rejected;  and, 
though  the  duties  which  such  an  office  de- 
manded might  have  interfered  with  the  prog- 
ress of  his  studies,  he  cheerfully  accepted  it, 
and  took  up  his  residence  at  Pella,  in  342 
B.  C,  when  Alexander  had  reached  his  four- 
teenth year.  The  king  received  him  with  the 
most  marked  attention,  and  science  and  learn- 
ing have  in  no  future  age  been  more  highly 
honored  than  they  were  in  the  court  of 
Macedon  in  the  person  of  the  distinguished 
Stagirite,  and  through  the  liberality  of  the 
most  powerful  of  sovereigns. 

The  Macedonian  prince  was  instructed  dur- 
ing five  or  six  years  in  grammar,  rhetoric, 
poetry,  logic,  ethics,  and  politics,  and  in 
those  branches  of  physics  which  had  even  at 
that  time  made  some  considerable  progress. 
Aristotle  made  a  new  collection  of  the  Iliad 
for  the  use  of  his  pupil,  wrote  his  Rhetoric, 
in  338  B.  C,  and  composed  a  treatise,  On 
a  Kingdom,  which  has  not  descended  to  our 
times.  After  the  death  of  Philip  in  336  B.C., 
Alexander  succeeded  to  the  throne,  when  in 
the  twentieth  year  of  his  age,  and  Aristotle  con- 
tinued to  live  with  him  as  his  friend  and  coun- 
sellor until  Alexander  set  out  on  his  Asiatic 


270 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


campaign  in  334  B.  C,  when  he  returned  to 
Athens. 

The  delicate  constitution  and  intellectual 
habits  of  the  philosopher  prevented  him  from 
following  Alexander  on  his  career  of  military 
conquest,  and  he  accordingly  returned  to  a 
less  strenuous  life. 

At  the  age  of  fifty,  Aristotle  now  entered 
upon  the  final  epoch  of  his  career.  He  opened 
a  school  called  the  Lyceum,  from  the  prox- 
imity to  the  temple  of  Apollo,  and  here  in  this 
charming  retreat  he  delivered  his  lectures  to 
crowded  audiences,  while  walking  in  the 
shade,  amid  the  trees  and  fountains  with 
which  it  was  adorned.  From  his  habit  of 
walking  up  and  down  in  the  garden  during 
his  lectures  arose  the  other  name  of  his  school 
and  sect,  the  peripatetic.  It  would  appear  to 
have  been  his  custom  to  give  a  morning 
lecture  to  select  pupils  on  the  more  obtuse 
subjects,  and  one  in  the  evening  of  a  more 
popular  kind  to  a  general  or  mixed  audience. 
At  this  time,  too,  it  is  supposed  he  composed 
his  principal  writings;  but  unfortunately 
there  is  nothing  known  definitely  concerning 
the  dates  of  any  of  them. 

While  thus  instructing  his  pupils,  and  en- 
joying the  popularity  and  reputation  to  which 
he  had  attained,  he  became,  like  all  illustrious 
teachers  of  philosophy,  the  object  of  envy 
and  persecution.  His  rivals  in  learning  di- 
rected against  him  the  usual  calumnies  which 
genius  is  ever  destined  to  endure  from  the 
ignorance  and  malice  of  its  enemies ;  and  the 
heathen  priests,  dreading  the  progress  of  truth 
as  the  greatest  enemy  of  their  faith,  charged 
the  philosopher  with  impiety  and  sedition. 
The  friendship  of  Alexander  had  hitherto 
shielded  him  from  open  persecution,  but  upon 
the  death  of  that  monarch,  in  323  B.  C,  he 
was  charged  before  the  Areopagus  as  an 
enemy  of  the  religion  of  his  country,  and 
avoided  the  fate  of  Socrates,  which  he  knew 
awaited  him,  by  making  his  escape  to  Chalcis, 
a  city  of  Euboea.  In  this  city  of  refuge  he 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life,  that  the 
Athenians  might  not,  as  he  said  —  alluding 
to  the  death  of  Socrates  —  be  guilty  of 
"twice  sinning  against  philosophy."  Ex- 
hausted with  mental  labor  and  broken  in 
spirit  by  his  misfortunes,  his  feeble  constitu- 
tion gave  way,  and  he  died  in  322  B.  C,  in 
the  sixty-third  year  of  his  age,  about  a  year 
after  his  retreat  to  Chalcis. 

His  remains  were  carried  to  Stagira  by  his 
fellow    citizens,    and    an    altar    and    shrine 


erected  over  his  grave.  The  festival  of  Aria- 
totelia  was  instituted  in  gratitude  for  his 
services,  and  even  in  Plutarch's  time  the 
garden  of  the  philosopher,  with  its  walks  and 
bowers,  was  exhibited  to  the  public. 

In  his  personal  appearance,  Aristotle  waa 
not  attractive.  He  is  described  as  having 
small  eyes  and  slender  limbs,  with  a  feeble 
voice  and  an  imperfect  utterance;  and  he  is 
said  to  have  improved  the  symmetry  of  his 
person  by  great  attention  to  dress,  and  the 
use  of  elegant  ornaments.  His  character 
seems  to  have  been  in  every  way  estimable. 
In  his  friendships  he  was  constant  and  glow- 
ing. In  his  will  —  which  is  preserved  to  us 
in  the  biographies  of  Laertius  —  he  shows 
affectionate  thought  for  each  member  of  his 
family,  and  grateful  remembrance  of  those 
who  had  died  before  him.  His  household 
servants  were  not  forgotten,  and  were  to  be 
set  free  from  bondage. 

It  is  often  but  erroneously  said  that  "  Plato 
was  an  idealist,  Aristotle  an  empiricist " ;  the 
difference  is  great  in  appearance  mainly.  Sir 
Alexander  Grant  truly  declared  that  "Aris- 
totle codified  Plato."  Plato  was  a  poet,  and 
is  always  an  artist,  as  well  as  a  thinker,  in  his 
dialogues.  Aristotle,  with  the  education  of 
a  physician,  has  the  mental  habits  and  tend- 
encies of  the  man  of  science  predominant; 
and,  while  lacking  Plato's  inspiration  and 
enthusiasm,  has  a  wider,  in  fact,  an  all- 
embracing  range  of  interests,  and  cares  more 
for  actual  facts  for  their  own  sake. 

He  appears  to  have  projected  what  may 
be  called  an  encyclopaedia  of  philosophy, 
though  the  scheme  is  only  imperfectly  car- 
ried out  in  his  works.  The  most  important 
of  Aristotle's  writings  bear  the  titles  of 
Organon,  or  "Logic";  Rhetoric;  Poetics; 
Ethics;  Politics;  History  of  Animals;  Phys- 
ics; Metaphysics;  Psychology;  and  Meteor- 
ology. 

It  is  impossible  to  read  even  the  titles 
indicative  of  the  range  of  research  accom- 
plished by  a  man  whose  life  reached  only  to 
sixty-two  years,  without  the  profoundest 
astonishment.  Perhaps  no  better  illustration 
is  furnished  by  history,  of  the  great  truth 
that  universahty  is  an  unfailing  characteristic 
of  loftiest  geniuses  —  not  universality  as  to 
information,  but  universality  as  to  thought  — 
than  in  his  case.  It  may  be  said  with  justice 
that  there  was  not  one  subject  of  interest 
mooted  in  his  day,  which  Aristotle  did  not 
touch    and    adorn.    He    laid,    besides,    the 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


371 


foundations  of  many  new  sciences.  He 
divided  his  philosophy  into  three  depart- 
ments :  theoretic,  embracing  physics,  mathe- 
matics, theology,  and  metaphysics;  efficient, 
including  logic,  rhetoric,  and  poetry;  and 
practical,  including  ethics  and  politics.  He 
distinguishes  three  branches  of  theoretical 
philosophy:  (1)  Physics  —  the  study  of  sen- 
sible material,  particular  things,  each  of  which 
differs  from  every  other,  and  all  of  which 
have  in  themselves  the  principle  of  change  or 
motion.  (2)  Mathematics  —  that  of  geomet- 
rical and  numerical  entities  known  by  general 
definitions,  susceptible  neither  of  change  nor 
of  movement,  capable  of  being  considered 
and  reasoned  upon  apart  from  matter,  but 
not  capable  of  existing  apart  from  matter. 
(3)  The  first  or  highest  philosophy  —  which 
studies  the  essence  of  things  eternal,  un- 
changeable, and  apart  from  all  that  change, 
movement,  and  differentiation  which  material 
embodiment  involves. 

His  writings  on  mathematics  have  not  come 
down  to  us,  and  his  work  on  physics  had 
mainly  to  do  with  the  metaphysical  aspects 
of  movements,  or  motion.  In  his  time  the 
value  of  experiment  was  not  recognized,  nor 
its  methods  understood,  as  we  now  under- 
stand them.  Yet  even  in  these  treatises  his 
marvelous  sagacity  is  evident  and  he  fore- 
shadowed some  remarkable  modern  discov- 
eries. Although  he  saw  the  importance  of 
discovering  the  laws  of  motion,  his  own  crude 
attempts  to  solve  the  problem  rested  either 
on  such  purely  metaphysical  conceptions  as 
that  of  the  inherent  perfection  of  circular 
motion,  or  on  the  definite  but  untrue  hypothe- 
sis that  the  velocities  of  falling  bodies  varied 
as  the  distance  traversed.  This  last  was  at 
least  a  useful  starting  point  for  the  more 
fruitful  efforts  of  Kepler  and  Galileo. 

The  metaphysics,  or  first  philosophy,  deals 
with  the  extreme  abstractions  or  generalities 
of  all  sciences.  It  is  a  collection,  partly  of 
doubts  and  difficulties,  partly  of  attempted 
solutions,  upon^these  last  refinements  of  the 
human  mind.  It  includes  many  valuable 
comments  on  the  philosophy  of  Plato  and 
others  anterior  to  or  contemporary  with  Aris- 
totle. The  general  terms  and  subtle  distinc- 
tions, which  this  treatise  first  brought  to 
view,  were  highly  prized  throughout  all  the 
philosophy  of  the  middle  ages. 

His  Organon,  or  "Logic,"  is  his  complete 
development  of  formal  reasoning,  and  is  the 
basis  and  nearly  the  whole  substance  of  syllo- 


gistic or  scholastic  logic.  This  foteooe  ha 
almost  entirely  created.  Grote  obwrves  that 
"what  was  begun  by  Socrates,  and  improved 
by  Plato,  was  embodied  as  a  part  of  a  com- 
prehensive system  of  formal  logic  by  the 
genius  of  Aristotle;  a  system  whidi  was  not 
only  of  extraordinary  value  in  reforenoe  to 
the  processes  and  controversies  of  its  time, 
but  which  also,  having  become  insensibly 
worked  into  the  minds  of  instructed  men,  has 
contributed  much  to  form  what  is  correct  in 
the  habits  of  modem  thinking.  Though  it 
has  now  been  enlarged  and  recast  by  some 
modern  authors  —  especially  by  John  Stuart 
Mill  in  his  admirable  System  of  l^gic  —  into 
a  structure  commensurate  with  the  vast 
increase  of  knowledge  and  extension  of  posi- 
tive method  belonging  to  the  present  day  — 
we  must  recollect  that  the  distance  between 
the  best  modern  logic  and  that  of  Aristotle  is 
hardly  as  great  as  that  between  Aristotle  and 
those  who  preceded  him  by  a  century  — 
Empedocles,  Anaxagoras,  and  the  Pytha- 
goreans; and  that  the  movement  in  advance 
of  these  latter  commences  with  Socrates." 

His  philosophical  method,  in  brief,  consists 
in  the  principle  that  all  our  thinking  must  be 
founded  on  the  observation  of  facts.  Logic 
is  the  fundamental  science,  and  the  principles 
which  he  laid  down  for  it  have  never  been 
superseded,  or  even  advanced,  as  acknowl- 
edged by  Kant  and  Hegel.  He  invented  the 
categories,  or  fundamental  forms  of  thought, 
and  devised  the  so-called  syllogistics,  or 
science  of  forming  correct  conclusions.  He 
likewise  became  the  father  of  modern  psy- 
chology, showing  how  the  mind  creates  its 
speculative  methods  and  general  notions; 
and  that  though  we  cannot  prove  their  cor- 
respondence with  the  reality,  as  transcending 
our  senses  and  observation,  yet  we  are  com- 
pelled to  take  them  for  indispensable  forms 
of  thinking.  He  first  discriminated  between 
the  substance  of  things  and  their  accidental 
peculiarities,  and  created  the  philosophical 
notions  of  matter  and  of  form.  He  also 
established  the  philosophical  notions  of  space 
and  time,  and  argued  that  back  of  the 
infinite  series  of  finite  causes  there  must 
be  an  infinite  immaterial  something,  unmoved, 
all-moving,  pure  energy,  absolute  reason, 
God. 

Not  imtil  we  reach  what  may  be  termed  the 
natural  history  of  Aristotle  do  we  find  his 
full  powers  of  generalizing  and  coordinating, 
based  on  minute  and  accurate  observation  of 


272 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


fact.  He  was  the  first  careful  observer,  dis- 
sector, and  describer  of  animals.  He  first 
divided  the  animal  kingdom  into  classes, 
discriminated  between  the  several  faculties, 
the  nourishing,  feehng,  concupiscent,  moving, 
and  reasoning  powers  of  animal  organism, 
attempted  to  explain  their  origin  within 
the  body,  and  built  his  moral  and  political 
philosophy  on  the  peculiarities  of  human 
organization.  A  fourth  part  of  his  writings 
is  occupied  with  the  study  of  living  bodies. 
Many  of  his  conclusions  have  required  the 
knowledge  of  the  present  century  for  their 
just  appreciation.  "  I  cannot  read  this  book," 
says  Cuvier,  "without  unbounded  wonder. 
It  is  indeed  impossible  to  conceive  how  one 
man  was  able  to  collect  and  compare  the 
multitude  of  special  facts,  and  the  mass  of 
aphorisms  contained  in  it  —  of  none  of  which 
his  predecessors  had  the  remotest  idea.  The 
'History  of  Animals'  is  not  a  zoology,  com- 
monly so  called  —  that  is  to  say,  a  mere 
description  of  various  animals.  It  is  nearly 
a  general  anatomy,  in  which  the  author  treats 
the  generalities  of  the  organization  of  animals 
and  in  which  he  exposes  their  differences 
and  resemblances,  as  indicated  by  a  compar- 
ative examination  of  their  organs  —  thus 
laying  the  true  basis  of  all  grand  classifica- 
tions." 

He  grasped  and  appUed  the  comparative 
method  with  extreme  breadth  and  vigor. 
He  anticipated  Lamarck's  division  of  the 
animal  kingdom  into  vertebrate  and  inver- 
tebrate. In  each  sub-kingdom  he  defined 
the  principal  groups  not  less  clearly.  In 
vertebrates  he  distinguished  mammals,  birds, 
reptiles,  fishes.  Of  mammals  he  defined  most 
of  the  leading  groups,  arranging  them  by  the 
character  of  their  locomotive  organs  and  of 
their  dentition,  the  connection  of  dentition 
with  the  digestive  apparatus  being  clearly 
apprehended.  The  mammalian  characters  of 
the  whale  tribe  were  perfectly  well  known  to 
him.  Among  invertebrates,  his  minute  study 
of  cephalopods  is  specially  noteworthy.  Seven 
at  least  of  the  species  described  by  him  are 
recognized  by  modern  naturalists. 

In  embryology,  Aristotle  had  observed  the 
first  appearance  of  the  heart  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  chick.  Of  histology  he  may  be 
regarded  as  the  foimder.  His  history  of 
animals  begins  with  the  explicit  distinction 
between  the  tissues  of  which  animal  structure 
is  built  up,  and  the  organs  compovmded  from 
those   tissues:    a   distinction   unappreciated 


until  Bichat  made  it  the  foundation  of  his 
Anatomie  Generale. 

Perhaps  one  of  Aristotle's  greatest  works 
is  his  Politics.  This  treatise  is  the  thought- 
ful and  compressed  result  of  his  lost  collec- 
tion of  upward  of  one  hundred  fifty  actual 
constitutions,  and  is  one  of  the  works 
in  which  his  penetrating  genius  is  the 
most  clearly  revealed.  There  is  nothing  to 
which  it  is  more  unlike  than  a  book  of 
description.  It  is  a  methodical  deduction  of 
great  principles  of  government,  a  discrimina- 
tion of  the  principles  underlying  every  form 
of  government,  and  a  prophetic  declaration 
concerning  their  comparative  stabilities.  A 
few  remarks  in  this  precious  volume  made  the 
fortunes  of  Machiavelli  and  Montesquieu; 
nor  has  even  Rousseau  in  the  Conlrat  Social 
escaped  its  all-pervading  influence.  Every 
framer  of  a  Utopia  has  borrowed  from  Aris- 
totle; but  in  itself  his  treatise  on  Politics 
is  not  Utopian.  The  book  is  the  result  of 
experience,  of  the  widest  research  and  im- 
partial reflection,  and  it  will  continue  a  great 
classic  so  long  as  man  remains  as  he  is. 

His  works  on  Rhetoric  and  Poetics  were 
the  earliest  development  of  a  philosophy 
of  criticism,  and  still  continue  to  be  studied. 
Even  more  so  are  his  elaborate  disquisitions 
on  ethics  still  made  the  subject  of  immense 
study  and  interpretation.  The  subject  mat- 
ter of  this  final  science  was  rightly  conceived 
by  him  as  the  conduct  of  the  individual 
moulded  by  the  social  state.  Apart  from  a 
social  environment  there  could  be,  he  clearly 
saw,  no  moral  life.  His  scheme  of  politics  is 
thus  an  appendage  to  his  ethics,  intended  to 
examine  and  describe  such  an  environment. 
For  moral  exhortation  or  discussion  would  be, 
he  says,  thrown  away  on  men  imprepared  by 
the  discipline  of  life  to  give  reason  precedence 
over  passion. 

The  end  of  ethical  inquiry,  he  points  out, 
is  practical  rather  than  speculative.  Our 
object  here  is  not  to  acquire  knowledge,  but 
to  become  better  men.  Whatever  general 
principles  we  may  reach,  we  come  at  last, 
hke  physicians  or  navigators,  to  cases  that 
have  to  be  judged  individually. 

He  begins  by  explaining  that  all  men, 
consciously  or  otherwise,  have  an  aim  in 
each  action,  the  special  aim  being  subordi- 
nate to  one  still  larger,  and  so  on.  The  iilti- 
mate  aim,  consciously  or  unconsciously  pur- 
sued, is  happiness.  Wherein  consists  true 
happiness?    It   consists  in   a  life   of  noble 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


37S 


I 


activity.  For  perfect  happiness  the  outward 
conditions  must  be  favorable.  Still,  what- 
ever misery  may  come,  "the  blest  one  can 
never  become  wretched,  for  he  can  never  do 
hateful  or  worthless  things." 

What  is  to  be  our  canon  of  right  action? 
Aristotle  wisely  declines  to  lay  down  such  a 
canon.  We  become  just  and  righteous,  he 
says,  not  by  hstening  to  ethical  discourses, 
but  by  doing  just  and  righteous  things ;  and 
these  things  are  those  that  just  and  righteous 
men  do.  Subject  to  this  warning  against 
overtrust  in  theory,  he  defines  virtue  as  the 
state  in  which  we  use  our  free  choice  to 
avoid  excess  on  the  one  hand,  or  defect  on 
the  other,  as  defined  by  right  reason  and  the 
practice  of  wise  men. 

A  large  part  of  his  ethical  treatise  is  occu- 
pied with  illustrations  of  this  in  detail. 
Courage,  temperance,  liberality,  magnanimity, 
mildness  of  temper,  geniality,  truthfulness, 
graciousness,  are  analyzed  and  contrasted 
with  the  vicious  states  of  exaggeration 
or  defect  between  which  they  stand.  The 
discussion  of  justice,  temperance,  and  friend- 
ship is  carried  out  with  special  care.  His 
manner  of  contrasting  the  false  friendships 
of  pleasure  and  interest  with  the  perfect 
friendship  following  from  intercourse  of  noble 
natures,  wishing  good  for  one  another  in  that 
they  are  themselves  good  and  pure,  is  but 
one  of  many  signs  that  the  heart  of  this  great 
thinker  was  worthy  of  his  intellect.  Not  less 
striking  are  his  remarks  on  self-love,  which, 
in  its  highest  form,  meant  love  for  what  was 
best  in  self;  readiness  to  throw  life  away,  if 
need  were,  at  the  call  of  duty;  to  do  one 
great  and  noble  deed  rather  than  many  small 
ones;  to  choose  noble  life  for  a  year  above 
many  years  of  mediocrity. 

He  ends,  as  he  began,  with  renewed  insist- 
ence on  the  need  of  moral  discipline  begun  in 
early  life.  The  whole  environment  must  be 
such  as  to  predispose  to  the  love  of  good  and 
hatred  of  evil. 

No  other  philosopher  ever  exerted  so  large 
an  influence  on  so  many  centuries  and  nations 
as  Aristotle.  His  greatness  was  not  recog- 
nized until  the  middle  ages.  The  Greek 
world,  politically  degenerated,  at  the  time  of 
his  death  and  after,  looked  on  Plato,  and  men 
far  weaker  than  Plato,  as  his  superiors.  By 
a  strange  incident  his  principal  works,  in- 
trusted to  his  disciple,  Theophrastus,  disap- 
peared from  view  for  two  centuries,  until 
brought  to  Rome  by  Sulla  and  edited  by 


Andronicus.  In  the  tvirmoil  of  barbarUm 
invasion,  and  during  the  building  up  of  the 
Christian  church,  his  name  was  forgotten, 
except  by  a  few  obscure  writers  in  Constanti- 
nople, until  the  great  Mohammedan  schools 
arose  in  Baghdad  and  Cordova.  Averrote, 
mentioned  by  Dante  as  the  great  Aristotelian 
commentator,  and  the  Jew,  Maimonides,  were 
his  principal  introducers  to  the  western 
world. 

From  the  twelfth  to  the  fourteenth  century 
his  metaphysical  system  became,  in  the  hands 
of  the  schoolmen,  the  basis  of  Catholic  the- 
ology. It  gave  birth  to  the  celebrated  dis- 
cussion between  nominalism  and  realism,  and 
to  all  the  teaching  of  Abclard. 

Albertus  Magnus  commented  on  the  whole 
works  of  the  Stagirite;  Thomas  Aquinas 
explained  some  of  their  more  difficult  por- 
tions; a  crowd  of  illustrious  doctors  imme- 
diately followed  their  example ;  and  Aristotle, 
translated  by  care  of  Pope  Urban  V.  and  of 
Cardinal  Bessarion,  became  forthwith,  in 
respect  to  science,  that  which  the  fathers  of 
the  church,  or  even  scripture  itself,  were  in 
relation  to  faith.  No  one,  apparently,  was 
allowed  to  think  otherwise  than  with  Aris- 
totle, and  every  doctrine  set  up  against 
one  of  his  was  practically  equivalent  to  a 
heresy. 

But  what  is  curious  respecting  the  influence 
of  Aristotelianism  is  that,  after  some  hesita- 
tion. Protestantism  adopted  Aristotle  as  ar- 
dently as  the  Catholic  church.  Melanchthon 
introduced  his  writings  into  the  Lutheran 
schools.  The  society  of  Jesus  adopted  the 
peripatetic  philosophy  in  its  entireness;  and, 
with  its  peculiar  ability,  turned  it  against  all 
bold  thinkers  of  the  time  and  especially 
against  the  adherents  of  Descartes. 

It  was  not  until  the  eighteenth  century  — 
a  century  victorious  over  so  many  other 
abuses  —  that  this  one  also  came  to  an  end. 
Aristotle  reigned  no  more,  except  in  colleges 
and  seminaries;  the  manuals  of  philosophy 
in  use  among  ecclesiastical  establishments 
were,  and  still  are,  nothing  but  a  dry  r6nun6 
of  his  doctrine.  But  the  general  reaction 
went  to  excess,  in  spite  of  the  wise  counsels 
of  Leibnitz;  the  Stagirite  was  treated  with 
that  unjust  disdain  with  which  men  had 
begim  to  regard  the  whole  past.  Even  the 
gravest  historian  of  philosophy  could  not  do 
him  justice.  The  yoke  had  been  broken  too 
recently,  and  men  could  not  forget  how 
oppressive  it  was. 


274 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


At  last,  however,  Aristotle  again  assumed 
the  place  in  philosophy  which  was  unquestion- 
ably due  to  him.  Kant  and  Hegel,  in  Ger- 
many, Cousin,  in  France,  Sir  William  Ham- 
ilton, in  Great  Britain,  gave  a  tremendous 
impetus  to  the  study  of  Aristotle,  with  the 
result  that  the  great  doctrines  of  the  Greek 
philosopher  are  probably  now  better  known 
and  more  accurately  appreciated  than  at  any 
other  time  in  the  history  of  thought.  As  the 
founder,  too,  of  biological  and  social  science, 
his  influence  has  passed  far  beyond  the  limits 
of  his  pure  philosophy,  both  theoretical  and 
practical. 

There  is  no  work  he  ever  wrote  which  may 
not  nourish  and  inspire  every  searcher  after 


truth  and  correct  method.  There  are  many 
of  them,  such  as  the  Organon,  wholly  above 
reach  of  cavil,  which  must  remain  a  necessity 
for  all  sects  and  all  men,  as  well  as  for  all 
time ;  and  he  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the 
greatest  glories  of  Greece.  If  men  have  freely 
dissented  from  him,  his  own  words  are  ample 
apology:  "It  is  best  to  examine  theories 
carefully  and  narrowly,  even  though  phi- 
losophers who  are  very  dear  to  us  have 
espoused  them.  It  is  best  also  to  put  aside 
personal  feelings,  and  to  think  only  of  the 
truth.  Both  are  dear,  nevertheless  it  is  a 
sacred  duty  to  give  preference  to  the  defense 
of  truth." 


ST.  THOMAS  AQUINAS 

A.  D.                                                                                                      AQE  A.  D.  AQB 

1227         Bom  at  Rocca  Secca,  near  Aquino,  1261  Summoned  to  Rome  by  Pope  Urban 

Italy. IV., 34 

1240         Studied  at  Naples,      13  1269         Returned  to  Paris, 42 

1243         Entered  the  Dominican  order,      .    .      16  1272         Settled  at  Naples, 46 

1244-48  Studied  at  Cologne  and  Paris,  .    .    17-21  1274  Died  at  Foasa  Nuova,  near  Terra- 

1253         Taught  and  studied  at  Paris,    ...     26  cina,      47 

1257         Doctor  of  theology  at  Paris,     ...     30 


nPHOMAS  AQUINAS,  or  Thomas  of 
*■  Aquino,  was  the  most  famous  representa- 
tive of  the  scholastic  philosophy,  and  one  of 
the  greatest  of  all  theologians.  He  belonged  to 
the  great  feudal  family  of  the  counts  of  Aquino 
in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  was  born  at 
the  castle  of  Rocca  Secca,  near  the  famous 
monastery  of  Monte  Cassino,  in  1227.  His 
father  was  a  nephew  of  Frederick  Barbarossa, 
and  he  was  thus  related,  also,  to  the  emperor 
Frederick  II.  of  the  holy  Roman  empire. 

Thomas  received  his  earliest  instruction  at 
Monte  Cassino,  whence  he  passed,  about  1240, 
to  the  newly-founded  imiversity  of  Naples. 
A  thoughtful  boy,  fond  of  study  from  his 
earliest  years,  he  was  not  eager  to  run  with 
others  the  race  of  worldly  ambition  or  to 
fight  his  way  with  the  sword  to  honors  and 
rewards.  These  things  he  rather  shunned, 
and  turned  with  longing  to  the  secluded  quiet 
of  the  monastic  life,  of  which  he  had  already 
seen  something.  Without  the  knowledge  of 
his  family  he  entered,  in  his  sixteenth  year, 
the  Dominican  convent  at  Naples,  and  stead- 
fastly resisted  all  endeavors  to  change  his 
purpose.  It  is  said  that  when  he  was  sent  to 
France  he  was  seized,  soon  after  setting  out, 
_by  his  two  brothers,  who  kept  him  in  confine- 


ment for  a  year  or  more,  until  his  release  was 
ordered  by  the  emperor. 

He  made  profession  as  a  Dominican  in  1243, 
and  then  became  a  pupil  of  Albertus  Magnus, 
or  Albert  the  Great,  at  Cologne.  From  this 
master  he  learned  the  doctrine  which  he  after- 
ward taught,  but  in  a  form  more  precisely 
and  decisively  elaborated.  Among  his  fellow 
students  his  modesty  and  silence  procured 
for  him  the  nickname  of  "the  great  dumb  ox 
of  Sicily."  But  when  on  one  occasion  a  test 
was  applied  to  his  knowledge  and  capacity, 
they  found  they  were  mistaken ;  and  the  mas- 
ter declared  that  the  lowings  of  this  ox  would 
one  day  resound  throughout  the  world. 
With  Albert  he  spent  a  short  time  at  Paris. 
After  their  return  to  Cologne,  in  1248,  Albert 
was  commissioned  by  the  Dominican  order 
to  establish  a  theological  school,  in  which 
Aquinas  taught. 

In  1253  he  again  went  to  Paris,  and  soon 
afterward  took  a  leading  part  in  the  defense 
before  the  pope  of  the  mendicant  orders 
against  the  assaults  of  the  university  of  Paris. 
During  his  visit  to  Paris  he  became  the  friend 
of  the  Franciscan  Bonaventura,  whose  char- 
acter, so  unlike  that  of  Aquinas,  was  indicated 
by  his  title  of  "doctor  seraphicus."    When 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


276 


he  sought  the  doctor's  degree  at  Paris,  the 
university  resolved  not  to  admit  him ;  but  so 
great  was  his  renown  that  they  were  compelled 
to  rescind  the  resolution,  and  in  1257  he 
received  his  doctor  of  theology.  Thoroughly 
imbued  with  the  scholastic,  dialectic,  and 
Aristotelian  philosophy,  he  came  forward, 
after  a  few  years,  as  a  public  teacher  in  Paris. 

His  masterly  application  of  this  philosophy 
to  the  systematizing  of  theology  gave  him  the 
first  place  as  a  philosophical  and  theological 
authority.  His  fame  as  a  theologian  became 
supreme  throughout  Europe,  and  the  popes 
acknowledged  him  as  the  greatest  theologian 
of  his  age.  Louis  IX.  of  France  (St.  Louis) 
admitted  Aquinas  to  intimate  friendship,  and 
he  was  a  frequent  guest  at  the  court  of  that 
ruler.  Numerous  stories  are  told  in  connec- 
tion with  the  intensity  with  which  he  pursued 
his  theological  and  philosophical  inquiries. 
On  one  occasion,  it  is  related,  when  dining  at 
the  table  of  Saint  Louis,  his  absorption  was  so 
complete  that  he  struck  the  board  violently, 
with  the  exclamation,  "This  is  conclusive 
against  the  Manichaeans  I "  The  king,  no 
way  disconcerted,  simply  ordered  his  secretary 
to  take  the  argument  down,  and  the  repast 
was  then  resumed. 

In  1261  Pope  Urban  IV.,  upon  his  ascen- 
sion to  the  pontificate,  called  him  to  Rome, 
to  assist  in  the  difficult  task  of  reconciling  the 
Greek  and  Latin  churches.  The  succeeding 
pope  offered  him  the  archbishopric  of  Naples ; 
but  this  he  declined,  as  he  did  other  promo- 
tions and  dignities.  He  was  content  to 
remain  a  simple  monk,  free  to  devote  himself 
to  the  arduous  task  he  had  chosen.  In  1269 
he  was  once  more  at  Paris;  but  was  called 
again  to  teach  at  Naples  in  1272.  Pope 
Gregory  X.,  having  convoked  a  general  coun- 
cil at  Lyons,  France,  in  1274,  the  object  of 
which  was  to  formally  settle  the  union  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  churches,  Aquinas  was  sum- 
moned to  assist.  He  set  out  for  Lyons  before 
the  end  of  winter,  and  on  his  way  visited  the 
castle  of  Magenza,  the  seat  of  some  of  his 
kinsfolk.  Here  he  was  suddenly  seized  with 
a  fever,  and  by  his  own  desire  was  removed 
to  the  convent  of  Fossa  Nuova,  where  he  died, 
still  in  the  prime  of  life,  March  7,  1274.  Ac- 
cording to  a  report  that  was  given  wide  cur- 
rency —  and  accepted,  apparently,  by  Dante 
—  he  was  poisoned  at  the  instigation  of  Charles 
I.  of  Sicily,  who  dreaded  the  evidence  that 
Aquinas  was  able  to  give  of  him  at  the  council 
of  Lyons. 


The  possession  of  his  remains  was  u  eagerly 
coveted  as  his  living  presence  and  teaching 
had  been.  For  nearly  a  century  the  dispute 
for  his  dead  body  was  maintained  between  the 
monks  of  the  convent  of  Fossa  Nuova,  the 
order  to  which  he  belonged,  and  the  univer- 
sity of  Paris.  It  was  at  last  settled  in  favor 
of  the  Dominican  onler,  and  the  body  was 
removed,  in  1369,  to  Toulouse,  where  a 
splendid  monument  was  erected  to  his 
memory.  He  had  before  this,  in  1323,  been 
canonized  by  Pope  John  XXII.  The  further 
honor  was  reserved  for  him  of  being  named, 
two  centuries  later,  by  Pius  V.,  the  fifth 
doctor  of  the  church. 

Aquinas  was  remarkable  for  modesty, 
exemplary  obedience,  and  purity  of  life. 
Neither  can  we  withhold  our  admiration  of 
his  lofty  aim,  unselfish  toil,  grand  patience, 
and  the  wholesome  influence  he  exerted  in  the 
world.  He  was  a  man  of  distinctly  philo- 
sophical temper,  gifted  with  great  mental 
powers.  His  intellect  was  acute,  clear,  logical, 
passionless.  He  looked  at  every  subject 
through  the  understanding,  and  reduced  it 
with  minute  precision  and  accuracy  to  the 
syllogistic  form.  He  had  great  perspicacity 
of  thought  and  perspicuity  of  expression,  and 
carried  the  penetration  of  his  intellect  into 
all  theological  subjects  with  the  boWest  and 
calmest  confidence.  His  definitions  and  dis- 
tinctions are  minute  as  well  as  numerous, 
often  impalpable  to  the  common  intellect. 
Aquinas  may  be  said  to  have  carried  the 
Aristotelian  logic,  as  applied  to  theology,  to 
its  utmost  limit.  In  him  the  scholastic  sys- 
tem of  theology  reached  its  highest  point. 

To  appreciate  the  work  of  Aquinas  and  the 
schoolmen,  we  must  realize  the  intellectual 
shock  given  to  the  western  mind  by  the 
spread  of  the  Mohammedan  faith,  and  by  the 
revival  of  Greek  learning  under  Mohammedan 
auspices.  Monotheism,  stripped  of  the  myste- 
ries of  the  Catholic  faith,  had  spread  oyer 
eastern  Europe  and  Spain,  and,  by  absorbing 
and  propagating  Greek  thought,  was  asserting 
intellectual  supremacy.  The  solvent  effects 
of  contact  between  East  and  West  had  already 
shown  themselves  in  the  heresies  with  which 
southern  France  teemed,  and  which  had 
roused  the  fervor  of  Dominic.  Against  this 
formidable  invasion  the  schoolmen,  headed 
by  Aquinas,  instituted  a  spiritual  crusade. 

Aquinas  saw  and  felt  the  chronic  enigmas 
of  human  existence.  He  faced  them  with 
astonishing  boldness.    The  aim  and  hope  of 


276 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


his  life  was  to  serve  the  world  and  the  church 
by  solving  them.  To  this  high  task  he  early  set 
himself  with  unselfish  courage  and  devotion ; 
by  a  lifetime  of  immensely  laborious  study 
he  accumulated  all  the  learning  of  his  own 
age,  and  thus  equipped  himself  for  the  accom- 
plishment of  his  grand  design.  It  was  nothing 
less  than  this :  to  effect  a  harmony  of  reason 
and  revelation.  His  assumptions  were  that 
both  were  of  divine  origin  and  authority,  and 
that  no  truth  uttered  by  the  one  could  con- 
tradict any  truth  uttered  by  the  other.  Dis- 
gusted with  the  obscurity  and  confusion  which 
prevailed  in  the  theologies  of  the  age,  he 
sought  to  introduce  an  orderly,  consistent, 
and  all-comprehensive  system;  and  in  his 
effort  to  accomplish  this  purpose  he  invoked 
all  the  subtleties  and  power  of  Aristotle's 
logic. 

He  first  published  several  works  which 
served  as  preliminaries  to  his  greatest  work. 
Among  these  were  a  commentary  on  the  so- 
called  Sententice,  or  "Sentences,"  of  Lom- 
bardus;  and  the  Summa  Catholicce  Fidei 
contra  Gentiles,  or  "Defense  of  the  Catholic 
faith."  In  the  latter  —  the  ablest  of  his 
philosophical  writings  —  he  throws  new  light 
over  the  most  abstract  truths,  and  the  princi- 
ples of  the  church  are  defended  against  its 
enemies  both  within  and  without.  The  cir- 
cumstance of  his  being  a  Dominican,  and 
boasted  of  by  his  order  as  their  great  orna- 
ment, excited  the  jealousy  of  the  Franciscans 
against  him.  In  the  beginning  of  the  four- 
teenth century.  Duns  Scotus,  a  Franciscan, 
came  forward  as  the  declared  opponent  of  the 
doctrines  of  Aquinas,  and  founded  the  phi- 
losophico-thcological  school  of  the  Scotists, 
to  whom  the  Thomists,  mostly  Dominicans, 
stood  opposed.  The  Thomists  leaned  in 
philosophy  to  nominalism,  although  they 
held  the  abstract  form  to  be  the  essence  of 
things;  the  Scotists,  on  the  other  hand, 
inclined  to  realism;  and  out  of  this  rivalry 
sprang  up  the  famous  controversy  over 
nominalism  and  realism  that  characterized 
the  philosophical  discussions  of  the  middle 
ages  for  several  centuries. 

One  great  service  which  Aquinas  rendered 
to  philosophy  was  that  of  encouraging  and 
obtaining  a  complete  translation  of  the  works 
of  Aristotle  directly  from  the  Greek.  Until 
then  only  portions  of  them  had  been  known, 
and  those  very  imperfectly  by  Latin  transla- 
tions from  the  Arabic. 

After  ten  years  of  labor  Aquinas  expanded 


his  earlier  work  —  Contra  Gentiles  —  into  hia 
great  work,  the  Summa  Theologice,  or  "Sum 
of  Theology,"  which  remains  to  this  day  the 
most  comprehensive  and  complete  of  all 
expositions  of  the  Catholic  system. 

The  work  has  three  divisions,  broadly  cor- 
responding to  the  subjects  God,  man,  the 
church.  The  existence  of  God  is  demon- 
strated, on  Aristotelian  principles,  as  the  final 
source  of  motion,  itself  unmoved.  But  how 
pass  from  the  Aristotelian  to  the  Christian 
God?  To  demonstrate  the  Trinity  was  infi- 
nitely beyond  human  power.  Nevertheless, 
even  here  reason  must  not  abdicate.  In 
human  nature  rightly  fathomed  was  to  be 
seen  something  that  rendered  the  mysteries 
of  the  faith  not  indeed  intelligible  but  con- 
ceivable. Those  things,  Aquinas  explains, 
that  are  said  of  God  are  to  be  interpreted  by 
analogies  drawn  from  the  highest  of  created 
things.  Whoever  understands  is  aware  that 
in  the  act  of  understanding  there  issues  some- 
what from  his  mental  power  and  knowledge, 
which  is  the  concept  of  the  thing  understood. 
This  is  the  word  —  first  unspoken,  then 
spoken.  So,  too,  in  the  operation  of  will 
there  is  within  us  something  else  that  pro- 
ceeds, a  proceeding  of  love,  by  which  the 
loved  object  is  said  to  dwell  within  the  lover. 

But  disquisitions  on  the  nature  of  being  and 
the  existence  of  God,  though  the  foundation 
of  the  Catholic  system,  yet  occupy  but  a  small 
portion  of  it.  Even  of  this  first  division  of 
the  work,  a  large  part  is  occupied  with  the 
attempt  to  reconcile  the  accepted  conclusions 
of  physical  science  with  the  Mosaic  account 
of  the  creation,  and  with  the  relations  of 
mind  and  matter,  as  illustrated  in  the  contrast 
of  human  nature  with  the  bodiless  intellects 
called  angels  —  a  discussion  fertile  in  after 
consequences.  Under  the  guidance  of  his 
master,  Albert  the  Great,  Aquinas  had 
thoroughly  assimilated  the  physical  science 
of  his  time.  He  had  begun  his  career  by 
voluminous  commentaries  on  the  physical 
and  metaphysical  works  of  Aristotle.  Enough 
was  known  of  the  solar  system  and  of  natural 
history  to  render  the  acceptance  of  the 
Hebrew  story  of  creation  very  difficult. 
Why  was  light  created  on  the  first  day,  and 
the  stars  on  the  fourth?  Why  was  the  moon 
called  one  of  the  two  great  lights,  being 
smaller  than  any  of  the  planets?  Why  were 
birds  and  reptiles  said  to  issue  from  the 
water,  quadrupeds  from  the  land?  These 
and  countless  other  objections  are  fully  set 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


377 


forward.  The  task  of  reconciling  science  and 
scripture,  familiar  to  our  own  times,  then 
begins,  the  result  being  that  a  far  wider 
pathway  was  opened  for  scientific  research 
than  is  commonly  supposed. 

The  second  and  most  important  division  of 
the  work  deals  with  the  moral  government 
of  man.  It  has  two  parts,  the  first  discussing 
the  more  general  aspects  of  human  conduct, 
the  second  the  more  special.  In  the  first  the 
principal  subjects  considered  are  free  will; 
human  passions;  virtue  and  vice;  sin,  origi- 
nal, venial,  and  moral;  law,  natural.  Judaic, 
Christian;  and  grace.  In  the  second  sub- 
division each  virtue  is  considered  with  its 
opposing  vice ;  first,  the  theological  virtues  of 
faith,  hope,  and  charity ;  second,  the  cardinal 
virtues,  prudence,  justice,  fortitude,  and  tem- 
perance. Throughout  this  part  of  the  work 
the  Ethics  of  Aristotle  is  far  more  frequently 
quoted  than  the  scriptures  or  the  fathers. 
It  may  be  noted  that  in  the  discussion  of  jus- 
tice Aquinas  was  considered  by  the  great 
Grotius  to  have  laid  a  sound  foundation  for 
the  theory  of  international  law. 

The  third  part  deals  with  the  incarnation, 
the  sacraments,  and  the  state  of  the  soul  after 
death.  Of  this  part  the  first  ninety  chapters 
only  are  believed  to  be  by  Aquinas.  It  is 
known  at  any  rate,  that  on  December  6,  1273, 
he  was  writing  at  Naples  the  ninetieth  chap- 
ter when  weakness  of  health  compelled  him 
to  break  off  his  studies.  It  may  be  remarked 
that  the  doctrine  of  papal  infallibility,  as  the 
result  of  ultimate  appeal  in  question  of  dis- 
puted doctrine,  is  systematically  maintained. 
Aquinas  could  not  conceive  of  a  society  like 
the  church  existing  without  government. 

The  only  scholastic  theologian  who  in  any 
degree  rivaled  St.  Thomas  in  his  own  age 
was  the  so-called  "subtle  doctor,"  Duns 
Scotus,  of  the  order  of  St.  Francis.  The 
Franciscans  naturally  followed  Scotus,  and 
the  Dominicans  founded  their  teachings  on 
St.  Thomas ;  henceforward  mediaeval  theology 
was  divided  Jnto  two  schools  —  Scotists 
and  Thomists.  The  divergencies  which 
penetrate  almost  every  branch  of  doc- 
trine depend  upon  the  different  systems  of 
metaphysics  or  scholastic  philosophy  upon 
which  the  theologies  were  based.  These 
differences  concerned  principally  the  idea  of 
God,  the  operations  of  grace  and  justification, 
the  mode  in  which  the  sacraments  take 
effect,  etc.  Popularly,  Scotism  is  best  known 
for  its  advocacy  of  the  immaculate  concep>- 


tion,  and  for  its  doctrine  of  the  incamAtioo. 
Thomism  represents,  on  the  other  hand,  with 
few  exceptions,  the  general  teaching  of  the 
Catholic  church  to-day  —  the  aouroee  oC 
truth  through  revelation  and  reafloo,  the 
doctrine  of  God,  the  visible  church,  the 
virtues,  and  other  cardinal  doctriDes  set  out 
in  his  writings. 

It  is  statixl  that  on  the  assembling  of  the 
council  of  Trent,  essentially  a  council  against 
Lutheranism,  the  advances  of  which  had  ren- 
dered it  necessary  to  reconstruct  the  dognutio 
fortifications  of  the  church,  there  was  laid  00 
the  desk  of  the  secretary  of  the  council,  beside 
the  Bible,  a  ponderous  folio  of  the  Summa 
Theologice,  the  masterpiece  of  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas,  produced  about  three  centuries 
earlier.  It  had  long  won  acceptance  and 
reverence  as  the  highest  authority  in  theology 
and  philosophy,  and  was  held  to  contain  the 
final  solution  of  all  the  problems  which  were  to 
be  discussed  at  the  council.  The  incident  is 
significant,  not  only  of  the  extraordinary 
authority  of  the  book  at  that  time,  but  also  of 
the  character  which  modern  Catholicism  was 
to  take  from  it. 

"In  his  works,"  says  Milman,  "or  rather  in 
his  one  great  work,  is  the  final  result  of  all 
which  has  been  decided  by  pope  or  council, 
taught  by  the  fathers,  accepted  by  tradition, 
argued  by  the  schools,  inculcated  in  the  con- 
fessional. The  'Sum  of  Theology'  is  the 
authentic,  authoritative,  acknowledged  code 
of  Latin  Christianity." 

The  commentaries  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas 
on  scripture  and  his  devotional  treatises  also 
have  a  high  reputation.  His  influence  on  the 
theological  thought  of  the  world  from  his  own 
time  down  to  the  present  has  been  immense. 
He  imited  theology  with  ethics,  and  laid 
broad  and  deep  the  foundations  of  Christian 
morals  —  one  of  his  distinct  achievements. 
In  1879  his  philosophy  and  theology  were 
declared,  on  papal  authority,  the  basic 
teachings  on  those  subjects,  throughout  the 
Catholic  world;  and,  in  1883,  his  complete 
works  were  published  under  the  auspices  of 
Pope  Leo  XIIL,  in  Latin,  the  language  of 
their  original  composition.  Important  parts 
of  all  his  works,  as  well  as  summaries,  have 
also  been  published  in  English. 

In  recognition  of  his  talents  and  virtues, 
St.  Thomas  has  been  variously  styled  the 
"universal  doctor,"  "angelical  doctor," 
"prince  of  scholastics,"  "doctor  of  the 
church,"  and  "patron of  all  CathoUc  schools.** 


278 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 

BACON 


A.  D.  AGE 

1661  Bom  at  London 

1573  Entered  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,    .  12 

1676     Visited  France, 16 

1682     Admitted  to  the  bar,      21 

1697     Essays 36 

1603     Knighted  by  James  I., 42 

1606     Advancement  of  Learning,      44 

1609     Wisdom  of  the  Ancients, 48 


A.  D.  AOB 

1613  Attorney-general  of  Great  Britain,    .    .  62 

1617  Lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal,  .'    .    .    .  66 

1618  Lord  chancellor,  and  Baron  Verulam,  67 

1620  Novum  Organutn, 59 

1621  Charged  with  corruption, 60 

1622  History  of  Henry  VII., 61 

1626  Died  at  Highgate, 66 


■pRANCIS  BACON,  commonly,  but  incor- 
*  rectly,  called  Lord  Bacon,  was  one  of  the 
most  illustrious  of  English  philosophers,  as 
well  as  an  eminent  jurist  and  statesman. 
He  came  of  distinguished  parentage,  being 
the  second  son  of  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon, 
lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal,  under  Queen 
Elizabeth,  and  Anne,  daughter  of  Sir  Anthony 
Cook,  the  preceptor  of  Edward  VI.  The  place 
of  his  birth  was  York  House,  in  the  Strand, 
London,  where  he  was  bom  January  22,  1561. 

In  childhood  Bacon  was  remarkable  for 
physical  delicacy  and  mental  precocity.  He 
had  a  lively  wit,  and  his  sedateness  was  so 
marked  that  the  queen  took  pleasure  in  calling 
him  her  "young  lord  keeper."  At  the  age 
of  twelve  he  was  sent  to  Trinity  college, 
Cambridge,  where  he  remained  in  residence 
for  three  years,  and  quitted  it  with  a  strong 
conviction  against  the  fruitfulness  of  the  sys- 
tem of  philosophy  there  taught,  and  the  con- 
sequent necessity  of  educational  reform.  He 
revolted  especially  against  the  philosophy  of 
Aristotle,  which  he  considered  "a  philosophy 
only  for  disputations  and  contentions,  and 
barren  in  the  production  of  works  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Ufe  of  man  " ;  and  his  intellec- 
tual efforts  were  ever  after  bent  on  working 
out  and  declaring  the  philosophical  views  for 
which  he  is  chiefly  famous. 

In  1576  he  was  entered  as  a  student  in  the 
society  of  Gray's  Inn,  with  the  view  to  pre- 
paring for  the  bar.  Before,  however,  he 
commenced  his  legal  studies,  his  father  sent 
him  to  France,  in  the  suite  of  the  British 
ambassador.  Sir  Amyas  Paulet.  During  his 
residence  abroad  he  wrote  his  first  work, 
which  was  not  intended  originally  for  publi- 
cation, but  was  improved  and  printed  after 
some  years.  It  was  called  Of  the  State  of 
Europe,  and  derives  its  chief  interest  from 
its  having  been  written  at  the  early  age  of 
nineteen.  The  civil  and  political  views,  how- 
ever, of  even  this  very  early  production,  are 
sound,  and  the  composition  graceful. 

In  1579  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon  died,  leaving 
Francis  but  a  small   share  of  his  fortune. 


Finding  his  private  means  insufficient  for  his 
support,  he  returned  to  England  and  com- 
menced the  study  of  law,  to  which  he  applied 
himself  with  great  diligence.  He  did  not, 
however,  suffer  the  demands  of  his  legal 
studies  to  interfere  with  those  pursuits,  in 
which  he  was  fully  persuaded  that  his  great 
strength  lay.  Between  the  ages  of  twenty 
and  twenty-eight  he  produced  a  work,  which 
he  called  the  Greatest  Birth  of  Time.  It  was 
never  published,  and  is  lost  in  its  separate 
form,  but  the  substance  of  it  remains  in  his 
Instauralio. 

In  1582  Bacon  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
and  in  1588  was  chosen  reader,  or  lecturer, 
by  the  society  of  which  he  was  a  member. 
In  the  same  year  he  received  the  only  mark 
of  honor  conferred  upon  him  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  in  the  title  of  "counsel  learned  in 
the  law  extraordinary."  It  is  worthy  of 
notice  that  Bacon,  who  was  the  nephew  of 
the  lord  high  treasurer  Burleigh,  and  cousin 
of  the  secretary  of  state,  Sir  Robert  Cecil, 
was  never  able  to  obtain  any  office  in  the 
court  of  Elizabeth.  The  reason  evidently  was 
that  he  had  early  attached  himself  to  the 
faction  of  the  earl  of  Essex,  who,  though  the 
queen's  greatest  favorite,  was  in  constant 
opposition  to  her  ministers.  This  unfortunate 
nobleman  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost,  at 
the  extreme  risk  of  offending  his  testy  mistress, 
to  secure  for  Bacon  the  place  of  solicitor- 
general,  as  the  first  step  of  legal  advancement ; 
but  he  was  unsuccessful.  The  ministers 
declared  their  belief  that  Bacon  was  merely 
a  theorist,  and  that  his  talents  were  not  fitted 
for  practical  purposes.  Perhaps  there  was 
no  small  mixture  of  jealousy  in  this  declara^ 
tion.  To  make  some  amends  to  Bacon  for 
this  disappointment,  Lord  Essex  gave  him  an 
estate  out  of  his  own  private  fortune,  which 
he  afterward  sold  at  a  ridiculously  low  price. 
This  was  one  of  many  kindnesses  which  Bacon 
illy  requited  in  after  years. 

In  1592  Bacon  published  a  defense  of  the 
government,  in  answer  to  a  hbel,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  he  received  the  reversion  of 


FRANCIS  BACON 
From  a  fainting 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


381 


the  register's  office  to  the  star  chamber, 
which  he  did  not  enjoy  until  twenty  years 
later.  In  the  parliament  of  1593  he  was 
chosen  a  member  for  the  county  of  Middlesex, 
a  proof  that  his  pubhc  talents  were  not  unap- 
preciated by  his  countrymen.  In  parlia- 
ment he  proved  himself  an  orator  of  the  first 
class;  his  speeches  were  extremely  elegant 
and  forcible,  and  his  wit  so  well  blended  with 
good  sense  and  winning  manners  as  to  secure 
him  the  favorable  attention  of  that  assem- 
bly. He  was  frequently  employed  by  the 
government  to  defend  their  measures  in  parlia- 
ment, which  he  did  with  consummate  pru- 
dence, but  he  still  went  publicly  unrewarded. 

In  1596  Bacon  wrote  but  did  not  then 
publish  his  Maxims  of  the  Law;  and  in  the 
year  following  he  published  his  first  edition 
of  Essays,  or  Counsels  Civil  and  Moral  — 
the  work  by  which  he  is  best  known  to  the 
general  reader.  In  the  trial  of  the  earl  of 
Essex  for  high  treason,  a  few  years  later. 
Bacon  appeared  as  counsel  for  the  crown; 
and,  after  the  execution  of  that  unfortunate 
nobleman,  the  queen  directed  him  to  compose 
and  publish  an  account  of  the  earl  of 
Essex's  treasons.  His  apparent  zeal  on  this 
occasion  excited  the  indignation  of  the  people, 
among  whom  Essex  was  much  beloved,  and 
he  was  obliged  to  apologize  for  his  conduct 
by  a  letter  to  the  earl  of  Devonshire,  one  of 
the  firm  partisans  of  Essex. 

The  death  of  Elizabeth,  which  soon  followed 
that  of  her  favorite,  revived  Bacon's  hopes  of 
advancement.  He  applied  himself  early  to 
obtain  the  favor  of  the  new  king,  James  I., 
and  a  proclamation,  which  he  drew  up  on  the 
latter's  arrival,  though  never  pubhshed,  did 
him  great  service.  He  was  introduced  to  the 
king  at  Whitehall,  and  was  knighted,  July  23, 
1603.  In  the  following  year  his  services  to 
the  court,  in  parliament  and  elsewhere,  were 
rewarded  by  the  title  of  king's  counsel,  with 
a  stipend  of  forty  pounds,  and  an  additional 
pension  of  sixty  pounds. 

Although  he  seemed  on  the  high  road  of 
preferment.  Bacon  had  powerful  enemies  to 
obstruct  his  advancement.  Sir  Robert  Cecil, 
son  of  Lord  Burleigh,  created  earl  of  Salisbury 
by  James  I.,  though  Bacon's  cousin,  had 
always  shown  himself  adverse  to  his  kinsman's 
advancement,  apparently  from  jealousy  of  his 
uncommon  talents.  Between  Bacon  and  the 
attorney-general.  Sir  Edward  Coke,  there 
existed  a  more  violent  hostility,  arising  from 
various  causes.    Sir  Edward  was  successful 


early,  Bacon  late;  and  the  power  which  Coke 
obtained  he  used  to  depress  his  antagonist. 
They  had  both  been  suitors  of  the  rich  Lady 
Hatton,  Lord  Burleigh's  granddaughter,  wlumi 
Coke  married.  As  a  further  exasperation  of 
their  enmity,  a  celebrated  legal  dispute 
occurred  in  1616,  between  the  courta  of  king's 
bench  and  chancery,  "  Whether  the  chancery, 
after  judgment  given  in  the  courts  of  law, 
was  prohibited  from  giving  relief  upon  matters 
arising  in  equity,  which  the  judges  at  Uw 
could  not  determine  or  relieve."  Bacon  had 
a  leading  share  in  obtaining  that  decision  in 
favor  of  the  privileges  of  the  court  of  chan- 
cery, which  has  had  so  great  an  influence  upon 
the  jurisdiction  of  courts. 

In  1605  Bacon  published  the  first  part  of 
Advancement  of  Learning,  subsetjuently  ex- 
panded into  De  Augmentis  Scientiarum,  or 
"Advancement  of  Science,"  which  inaugu- 
rated a  new  era  in  English  hterature  and 
science.  His  view  of  the  service  he  was  doing 
is  shown  in  a  letter  to  Lord  Salisbury,  sent 
with  a  copy  of  this  work,  where  he  says  that 
in  this  book  he  was  contented  to  awake  bet- 
ter spirits,  being  himself  like  a  bell  ringer, 
who  is  the  first  to  call  others  to  church. 

The  year  following  this  notable  work  he 
married  Alice,  the  daughter  of  Benedict  Barn- 
ham,  a  wealthy  London  merchant  and  alder- 
man, who  outlived  him  many  years,  and  by 
whom  he  had  no  children. 

In  the  year  1607  Bacon  achieved  his  first 
substantial  success  in  public  affairs.  Lord 
Salisbury  had  arisen  to  such  power  and  con- 
fidence with  the  king  that  he  no  longer  feared 
the  talents  of  Bacon,  and  with  his  concurrence, 
if  not  by  his  means.  Bacon  was  at  length 
appointed  solicitor-general  of  the  kingdom, 
which,  besides  its  future  promise,  was  an  office 
worth  five  or  six  thousand  pounds  a  year  to 
him  in  private  practice.  Though  now  a  busy 
man,  and  constantly  engaged  in  affairs  of  the 
crown,  he  nevertheless  found  time  to  write 
and  publish,  in  1609,  his  Wisdom  of  the 
Ancients,  a  work  of  great  elegance  and  pro- 
found learning.  In  1611  he  was  appointed 
joint  judge  of  the  knights  marshals'  court, 
and,  in  1613,  attorney-general,  on  the  promo- 
tion of  Lord  Coke  to  the  office  of  chief  justice 
of  the  king's  bench.  Bacon  did  not  attach 
himself  to  the  fortunes  of  the  reigning  favorite, 
the  earl  of  Somerset,  and  when  that  lord  and 
his  countess  were  brought  to  trial  for  the  mur- 
der of  Sir  Thomas  Overbury,  he  had  the 
management  of  the  case  for  the  crown,  which 


282 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


he  so  conducted  as  to  keep  himself  out  of  the 
disgrace  into  which  Coke  and  others  fell  with 
the  king,  on  account  of  this  critical  affair. 

He  was  further  advanced  to  the  office  of 
lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal  in  March,  1617, 
on  the  resignation  of  the  lord  chancellor, 
Viscount  Brackley,  and  the  same  year  sat  at 
the  head  of  the  council  board  as  manager  of 
the  king's  affairs,  during  the  absence  of  the 
monarch  and  his  new  favorite,  Buckingham, 
in  Scotland.  On  the  return  of  the  king.  Bacon 
was  made  lord  high  chancellor,  January  4, 
1618,  and  in  July  following  he  was  created 
Baron  Verulam.  In  1620  he  sent  to  the 
king  his  Novum  Organum,  or  "New  Instru- 
ment of  Logic,  better  calculated  for  the  real 
progress  of  science  than  that  of  Aristotle." 

The  next  year  Bacon  received  the  title  of 
Viscount  St.  Albans,  and  opened  parlia- 
ment of  February,  1621,  the  most  honored 
and  among  the  most  powerful  subjects  of  the 
realm.  But  this  parliament  was  fatal  to  him. 
James  I.  had  not  called  this  assembly  together 
for  more  than  ten  years,  except  for  the  short 
session  of  two  months  in  1614,  and  during 
that  period  had  been  subsisting  on  the  uncon- 
stitutional resources  of  benevolences,  and  the 
sale  of  monopolies.  Almost  the  first  act  of 
this  parliament  was  the  inquiry  into  abuses, 
more  particularly  those  of  the  courts  of 
justice,  and  the  sale  of  patents. 

As  all  patents  had  to  pass  the  seal,  it  was 
natural  that  the  conduct  of  the  lord  keeper 
should  be  looked  into,  and  this  led  to  further 
inquiry  concerning  the  administration  of 
justice  in  the  chancellor's  court.  The  chair- 
man of  a  committee  appointed  to  conduct 
this  inquiry  brought  up  two  charges  of 
bribery  against  Bacon.  This  alarmed  James 
and  his  favorite,  and  parliament  was  ad- 
journed for  three  weeks  in  the  hope  that 
the  affair  would  blow  over.  But  during  this 
recess  twenty-two  cases  of  bribery  were 
charged  upon  the  chancellor,  and  a  deputa- 
tion from  the  house  of  commons  waited  on 
him  to  know  whether  he  would  confess  or 
refute  them.  In  a  few  days  he  chose  to 
make  confession,  and  threw  himself  on  the 
mercy  of  his  peers. 

Bacon's  confession  was  not  thought  ample 
enough,  and  too  extenuatory.  He  was  then 
obliged  to  make  one  still  more  full,  in  writing, 
upon  which  a  deputation  of  thirteen  lords  was 
sent  to  him,  to  know  whether  it  were  really  his. 
His  answer  to  them  was,  "  My  Lords,  it  is  my 
act,  my  hand,  my  heart;  I  beseech  your 


lordships  to  be  merciful  to  a  broken  reed." 
At  the  petition  of  the  peers,  the  seals  were 
sequestered,  Bacon  was  deprived  of  his 
speakership  and  of  his  seat  in  parliament,  and 
further  was  fined  forty  thousand  pounds, 
sentenced  to  imprisonment  during  the  king's 
pleasure,  debarred  from  entering  the  court, 
and  declared  incapable  of  holding  any  office 
in  the  future. 

This  penalty  was  considerably  mitigated  by 
James,  who  confined  him  but  a  short  time 
in  the  Tower,  allowed  him  to  make  over  the 
fine  to  assignees  of  his  own  choosing,  and,  for 
the  settling  of  his  affairs,  gave  him  leave  to 
reside  for  some  time  within  the  verge  of  the 
court.  After  some  years,  at  the  earnest 
sohcitation  of  Bacon,  "that  his  royal  master 
would  be  pleased  to  wipe  out  his  disgrace  from 
the  page  of  history  by  his  princely  pardon," 
he  received  the  favor  he  so  much  desired. 
At  the  age  of  sixty-one  he  retired  to  his 
country  seat  at  Gorhambury,  having  an  in- 
come of  about  twenty-five  hundred  pounds. 
His  debts  amounted  to  about  thirty  thou- 
sand pounds,  of  which  he  Uquidated  a  third 
before  his  death. 

Here  —  at  Gorhambury  —  apart  from  the 
noise  and  stir  of  life,  Bacon  more  sedulously 
bent  his  mind  to  the  cultivation  of  philosophy, 
his  true  field  of  labor.  With  the  exception 
of  his  History  of  Henry  VII.,  in  1622,  and 
a  tract  written  against  the  match  between 
Prince  Charles  and  the  infanta  of  Spain,  the 
last  years  of  his  fife  were  spent  in  making 
philosophical  experiments,  and  in  moulding 
his  works  to  a  more  perfect  form.  It  was  his 
great  wish  that  what  he  had  written  should  be 
translated  into  the  general  language  of  learn- 
ing, Latin.  Consequently,  much  of  his  time 
during  this  period  was  employed  in  expanding 
and  translating  the  Advancement,  or  revising 
the  translations  of  his  friends. 

In  March,  1626,  he  caught  cold  while 
stuffing  a  fowl  with  snow  near  Highgate,  in 
order  to  observe  the  effect  of  cold  on  the  pres- 
ervation of  flesh.  He  was  taken  to  the  house 
of  Lord  Arundel,  in  Highgate,  on  his  way  to 
London,  and  a  week's  acute  illness  carried 
him  to  his  grave,  April  9,  1626.  He  was 
buried  in  St.  Michael's  church,  St.  Albans. 
For  a  long  time  no  stone  told  where  he  lay, 
until  the  affection  of  an  old  servant  erected  a 
marble  monument  to  the  memory  of  his  noble 
master. 

Bacon's  personal  appearance  was  prepos- 
sessing.   He  was  of  medium   stature,   well 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


888 


I 


formed,  but  not  robust.  His  head  was  well 
poised,  with  a  high,  broad  forehead,  and  his 
face  was  expressive  of  benevolence  and  high 
intellectual  culture.  "  In  advanced  life,"  says 
Lord  Campbell,  "his  whole  appearance  was 
venerably  pleasing,  so  that  a  stranger  was 
insensibly  drawn  to  love  before  knowing  how 
much  reason  there  was  to  admire  him.  He 
was  a  most  delightful  companion,  adapting 
himself  to  company  of  every  degree,  calling, 
and  humor,  and  bringing  out  with  great  effect 
his  unexhausted  stores  of  jests  new  and  old." 
He  was  singularly  free  from  all  jealousy, 
delighted  to  recognize  merit  in  others,  and 
was  uniformly  kind  to  his  servants  and 
dependents.  His  glaring  weaknesses  were 
founded  on  his  extravagance  and  inordinate 
love  of  display.  These,  together  with  his 
supreme  belief  in  himself,  led  him  to  ignore 
many  of  the  ordinary  laws  of  morality,  and 
finally  culminated  in  his  social  disgrace  and 
ruin.  He  seemed  peculiarly  deficient,  too, 
in  gratitude,  was  continually  in  pecuniary 
difficulties,  and  was  even  arrested  for  debt  on 
several  occasions.  Whether  the  classic  char- 
acterization of  him  as  the  "wisest,  brightest, 
and  meanest  of  mankind  "  was  altogether  just 
and  accurate  will  ever  be  a  matter  of  divided 
opinion;  but  that  he  was  eminently  human 
both  in  his  faults  and  his  virtues,  all  will 
agree. 

At  the  time  of  his  death.  Bacon's  name 
was  widely  known  throughout  Europe,  and  he 
himself  was  appreciated  on  the  continent  to  a 
far  greater  extent  than  by  his  fellow  country- 
men. Some  allusion  to  this  is  found  in  his 
will,  in  which,  after  having  commended  his 
soul  to  God,  and  his  body  to  dust,  he  proceeds, 
prophetically,  to  "bequeath  his  name  and 
fame  to  foreign  nations,  and  to  his  own  coun- 
trymen after  some  time  be  passed  over." 

Bacon's  literary  work  is  divisible  into  phil- 
osophical, purely  literary,  and  professional 
writings.  His  philosophy  is  chiefly  to  be 
studied  in  (1)  Advancement  of  Learning,  a 
review  of  the  state  of  knowledge  in  his  own 
time,  and  its  chief  defects;  (2)  De  Augmentis 
Scientiarum,  a  Latin  expansion  of  the  Ad- 
vancement; and  (3)  Novum  Organum,  intended 
to  form  the  second  book  of  a  never-completed 
greater  treatise,  Instauratio  Magna,  a  review 
and  encyclopedia  of  all  knowledge. 

The  Novum  Organum  is  his  chief  work,  and 
may  be  regarded  as  the  one  supreme  thought 
of  his  life.  He  not  only  commenced  it  twelve 
different  times,  but  after  it  had  been  first 


completed  he  was  almost  oeaaden  in  retouch- 
ing  it.  In  this  work,  as  indicated  by  the 
title.  Bacon  proposes  to  substitute  for  the 
Organum  of  Aristotle,  the  scholastic  logic, 
the  syllogism  and  abstract  principlee  gener- 
ally, a  new  Organum,  a  logic  of  experience  and 
induction.  This  new  logic  was  only  presented 
as  the  instrument  of  a  vast  reform,  which  he 
himself  sets  out  as  follows : 

" Man,  being  the  servant  and  interpreUr  of 
nature,  can  do  and  understand  so  much  and 
so  much  only  as  he  has  observed  in  fact  or  in 
thought  of  the  course  of  nature ;  beyond  this 
he  neither  knows  anything  nor  can  do  any- 
thing. 

"Neither  the  naked  hand  nor  the  under- 
standing left  to  itself  can  effect  much.  It  is 
by  instruments  and  helps  that  the  work  ia 
done,  which  are  as  much  wanted  for  the  under- 
standing as  for  the  hand.  And  as  the  instru- 
ments of  the  hand  either  give  motion  or  guide 
it,  so  the  instruments  of  the  mind  supply 
other  suggestions  for  the  understanding  or 
cautions. 

"Human  knowledge  and  human  power 
meet  in  one ;  for  where  the  cause  is  not  known 
the  effect  cannot  be  produced.  Nature  to  be 
commanded  must  be  obeyed ;  and  that  which 
in  contemplation  is  as  the  cause  is  in  operation 
as  the  rule. 

"The  conclusions  of  human  reason  as 
ordinarily  applied  in  matter  of  nature,  I  call 
for  the  sake  of  distinction  Anticipations  of 
Nature  (as  a  thing  rash  or  premature).  That 
reason  which  is  elicited  from  facts  by  a  just 
and  methodical  process  I  call  Interpretation  of 
Nature. 

"  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  if  men  had  ready 
at  hand  a  just  history  of  nature  and  experience, 
and  labored  diligently  thereon;  and  if  they 
could  bind  themselves  to  two  rules  —  the 
first  to  lay  aside  received  opinions  and 
notions;  and  the  second,  to  r^ain  the  mind 
for  a  time  from  the  highest  generalizations, 
and  those  next  to  them  —  they  would  be  able 
by  the  native  and  genuine  force  of  the  mind, 
without  any  other  art,  to  fall  into  my  form  of 
interpretation.  For  interpretation  is  the  true 
and  natural  work  of  the  mind  when  freed 
from  impediments.  It  is  true,  however,  that 
by  my  precepts  everything  will  be  in  more 
readiness,  and  much  more  sure. 

"Nor  again  do  I  mean  to  say  that  no  im- 
provement can  be  made  upon  these.  On  the 
contrary,  I  that  regard  the  mind  not  only  in  ita 
own  faculties,   but   in   its  connection  with 


284 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


things,  must  needs  hold  that  the  art  of  dis- 
covery may  advance  as  discoveries  advance." 

The  purpose  of  it  all  was  to  be  the  great 
philosophy  of  the  future  —  active  science. 
The  conflict  between  science  and  metaphysics 
had  already  begun  through  the  astronomi- 
cal discoveries  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
Bacon  conceived  the  next  step  to  be  the 
scientific  observations  of  nature,  and  the 
construction  of  a  doctrine  applicable  to  the 
conduct  of  human  life,  so  that  the  richness  of 
its  results  might  be  contrasted  with  the 
sterility  of  metaphysics.  He  found  that  the 
beliefs  of  learned  men  —  apart  from  religious 
beliefs  —  rested  upon  the  authority  of  one 
unquestionably  great  intelligence,  Aristotle, 
who  had  invented  laws  of  science,  unfounded 
except  in  the  speculations  of  his  own  mind, 
and  many  of  them  misunderstood  by  his 
idolizers.  These  laws  were  given  or  made,  and 
facts  were  supposed  to  follow  from  them 
necessarily  and  without  question.  But  Bacon 
proposed  to  found  his  general  laws  on  actual 
experiments.  So  that,  when  a  multitude  of 
conclusions  were  adduced  from  this  course  of 
proceeding,  and  laws  should  be  formulated 
which  fairly  accounted  for  certain  phenomena, 
the  application  of  such  laws  might  further 
become  the  confirmation  of  fresh,  and,  it  may 
be,  more  difficult  combinations. 

The  Novum  Organum  begins  by  eliminating 
four  sources  of  error,  called  by  Bacon  idols. 
(1)  The  errors  due  to  the  inherent  weakness 
of  man's  understanding,  its  incapacity  for 
resisting  sensuous  impressions  or  impulses  of 
passion;  its  readiness  to  suppose  far  more 
simplicity  in  surrounding  nature  than  really 
exists;  its  want  of  patience  and  sobriety. 
These  things  he  called  idols  of  the  tribe.  (2) 
The  errors  originating  in  the  peculiar  con- 
stitution and  temper  of  each  individual. 
These  he  called  idols  of  the  den.  (3)  The 
errors  springing  from  inaccurate  use  of  lan- 
guage—  the  idols  of  the  market.  (4)  The 
errors  brought  about  by  the  prejudice  of 
philosophic  systems — the  idols  of  the  theater. 

The  second  part  of  the  Organum  deals  with 
the  interpretation  of  nature.  The  object  is 
to  detect  what  Bacon  calls  forms,  correspond- 
ing very  nearly  to  what  we  know  as  laws  of 
nature,  i.  e.,  uniform  actions  exhibited  in 
widely  different  objects.  "A  nature  being 
given,"  he  says,  "we  must  first  present  to  the 
understanding  all  the  known  instances  which 
agree  in  the  same  nature,  though  the  subject- 
matter  be  considerably  diversified."    These 


must  be  contrasted  with  instances  which  do 
not  admit  of  the  given  nature.  Most  im- 
portant of  all  are  what  he  terms  prerogative 
instances,  of  which  he  defines  twenty-seven 
classes.  Among  them  may  be  noted,  solitary 
instances,  those  showing  the  same  quality  in 
bodies  otherwise  different,  or  some  difference 
in  bodies  otherwise  identical;  migratory 
instances,  the  gradual  transition  from  a  given 
state  to  its  opposite;  singular  instances, 
objects  apparently  exceptional,  and  standing 
alone  in  nature ;  instances  of  power,  i.  e.,  the 
study  of  the  principles  underlying  man's 
practical  arts;  instances  of  the  road,  the 
study  of  the  gradual  and  continuous  motions 
of  nature,  as  in  the  germination  and  growth 
of  seeds,  the  incubation  of  eggs;  finally, 
instances  of  the  cross,  otherwise  called 
decisive,  or  judicial  —  the  metaphor  being 
borrowed  from  the  crosses  erected  where 
two  roads  meet:  when  two  explanations 
of  a  fact  are  equally  possible,  find  a  fact 
that  can  only  be  explained  by  one  of  them. 

This  will  illustrate  sufficiently  the  method 
of  the  Organum.  He  did  not  propose  to  make 
discoveries  but  simply  cause  them  to  be  made ; 
yet  he  himself  anticipated  several.  For 
instance,  he  invented  a  thermometer;  he 
instituted  ingenious  experiments  on  the  com- 
pressibility of  bodies,  and  on  the  density  and 
weight  of  air;  he  suggested  chemical  pro- 
cesses; he  suspected  the  law  of  universal 
attraction;  he  foresaw  the  true  explication 
of  the  tides,  and  the  cause  of  colors. 

Here  are  a  few  of  his  prophecies  as  appended 
to  the  New  Atlantis:  The  prolongation  of 
life,  the  restitution  of  youth  in  some  degree, 
the  retardation  of  age,  the  curing  of  diseases 
counted  incurable,  the  mitigation  of  pain, 
more  easy  and  less  loathsome  purgings,  the 
increasing  of  strength  and  activity,  the 
increasing  of  ability  to  suffer  torture  or  pain, 
the  altering  of  complexions,  and  fatness,  and 
leanness,  the  altering  of  statures,  the  altering 
of  features,  the  increasing  and  exalting  of  the 
intellectual  parts,  conversions  of  bodies  into 
other  bodies,  making  of  new  species,  trans- 
planting of  one  species  into  another,  instru- 
ments of  destruction,  as  of  war  and  poison; 
exhilaration  of  spirits  and  change  of  tempera- 
ment; force  of  the  imagination,  either  upon 
another  body,  or  upon  the  body  itself ;  accel- 
eration of  time  in  maturations,  acceleration  of 
time  in  clarifactions,  acceleration  of  putre- 
faction, acceleration  of  decoction,  acceleration 
of  germination,  making  rich  composts  for  the 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


9B5 


earth,  impressions  of  the  air,  and  raising  of 

tempests;  great  alteration,  as  in  induration, 
emollition,  etc.;  turning  crude  and  watery 
substances  into  oily  and  unctuous  substances 
not  now  in  use,  making  new  threads  for  ap- 
parel, and  new  stuffs,  such  as  paper,  glass, 
etc.;  natural  divinations,  deceptions  of  the 
senses,  greater  pleasures  of  the  senses, 
artificial  minerals  and  cements. 

While  soaring  on  sublime  heights  we  must 
not  forget  that  the  chief  end  of  all  speculation 
is  practice,  the  philosophical  is  only  a  means 
to  the  practical ;  all  science  has  prevision  for 
its  object.  Bacon's  greatness,  therefore,  con- 
sists in  his  insistence  on  the  facts  that  man  is 
the  servant  and  interpreter  of  nature,  that 
truth  is  not  derived  from  authority,  and  that 
knowledge  is  the  fruit  of  experience;  and  in 


spite  of  the  defects  of  his  method,  the  impetus 
he  gave  to  future  scientific  investigation  is 
indisputable.  He  was  the  practical  creator 
of  scientific  induction. 

"Bacon,"  says  Bishop  Creighton,  "&nt 
clearly  set  forth  the  claims  of  inductive 
philosophy  as  against  the  old  methods  of 
metaphysical  speculation.  He  asserted  that 
knowledge  was  to  be  found  by  careful  inveati- 
gation  of  nature,  not  by  spinning  cobweba  of 
the  brain.  He  turned  men  from  disputations 
of  words  to  an  observation  of  the  world 
around  them.  Bacon's  method  was  faulty, 
as  was  natural  for  a  beginner;  but  modem 
science  has  still  to  point  to  him  as  the  man 
who  first  brought  into  due  prominence  the 
principles  on  which  its  method  was  to  be 
founded." 


DESCARTES 

A.  D.  AQE  A.  D.  AOB 

1596         Born  at  La  Haye,  France,     ...  1641         Meditationea    de    Prima  PhUoto- 
1604-12  Attended  the  Jesuit  college  at  La  phia,  or  "Speculations  on  Fun- 

Fl^che,      8-16  damental  Philosophy,"  ....         45 

1617-21  Served  in  several  military  cam-  1644         Principia  Philosophug,  or  "Prin- 

paigns, 21-25  ciples  of  Philosophy";   visited 

1624-25  Visited  Italy  and  Switzerland,  .    .   28-29  France, 48 

1629         Retired  to  Holland, 33  1649         At  court  of  Sweden, 63 

1637         Discours  de  la  Mithode,  OT  "Dis-  1650         Died  at  Stockholm,  Sweden,     .    .         64 

course  on  Method," 41 


T3ENE  DU  PERROT  DESCARTES,  dis- 
■'■^  tinguished  French  philosopher,  and 
founder  oi  modern  philosophy,  was  born  at 
La  Haye,  near  Tours,  France,  March  31,  1596. 
His  father  held  hereditary  membership  in  the 
provincial  government  of  Touraine,  and  be- 
longed to  one  of  the  best  families  of  that 
province.  At  his  death,  Descartes  inherited 
a  modest  competency,  which  enabled  him, 
in  after  life,  to  follow  the  philosophic  bent 
of  his  mind  without  difficulty  or  distraction. 
When  about  eight  years  of  age,  Descartes 
was  sent  to  the  Jesuit  college  at  La  Fl^che, 
where  he  remained,  in  all,  about  eight  years. 
During  this  period  of  his  life  he  appears  to 
have  devoted  himself  mainly  to  poetry  and 
mathematics,  particularly  the  latter.  He 
was  also  conducted  by  the  professors  through 
the  regular  course  of  physics  and  philosophy ; 
but  even  at  that  early  age  he  became  deeply 
impressed  with  the  uncertainty  of  the  prem- 
ises they  laid  down,  and  the  conclusions  they 
drew  from  them,  and  felt  then  the  first 
rising  desire  to  see  a  totally  new  reconstruc- 
tion of  all  the  sciences.    Influenced  by  these 


doubts  which  pressed  upon  him,  he  returned 
home  and  gave  up  all  literary  pursuits. 

His  father,  some  time  after,  sent  him  to 
Paris,  to  broaden  his  knowledge  of  the  world 
and  acquire  the  general  culture  which  was 
considered  necessary  to  a  youth  of  noble 
origin.  Here  he  was  won  over  for  a  time  to 
the  illicit  pleasures  and  dissipations  of  the 
capital ;  but  the  silent  reproaches  of  his  best 
friend,  Father  Mersenne,  brought  him  back, 
before  it  was  too  late,  to  his  original  love 
both  of  study  and  virtue.  He  hid  himself 
away,  therefore,  in  some  comer  of  the  metrop- 
olis, concealed  from  all  his  associates,  and 
there  devoted  his  whole  time,  for  more  than 
two  years,  to  mathematical  and  other  philo- 
sophical pursuits.  When  he  emerged  from 
his  solitude,  he  yielded  to  the  solicitations  of 
his  friends  and  family  to  take  up  the  military 
profession.  Perhaps  he  also  thought  that  the 
great  problems  of  human  life  might  appear  to 
him  in  a  new  and  clearer  light,  if  he  withdrew 
himself  temporarily  from  all  theorizing,  and 
entered  into  more  practical  and  active  ptir- 
suits.    What  philosophy  failed  to  teach  him. 


286 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


he  hoped  to  acquire  in  the  way  of  personal 
experience. 

For  this  purpose  he  betook  himself  to 
Holland  in  1617,  where  he  served  under 
Prince  Maurice  as  a  volunteer;  but,  as  there 
were  no  active  operations  at  hand,  he  gave 
up  his  commission,  and  entered  the  Bavarian 
service.  We  find  him  soon  after  taking  part 
in  the  thirty  years'  war,  where  he  witnessed 
the  struggle  of  arms  in  Bohemia  and  Hungary, 
and  bore  himself  with  courage  and  credit.  In 
1621,  after  more  than  four  years'  experience 
of  military  life,  he  renounced  the  profession, 
and  returned  home  to  France.  He  appears 
to  have  taken  no  interest  whatever  in  the 
political  quarrels  of  the  age,  and  to  have  used 
his  experience  in  war  merely  to  study  human 
passions;  to  observe  the  application  of 
mechanical  principles  to  practical  uses;  and 
to  extend  his  knowledge  of  mathematical  and 
physical  science  generally. 

He  now  came  into  possession  of  a  comfort- 
able income  inherited  from  his  mother,  and, 
for  a  short  period,  lived  in  serene  meditation 
at  home.  In  1624-25  he  made  excursions 
into  Switzerland  and  Italy,  and  acquired  a 
steadily  increasing  fame  as  a  mathematician 
and  a  philosopher.  The  fame  which  he  thus 
gained  was  little  to  his  taste;  and  the  per- 
petual disturbance  to  which  he  was  subject 
at  Paris,  as  it  increased  more  and  more 
widely,  induced  him  to  return  to  Holland, 
where  he  spent  nearly  all  of  the  remainder 
of  his  hfe.  His  motive  for  taking  this  step 
was  evidently  not  merely  the  desire  of  philo- 
sophic repose,  but  also  the  consideration  that 
he  might,  in  the  course  of  his  future  career, 
find  a  land  of  universal  toleration,  a  condition 
as  necessary  to  his  peace  as  it  was  agreeable 
to  his  temperament. 

In  1629,  therefore,  when  in  his  thirty-third 
year,  he  took  up  his  abode  in  Amsterdam, 
and  in  this  retreat  he  composed  all  his  prin- 
cipal works.  He  communicated  with  the 
great  world  without  only  through  the  inter- 
mediate agency  of  his  old  and  faithful  friend, 
Mersenne.  His  "Discourse  on  Method"  he 
gave  to  the  world  in  1637;  his  "Speculations 
on  Fundamental  Philosophy,"  in  1641;  his 
"Principles  of  Philosophy,"  in  1644.  In 
Holland,  Descartes  lived  and  studied  for 
twenty  years,  devoting  himself  to  optics, 
meteorology,  anatomy,  chemistry,  and  me- 
chanics, as  well  as  to  the  reform  of  philosophy 
itself.  He  attracted  many  disciples,  and  at 
the  same  time  became  involved  in  several 


learned  controversies,  especially  with  the 
theologians. 

In  1649  he  yielded  to  the  pressing  invita- 
tion of  Queen  Christina  of  Sweden,  to  remove 
to  the  court  of  Stockholm,  and  become  her 
private  tutor.  His  willingness  to  leave  Hol- 
land was  partly  occasioned  by  his  anxiety  to 
escape  from  the  hostility  of  his  enemies.  The 
breaking  up  of  his  old  habits,  combined  with 
the  severity  of  the  climate,  however,  threw 
him  soon  upon  a  bed  of  sickness,  and,  in 
1650,  he  dial  in  the  fifty-fourth  year  of  his 
age.  He  never  married.  In  1666  Louis 
XIV.  caused  his  remains  to  be  carried  to 
France  and  entombed  in  the  church  of  St. 
Genevieve  du  Mont.  In  1819  they  were 
transferred  to  the  church  of  St.  Germain- 
des-Pr^,  their  final  resting  place. 

Descartes  fell  on  one  of  those  recurring 
periods  of  intellectual  depression  when  phi- 
losophy is  in  decrepitude,  representing  little 
knowledge,  liberty,  or  wisdom,  and  he 
regenerated  it.  We  can  speak  but  briefly  of 
what  he  did  or  what  he  was.  In  an  epoch  of 
dogma  and  intolerance,  an  original  thinker 
appears,  as  if  inevitably,  to  strike  always  into 
the  same  course.  Turning  from  the  disorder 
of  the  received  physical  sciences.  Lord  Bacon 
prepared  for  his  Instauratio  by  research  con- 
cerning true  method  in  physical  inquiry. 
Descartes,  repelled  by  corresponding  disgust 
from  the  moral  and  psychological  discussions 
of  his  time,  demanded:  What  is  fitting 
method  in  speculative  philosophy ;  and  what 
the  basis  and  criterion  of  certainty?  The 
reply  was  not  a  new  one,  but  only  a  repro- 
duction of  the  method  of  Socrates,  of  Plato, 
or  Aristotle,  and  its  adjustment  to  the  con- 
dition and  culture  of  his  time. 

The  first  and  shortest  yet  most  important 
work  of  Descartes  is  his  "Discourse  on 
Method."  This  work  may  be  considered  the 
foundation  of  modem  philosophical  investiga- 
tion, and  breathes  the  spirit  of  the  man  with 
his  bold  innovating  genius,  his  exact  obser- 
vations, and  vivid  imagination.  It  was  the 
custom  in  Descartes's  time  to  publish  all 
learned  works  in  Latin,  a  language  known 
only  to  learned  men.  He  revolutionized  this 
custom  by  publishing  his  works  in  French, 
"appeaUng  to  the  good  sense  of  men,"  which 
he  said  was  "fairly  divided  among  all  classes." 
It  contains  a  history  of  the  inner  life  of  the 
author,  tracing  the  progress  of  his  mental 
development  from  its  commencement  in  early 
years  to  the  point  where  it  restilted  in  his 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


9B7 


resolution  to  hold  nothing  to  be  true  until 
he  had  ascertained  the  grounds  of  certi- 
tude. 

The  "Discourse"  is  divided  into  six  parts, 
with  a  preface  of  fifteen  lines,  describing  its 
purpose  and  arrangement.  He  begins  by 
insisting  upon  the  necessity  of  a  new  method, 
and  then  lays  down  the  rules  on  which  it 
should  be  founded.  He  declared  he  could 
find  nothing  but  doubt  and  uncertainty  in 
the  opinions  of  men  on  all  subjects.  He 
repeats  what  the  sceptic  philosopher  had 
already  said  about  the  general  reasons  for 
suspecting  all  our  so-called  knowledge.  Our 
senses,  memory,  and  even  the  reasoning 
faculties  deceive  us,  not  merely  in  complex 
subjects,  but  even  in  the  simple  details  of 
geometry.  There  seemed  only  one  way  to 
overcome  the  difficulty,  and  that  was  to  make 
universal  doubt  the  point  of  departm-e  for  a 
new  method  of  reasoning.  He  found  one, 
and  only  one  proposition  that  seemed  to  him 
to  stand  the  test,  and  of  which  the  truth 
could  not  possibly  be  doubted :  that 
proposition  was  that  he  existed,  which  he 
inferred  from  the  fact  of  his  possessing  con- 
sciousness. He  could  not  doubt  that  he  felt 
and  thought,  and  therefore  he  could  not 
doubt  that  he,  the  feeler,  the  thinker,  existed. 
This  relation  between  consciousness  and 
existence  he  expressed  by  the  memorable 
words :  "  I  think,  therefore  I  exist."  Instead, 
however,  of  making  the  above  proposition 
the  foundation  of  his  philosophy,  by  which 
he  would  have  been  led  into  a  direction 
similar  to  that  of  Kant  or  Fichte,  he  employed 
it  only  so  far  as  to  ascertain  from  it  the  cri- 
terion of  certitude  —  viz.,  that  whatever  is 
clearly  and  distinctly  thought,  must  be  true. 
Among  these  clear  and  distinct  thoughts  he 
soon  recognized  the  idea  of  God  as  the  abso- 
lutely Perfect  Being.  This  idea,  he  reasoned, 
could  not  be  formed  in  our  minds  by  our- 
selves, for  the  imperfect  can  never  originate 
the  perfect ;  it  must  be  connoted,  or  be  a  part 
of  the  original  structure  of  our  understanding, 
and  be  implanted  there  by  the  Perfect  Being 
Himself.  Hence,  from  the  existence  of  the 
idea  of  perfection,  Descartes  inferred  the 
existence  of  God  as  the  originator  of  it;  he 
inferred  it  also  from  the  mere  nature  of  the 
idea,  because  the  idea  of  perfection  involves 
existence.  But  if  God  exist,  then  we  have  a 
guarantee  of  the  previously  determined  ground 
of  certitude,  for  God  the  Perfect  Being  cannot 
deceive,   and,  therefore,  whatever  our  con- 


sciousness clearly  testifies,  Duty  be  implicitly 

believed. 

One  of  the  meet  general  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  the  philosophical  system  of  Descartee 
is  the  essential  difference  of  spirit  and  matter 

—  the  thinking  and  the  extended  substanoee 

—  a  difference  so  great,  according  to  Des- 
cartes, that  they  can  exert  no  influence  upon 
each  other.  Hence,  in  order  to  account  for 
the  correspondence  between  the  material  and 
the  spiritual  phenomena,  he  was  obliged  to 
have  recourse  to  a  constant  cooperation  on  the 
part  of  God.  This  doctrine  gave  rise  subse- 
quently to  the  system  called  occasionalism, 
the  principle  of  which  was  that  body  and 
mind  do  not  really  affect  each  other,  God 
being  always  the  true  cause  of  the  apparent 
or  occasional  influence  of  one  on  the  other. 
This  doctrine  received  its  complete  develop- 
ment in  the  preestablished  harmony  of  Leib- 
nitz, almost  a  century  later. 

Descartes  did  not  confine  his  attention  to 
mental  philosophy,  but  devoted  himself  sys- 
tematically to  the  explanation  of  the  prop- 
erties of  the  bodies  composing  the  material 
universe.  In  this  department  his  refonns 
amounted  to  a  revolution,  though  many  of 
his  explanations  of  physical  phenomena  were 
purely  a  priori,  and  some  of  them  sufficiently 
absurd.  His  principal  purpose  was  to  explain 
the  whole  visible  world,  including  the  physical 
structure  of  man,  in  accordance  with  fixed 
laws  derived  from  the  simplest  facts  of  form 
and  motion.  It  was  a  philosophy  of  evolu- 
tion as  opposed  to  creation.  To  soothe  the 
theologians,  who,  in  his  time,  were  pressing 
so  hard  upon  Galileo,  Descartes  was  content 
to  say  that  the  operation  by  which  God 
maintains  the  world  is  similar  to  that  by 
which  He  created  it;  so  that,  if  it  had  pleased 
Him,  instead  of  creating  it  instantaneously, 
to  allow  these  laws  of  evolution  to  operate, 
the  result  woiild  have  been  what  we  now  see. 
He  began  by  assuming  space  to  be  occupied 
by  perfectly  homogeneous  and  continuous 
matter.  He  then  supposed  this  solid  sub- 
stance to  be  divided  into  parcels  of  various 
shape  and  size,  each  of  them  animated  by 
motion  in  various  directions.  These  would 
observe  the  laws  of  motion  as  Descartes 
defines  them:  (1)  Each  would  maintain  its 
own  condition  of  rest  or  motion  or  magnitude, 
until  altered  by  contact  with  another.  (2)  In 
such  contact  the  gain  or  loss  of  motion  to  one 
body  would  be  exactly  compensated  by  the 
loss  or  gfun  to  another  —  the  total  quantity 


288 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


of  motion  in  the  world  remaining  invariable. 
(3)  Owing  to  constant  contacts,  motion  would 
be  usually  in  curved  lines,  the  moving  body 
tending  always  to  follow  the  tangent  to  the 
curve. 

The  result  after  a  period  of  time  would  be 
the  differentiation  of  primitive  matter  into 
three  kinds.  The  moving  portions  of  matter, 
by  constant  attrition,  would  be  for  the  most 
part  converted  into  spheroidal  molecules  of 
various  sizes.  Some  larger  masses  of  irregular 
shape  would  amalgamate  into  solid  masses; 
the  finer  particles  rubbed  off  from  the  mole- 
cules would  insert  themselves  between  them, 
vibrating  with  far  more  rapid  motion  than 
they.  This  vibrating  ethereal  substance  would 
collect  toward  the  center  of  a  vortex,  and 
form  a  sun  or  star;  round  it  would  revolve 
aerial  matter,  and  plunged  amidst  this,  at 
various  distances,  the  solid  masses  of  the 
planets. 

How  by  degrees  yet  further  differentiation 
took  place  in  the  substance  of  the  earth  and 
planets,  by  different  velocities  and  shapes  of 
the  component  molecules,  so  that  the  various 
metals  and  crystals  arose,  and  finally  plant 
life  and  animal  life,  cannot  be  told  here,  but 
is  described  in  the  Principia  and  in  the 
"Treatise  on  Man."  For  man,  as  far  as  the 
structure  of  his  organs,  including  the  organs 
of  sensation,  was  concerned,  was  brought 
within  the  range  of  these  mechanical  concep- 
tions. Descartes  was  among  the  first  to 
welcome  Harvey's  discovery  of  the  circulation 
of  the  blood,  as  the  first  step  toward  the 
reduction  of  vital  phenomena  to  physical 
laws. 

The  achievement  of  so  vast  a  task  was 
obviously  not  possible  while  the  science  of 
physics  was  in  its  infancy,  and  while  the 
chemical  basis  of  biology  was  still  undis- 
covered. Descartes  was  aware  of  this.  But 
he  looked  forward  to  the  combined  labors  of 
the  future  for  its  fulfillment.  The  last  chapter 
of  his  "Discoiu^e"  contains  his  forecast  of  the 
positive  philosophy  of  the  future,  resting  not 
on  scholastic  subtleties,  but  on  a  solid  basis 
of  mathematical  and  biological  knowledge, 
and  directed  to  the  practical  service  of  man. 
What  Descartes  could  not  foresee  was  that, 
by  the  time  that  physics,  chemistry,  and 
biology  had  defined  themselves  as  distinct 
sciences,  the  impossibility  of  reducing  them 
to  a  single  law  would  be  far  more  evident 
than  it  was  in  his  own  time. 

His  celebrated  "  theory  of  vortices  "  gained 


many  adherents,  did  away  with  that  of  Aris- 
totle, and  paved  the  way  for  Newton's  dis- 
covery of  the  law  of  gravitation,  and  for  the 
mechanical  theory  of  planetary  motions.  He 
described  the  mathematical  principles  which 
should  govern  the  construction  of  lenses  for 
telescopes;  and,  among  other  contributions 
to  physical  science,  gave  the  earliest  complete 
description  of  the  causes  of  a  rainbow. 

It  was  in  mathematics,  however,  that 
Descartes  achieved  the  greatest  and  most 
lasting  results ;  and,  indeed,  his  mathematical 
discoveries  procured  among  his  contempo- 
raries, for  his,  in  many  cases,  wild  philo- 
sophical views,  a  greater  importance  than 
they  in  themselves  are  entitled  to.  It  was 
Descartes  who  first  recognized  the  true 
meaning  of  the  negative  roots  of  equations; 
and  we  owe  to  him  the  theorem,  which  is 
called  by  his  name,  that  an  equation  may 
have  as  many  negative  roots  as  there  are 
continuations  of  sign,  and  not  more  of  either 
kind.  He  gave  a  new  and  ingenious  solution 
of  equations  of  the  fourth  degree;  he  first 
introduced  exponents,  and  thereby  laid  the 
foundation  for  calculating  with  powers.  He 
showed,  moreover,  how  to  draw  tangents  and 
normals  at  every  point  of  a  geometrical  curve, 
with  the  exception  of  mechanical  or  transcen- 
dental curves;  and,  what,  perhaps,  was  his 
highest  merit,  he  showed  how  to  express  the 
nature  and  the  properties  of  every  curve,  by 
an  equation  between  two  variable  coordinates ; 
thus,  in  fact,  originating  analytical  geom- 
etry, which  really  may  be  said  to  constitute 
the  point  of  departure  of  modem  mathe- 
matics. Measured  by  its  influence,  his  work 
in  geometry  takes  rank  with  the  infinitesimal 
calculus;  nor  was  its  empire  disputed  until 
in  the  most  recent  times  by  the  remarkable 
theory  of  quaternions. 

The  intellectual  vigor  of  Descartes  left  its 
marks  on  many  various  departments  of  knowl- 
edge after  his  death.  For  a  while  his  phi- 
losophy threatened  to  succeed  to  the  place  of 
absolute  dictation  and  mastery  which  had 
been  so  long  assigned  to  Aristotle.  His 
influence  passed  from  the  cloister  and  the 
study  to  popular  literature;  all  the  great 
writers  of  the  age  of  Louis  XIV.  were  tinc- 
tured by  it;  but  just  as  it  appeared  to  have 
attained  a  vmiversal  acceptance,  it  began  as 
rapidly  to  fade  and  shrink.  The  reasons  of 
this  decline  are  to  be  found  partly  in  the 
growth  of  Locke's  sensational  philosophy; 
partly   in    the   demonstrated    impotence   of 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


Descartes's  principles  to  resolve  many  of  the 
higher  problems  to  which  he  aspired;  but 
chiefly  in  the  discoveries  of  Newton  and  the 
progress  of  physics,  which  discredited  his 
physical  theories,  and  therefore  brought  his 
metaphysical  conclusions  into  distrust. 
However,  even  at  the  present  day,  when 


our  contemporary  philoaophy  fails,  and  truth 
is  threatened  by  scepticism,  or  dogmatiam, 
the  methods  and  fundamental  principlea  of 
Descartes  are  invoked  to  restore  it  to  a 
proper  basis.  In  elevation  and  amplitude  his 
influence,  in  that  respect,  ranks  with  Plato 
and  Aristotle,  Bacon  and  Newton. 


▲.  D. 

1632 
1656 

1661 
1663 
1664 


SPINOZA 

AQE  A.  D.  A0. 

Born  at  Amsterdam,  Holland, 1668  Resided  at  The  Hague  jK 

Excommunicated  by  the  synagogue;  1670  Tractatus  Theologico-Politicu*  '    "    '    '  88 

left  Amsterdam,      24  1673  Declined  chair  of  philoeophy  at  Ucidet- 

Settled  at  Rhynsburg,  near  Leyden,   .     29                          berg, 41 

"Descartes's  Principles  of  Philosophy,"   31  1674  "Ethics"  finished 42 

Removed  to  Voorburg,  near  The  Hague,  32  1677  Died  at  The  Hague,   \ 46 


"DARUCH  SPINOZA  was  one  of  the  greatest 
-*-*  of  modern  philosophers,  and  is  frequently 
termed  the  apostle  of  pantheism.  His  name 
has  also  been  Latinized  into  Benedictus  de 
Spinoza,  supposedly  because  his  works  were 
written  in  that  language. 

He  was  born  at  Amsterdam,  Holland,  on 
November  24,  1632.  His  parents  were  rich 
Portuguese  Jews,  who  had  been  driven  from 
Portugal  by  the  inquisition,  and  then  settled 
in  Amsterdam.  From  childhood  Spinoza  was 
physically  delicate,  and  naturally  inclined  to 
retired  and  studious  habits.  He  received  his 
first  education  from  the  rabbis,  to  whose  care 
he  was  committed  by  his  parents,  and  whom 
he  constantly  irritated  and  perplexed  with 
his  puzzling  questions.  He  was  carefully 
instructed  in  the  Bible  and  its  commentaries, 
and  the  Jewish  Talmud;  and  subsequently 
devoted  himself  to  a  life  of  study. 

At  first,  Spinoza's  parents  had  strongly 
hoped  that  he  might  enter  the  rabbinical 
profession,  but  his  study  of  the  physical 
sciences  and  the  writings  of  Descartes  very 
soon  drew  him  away  from  the  rigid  belief 
and  practices  of  the  synagogue.  His  extra- 
ordinary talents,  coupled  with  his  inquisitive 
and  penetrating  turn  of  mind,  at  length 
aroused  the  displeasure  of  the  talmudical 
authorities  under  whom  he  had  studied. 
Saul  Levi  Morteira,  his  principal  teacher,  was 
the  first  to  threaten  him  with  the  direst  pun- 
ishment if  he  did  not  retract  the  heresies  he 
then  began  to  utter,  and  a  vain  attempt  was 
even  made  to  bribe  the  young  sceptic  into 
the  required  faith  and  obedience.  An  attempt 
was  also  made  later  —  but  again  without  suc- 
cess—  to  get  rid  of  him  by  assassination; 


but  he  escaped  with  a  slight  wound.  His 
revolt  against  Hebrew  theology  finally  re- 
sulted, in  1656,  in  his  excommunication  from 
the  synagogue. 

Spinoza,  now  cut  off  from  the  faith  of  his 
fathers,  was  also  exiled  from  Amsterdam  by 
the  magistrates  on  application  of  the  rabbis. 
A  forlorn  outcast  and  an  alien,  without  a 
home  and  without  citizenship,  he  attached 
himself  to  a  learned  physician  by  the  name 
of  Francis  Van  den  Ende,  who  kept  a  school 
in  Amsterdam  for  the  better  class  of  young 
Dutchmen.  In  this  school,  which  was  after- 
ward broken  up  through  the  sleepless  malice 
of  his  enemies,  Spinoza  was  tutor  in  mathe- 
matics and  modern  languages,  while  at  the 
same  time  he  was  taught  Latin  by  the  daughter 
of  the  master,  with  whom  he  fell  passionately 
in  love.  Fortunately  or  unfortunately,  he 
was  rejected.  From  that  time  forth  phi- 
losophy became  the  sole  aim  and  object  of 
his  life. 

After  his  separation  from  Van  den  Ende, 
Spinoza,  feeling  the  need  of  some  r^ular 
means  of  support,  had  taken  to  the  fashion- 
ing of  glass  lenses  for  telescopes  and  micro- 
scopes, and,  having  been  again  in  imminent 
danger  of  his  life  from  a  Jewish  dagger,  he 
withdrew,  in  1661,  from  Amsterdam  to  the 
village  of  Rhynsburg,  near  Leyden,  wha«  he 
remained  three  years,  practicing  his  mechan- 
ical art  and  meditating  the  deepest  questions 
in  philosophy.  Besides  being  a  master  crafta- 
man  in  lens  polishing,  he  was  also  an  expert 
in  the  art  of  design,  and  among  a  number  of 
other  portraits  he  drew  one  of  himself  in  the 
dress  of  Masaniello. 

In  1663,  while  still  at  Rhynsburg,  Spinora 


290 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


wrote  his  abridgment  of  the  "Meditations" 
of  Descartes,  under  the  general  title  of  "  Des- 
cartes's  Principles  of  Philosophy,"  with  an 
appendix  which  was  the  first  draft  of  his 
"Ethics."  The  year  following,  1664,  he 
removed  to  Voorburg,  a  few  miles  from  The 
Hague;  and  then,  about  1668,  at  the  invita- 
tion of  the  illustrious  Dutch  statesman,  Jan 
de  Witt  —  who  some  time  after  gave  him  a 
pension  of  about  one  hundred  dollars  a  year 
—  he  settled  in  The  Hague  itself.  At  first 
he  hved  at  a  house  kept  by  a  widow  named 
Van  Velden.  Finding  her  house  too  expen- 
sive for  his  small  income,  he  crossed  the  street 
to  that  of  a  painter  named  Van  der  Spyck, 
with  whom  and  his  good  wife  —  and  they 
deserve  honorable  mention  for  the  great  love 
they  bore  him  —  he  spent  the  remaining  years 
of  his  life  of  recluse  and  study.  At  The  Hague 
he  completed  his  great  work,  the  Tractatus 
Theologico-Politicus,  in  1670,  and  his  "Ethics," 
about  1674,  although  the  latter  was  not  pub- 
lished until  after  his  death. 

During  this  period  the  elector  of  the 
Palatinate,  Charles  Louis,  offered  him  in 
1673  the  vacant  chair  of  philosophy  at  the 
university  of  Heidelberg,  with  full  "liberty 
of  teaching,"  provided  he  would  not  say  any- 
thing to  the  prejudice  of  the  established 
religion.  It  is  needless  to  say  that,  with  his 
independence  and  integrity  of  thought, 
Spinoza  declined  both  the  honor  and  the 
emolument  of  the  professorship.  His  small 
pittance  was  enough  to  satisfy  his  wants.  In 
a  similar  way  he  refused  generous  offers 
made  to  him  by  wealthy  friends,  like  Simon 
de  Vries,  who  offered  to  bestow  a  large  sum 
of  money  upon  him.  All  he  could  be  pre- 
vailed upon  to  accept  was  a  small  annuity; 
the  rest  he  persuaded  his  friends  to  settle  on 
De  Vries's  own  brother.  An  offer  of  a  pen- 
sion, on  condition  that  he  dedicate  one  of  his 
works  to  Louis  XIV.,  he  rejected  with  scorn. 

Spinoza's  constitution  was  naturally  frail, 
and  during  much  of  the  period  at  The  Hague 
he  suffered  both  bodily  and  mentally.  At 
last,  due  to  the  inroads  of  disease  and  over- 
work, he  died  of  consumption  on  February 
21,  1677,  when  in  his  forty-fifth  year. 

Distinguished  for  extreme  gentleness  and 
placidity  of  temper,  and  pious  to  a  remarkable 
degree  in  the  original  and  broader  meaning 
of  the  word,  Spinoza  was  greatly  loved  by  all 
who  knew  him,  except,  of  course,  his  ac- 
quaintances of  the  synagogue.  His  habits 
were  of   the  simplest,  as  simple,  indeed,  as 


those  of  the  simplest  peasant.  His  domestic 
accounts,  found  after  his  death,  showed  that 
he  lived  on  a  few  pennies  a  day.  Indifferent 
to  money,  or  what  money  could  bring,  he 
earned  an  honest  maintenance  by  manual 
labor,  and  scrupulously  devoted  his  spare 
time  to  his  abstruse  and  difficult  studies. 
The  attainment  of  truth  was  the  one  object 
of  his  life,  and  for  this  he  sacrificed  every- 
thing for  which  most  people  hold  fife  dear. 
Seldom,  indeed,  has  the  world  seen  such 
an  instance  of  freedom  from  worldly  and 
selfish  ends,  such  disinterested  and  pious 
loyalty  to  the  promptings  and  aspirations  of 
the  intellectual  mind. 

Although  his  sensitive  mind  was  violently 
disturbed  by  the  severance  of  all  natural  ties 
of  affection  —  to  say  nothing  of  the  misery 
of  occasional  want  and  of  constant  persecu- 
tion —  yet  no  complaint  ever  passed  his  lips. 
By  his  contemporary  enemies  he  was  charged 
as  an  epicurean  and  an  atheist ;  but  it  has  been 
well  said,  that  no  man,  perhaps,  was  more 
filled  with  religion  than  he,  and  that  to  be  an 
epicure  and  riotous  liver  at  the  rate  of  five 
or  six  cents  a  day  cannot  be  a  very  serious 
crime. 

Such  was  the  intolerance  of  the  times,  that, 
for  more  than  a  century  after  his  death, 
Spinoza  continued  to  be  stigmatized  as  an 
atheist,  a  blasphemer,  and  an  intellectual 
and  religious  monster  in  general.  Then  his 
works  came  into  marked  favor  with  Goethe, 
Lessing,  Novalis,  and  Schleiermacher. 

Spinoza  was  not  a  voluminous  writer,  but 
his  writings  have  had  an  extensive  and 
enduring  influence  on  modem  thought.  Few 
philosophers  have  been  so  rigidly  logical 
and  deeply  meditative.  Hallam  called  him 
a  "reasoning  machine,"  so  thoroughly  intel- 
lectual and  rational  were  his  processes 
of  speculation.  His  first  work,  Renaii  Des- 
cartes Principiorum  Philosophioe,  immediately 
gave  him  the  reputation  of  a  great  philoso- 
pher. His  second  work,  Tractatus  Theologico- 
Politicus,  published  anonymously  in  1670, 
treats  the  relation  between  church  and  state, 
and  is  entirely  distinct  from  his  philosophical 
writings.  Numerous  refutations  of  this  work 
appeared,  especially  from  Cartesian  theolo- 
gians. Averse  to  controversy,  Spinoza  with- 
held his  other  and  more  important  works, 
which  were  first  published  after  his  death  by 
his  friend,  Ludwig  Meyer.  His  manuscripts 
were,  in  accordance  with  his  order,  sent  to  his 
pubUsher  at  Amsterdam,  and  within  a  year 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


»1 


appeared  Ethica,  Ordine  Geometrico  Demon- 
strata,  containing  his  pantheistic  philosophy, 
written  between  1663  and  1666 ;  Tractatus  de 
Intellectus  Emendatione,  and  Tractatus  Polit- 
icus,  both  fragments;  a  collection  of  letters 
to  Oldenburg,  Simon  de  Vries,  Ludwig  Meyer, 
and  Bleyenbergh ;  and  a  fragmentary  sketch 
of  Hebrew  grammar,  aiming  to  give  it  a 
logical  development. 

The  whole  system  of  Spinoza  is  a  demon- 
stration from  the  eight  definitions  and  seven 
axioms  of  the  first  book  of  the  Ethica,  which 
is  really  not  a  treatise  on  ethics  in  the  modern 
sense,  but  a  system  of  philosophy.  Spinoza 
—  like  Descartes  —  made  it  his  principle  to 
admit  nothing  to  be  true  which  he  could  not 
recognize  on  suflficient  grounds.  He  endeav- 
ored to  found  a  system  which  should  deduce 
the  fundamental  principles  of  moral  life  by 
strictly  mathematical  demonstrations,  founded 
on  the  knowledge  of  God.  To  this  end  he 
called  his  system  one  of  ethics. 

"Most  of  the  writers  on  the  affections  of 
man  and  the  conduct  of  fife,"  he  says,  "ap- 
pear to  treat,  not  of  natural  things,  which 
follow  the  usual  laws  of  nature,  but  of  things 
beyond  nature;  they  seem,  indeed,  to  con- 
ceive man  as  an  imperium  in  imperio.  For 
they  believe  that  man  rather  disturbs  than 
conforms  to  the  order  of  nature,  and,  further, 
that  he  possesses  absolute  power  over  his 
actions,  being  influenced  and  determined  in 
all  he  does  by  himself  alone.  And  then,  they 
refer  the  cause  of  human  shortcomings  and 
inconsistences  to  no  common  natural  power, 
but  to  some  —  I  know  not  what  —  vice  or 
defect  in  human  nature,  which  they  forthwith 
proceed  to  lament,  to  deride,  to  decry,  and 
even  more  generally  to  loath  and  to  execrate. 
So  that  he  who  discourses  upon  the  infirmities 
of  the  human  soul  with  more  fluency  and 
fervor  than  common  is  looked  upon  as  a  kind 
of  divine  or  inspired  person. 

"To  such  persons  it  will  doubtless  appear 
strange  that  I  should  set  about  treating  the 
vices  and  follies  of  mankind  in  a  geometrical 
way,   and  seek  to  demonstrate  on  definite 
principles  things  which  they  cry  out  against 
as  repugnant  to  reason,  as  vain,  absurd,  and 
even  horrible.     Yet  such  is  my  purpose,  for 
nothing    happens    in    nature    that    can    be : 
ascribed    to    any    vice    in    its    constitution, 
nature  being  ever  the  same,  everywhere  one, ; 
and  its  inherent  power,   and  power  in  act ' 
identical.     I  shall  in  a  word  discuss  human  ^ 
actions,  appetites,  and  emotions  precisely  as  i 


if  the  question  were  of  lines,  planes,  and 

solids." 

He  therefore  assumes,  first  of  all,  three 
fundamental  things,  which  he  calls,  N^MO- 
tively,  substance,  attributes,  and  mode.  By 
substance  he  understands,  like  Descartes, 
that  which  needs  nothing  else  to  its  existence; 
but,  unlike  Descartes,  he  assumed  only  (me 
such  substance  —  God.  Yet  this  term  is  not 
to  be  understood  in  the  onlinary  sense,  for 
Spinoza's  God  neither  thinks  nor  creates. 
There  is  no  real  difference,  he  holds,  between 
mind,  as  represented  by  God,  and  matter, 
as  represented  by  nature.  They  arc  one, 
and,  according  to  the  light  under  which  they 
are  viewed,  may  be  called  either  God  or 
nature.  The  visible  world  is  not  distinct 
from  him.  It  is  only  his  visible  manifesta- 
tion, flowing  out  of  him,  who  is  the  last 
fountain  of  life  and  essence,  as  a  finite  from 
the  infinite,  variety  from  unity  —  a  unity, 
however,  in  which  all  varieties  merge  again. 

Extension  and  thought,  which,  with  De»- 
cartes,  had  been  two  substances,  with  Spinoza 
become  "attributes"  :  that  which  the  mind 
perceives  as  constituting  substance.  Exten- 
sion is  visible  thought;  thought  is  invisible 
extension.  The  relation  between  substance 
and  attributes  Spinoza  illustrates  by  the 
example  of  an  object  —  colorless  in  itself, 
perhaps  —  seen  through  yellow  or  blue  spec- 
tacles. And  this  explains  the  relation  be- 
tween body  and  mind,  and  the  complete 
unity  between  them.  The  mind  is  the  idea 
of  the  body  —  i.  e.,  the  same  thing  considered 
under  the  attribute  of  thought. 

The  modus  or  accidens  is  only  the  varying 
form  of  substance.  Like  the  curling  waves 
of  the  ocean,  they  have  no  independent 
existence;  nay,  less  than  these  are  they 
things  of  reality;  but  they  are  simply  the 
ever-varying  shapes  of  the  substance.  8ul> 
stance,  thus,  is  the  only  really  existing,  all- 
embracing  essence,  to  which  belongs  every- 
thing perceptible  to  our  senses,  and  not 
perceptible.  Thus,  every  thought,  wish,  or 
feeling  is  a  mode  of  God's  attribute  or  thought ; 
everything  visible  is  a  mode  of  God's  attri- 
bute of  extension.  God  is  the  "immanent 
idea,"  the  One  and  All.  "World"  does  not 
exist  as  world,  i.  e.,  as  an  aggregate  of  single 
things  —  but  is  one  complex  whole  and  one 
peculiar  aspect  of  God's  infinite  attribute  oi 
extension.  The  variety  we  behold  in  things 
is  a  mere  product  of  our  faulty  conceptions, 
particularly   of,    as   Spinoza   terms   it,    our 


292 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


"imagination,"  which  perceives  unity  as  a 
complex  of  multiplicity. 

On  these  metaphysical  speculations  he 
founds  his  Ethica,  which  he  deduces  in  a 
mathematical  form,  after  the  method  of 
Euclid.  The  chief  doctrines  are:  The  ab- 
sence of  free  will  in  man  —  himself  only  a 
modus  dependent  on  causes  without  and  not 
within  him.  Will  and  liberty  belong  only 
to  God,  who  is  not  limited  by  any  other 
substance.  Good  and  evil  are  relative  no- 
tions, and  sin  is  a  mere  negative ;  for  nothing 
can  be  done  against  God's  will,  and  there  is 
no  idea  of  evil  in  Him.  Utility  alone,  in  its 
highest  sense,  must  determine  the  good  and 
the  evil  in  our  mind.  Good,  or  useful,  is  that 
which  leads  us  to  greater  reality,  which 
preserves  and  exalts  our  existence.  Our  real 
existence  is  knowledge.  Highest  knowledge 
is  the  knowledge  of  God.  From  this  arises 
the  highest  delight  of  the  spirit.  Happiness 
is  not  the  reward  of  virtue,  but  virtue  itself ; 
and  this  is  to  be  attained  by  a  diligent  follow- 
ing in  God's  ways.  Sin,  evil,  negation,  etc., 
are  merely  things  that  retard  and  obstruct 
this  supreme  happiness. 

Spinoza's  system,  therefore,  appears  to  be 
nothing  but  the  most  rigid,  most  abstract 
monotheism  that  can  be  conceived  by  man. 
There  is  only  substance,  only  God  —  nothing 
else.  It  was  not  unnatural,  however,  that 
this  system  should  be  misunderstood  either 
as  materialism  or  as  pantheism,  seeing  the 
word  "substance,"  which,  with  Spinoza, 
means  "existence,"  is,  in  ordinary  language, 
associated  with  the  idea  of  matter  or  body. 
Be  this  as  it  may,  "this  most  iniquitous  and 
blasphemous  human  invention,"  as  it  has 
been  called,  has  become  the  acknowledged 
basis  of  modern  German  philosophy;  and 
pious  theologians  like  Schleiermacher  did  not 
hesitate  to  apply  the  highest  terms  of  "pious, 
virtuous,  God-intoxicated,"  to  Spinoza,  who, 
we  need  not  add,  never  left  Judaism,  although 
he  left  the  synagogue  and  its  hxmian  formal- 
ities. 

The  chief  good,  according  to  Spinoza,  is  to 
Uve  a  life  freed  from  passion,  comprehending 
the  order  of  things  by  the  highest  exercise  of 
the  intellect,  the  knowledge  and  love  of 
God. 

He  concludes  his  great  work  thus:  "In 
what  precedes  I  have  delivered  all  I  wish  to 
say  in  connection  with  the  freedom  of  the 
mind.  And  now  we  are  able  to  appreciate 
the  wise  at  their  true  worth,  and  to  under- 


stand how  much  they  are  to  be  pref^red  to 
the  ignorant,  who  act  from  mere  appetite  or 
passion.  The  ignorant  man,  indeed,  besides 
being  agitated  in  many  and  various  ways  by 
external  causes,  and  never  tasting  true  peace 
of  mind,  lives  in  a  state  of  unconsciousness  of 
himself,  of  God,  and  of  all  things,  and  ceases 
to  suffer  only  when  he  ceases  to  be;  the 
wise  man,  on  the  contrary,  in  so  far  as  he  is 
truly  to  be  considered,  scarcely  knows  what 
mental  perturbation  means;  but  conscious 
of  himself,  of  God,  and  of  that  special,  eternal 
necessity  of  things,  never  ceases  from  being, 
but  is  always  in  possession  of  true  peace  of 
mind." 

"Whatever  else  Spinozism  is,"  says  John 
Caird,  "  it  is  an  attempt  to  find  in  the  idea  of 
God  a  principle  from  which  the  whole  uni- 
verse could  be  evolved  by  a  necessity  as  strict 
as  that  by  which,  according  to  Spinoza's 
favorite  illustration,  the  properties  of  a 
triangle  follow  from  its  definition.  For 
the  clear  intelligence  of  Spinoza  it  was  im- 
possible to  rest  satisfied  with  a  system  in 
which  metaphor  plays  the  part  of  logical 
thought." 

Touching  his  personality,  A.  B.  Lee  said 
on  a  memorial  occasion:  "Let  us  not  fall 
short  of  the  truth  through  fear  of  falling  into 
exaggeration.  Spinoza's  life  was  of  a  beauty 
to  which  history  can  hardly  find  a  parallel. 
On  that  Sunday  afternoon  of  the  21st  of 
February,  two  hundred  years  ago,  there 
broke  as  noble  and  as  sweet  a  heart  as  ever 
beat  in  human  breast." 

In  summing  up  his  estimate  of  Spinoza, 
Maccall  says :  "  Bigotry  does  not  hke  to  con- 
fess its  blunders,  otherwise  it  would  long 
have  abandoned  as  a  deplorable  error  and  a 
flagrant  injustice  the  ignorant  and  stupid 
calumny  which  places  Spinoza  foremost 
among  blasphemers  and  atheists.  Those  who 
reject  popular  idols  are  always  classed  by 
popular  prejudice  with  such  as  deny  God; 
and  few  have  suffered  more  from  this  cruel 
wrong  than  the  great  thinker  whose  career 
we  propose  to  chronicle  in  all  honesty  and 
in  no  prejudiced  or  proselytizing  spirit,  and 
whose  holy  deeds  are  the  best  indication  of 
his  sublime  ideas.  *  *  *  Never  was  high 
thought  so  nobly  embodied  in  every  action, 
even  the  most  insignificant,  as  in  Spinoza; 
which  makes  his  path  a  fecund  lesson  and  a 
blessed  spectacle  to  many  who  feel  nothing 
but  distaste,  and  who  express  nothing  but 
scorn  for  philosophy." 


JOHN   LOCKE 

From  a  painting 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


9M 


1632 

1652 
1658 
1665 
1666 
1669 
1672 
1675 


LOCKE 

_                   _.   .                                                                 AOB  A.  D. 

Born  at  Wnngton,  near  Bristol,  Eng-  1683 

land,      1686 

Entered  Christ  Church,  Oxford,    ...     20  1690 

Received  degree  of  M.  A., 26 

Secretary  of  legation  at  Berlin,    ...     33  1693 

Resided  with  Lord  Ashley, 34  1695 

Drew  up  the  Carolina  constitution,    .     37  1096 

Secretary  of  presentations, 40  1704 

Resided  at  Montpellier,  France,   ...     43 


Went  to  Holland, 51 

Adveraariontm  MeUtodu* M 

Easay  Coneemxnu  Human  VtuUritaitd- 

xng;  Treatute  on  CivU  OormvmmU,  .  58 

Thoughta  on  Bdueation, 01 

The  ReaaonabUnma  0/ Chritliaivaif, .    .  63 

Commissioner  of  trade (14 

Died  St  Oatet,  High  Laver,  Emn,  .   .  73 


JOHN  LOCKE,  one  of  the  most  influential 
•^  of  modern  thinkers,  is  usually  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  the  so-called  sensational  or 
empirical  school  of  philosophy.  He  was  born 
in  the  village  of  Wrington,  near  Bristol,  Eng- 
land, August  29,  1632.  At  that  time  Bacon 
had  been  dead  six  years.  Hobbes  had 
reached  middle  age,  and  Descartes  was  in 
studious  retirement  in  Holland.  Pascal  was 
nine  years  old,  Milton  was  taking  his  degree  of 
M.  A.,  and  Spinoza  was  born  the  same  year. 

Locke's  father  was  a  country  lawyer  of  supe- 
rior intelligence,  who  served  under  his  friend 
Colonel  Popham  in  the  parliamentary  army 
during  the  English  civil  war.  In  1646  he 
was  sent  to  Westminster  school,  which  at 
that  time  had  for  head  master  Dr.  Busby.  In 
1652  he  entered  Christ  Church,  Oxford. 
Like  Bacon  and  Hobbes  before  him,  Locke 
was  disgusted  with  the  barrenness  of  the 
studies  in  philosophy  and  theology  then 
imposed,  and  gave  himself  with  hearty  interest 
to  the  classics  and  to  the  reading  of  Bacon  and 
Descartes,  not  without  admixture,  it  is  said, 
of  the  classic  romances.  He  took  his  degree 
of  B.  A.  in  1655,  and  that  of  M.  A.  in  1658. 
His  father,  toward  whom  he  cherished  the 
highest  respect  and  love,  died  in  1661.  In  the 
relations  between  father  and  son,  and  in  some 
other  particulars,  Fox  Bourne,  one  of  the 
most  appreciative  biographers  of  Locke, 
points  out  an  interesting  parallel  with  the  case 
of  John  Stuart  Mill  and  his  father,  James  Mill. 
For  some  time  Locke  hesitated  as  to  the 
choice  of  a  profession.  His  tendencies  were 
toward  experimental  philosophy,  but  he  at 
length  decided  in  favor  of  medicine. 

In  1665  he  entered  upon  his  political 
career  as  secretary  of  the  British  ambassador 
to  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  at  Berlin. 
Having  acquitted  himself  well  at  this  post  he 
was  offered  a  similar  one  at  Madrid.  He  pre- 
ferred, however,  to  continue  his  studies,  and 
therefore  returned  to  Oxford.  By  a  special 
dispensation  he  was  relieved  from  the  cus- 
tomary obligation  of  the  students  of  Christ 


Church  to  take  orders  in  the  church,  and 
devoted  his  attention  to  medical  studies. 
His  early  contact  with  medicine  shows  his 
bent  to  the  inductive  interpretation  of 
external  nature,  and  aversion  to  the  unscien- 
tific methods  and  wranglings  of  the  schools. 
He  does  not  even  appear  to  have  taken  a 
degree  in  medicine,  but  he  launched  into  some 
sort  of  an  amateur  practice  at  Oxford,  and 
attracted  the  attention  particularly  of  the 
celebrated  English  physician,  Sydenham. 
His  acute  diagnosis  of  a  disease  from  which 
Lord  Ashley,  afterward  the  earl  of  Shaftes- 
bury, was  suffering,  in  1666,  gained  him  the 
friendship  of  that  nobleman,  and  led  to  that 
lifelong  acquaintance  which  was  a  significant 
part  of  Locke's  career. 

He  now  became  a  member  of  Lord  Ashley's 
household,  as  physician,  tutor  to  the  only  son, 
and  confidential  adviser  on  public  and  private 
concerns.  He  was  also  introduced  to  many 
eminent  persons,  among  them  the  dukes  of 
Northumberland  and  Buckingham,  and  the 
earl  of  Halifax.  In  1669  he  was  employed 
at  the  instance  of  Lord  Ashley  and  others,  as 
proprietors,  to  draw  up  a  constitution  for  the 
then  American  province  of  Carolina ,  but  his 
articles  on  religion  were  deemed  too  liberal, 
and  the  clergy  had  a  clause  inserted,  giving  the 
favor  of  the  state  exclusively  to  the  estab- 
lished church.  A  couple  of  years  later,  at  a 
meeting  of  Locke's  philosophical  friends,  it  was 
suggested  that  some  attempt  should  be  made 
to  settle  the  question  with  what  problems  the 
human  xmderstanding  was  or  was  not  fitted 
to  deal.  This  problem  was  undertaken  by 
Locke  himself,  and  continued  thencefor- 
ward to  occupy  his  best  energies  for  seventeen 
years.  It  was  issued  in  1690  in  the  famous 
Essay  Concerning  Human  Understanding. 

Meanwhile,  in  1672,  when  Lord  Ashley  — 
now  the  earl  of  Shaftesbury  —  became  chan- 
cellor of  Great  Britain,  Locke  was  appointed 
secretary  of  presentations,  and,  in  the  fol- 
lowing year,  secretary  to  the  council  of 
trade  and   plantations.    This  post  brought 


296 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


him  plenty  of  hard  work,  with  merely  nominal 
pay.  In  1675  he  took  up  his  residence  at 
Montpellier  in  the  south  of  France,  for  the 
benefit  of  his  health,  and  remained  there 
several  years.  At  Montpellier  he  formed  the 
acquaintance  of  the  earl  of  Pembroke,  to 
whom  his  essay  is  dedicated. 

In  1679  Locke  rejoined  the  earl  of  Shaftes- 
bury —  then  president  of  the  council  —  in 
England,  and  he  also  appears  to  have  resumed 
his  tutorial  life  at  Oxford.  However,  Lord 
Shaftesbury  was  charged  with  high  treason 
in  1682,  and  fled  to  Holland  to  avoid  trial. 
Locke,  who  was  not  without  suspicion  — 
though  no  evidence  was  found  against  him  — 
went  to  Holland  in  the  following  year.  Here 
he  remained  a  number  of  years. 

So  obnoxious  was  he  to  the  court  that  by 
an  arbitrary  act  of  the  king,  Charles  II.,  he  was 
expelled  from  Christ  Church ;  and  his  person 
was  afterward  demanded  of  the  states- 
general  as  a  conspirator.  He  escaped,  how- 
ever, by  temporary  concealment.  During  his 
stay  in  Holland  he  became  acquainted  with 
Limborch,  Le  Clerc,  and  other  men  of  mark, 
and  published  in  1686  his  first  work,  the  Adver- 
sariorum  Methodus,  a  rather  commonplace 
book  on  method.  Here,  in  his  enforced 
retirement,  he  also  completed  his  great  phil- 
osophical work,  projected  in  1670,  and  an 
abridgment  of  it  was  published  in  French  by 
his  friend,  Le  Clerc.  His  first  letter  on  toler- 
ation was  published  in  Holland  in  1689. 

After  the  revolution  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land in  the  fleet  that  conveyed  the  princess  of 
Orange,  where  hearty  welcomes  and  assured 
safety  awaited  him.  By  the  new  government 
he  was  offered  the  post  of  ambassador  to 
Beriin,  which  he  declined,  but  accepted 
instead  that  of  commissioner  of  appeals.  In 
1695  King  William  appointed  him  a  commis- 
sioner of  trade  and  plantations,  but  he  did  not 
accept  this  honor  until  he  was  reappointed  in 
May,  1696,  when  he  immediately  entered  upon 
his  duties.  He  became  the  ruling  spirit  of  the 
council,  and  rendered  services  of  great  value 
in  espousing  the  cause  of  toleration,  and 
maintaining  the  principles  of  the  revolution. 
He  took  a  warm  interest  and  active  part  in 
the  establishment  of  the  bank  of  England, 
the  abolition  of  the  censorship  of  the  press, 
reform  of  the  coinage,  and  the  promotion  of 
Irish  linen  manufacture. 

In  1690  his  Essay  Concerning  Human  Un- 
derstanding was  published,  and  met  with  a 
rapid  and  extensive  celebrity ;   also  a  second 


letter  on  toleration,  and  his  well-known 
treatises  on  government.  In  1691  he  was 
engaged  upon  the  momentous  question  of  the 
restoration  of  the  coinage,  and  published 
various  tracts  on  the  subject.  In  1692  he 
brought  out  a  third  letter  on  toleration, 
which,  as  well  as  the  second,  was  a  reply  to 
the  attacks  made  on  the  first.  In  1693  he 
published  his  Thoughts  on  Education,  followed 
in  1695  by  his  treatise  on  The  Reasonable- 
ness of  Christianity,  which  was  written  to 
promote  William's  favorite  scheme  of  a  com- 
prehension of  all  the  Christian  sects  in  one 
national  church.  He  maintained  a  contro- 
versy in  defense  of  this  book,  and  another 
in  defense  of  the  Essay  Concerning  Human 
Understanding,  against  StiUingfleet,  the 
bishop  of  Worcester. 

His  feeble  health  now  compelled  him  to 
resign  his  office  of  commissioner  of  planta- 
tions, and  to  quit  London.  He  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life  at  Oates,  in  Essex,  at  the 
seat  of  Sir  Francis  Masham.  His  friendship 
with  Lady  Masham  began  in  1683.  She  was  a 
daughter  of  the  philosopher,  Ralph  Cudworth, 
and  inherited  her  father's  love  for  philosophy 
and  learning.  Her  young  stepdaughter, 
Esther  Masham,  was  a  special  favorite  of  the 
philosopher.  After  a  long  decline,  soothed 
by  the  tender  ministrations  of  this  family, 
Locke  died,  in  the  arms  of  Lady  Masham, 
October  28,  1704.  His  remains  were  interred 
in  the  family  tomb  of  his  friends  at  High 
Laver  church,  and  a  tablet  was  set  up  to 
his  memory.  In  1855  the  tomb,  which  had 
fallen  into  decay,  was  restored;  among 
the  contributors  to  this  restoration  were  the 
celebrated  French  philosophers,  Victor  Cousin 
and  Barth61emy  Saint-Hilaire. 

Locke  was  never  married;  but  his  nature 
was  eminently  social,  and  one  of  the  great 
charms  of  his  biography  is  the  story  of  his 
friendships  and  domestic  relations.  He  suf- 
fered habitually  from  ill  health,  but  by  tem- 
perate habits  his  life  was  prolonged  to  more 
than  three  score  and  ten  years. 

It  is  seldom  that  a  personal  history  so  much 
delights  one  as  that  of  John  Locke.  Not 
only  can  no  one  discern  a  stain  on  the  char- 
acter and  career  of  the  great  Englishman,  but 
his  practical  career  is  everjrwhere  in  strict 
accordance  with  the  principles  he  labored  to 
establish.  Firmly  attached  to  the  cause  of 
toleration,  civil  or  religious,  he  did  not 
scruple  to  suffer  for  either  or  both.  Neither 
did  his  opposition  to  any  faction  ever  drive 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


307 


him  from  moderation  and  justice,  disincline 
him  to  appreciate  his  opponents  aright,  or  to 
conceal  the  excesses  of  the  party  whose 
fortunes  he  mainly  espoused.  He  accepted 
human  liberty  as  a  basis  of  his  philosophy, 
and  practically  stood  by  that.  Few  writers, 
before  or  since,  have  had  a  finer  sense  of  the 
respect  due  to  the  determination  of  the  per- 
sonal conscience. 

No  one  can  peruse  the  record  of  a  career 
Uke  that  of  John  Locke  without  profound 
admiration.  It  exhibited  a  rare  combination 
of  lofty  abilities,  patient  industry,  intelligent 
and  unaffected  piety,  and  unsullied  integrity, 
with  the  most  extensive  intellectual  acquire- 
ments. 

Great  as  were  Locke's  services  to  his  coun- 
try, and  to  the  cause  of  civil  and  religious 
liberty,  his  fame  rests  on  the  Essay  Concern- 
ing Human  Understanding,  which  marks  an 
epoch  in  the  history  of  philosophy.  In  it  he 
first  institutes  a  preliminary  inquiry,  in  the 
first  book,  as  to  the  existence  of  innate  ideas, 
theoretical  and  practical,  on  which  the  philo- 
sophical world  has  been  so  much  divided. 
Locke  argues  against  the  existence  of  these 
supposed  innate  conceptions,  or  intuitions,  of 
the  mind  with  a  force  and  cogency  that  appear 
irresistible.  Having  thus  repudiated  the 
instinctive  sources  of  our  knowledge  or  ideas, 
he  is  bound  to  show  how  we  come  by  them  in 
the  course  of  our  experience.  Our  experience 
being  two-fold,  external  and  internal,  we  have 
two  classes  of  ideas  —  those  of  sensation, 
and  those  of  reflection.  He  has,  therefore,  to 
trace  all  the  recognized  conceptions  of  the 
mind  to  one  or  other  of  these  sources.  Many 
of  our  notions  are  obviously  derived  from 
experience,  as  colors,  sounds,  etc. ;  but  some 
have  been  disputed,  more  especially  such  as 
space,  time,  infinity,  power,  substance,  cause, 
mere  good  and  evil;  and  Locke  discusses 
these  at  length,  by  way  of  tracing  them 
to  the  same  origin.  This  is  the  subject 
of  book  second,  entitled  "Of  Ideas."  Book 
third  is  on  language  considered  as  an  instru- 
ment of  truth,  and  contains  much  valuable 
material.  The  fourth  book  is  on  the  nature, 
limits,  and  reality  of  our  knowledge,  including 
the  nature  of  demonstrative  truth,  the  exist- 
ence of  a  God,  the  provinces  of  faith  and 
reason,  and  the  nature  of  error. 

Locke's  object  in  his  great  work  was,  as 
stated  by  himself,  "  to  inquire  into  the  origin, 
certainty,  and  extent  of  human  knowledge." 
Rejecting  the  Cartesian  doctrine,  he  taught. 


generally  speaking,  that  the  mind  is  *  mere 
tabula  rasa,  capable  of  receiving  improflmons 
through  the  senses;  and  that  the  ultimate 
sources  of  all  our  ideas  were  the  aenne  and 
the  subsequent  operations  of  the  mind  upon 
theni.  He  saw  both  the  subjective  and  the 
relative  nature  of  human  knowledge,  and  fore- 
saw the  possibility  of  the  idealist  and  sceptical 
systems  afterward  built  upon  his  foundations. 
Nevertheless,  he  maintained  the  pomibility 
of  a  demonstrative  knowledge  of  the  existence 
of  God  and  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 

Whatever  may  be  the  shortcomings  of 
Locke's  philosophy  —  and  they  are  real  and 
important  —  though  it  fails,  like  all  other 
systems,  to  solve  the  problems  of  oxir  being, 
no  reader  of  his  essay  can  refuse  to  recog- 
nize in  it  the  work  of  a  patient,  original 
thinker,  a  sagacious  observer,  an  accurate 
recorder,  an  earnest  lover  of  truth,  an  honest 
and  modest  man.  To  the  attractions  of  the 
subject  is  added  the  charm  of  a  homely,  racy 
speech,  welcome  and  refreshing  to  those  who 
love  to  draw  from  "wells  of  English  unde- 
filed." 

As  a  philosopher,  Locke  is  generally  recog- 
nized as  founder  of  the  so-called  sensational 
school.  His  claim  to  this  distinction  is  dis- 
puted by  some  writers,  who  assign  it  to  his 
predecessor,  Hobbes.  The  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  Locke's  system  —  the  derivation  of 
all  our  knowledge  from  experience  through 
the  senses  —  is  undoubtedly  laid  down  by 
Hobbes  with  the  utmost  clearness.  But,  so 
wide  is  the  difference  between  the  two  thinkers 
on  momentous  points,  that  it  is  now  regarded 
as  absurd  to  look  upon  Locke  as  a  copier  of 
Hobbes.  Their  agreement  in  their  starting 
point  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  they  were 
both  students  of  Bacon,  and  both  adopted  the 
method  which  he  had  then  recently  expounded 
in  relation  to  physical  research,  and  applied 
it  to  the  study  of  mind.  It  is  even  doubtful 
whether  Locke  ever  read  the  works  of  Hobbes. 

The  effect  on  general  modes  of  thought  of 
Locke's  system  of  philosophy,  which  rapidly 
spread  not  only  in  his  own  country,  but  in 
France,  Holland,  and  Germany,  within  the 
century  following  its  publication,  exemplifies 
the  truth  that  "in  every  age  the  speculative 
philosophy  in  general  acceptance  will  influence 
the  theology  of  that  age."  The  principles  of 
his  philosophy  and  psychology,  as  applied  by 
Hume,  led  to  the  great  system  of  critical 
philosophy  by  Immanuel  Kant,  the  most 
momentous  in  all  modem  philosophy. 


298 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


"Locke's  writings,"  says  A.  C.  Fraser,  his 
biographer  and  expositor,  "  which  ever3rwhere 
express  his  character,  have  made  his  intel- 
lectual and  moral  features  not  less  familiar  to 
Englishmen  than  his  countenance  has  been 
made  by  Kneller.  ♦  *  *  *!  can  no 
more  know  anything  by  another  man's 
understanding,'  he  would  say,  'than  I  can  see 
by  another  man's  eyes.  The  knowledge  which 
one  man  possesses  cannot  be  lent  to  another.' 
Reluctance  to  believe  in  the  dark,  on  blindly 
accepted  authority,  instead  of  faith  sustained 
in  the  judgment  by  self-evident  or  demon- 
strative reason,  or  by  good  probable  evidence, 


runs  through  his  life.  He  is  the  typicaJly 
English  philosopher  in  his  love  for  concrete 
exemplification  of  the  abstractions  in  which 
more  speculative  minds  delight ;  in  his  rever- 
ence for  facts  —  facts  in  nature,  or  facts  in 
conscious  life;  in  indifference  to  speculation 
on  its  own  account;  in  aversion  to  verbal 
reasonings;  in  suspicion  of  mystical  enthu- 
siasm; in  calm  reasonableness,  and  ready 
admission  to  truth,  even  when  the  truth 
could  not  be  reduced  to  system  by  a  human 
understanding;  and  in  the  honest  originality 
which  stamped  the  features  of  his  intellect 
and  character  upon  all  that  he  wrote." 


LEIBNITZ 

A.  D.  AQE  A.  D. 

1646  Bom  at  Leipzig,  Prussia, 1684 

1661  Entered  universitv  of  Leipzig,      .    .      15 

1663  De  Principio  Individui, 17  1692 

1666  Doctor   oi    laws,  Altdorf  univer- 

sity;   Tractatua  de  Arte   Com-  1700 

binaioria, 20 

1667  Councilor  of  state,       21  1710 

1672-74  Visited  France  and  England,    .    .   26-28  1716 

1676         Librarian  to  duke  of  Brunswick,  .    .     30 


AOS 
RegUa  du  Caletd  Differentid,  "Dif- 
ferential Calculus," 38 

Attempted   to   unite   Protestants 

and  Catholics, 46 

President  Berlin  academy  of  sci- 
ences,   54 

Th^odieie, 64 

Died  at  Hanover,  Prussia,     ....  70 


/GOTTFRIED  WILHELM  VON  LEIB- 
^^  NITZ  was  celebrated  both  as  a  philoso- 
pher and  as  a  mathematician,  and  was  per- 
haps the  most  extraordinary  example  of 
universal  scholarship  in  intellectual  history. 
He  was  bom  at  Leipzig,  Prussia,  July  6,  1646, 
where  his  father  was  a  jurist,  and  professor  of 
natural  philosophy  in  the  university. 

His  father  died  early,  and  Leibnitz  was  left 
to  the  care  of  a  wise  mother,  who  allowed  him 
great  freedom  in  study.  He  learned  Latin 
and  Greek  at  the  school  of  Saint  Nicholas, 
and  entered  the  university  of  Leipzig  at  the 
age  of  fifteen,  where  he  studied  under  the 
philologist,  Thomasius,  and  devoted  himself, 
also,  to  philosophy,  literature,  jurisprudence, 
and  mathematics. 

From  Leipzig  he  received  his  bachelor's 
degree  in  1663,  and  presented  the  remarkable 
thesis,  De  Principio  Individui.  In  the  same 
year  he  spent  some  time  at  the  university  of 
Jena  in  the  study  of  mathematics  and  law, 
and  published  a  dissertation  on  certain 
specific  difficulties  in  law.  In  1666  he  pub- 
lished his  Tractatus  de  Arte  Combinatoria,  a 
most  unusual  treatise  on  the  combination  of 
numbers  and  ideas,  and  also  presented  him- 
self for  the  degree  in  law  at  Leipzig.  In  con- 
sequence of  his  youth,  however,  it  was  refused 


by  the  university  authorities;  but  a  few 
months  later  he  applied  for  and  received  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  laws  from  the  university 
at  Altdorf,  in  his  twentieth  year. 

Leibnitz  refused,  in  1667,  a  professorship  at 
Altdorf,  and  accepted  instead  the  office  of 
councilor  of  state  at  Frankfort.  Here  the 
friendship  of  Baron  von  Boineburg  —  whom 
he  served  for  some  time  as  secretary  —  gained 
him  an  entree  to  the  most  cultivated  society 
of  Germany,  and  gave  him  a  clear  insight 
into  the  political  state  of  Europe,  which  at 
that  time  was  slowly  recovering  from  relig- 
ious strife.  At  Boineburg's  suggestion,  Leib- 
nitz had  dedicated  to  the  elector  of  Mainz 
an  essay  on  a  "New  Method  of  Learning 
and  Teaching  Jurisprudence " ;  under  the 
patronage  of  the  latter  he  set  to  work  to 
reform  German  jurisprudence,  and  published 
several  theological  treatises.  He  was  like- 
wise appointed  to  the  bench  of  the  upper 
court  of  appeals,  the  supreme  court  of  the 
electorate,  when  but  twenty-four  years  of 
age. 

He  soon  abandoned  the  science  of  philo- 
sophical jurisprudence,  and  extended  his 
fame  as  a  philosopher  by  republishing  and 
annotating  the  Antibarharus  Philosophus  of 
Nizolivis,  in  which  he  ranks  Aristotle  above 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


90B 


Descartes;  wrote  a  theological  argument  in 
defense  of  the  Trinity,  Sacrosancta  Trinitas, 
aimed  against  the  Polish  SocinianWissowatius, 
who  had  procured  the  erection  of  a  temple  to 
the  harmony  of  the  three  Christian  confessions ; 
and  addressed  to  the  academy  of  sciences  of 
Paris  and  to  the  royal  society  of  London  two 
remarkable  memoirs  on  the  laws  of  motion. 
Associated  with  Cassini,  Huyghens,  and 
others,  he  devoted  himseK  especially  to 
mathematics  and  physics,  and  established  a 
European  reputation  by  bold  and  striking 
thoughts  in  all  departments  of  learning. 

In  1672  Leibnitz  accompanied  Boineburg's 
sons  to  Paris,  and  there  submitted  to  Louis 
XIV.  an  essay  entitled  Consilium  ^gyp- 
tiacum,  containing  a  plan  for  the  invasion  of 
Egypt,  which  is  generally  supposed  to  have 
led  to  the  Egyptian  expedition  of  Bonaparte  in 
1798.  In  the  course  of  this  tour  he  came  into 
contact  with  many  followers  of  Descartes  — 
Arnauld,  Malebranche,  and,  above  all,  Huy- 
ghens. Now  for  the  first  time  he  became 
associated  with  that  critical  period  of  mathe- 
matical research  which,  dating  from  the 
geometry  of  Descartes,  was  to  culminate, 
four  years  later,  in  his  own  discovery  of  the 
transcendental  calculus.  In  the  following 
year  public  business  took  him  for  a  few  weeks 
to  London,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  the  remarkable  group  of  men  who  had 
founded  the  royal  society,  and  among  them, 
Newton. 

On  the  death  of  the  elector  of  Mainz, 
Leibnitz  declined  an  appointment  at  Paris, 
and  entered  the  service  of  the  duke  of 
Brunswick  at  Hanover.  Here,  in  1676,  he 
was  made  privy  councilor  and  librarian,  and 
permanently  fixed  his  residence.  His  literary 
services  to  this  court  were  of  a  very  miscel- 
laneous character,  and  he  was  partially 
occupied  for  six  years  in  arranging  and  en- 
riching the  famous  Wolfenbiittel  library.  He 
also  improved  the  royal  mines  and  coinage, 
gathered  in  Austria  and  Italy  materials  for  a 
history  of  the  Brimswick  ducal  house,  and 
took  an  active  part  in  the  negotiations  for 
church  union  between  Protestants  and  Cath- 
olics, and  the  theological  discussions  connected 
therewith. 

At  the  congress  of  Nimeguen  in  1677  there 
was  a  dispute  about  the  right  of  precedence 
between  the  princes  who  were  electors  and 
those  who  were  not.  Leibnitz  maintained 
the  cause  of  the  latter  in  a  treatise  containing 
the  ultramontane  rather  than  the  Protestant 


declaration  that  all  the  states  of  CSiristeDdom 
should  form  but  a  single  body,  having  the  pope 
for  their  spiritual  and  the  cmpiTor  for  their 
temporal  head.  This  idea  of  a  grand  theoo> 
racy  appears  prominently  in  several  of  his 
writings,  and  was  particularly  emphasised  in 
his  protracted  correspondence  with  the  cele- 
brated Bossuet  and  with  M.  Peliason.  It  led 
to  the  preparation,  on  his  own  part,  of  a  very 
curious  exposition  of  doctrinal  belief,  pub- 
lished much  later  under  the  title  Sydema 
Theologicum,  which,  although  written  in  the 
assumed  character  of  a  Catholic,  was  intended 
to  form  a  basis  of  negotiation.  The  religious 
strife  which  had  agitated  Europe  for  a  century 
was  hateful  to  him  as  a  barren  waste  of 
energy,  and  he  earnestly  desired  to  see  the 
unity  of  Catholic  and  Protestant  churches. 
Failing  in  this,  he  sought,  also  unsuccessfully, 
to  reconcile  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed 
churches. 

His  private  studies,  however,  were  chiefly 
philosophical  and  philological.  His  corre- 
spondence on  these  subjects  was  most  exten- 
sive, and  he  contributed  largely  to  almost 
every  literary  and  scientific  journal  of  his  day, 
especially  to  the  Acta  Eruditorum  of  Leipzig, 
of  which  he  was  one  of  the  founders,  in  1682. 
He  was  the  chief  organizer  of  the  academy 
of  Berlin,  of  which  he  was  the  first  president, 
in  1700;  and  he  originated  both  at  Dresden 
and  Vienna  a  project  for  the  establishment  of 
similar  bodies.  It  was  to  him,  likewise,  that 
Peter  the  Great,  who  invited  him  to  a  meeting 
at  Torgau,  and  bestowed  on  him  a  pension  of 
one  thousand  rubles,  with  the  title  of  privy- 
councilor,  owed  the  plan  of  the  si  ace  cele- 
brated academy  of  St.  Petersbui^. 

In  1704  he  wrote  his  examination  of  Locke's 
philosophy.  He  published  in  1710.  in 
French  his  Thiodic6e,  the  noblest  monument 
of  his  genius.  The  fragment  on  "Monadol- 
ogy  "  belongs  to  the  year  1714.  His  discover- 
ies in  connection  with  the  calculus  were 
made  even  before  1684,  and  were  fully 
described  in  the  Acta  Eruditorum  in  that  year. 
A  controversy  with  Newton  concerning  the 
discovery  of  the  differential  calculus  embit- 
tered the  latter  years  of  his  life.  There  is 
little  doubt  that  Newton's  method  of  fluxions 
and  Leibnitz's  method  of  infinitesimals  were 
independent  and  original  discoveries ;  but  the 
priority  of  publication  belongs  to  Leibnitx. 
A  letter,  indeed,  of  Leibnitz  to  Newton  in 
1677,  shows  the  "Differential  Calculus"  fully 
formed,  the  first  draft  of  the  letter  exhibiting 


300 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


also  the  symbol  of  integration.  It  was  first 
fully  described  in  the  Acta  Erudiiorum  of 
Leipzig  in  1684.  It  is  clear  from  the  corre- 
spondence that  Newton  had  been  for  some 
time  in  possession  of  the  method  of  fluxions 
leading  to  similar  results.  But  Newton  had 
concealed  his  method  in  an  anagram  which, 
when  interpreted,  yields  no  proof  that  his 
notation,  on  which  the  value  of  the  method 
depended,  was  fixed  until  a  much  later  date. 
It  is  in  any  case  certain  that  the  differentials 
of  Leibnitz  proved,  in  the  course  of  the  two 
following  generations,  far  more  fertile  in  dis- 
covery than  the  fluxions  of  Newton. 

On  the  accession  of  the  elector  George  to 
the  crown  of  Great  Britain,  as  George  I., 
Leibnitz  was  disappointed  in  his  expectation 
of  accompanying  the  prince  to  his  new  court ; 
nor  did  he  long  survive  that  event.  His 
death,  which  was  rather  unexpected,  occurred 
at  Hanover,  November  14,  1716.  His  biogra- 
phers justly  complain  that  his  memory  was 
treated  with  but  little  honor  by  his  contem- 
poraries; but  a  tardy  atonement  for  their 
neglect  has  resulted  in  the  erection  of  a  monu- 
ment to  him  in  one  of  the  squares  of  the  city 
of  Hanover,  and  also  a  statue  in  his  native 
city  of  Leipzig. 

The  real  life  of  such  a  man  is  in  his  charac- 
ter and  writings.  With  regard  to  the  first, 
Fontenelle  is  probably  our  best  authority. 
He  had  a  strong  constitution,  ate  a  good  deal, 
drank  little,  and  never  undiluted  liquors. 
Many  of  his  habits  were  in  strange  contrast 
with  his  philosophy.  When  alone,  he  always 
took  his  meals  as  his  studies  permitted.  His 
chair  was  frequently  his  only  bed,  and  in  this 
way  he  is  said  to  have  sometimes  passed 
whole  months.  He  communicated  freely 
with  all  classes  of  men,  and  could  entirely 
divest  himself  of  his  character  of  a  philoso- 
pher. His  correspondence  was  immense ;  he 
answered  every  one  who  wrote,  however 
small  the  pretext  for  addressing  him.  He  was 
of  a  gay  humor,  easily  excited  to  anger,  and 
easily  appeased.  He  lived  at  great  expense, 
but  had  preserved  and  hid  two  years'  amoimt 
of  his  salary.  The  securing  of  this  treasure 
gave  him  great  uneasiness,  and  upon  this 
slight  ground  he  has  been  charged  with  ava- 
rice. He  took  so  little  exercise  that  during 
his  later  years  he  suffered  greatly  in  his  lower 
limbs,  and  often  lamented  that  they  were  not 
as  sound  as  his  head  and  stomach. 

Leibnitz  was  small  of  stature,  slightly  bent, 
with  large  hands,  and  small  piercing  eyes. 


He  was  never  married ;  but  it  is  said  that  he 
contemplated  such  an  alliance  at  the  age  of 
fifty.  The  lady  of  his  choice  desired  time  to 
consider.  "This,"  says  his  biographer,  "gave 
Leibnitz  the  same  opportunity,  and  he  con- 
tinued unmarried." 

The  most  important  of  the  works  of  Leib- 
nitz—  in  addition  to  his  "Calculus"  —  are 
the  "  New  Essays  on  the  Human  Understand- 
ing," in  which  the  opinions  of  Locke  are  con- 
troverted; the  "Theodicy:  on  the  Goodness 
of  God,  the  Liberty  of  Man  and  the  Origin  of 
Evil " ;  "  Pre-Established  Harmony,"  a  theory 
of  optimism;  and  his  "Monadology,"  in 
which  is  developed  his  system  of  metaphysics. 
It  is  difficult  to  convey,  in  popular  language, 
a  correct  notion  of  his  system  as  a  whole,  for 
the  reason  that  he  has  nowhere  reduced  it  to 
an  orderly  presentation  himself. 

The  ambition  of  Leibnitz  was  to  conciliate 
all  things.  "I  have  been  struck,"  he  said, 
"with  the  idea  of  a  new  system,  for  I  beUeve 
I  see  the  interior  of  things  in  a  new  light. 
This  system  would  reconcile  Plato  with 
Democritus,  Aristotle  with  Descartes,  the 
scholastics  with  the  moderns,  theology  and 
morals  with  reason.  I  would  take  the  best 
from  all,  and  push  the  matter  further  than  it 
has  yet  gone." 

Locke's  doctrine  that  our  ideas  were  due  to 
external  impressions  was  unacceptable  to 
Leibnitz.  Nothing  in  the  intellect,  said  the 
schoolman  and  Aristotle,  that  was  not  first 
in  the  sense  —  except,  replied  Leibnitz,  the 
intellect  itself.  External  influences  merely 
bring  into  activity  what  is  already  there. 
It  was  the  problem  of  the  mutual  action  of 
organism  and  environment,  which  was  after- 
ward studied  by  Kant  far  more  systematic- 
aUy. 

According  to  Leibnitz,  nature  and  spirit 
correspond,  the  laws  of  thought  are  those  of 
things.  If  we  would  comprehend  the  first 
principles  of  nature,  let  us  study  our  reason. 
Reason  has  two  great  laws  which  it  applies 
as  soon  as  experience  furnishes  occasion.  The 
first  is  the  axiom  of  contradiction :  that  at  the 
same  time  and  under  the  same  conditions  a 
thing  cannot  exist  and  yet  not  exist;  the 
second  is  the  axiom  of  sufficient  reason: 
nothing  can  exist  without  a  reason  which 
suffices  to  explain  it. 

The  axiom  of  contradiction  corresponds 
to  the  possible,  that  of  the  sufficient  reason  to 
the  actual.  But  it  is  not  enough  that  a  thing 
exists  actually,  as  established  by  the  axiom 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


aoi 


of  contradiction;  there  must  still  be  a  suffi- 
cient reason  why  it  has  passed  into  existence 
and  is  realized  in  creation.  This  reason, 
according  to  the  Theodicee  of  Leibnitz,  is 
order,  suitableness,  and  harmony,  the  uni- 
versal well-being.  In  the  mind  of  man  the 
principle  ought  to  be  established  that  all  is 
good,  that  all  is  beautiful,  that  all  is  regular, 
and  in  order ;  that  nothing  exists  which  ought 
not  to  be. 

Experience  without  reason  only  furnishes 
the  connections  or  associations  of  images  as 
those  which  serve  to  guide  animals.  Man, 
alone,  according  to  Leibnitz,  is  acquainted 
with  the  chain  of  reasoning.  And  what  is 
there  innate  in  this  faculty?  Itself.  This 
theory  sufficed  to  overthrow  that  of  the 
sensualists  defended  by  Locke,  who  had 
affirmed  it. 

In  possession  of  the  great  laws  of  the 
intelligence,  the  next  step  is  to  proceed  to  the 
study  of  things  themselves,  to  go  from  the 
ideal  order  to  the  real  order,  which  is  only  an 
expression  according  to  Leibnitz,  who  affirmed 
that  in  nature  reason  found  only  itself. 

Space,  he  argued,  is  not  a  real  existence, 
but  a  pure  relation  of  coexistence.  To 
attribute  to  it  a  proper  reality  is  to  admit, 
as  Descartes  has  seemed  to  do,  the  passivity 
of  substances  and  to  introduce  into  the  uni- 
verse inertia  and  torpor.  Leibnitz  had  barely 
escaped  being  seduced  by  this  system  earlier 
in  life.  But  he  felt  its  insufficiency,  and  to 
the  pantheism  of  Spinoza,  to  the  occasional 
causes  of  Malebranche  so  nearly  related  to 
Spinoza,  to  the  purely  mechanical  theories 
of  Descartes,  he  opposed  the  activity  of  the 
individual  substance.  To  be,  is  to  act. 
Creative  act  did  not  produce  simply  phenom- 
ena which  would  be  then  only  the  modes  of 
God,  but  it  deposited  in  beings  a  force  or 
intimate  virtue,  from  which  could  proceed 
naturally  their  actions  as  well  as  their  pas- 
sions. If  mechanism  accounts  for  visible 
nature  by  the  laws  of  motion,  it  does  not  give 
the  invisible  reason  of  these  laws  nor  the  rea- 
son of  motion,  and  consequently  does  not 
explain  itself.  In  a  word  the  surface  of  things 
is  explained  by  mechanism,  while  the  depths 
of  things  can  be  explained  only  by  dynamism. 

Leibnitz  spent  much  thought  in  reconciling 
the  belief  in  an  omnipotent  and  benevolent 
Creator  with  the  existence  of  moral  evil.  His 
solution  was  that  evil  was  permitted  for  the 
sake  of  greater  good.  Good,  he  conceived, 
immensely    preponderated    over    evil;     and 


much  of  it,  but  for  evil,  could  never  have  ( 

to  light.  A  world  free  from  evil  might  have 
been  created;  yet  the  good  in  that  world 
might  have  been  of  so  much  lower  sort  tm  to 
stand,  on  the  whole,  lower  than  that  in  which 
we  live.  It  might  have  been  arranged  that 
the  crime  of  Tarquin  should  not  have  been 
permitted;  but  in  that  case  the  Rcnnan 
republic,  with  its  vast  influence  for  good, 
would  not  have  arisen.  God  then  foresees 
and  permits  evil;  but  we  must  believe  that 
He  has  created  out  of  all  possible  combina- 
tions that  world  which  on  the  whole  waa  beet. 

"The  theodicy  of  Spinoza,"  says  Baring- 
Gould,  "had  started  from  a  substance,  one, 
infinite,  the  base  of  the  world,  impersonal  and 
undetermined.  Leibnitz  opposed  to  this  the 
hypothesis  of  a  living  primal  force.  Matter, 
which  Anaxagoras  and  Plato  among  the 
ancients,  and  Descartes  and  Spinoza  among 
the  moderns  had  regarded  as  inert,  became 
in  the  system  of  Leibnitz  the  sensible  revela- 
tion of  motion,  life  and  force.  Spirit  he  sup- 
posed to  be,  not  thought  only,  but  a  virtuality, 
an  essence  endowed  with  original  ideas,  which 
are  not  innate  in  man  under  an  adequate 
form,  but  exist  virtualiter,  ■poterUialiter. 

"Spinoza  deduced  all  things  from  the  sole 
substance,  and  was  consequently  obliged  to 
sacrifice  individualities  to  the  unique  general 
being.  Leibnitz,  on  the  contrary,  considered 
all  things  as  the  reunion  of  an  infinite  number 
of  essences  or  independent  forces,  active, 
living,  distinct,  indivisible,  imperishable,  with- 
out form  or  extension,  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  of  monads,  that  they  might  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  atoms  of  Democritus  and 
Epicurus.  Each  of  these  monads  differs  from 
the  other,  not  in  kind  but  in  degree.  Each  is 
a  little  complete  being  in  itself,  and  reflects  ai 
in  a  mirror  the  entire  universe  or  God. 

"The  world  is  an  assemblage  of  these 
monads.  Each  monad,  by  virtue  of  the  inde- 
pendent inherent  force  in  it,  is  without  natural 
relationship  to  the  other  monads.  Their  bond 
of  union  is  a  '  preestablished  harmony,'  as 
Leibnitz  called  it,  in  virtue  of  which,  without 
destroying  the  independence  of  these  primitive 
forces,  he  considered  them  to  be  so  constituted 
that  their  mutual  development  in  no  way 
clashed,  but  on  the  contrary  worked  toward 
a  harmonious  end.  The  preestablished  hai^ 
mony  is  due  to  God,  the  author  of  these  living 
monads." 

The  scholarship  of  Leibnitz,  as  regards  the 
vastness  of  its  range,  is  probably  unexampled. 


302 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


He  was  eminent  in  languages,  history,  divinity, 
philosophy,  political  studies,  experimental 
science,  mechanical  science,  and  even  belles- 
lettres.  He  was  perhaps  the  first  among  the 
modern  philosophers  to  read  the  literature  of 
opinion  in  an  eclectic  spirit,  with  an  apprecia- 
tion of  all  the  great  systems  of  the  past,  and  a 
recognition  of  the  mutual  relations  of  different 
systems. 

In  the  course  of  his  immense  reading  it  was 
his  habit  to  make  extracts  in  his  common- 
place book,  and  to  note,  often  on  fragments 
of  paper,  his  critical  remarks  on  what  he  read. 
His  extraordinary  memory  made  it  almost 
unnecessary  for  him  to  refer  afterward  to 
what  he  thus  wrote,  for  Leibnitz  was  one  of 
those  prodigies  of  memory  of  whom  many 
anecdotes  are  recorded.  He  forgot  almost 
nothing  that  he  had  once  read  or  heard.  In 
his  old  age  he  could  recite  the  most  beautiful 
passages  of  the  ancient  classics,  and  whatever 
else  he  had  read  in  his  youth.    But  though  he 


read  much  he  reflected  more.  In  most  parts 
of  knowledge  it  may  be  said  that  he  was 
essentially  self-taught,  because  he  always 
struggled  for  deeper  insight  into  things  than 
that  attained  by  other  minds.  He  preferred 
solitary  meditation  to  conversation,  but  when 
once  roused  in  social  intercourse  he  spoke  \iith 
interest,  and  even  indulged  in  playful  sallies. 
In  accordance  with  his  Hberal  and  tolerant 
spirit,  it  was  his  habit  to  speak  well  of  others, 
and  to  put  the  best  construction  on  their 
words  and  actions.  "When  I  err  in  my 
opinion  of  men,"  he  often  said,  "I  prefer  to 
err  on  the  side  of  charity,  and  so  too  as 
regards  their  writings.  I  seek  there  for  what 
is  worthy  of  praise,  rather  than  of  blame ;  and 
there  are  few  books  or  persons  whence  I  may 
not  in  some  form  draw  wisdom  and  useful 
instruction."  Such  was  the  spirit  of  Leibnitz, 
and  to  these  comprehensive  sympathies  we 
may  trace  the  modern  philosophy  of  the  his- 
tory of  man  and  of  human  opinion. 


HUME 

A.  X>.  AGE  A.  D. 

1711         Bom  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland, 1754-61 

1734-37  Visited  France, 23-26  1757 

1739         A  Treatise  of  Human  Nature,   ...     28  1763 

1741-42  Essays,      30-31 

1747         Visited  Austria  and  Italy,     ....     36  1766 

1751  Enquiry   Concerning    the    Princi-  1767 

pies  of  Morals;    Political   Dis-  1776 

courses, 40 

1752  Librarian  to  faculty  of  advocates,  .     41 


ASB 

History  of  England, 43-60 

Natural  History  of  Religion,  ....  46 
Secretary   of   British  embassy  at 

Paris 62 

Returned  to  England, 65 

British  under-secretary  of  state,     .  56 

Died  at  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  ...  66 


■pjAVID  HUME,  the  famous  Scotch  phi- 
■*~^  losopher  and  historian,  was  born  in  Edin- 
burgh, Scotland,  April  26,  1711.  His  family 
was  of  noble  origin,  but  poor.  His  father's 
house  and  estate,  Ninewells,  were  in  Berwick- 
shire. The  family  was  a  branch  of  that  of 
Lord  Home,  or  Hume,  who  figured  in  the 
French  wars  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

David  was  the  youngest  of  three  children, 
and  these  were  brought  up  carefully  by  the 
mother,  the  father  having  died  in  David's 
infancy.  David,  who  inherited  from  his 
mother  his  intellectual  acuteness,  was  sent 
at  an  early  age  to  study  at  Edinburgh, 
and  was  destined  for  the  profession  of  the 
law.  But  his  taste  for  literature  and  phi- 
losophy was  too  strong  to  permit  him  to 
rest  contented  with  any  other  pursuit. 
He  therefore  remained  at  home  studying 
closely.  After  a  few  years  he  made  trial 
of  business  in  a  merchant's  office  at  Bristol, 


England,  but  conmierce  was  less  congenial 
to  him  than  law,  and  he  gave  it  a  very  short 
trial. 

Student  life  now  became  a  confirmed  pas- 
sion with  him,  and  he  devoted  himself  to 
books  with  no  settled  practical  object  before 
him.  He  has  recorded  in  his  memoirs  his 
sufferings  at  this  time  from  despondency  and 
depression  of  spirits,  caused,  apparently,  by 
the  effects  on  the  stomach  of  monotonous 
study.  At  twenty-three  years  of  age  he 
went  to  France,  and  lived  some  time  in  La 
Fl^che,  where  he  describes  himself  as  wander- 
ing about  in  solitude,  and  dreaming  the  dream 
of  his  philosophy.  Here  he  wrote  his  first 
work  —  A  Treatise  of  Human  Nature  —  the 
materials  for  which  he  had  been  long  gather- 
ing. This  work  was  published  in  1739,  after 
his  return  to  Great  Britain,  and  contained  the 
germ  of  his  philosophy,  and  still,  perhaps,  the 
best  exposition  of  it,  since  it  has  a  freshness 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


303 


and  decision  approaching  to  paradox,  which  he 
modified  in  his  later  works. 

Although  written  at  the  dawn  of  a  new  era 
in  philosophy,  this  book  was  little  noticed. 
It  was  a  work  of  demolition.  By  separating 
the  impressions  or  ideas  created  on  the  think- 
ing mind  by  an  external  world  from  the 
absolute  existence  of  that  world  itself,  he 
showed  that  almost  everything  concerning 
the  latter  was  taken  for  granted,  and  he 
demanded  proof  of  its  existence  of  a  kind  not 
yet  afforded.  It  was  thus  that  he  set  a  whole 
army  of  philosophers  at  work,  either  to  refute 
what  he  had  said,  or  seriously  to  fill  up  the 
blanks  which  he  discovered;  hence  he 
originated  both  the  Scotch  and  the  German 
school  of  metaphysicians. 

From  the  fact  that  his  philosophical  treatise 
was  far  from  a  financial  success,  Hume  for- 
sook the  path  of  philosophy  for  some  time, 
and  turned  to  themes  which  appeared  to 
promise  better  remuneration.  In  1741  and 
1742,  consequently,  appeared  two  volumes  of 
Essays,  dealing  with  morals  and  politics.  In 
these  he  showed  so  great  a  capacity  for  politi- 
cal speculation,  and  ran  so  far  ahead  of 
received  opinions,  that  he  has  been  called 
the  father  of  the  liberal  and  rational  policy. 
In  literary  style  the  Essays  far  surpassed  the 
Treatise,  and  they  met  with  immediate  recog- 
nition. In  1745,  after  a  fruitless  attempt  on 
the  part  of  his  friends  to  get  him  a  professor- 
ship of  ethics  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh, 
he  accepted,  for  a  large  salary,  the  post  of 
companion  or  guardian  to  the  weak-minded 
young  marquis  of  Annandale,  and  had  to  mix 
with  the  jealousies  and  mercenary  schemes 
which  naturally  attach  to  such  a  position. 
He  bore  the  infliction  for  a  year,  and  then 
escaped  from  it. 

In  1746  he  became  secretary  to  General 
St.  Clair  in  the  expedition  intended  for 
Canada,  but  diverted  to  France.  He  also 
attended  St.  Clair  on  his  mission  to  Turin 
and  Vienna,  both  as  secretary  and  aide-de- 
camp. During  his  absence  his  Philosophical 
Essays  Concerning  the  Human  Understanding, 
a  popular  recast  of  the  Treatise,  with  some 
important  additions,  were  published.  After 
his  return  to  London  in  1749,  he  heard  of  his 
mother's  death,  which  moved  him  to  a 
greater  show  of  tenderness  than  did  any  other 
event  of  his  life.  During  the  next  two  years 
he  wrote,  at  Ninewells,  his  Enquiry  Concerning 
the  Principles  of  Morals,  his  Political  Dis- 
courses —  the  second  series  of  Essays  —  and 


his  Dialogues  on  Natural  Religion.  The  last 
named  was  not  published  until  after  his 
death;  but  the  Enquiry  and  the  Discourses 
appeared  at  once,  and  the  latter  won  a  great 
success.  In  these  Discourses  the  principles  of 
political  economy  were  expounded  a  quarter 
of  a  century  before  the  appearance  of  Adam 
Smith's  Wealth  of  Nations,  whose  author  was 
one  of  Hume's  intimate  friends. 

About  this  time,  too,  he  made  an  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  to  obtain  the  chair  of  logic  at  the 
university  of  Glasgow,  and  after  his  failure 
settled  at  Edinburgh,  where  his  sister  presided 
over  his  house.  In  1752  he  was  elected 
librarian  to  the  faculty  of  advocates,  a  post 
which  gave  him  access  to  a  large  Ubrary,  and 
thus  encouraged  him  in  his  next  important 
undertaking,  the  History  of  England.  The 
first  volume  of  this  work,  containing  the 
reigns  of  the  first  two  Stuarts,  appeared  in 
1754,  and  excited  the  wrath  of  all  parties 
alike.  The  second  voliune,  issued  in  1756, 
was  well  received,  but  the  next  two,  which 
followed  in  1759,  and  treated  of  the  house  of 
Tudor,  gave  general  offense  as  the  first  had 
done.  Hume  published,  in  1757,  his  Natural 
History  of  Religion,  which  was  violently 
assailed  in  a  pamphlet  supposed  to  be  written 
by  Dr.  Hurd,  but  now  definitely  considered  to 
be  the  work  of  Warburton.  Two  other  dis- 
sertations, intended  to  accompany  these,  were 
cancelled  by  him  after  they  were  printed  — 
On  Suicide  and  The  Immortality  of  the  Soul  — 
but  were  subsequently  included  in  his  works. 

The  History  of  England  was  completed  by 
the  publication  of  the  earlier  portions  in 
1754-61.  Through  this  work  Hume  took 
rank  as  the  first  eminent  historian  in  Great 
Britain,  the  first  endowed  with  the  habits  of 
a  philosophical  inquirer  and  master  of  a  fine 
literary  style.  Of  his  style,  indeed,  he  was 
far  more  careful  than  of  accuracy.  The 
general  criticism  of  it  was  that  the  time  spent 
in  the  production  of  the  history  was  too 
short  to  justify  adequate  original  research. 
Moreover,  a  strong  partisan  spirit  inspired 
the  narrative,  and,  in  process  of  revision, 
this  fault  was  designedly  exaggerated,  so  that, 
as  has  been  said,  all  the  lights  of  the  book 
are  tory  and  all  the  shades  whig.  This  may 
well  surprise  the  readers  of  Hume's  political 
writings,  in  which  his  doctrines  are  not  only 
liberal,  but  most  democratic.  The  History, 
however,  long  held  its  ground  as  the  chief 
authority  on  the  subject,  and  is  still  one  of 
the  historic  classics. 


304 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


In  1763  Hume  accompanied  Lord  Hertford, 
British  ambassador  to  France,  and  became 
secretary  to  the  embassy,  with  a  salary  of 
one  thousand  pounds  a  year.  At  Paris, 
where  his  reputation  as  a  philosopher  stood 
very  high,  he  was  petted  and  lionized  by 
society  as  Voltaire  was  to  be  some  years  later. 
He  became  familiar  with  the  brilliant  wits 
and  savants  of  the  Parisian  circle  —  with 
Turgot,  D'Alembert,  Hclvetius,  Holbach, 
Diderot,  Buffon,  Malesherbes,  Cr^billon,  and 
the  rest,  as  well  as  with  the  no  less  distin- 
guished female  eminences,  De  Boufflers,  Page 
de  Boccage,  Geofrin,  DuDeffand,  and 
L'Espinasse.  After  Lord  Hertford's  depar- 
ture Hume  remained  as  charge  d'affaires, 
returning  to  England  in  1766.  While  in 
France  occurred  the  episode  of  his  friendly 
intervention  on  behalf  of  the  restless,  vain, 
and  self-tormenting  Rousseau,  resulting  in  a 
quarrel,  in  consequence  of  the  insane  hallu- 
cinations of  the  latter  and  his  charges  of 
treachery  against  Hume. 

From  1767  to  1769  Hume  held  the  office 
of  British  under-secretary  of  state,  and  then 
finally  retired  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  built 
a  house  and  expressed  his  purpose  to  reside 
for  the  rest  of  his  hfe.  Hume's  success  was 
the  beginning  of  the  brilliant  period  of  literary 
culture  and  society  at  Edinburgh,  and  his 
house  became  the  center  of  attraction.  In 
1775  began  the  illness  which  waa  to  prove 
fatal.  Distinctly  aware  of  this,  he  wrote 
My  Own  Life,  a  simple,  cheery,  and  also,  it 
may  be  added,  a  very  appreciative  record. 
He  died  at  Edinburgh,  August  25,  1776,  and 
his  remains  were  interred  in  the  old  burial 
ground  on  Calton  hill,  that  city. 

Hume's  philosophical  writings  do  not  form 
a  complete  system,  but  he  discusses  many 
of  the  salient  ideas  of  philosophy,  in  a  bold, 
penetrating,  and  original  manner.  His  rea- 
sonings were  the  outcome  of  the  empirical 
philosophy  of  Locke,  and  have  been  fre- 
quently assailed  as  sceptical  and  destructive. 
He  was  the  first  to  see  clearly  that  the  great 
starting  point  of  Cartesian  philosophy  —  the 
fact  of  self-consciousness  —  was  not  more 
amenable  to  demonstration  than  was  our 
belief  in  the  existence  of  an  outer  world. 
That  we  possessed  both  these  beliefs  was 
certain,  in  common  probably  with  the  higher 
animals;  but  to  prove  their  validity,  or  to 
discuss  the  natm:e  of  their  objects,  was  not 
possible  for  man. 

Limiting  himself,  therefore,  to  phenomena. 


Hume  went  on  to  explain  that  the  materials 
of  our  knowledge  are  of  two  kinds:  vivid 
impressions  and  faint  impressions.  To  a 
series  of  vivid  impressions  of  form,  color, 
weight,  texture,  etc.,  constantly  found  in 
conjunction,  we  attach  by  an  instinctive 
belief  the  notion  of  external  body.  Of  these 
vivid  impressions  there  are  faint  echoes  or 
repetitions.  These,  to  distinguish  them  from 
the  vivid  impressions,  Hume,  following  Locke, 
called  ideas. 

If  the  idea  of  an  apple  results  from  the 
vivid  impression  of  an  apple,  does  not  the 
first  prove  the  existence  of  the  second,  since 
every  effect  must  have  a  cause?  Here  we 
come  to  the  most  salient  point  of  Hume's 
philosophy,  the  elimination  of  the  conception 
of  cause,  as  nothing  but  a  mental  figment. 
"The  idea  of  cause  and  effect,"  he  says,  "is 
derived  from  experience,  which,  presenting 
us  with  certain  objects  constantly  conjoined 
with  each  other  in  a  certain  order,  produces 
such  a  habit  of  surveying  them  in  that  rela- 
tion, that  we  cannot  without  a  sensible 
violence  survey  them  in  any  other."  Two 
vivid  impressions  being  constantly  seen  in 
sequence,  the  belief  arises  in  our  minds,  not 
merely  that  one  will  be  followed  by  the  other, 
but  that  the  first  possesses  power  to  produce 
the  second.  A  billiard  ball  in  motion  strikes 
another,  and  there  ensues  the  motion  of  the 
second  ball.  This,  said  Hume,  is  all  that  we 
can  assert  with  philosophical  certainty.  To 
maintain  the  existence  of  a  power  in  the 
first  bsdl  to  produce  the  motion  of  the  second 
is  to  go  wholly  outside  the  limits  of  our 
knowledge. 

The  objection  has  been  made  to  this  view, 
that  night  always  follows  day,  yet  that  day 
is  not  regarded  as  the  cause  of  night.  But 
here  we  have  a  cycle,  not  a  succession.  Day 
follows  night  as  well  as  precedes  it.  Placing 
an  opaque  body  in  the  line  of  the  sun's  rays, 
we  mark  that  a  shadow  results,  and  we  say 
that  the  body  is  the  cause  of  the  shadow. 
This  assertion  of  a  cause,  of  a  power  to  pro- 
duce, is  called  by  Hume  a  mental  fiction,  or 
habit,  from  which,  however,  we  cannot 
escape.  Hume  extends  this  view  to  impres- 
sions arising  from  an  internal  source.  A  man 
determines  to  raise  his  arm.  The  volition  is 
followed  by  the  contraction  of  certain  muscles. 
To  introduce  a  mysterious  agency  called  will, 
or  force,  as  explanatory  of  the  sequence  of 
the  contraction  on  the  volition,  does  not  help 
us  forward  in  the  least.    A  similar  train  of 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


aoi 


reasoning  led  to  his  remarkable  analysis  of 
the  fact  of  belief,  as  a  "vivid  idea  related  to 
or  associated  with  a  present  impression." 

Having  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  his 
method,  and  demonstrated  the  futility  of 
metaphysical  discussion,  he  passed,  in  his 
Essays,  to  other  subjects.  Among  them  are 
a  series  of  very  valuable  studies  on  com- 
mercial and  industrial  relations. 

His  ethics,  contained  in  his  Enquiry  Con- 
cerning the  Principles  of  Morals,  rightly  re- 
garded by  himself  as  his  most  important  work, 
is  a  striking  example  of  the  application  of  his 
method  to  the  highest  order  of  phenomena. 
Avoiding  all  speculation  as  to  the  origin  of 
evil,  or  as  to  the  existence  of  a  special  faculty 
for  the  discernment  of  right  and  wrong,  he 
asked  two  plain  questions,  susceptible  of  a 
definite  answer:  (1)  What  are  the  actions 
and  motives  which  men  in  all  ages  and  coun- 
tries praise  or  condemn?  (2)  Can  we  see  how 
this  praise  and  condemnation  arose?  The 
first  was  a  question  to  be  solved  by  induction 
from  facts;  the  second  by  demanding  a  law 
of  filiation  or  evolution. 

With  admirable  clearness  and  directness  of 
illustration,  he  shows  that  virtue,  or  personal 
merit,  consists  in  the  possession  of  mental 
qualities  useful  or  agreeable  to  the  person 
himself  or  to  others.  Not  that  men's  appro- 
bation of  these  qualities  rests  upon  an  elabo- 
rate calculation  of  personal  interest.  It  is 
instinctive  and  immediate,  and  operates  where 
no  such  interest  is  involved.  Gradually,  as 
the  social  state  widens  from  the  family  to 
the  tribe,  and  from  the  tribe  to  a  large 
political  community,  the  quahties  tending  to 
the  good  of  that  community  are  more  keenly 
recognized.  The  instinct  of  benevolence,  of 
a  fellow  feeling  with  others,  is  innate  in 
human  nature.  Crushed  at  first  by  coarser 
animal  passions,  it  gradually  asserts  itself, 
because,  unlike  the  other  instincts,  it  arouses 
no  antagonism,  and  can  be  indulged  by  all 
simultaneously.  This  instinct,  therefore,  is 
the  principal  source  of  morality.  In  Hume's 
remarkable  study,  the  Natural  History  of 
Religion,  though  fetichism  is  not  clearly  dis- 
tinguished from  polytheism,  yet  the  origin 
of  fetichism  —  that  is  to  say,  the  passions  — 
is  clearly  indicated.  "There  is  an  universal 
tendency,"  he  says,  "among  mankind  to 
conceive  all  beings  like  themselves,  and  to 
transfer  to  every  object  those  qualities  with 
which  they  are  familiarly  acquainted,  and  of 
which   they   are   intimately   conscious.     We 


find  human  faces  in  the  moon,  annies  in  Um 
clouds;  and  by  a  natural  propensity,  if  not 
corrected  by  experience  and  reflection,  w« 
ascribe  malice  and  good  will  to  everythii^( 

that  hurts  or  pleases  us." 

Taking  his  philosophic  writings  as  a  whole, 
Hume's  great  distinction  is,  that  by  his  acute 
investigation  of  the  nature  of  man,  from  the 
point  of  view  of  Locke's  system,  he  gave  to 
philosophical  scepticism  a  strength  and  logical 
consistency  which  it  never  had  before.  Locke 
had  taught  that  all  our  knowledge  was 
derived  from  experience;  Berkeley  had  fol- 
lowed and  proved  that  we  have  no  experience 
except  that  of  ideas;  and  that,  there- 
fore, matter  is  a  figment.  Hume  went  still 
further,  and,  as  some  one  has  said,  had 
courage  to  follow  truth  to  the  very  bottom 
of  her  well,  and  showed  that  mind  is  a  fig- 
ment, too.  Both  Locke  and  Berkeley  foresaw 
this  possible  issue,  but  shrank  back  from  the 
abyss. 

"Hume,"  says  George  Henry  Lewes,  "de- 
serves the  gratitude  of  mankind  for  having 
brought  philosophy  to  this  pa.ss.  Mankind, 
however,  has  paid  him  with  execration." 

Perhaps  the  most  memorable  result  of 
Hume's  philosophical  conclusions  was  that  it 
awakened  Kant  to  a  sense  of  the  necessity  of 
fresh  investigation,  more  searching  and  more 
profound,  and  thus  became  the  occasion  of 
the  birth  of  the  critical  philosophy.  But  he, 
also,  anticipated  some  of  the  advanced  specu- 
lations of  the  present  day.  His  influence 
has  told  upon  many  of  the  writers  who  have 
since  influenced  the  world,  and  it  is  still  far 
from  being  exhausted.  Notwithstanding  his 
remorseless  criticism,  both  philosophical  and 
religious,  he  always  treated  his  subject  with 
gravity  and  decorum,  never  employed  rib- 
aldry, and  seldom  even  wit  in  support  of 
his  views.  Among  his  closest  friends  were 
men  of  known  piety  and  some  of  the  religious 
leaders  of  the  day. 

The  character  of  this  distinguished  man  has 
often  been  misunderstood  and  misrepresented 
alike  by  friends  and  foes.  His  nature  was  a 
great  one,  but  not  developed  in  some  most 
vital  directions.  No  man  of  his  time  had  a 
stronger  understanding,  larger  intellectual 
capacity,  finer  tastes,  higher  courage,  or  more 
deeply  rooted  love  of  independence.  His 
disposition  was  mild,  benevolent,  and  gener- 
ous; his  temper  even,  placid,  and  gay.  He 
was  fond  of  society,  and  extremely  beloved 
by  those  who  associated  with  him.    Always 


306 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


soaring  above  the  petty  prejudices  of  man- 
kind; guarded  in  his  own  conduct,  and 
indulgent  toward  that  of  others,  he  preserved 
his  own  life  and  character  from  calumny; 
and  it  was  only  by  his  works  that  he  was  so 
often  the  object  of  malignity  and  hatred. 
He  died  as  he  lived.  Attacked  by  a  slow 
but  incurable  disease,  he  beheld  without  dis- 
may the  gradual  diminution  of  his  strength ; 
and  preserved  almost  to  his  last  moments  his 
ardor  for  study,  his  habitual  serenity,  and 
even  gaiety  of  temper.  A  few  days  before  his 
death,  he  said  to  his  physician,  "I  am  going 
as  fast  as  my  enemies,  if  I  have  any,  can 
wish,  and  as  calmly  as  my  best  friends  can 
desire." 

In  his  memoir  written  by  himself,  he  de- 
scribes himself  as  follows :  "  I  am,  or  rather 
was  —  for  that  is  the  style  I  must  now  use  in 
speaking  of  myself,  and  which  emboldens  me 
the  more  to  speak  my  sentiments  —  I  was,  I 
say,  a  man  of  mild  disposition;  of  command 
of  temper ;  of  an  open,  social,  and  cheerful 
humor,  capable  of  attachment,  but  little  sus- 
ceptible of  enmity ;  and  of  great  moderation 
in  all  my  passions.  Even  my  love  of  literary 
fame,  my  ruling  passion,  never  soured  my 
temper,  notwithstanding  my  frequent  disap- 
pointments. My  company  was  not  unac- 
ceptable to  the  young  and  careless,  as  well  as 
to  the  studious  and  literary;  and  as  I  took 
particular  pleasure  in  the  company  of  modest 
women,  I  had  no  reason  to  be  displeased  with 
the  reception  I  met  with  from  them.    In  a 


word,  though  most  men,  any^vise  eminent, 
have  found  reason  to  complain  of  calumny,  I 
was  never  touched,  or  even  attacked  by  her 
baneful  tooth;  and  although  I  wantonly 
exposed  myself  to  the  rage  of  both  civil 
and  religious  factions,  they  seemed  to  be 
disarmed,  on  my  behalf,  of  their  wonted 
fury. 

"  My  friends  never  had  occasion  to  vindicate 
any  one  circumstance  of  my  character  and 
conduct;  not  but  that  the  zealots,  we  may 
well  suppose,  would  have  been  glad  to  invent 
and  propagate  any  story  to  my  disadvantage, 
but  they  could  not  find  any  which  they  thought 
would  wear  the  face  of  probability.  I  cannot 
say  there  is  no  vanity  in  making  this  funeral 
oration  of  myself,  but  I  hope  it  is  not  a  mis- 
placed one ;  and  this  is  a  matter  of  fact  which 
is  easily  cleared  and  ascertained." 

The  great  economist,  Adam  Smith,  said  that 
Hume  approached  "as  nearly  to  the  idea  of  a 
perfectly  wise  and  virtuous  man  as,  perhaps, 
the  nature  of  human  frailty  will  permit." 
This  statement  is  probably  colored  by  the 
enthusiastic  glow  of  a  warm  atlmirer;  but 
certainly  no  one  can  justly  impeach  either 
Hume's  honesty  of  intellect,  or  the  attitude 
of  his  heart.  "For  kindly  David  Hume," 
says  Professor  Huxley,  "  the  damnation  of  one 
man  is  an  infinitely  greater  evil  in  the  universe 
than  the  subversion  of  a  thousand  million  of 
kingdoms.  And  he  would  have  felt  with  his 
countryman  Burns,  that  even  'auld  Nickie 
Ben '  should  '  hae  a  chance. ' " 


KANT 

A.  D.                                                                                                      AGE  A.  D. 

1724         Bom  at  Konigsberg,  Prussia 1784 

174t)         Entered  the  university  of   Konigs- 
berg,       16 

1746         "The    True     Measure     of      Living  1788 

Forces." 22  1790 

1755         "Natural  History  and  Theory  of  the  1793 

Heavens";  Ph.  D., 31 

1770-97  Professor    of     logic     and    meta-  1798 

_physics,  Konigsberg, 46-73 

1781         "Critique  of  Pure  Reason,"  ....     57  1804 


AGS 

"Ideas  About  Universal  History 
from  a  Cosmopolitan  Point  of 

View," 60 

"Critique  of  Practical  Reason,"  .    .     64 

"Critic^ue  of  Judgment," 66 

"Religion  within  the  Bounds  of 

Mere  Reason," 69 

"Anthropology  from  a  Pragmatic 

Point  of  View," 74 

Died  at  Konigsberg,  Prussia,    ...     80 


TMMANUEL  KANT  was  one  of  the  very 
■■•  greatest  thinkers  of  all  time,  and  the 
founder  of  the  so-called  critical  philosophy. 
He  was  of  Scotch  descent,  and  was  born  in 
Konigsberg,  Prussia,  April  22,  1724.  His 
father  was  a  saddler  and  strapmaker,  ex- 
tremely poor  and  exceedingly  honest.    His 


mother  was  innately  pious,  and  with  his  early 
instruction,  which  was  entirely  religious, 
Kant  acquired  that  reverence  and  love  of 
sincerity  which  so  markedly  influenced  his 
character  and  writings  in  later  life. 

He  was  educated  at  the  expense  of  his  uncle, 
at  the  university  of  his  native  town,  which  he 


IMMANUEL  KANT 

From  a  fainting 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


m» 


entered  in  1740.  He  pursued  the  study  of 
mathematics  and  the  sciences  with  great 
delight,  and  gave  much  attention  to  theology. 
History  and  poetry  remained  comparatively 
neglected.  For  nine  years  he  was  a  family 
tutor,  and,  in  the  year  1755,  he  received  from 
his  university  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philoso- 
phy. In  the  same  year  he  pubhshed  an 
essay  on  "  Natural  History  and  Theory  of  the 
Heavens,"  in  which  he  was  the  first  to  suggest 
the  theory  of  the  nebular  hypothesis.  He 
had  previously,  however,  when  but  twenty- 
tW^o  years  of  age,  published  an  extraordinary 
treatise  on  "The  True  Measure  of  Living 
Forces,"  which  contained  an  acute  criti- 
cism of  the  arguments  of  Descartes  and 
Leibnitz. 

Shortly  after  receiving  his  doctorate,  Kant 
settled  as  a  docent  at  the  university,  and 
delivered  lectures  on  logic,  metaphysics, 
natural  philosophy,  and  mathematics.  In 
1762  appeared  his  work  on  the  "Only  Pos- 
sible Ground  of  Demonstrating  the  Being  of 
God,"  proposing  a  new  form  of  the  ontological 
proof,  and  rejecting  the  other  three  arguments. 
Existence,  he  says,  is  not  a  predicate  concep- 
tion, and,  therefore,  cannot  be  proved;  but 
the  non-existence  of  God  contains  a  logical 
contradiction.  In  1770  he  obtained  the 
chair  of  mathematics  —  after  declining  the 
chair  of  poetry  in  1762  —  but  soon  exchanged 
it  for  that  of  metaphysics  and  logic,  which  he 
occupied  until  1797,  seven  years  before  his 
death.  During  this  period  of  almost  half  a 
century  occupied  in  professorial  duties  at  the 
university  of  Konigsberg,  he  evolved  his 
philosophical  works. 

His  inaugural  dissertation,  "Form  and 
Principles  of  the  Sensible  and  Intelligible 
World  "  —  De  Mundi  Sensihilis  atque  IrUelli- 
*gibilis  Forma  et  Principiis  —  contains  germs 
of  his  metaphysical  system.  In  1772  he 
wrote  about  his  scheme  of  a  transcendental 
philosophy,  which  he  hoped  to  finish  in  three 
months ;  in  1776  it  was  to  be  completed  the 
next  summer;  but  not  until  1781  did  the 
"Critique  of  Pure  Reason"  —  Kritik  der 
reinen  Vernunft  —  make  its  appearance.  In 
1783  appeared  his  "Prolegomena  to  every 
future  System  of  Metaphysics  claiming  to  be 
a  Science,"  a  more  popular  exposition,  and 
also  a  more  complete  analysis,  of  the  questions 
and  problems  mooted  in  the  "  Critique."  He 
then  endeavored  to  counteract  the  negative 
results  of  the  system  of  pure  reason  by  his 
"Foundation  of  the  Metaphysics  of  Ethics" 


—  OrundUgung  der  Metaphytik  der  Sittm  — 
in  1785,  and  "Metaphysioal  Elemento  of 
Natural  SciencQ "— Mdaphytitche  Anfang*' 
griinde  der  Naturxeisaemchaft  —  iasued  in  1786, 
completing  the  exjxwition  of  his  views  in 
these  two  branches  of  philosophy.  In  1787 
he  published  the  second  edition  of  the  "Crit- 
ique of  Pure  Reason,"  omitting  the  preface 
to  the  first  edition,  and  altering  it  so  as  to 
avoid  the  charge  of  idealism  which  had  been 
generally  preferred  against  his  speculations. 

The  "Critique  of  Practical  Reason"  — 
Kritik  der  praktischen  Vernunft  —  published 
in  1788,  was  intended  to  give  the  positive 
aspect  of  the  new  philosophy  in  relation  to 
God,  freedom,  and  immortality.  It  is  a 
further  exposition  and  application  of  what 
was  given  in  outline  in  the  "  Metaph)rsics  of 
Ethics,"  and  it  contributed  to  give  currency 
to  his  system  among  those  who  had  been 
repelled  by  the  apparently  negative  conclu- 
sions of  the  "Critique  of  Pure  Reason."  To 
these  works,  in  1790,  Kant  added  his 
"Critique  of  Judgment " — Kritik  der  UrtheiU- 
krajt  —  which  developed  more  fully  the 
principles  of  the  metaphysics  of  the  natural 
sciences,  and  supplemented  many  positions 
in  his  other  treatises. 

With  the  latter  work  closed  the  productive 
metaphysical  period  of  Kant's  philosophic 
career.  His  subsequent  writings  form,  accord- 
ing to  his  own  statement,  its  practical  period, 
applying  to  different  special  sciences  the 
principles  he  had  elaborated.  The  more 
definite  conflict  of  his  philosophy  with  the 
orthodox  theology  was  aroused  by  the  publi- 
cation of  his  essays  on  "Religion  within  the 
Bounds  of  Mere  Reason  "  —  Die  Religion  in- 
nerhalh  der  Grenzen  der  blossen  Vernunft  —  in 
1793.  In  1797  appeared  his  "Metaphysics 
of  Ethics  "  —  Der  Metaphyaik  der  SiUen  —  in 
two  parts,  viz. :  the  "  Metaphysical  Elements 
of  Right,"  and  "of  Virtue."  The  "Strife  of 
the  Faculties,"  issued  in  1798,  is  a  review  of 
the  controversy  about  his  religious  opinions, 
with  the  documents  concerning  it.  His 
"Anthropology  from  a  Pragmatic  Point  of 
View  "  —  ArUhropologie  in  pragmati»cher  Hin- 
sicht  —  was  published  the  same  year.  Besides 
his  larger  works  and  essays,  Kant  also  wrote 
many  minor  treatises,  sufficient  to  have  made 
a  literary  reputation  for  most  men.  In  1784 
he  published  an  essay  entitled  "Ideas  about 
Universal  History  from  a  Cosmopolitan  Point 
of  View  " ;  and  in  1795,  a  "  Project  of  Per- 
petual Peace." 


SIO 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Kant  died  February  12,  1804,  in  his  eighti- 
eth year,  having  never  in  the  whole  career  of 
his  life,  it  is  said,  traveled  more  than  forty 
miles  outside  of  his  native  city.  Sixteen  days 
after  his  death,  on  February  28th,  a  public 
funeral  was  accorded  him.  His  remains  were 
buried  in  a  vault  in  the  university  church, 
and  were  followed  to  their  last  resting  place 
by  his  familiar  friends,  by  students  of  the 
university,  and  by  hundreds  from  the  city 
and  neighborhood.  People  of  all  sorts  and 
conditions  vied  with  one  another  to  do  honor 
to  his  memory  as  a  man  of  genius,  and  to  pay 
their  final  tribute  to  his  worth.  He  left  a 
modest  fortune,  and  a  library  of  four  hundred 
fifty  volumes. 

Kant's  external  life  was  one  of  the  utmost 
regularity  and  simplicity.  He  was  a  man  of 
small  stature  and  frail  body,  but  by  rigid  rules 
he  kept  in  tolerable  health,  and  never  had  a 
severe  illness  until  worn  out  by  advanced  age. 
He  was  never  married;  philosophy  was  the 
passion  of  his  soul;  and  his  whole  career 
seems  to  have  been  shaped  by  his  definite 
theory  of  morals. 

His  household  consisted  of  an  old  man- 
servant and  a  cook.  Summer  and  winter  he 
arose  at  five  minutes  before  five,  and  at  five 
o'clock  precisely  was  seated  at  his  breakfast 
table,  where  he  drank  two  cups  of  tea,  and 
smoked  a  pipe,  while  laying  out  his  day's 
work.  At  seven  he  went  to  give  his  lecture  at 
the  college.  Then  he  returned  and  worked 
until  a  quarter  before  one  o'clock,  which  was 
his  dinner  hour.  He  always  had  an  invited 
guest ;  but  if  by  chance  he  saw  himself  likely 
to  dine  alone,  the  servant  was  obliged  to  go 
into  the  street  and  ask  in  some  passer-by. 
During  the  meal  he  talked  on  all  subjects, 
philosophy  excepted,  and  tenaciously  held  to 
his  pet  theories  on  electricity,  etc. 

After  dinner,  always  long,  came  the  daily 
promenade,  when  at  half-past  three,  as 
regularly  as  the  church  clock  struck,  he 
emerged  from  his  house  and  entered  the  small 
street,  which  after  his  death  was  called  the 
"philosopher's  alley,"  there  to  walk  back 
and  forth  eight  times,  respectfully  saluted  by 
the  old  burghers,  and,  in  threatening  weather, 
anxiously  followed  by  the  faithful  servant  with 
an  umbrella  \mder  his  arm.  Kant  assigned 
as  his  reasons  for  this  promenade  the  oppor- 
tunity it  gave  him  to  meditate,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  breathe  the  air  through  the  nose 
only,  so  that  the  air  might  be  softened  before 
reaching  the  lungs  —  a  rule  of  hygiene  which 


he  held  to  be  invaluable  in  preventing  uolds 
and  coughs. 

On  reentering  the  house,  he  read  the 
scientific  and  pohtical  journals  until  six 
o'clock,  when  he  commenced  work.  In  order 
that  his  thinking  should  be  agreeable  and 
without  distraction,  he  always  occupied  a 
certain  place,  before  the  window  overlooking 
the  castle  at  Konigsberg,  and  the  heat  must 
always  be  just  fourteen  degrees  centigrade 
summer  and  winter.  He  imagined  himself 
sick  if  it  varied  ever  so  little. 

He  was  always  much  occupied  with  his 
health ;  wore  silk  stockings  attached  by  cords 
to  his  waist  —  because  he  conceived  that 
garters  impaired  the  circulation  of  the  blood 
—  detested  beer,  and,  in  short,  all  the  arrange- 
ments of  his  person  and  hving  were  as  com- 
plicated almost  as  his  metaphysical  treatises. 
He  retired  at  ten  o'clock,  terminating  the 
evening  with  reading,  and  methodically  put- 
ting away  all  ideas  likely  to  prevent  or  trouble 
his  slumbers.  He  always  slept  in  a  perfectly 
dark  and  cold  chamber,  where  the  windows 
were  kept  closed  on  principle,  summer  and 
winter,  in  spite  of  all  theories  in  favor  of 
change  of  air.  He  knew  neither  passion,  suf- 
fering, nor  unhappiness,  except  by  name; 
he  was  simply  a  thinker  and  an  observer  in 
the  world,  devoted  entirely  to  study. 

In  general  society  in  his  earlier  life  he  was 
sometimes  odd,  but  also  genial  and  animated. 
He  was  a  capital  listener,  could  tell  a  good 
story,  and  commented  on  all  matters  of 
literary,  philosophical,  or  political  interest, 
with  freedom  and  thoughtfulness.  In  general 
literature  his  reading  was  very  large ;  but  the 
most  brilliant  oratory  he  considered  to  be 
merely  "delirioxis  prose." 

In  his  political  views  he  warmly  sjrmpa- 
thized  with  the  most  thoughtful  spirits  of  the 
age.  Man,  he  says,  is  born  free.  His  great 
political  idea  was  that  there  must  be  a  separa- 
tion of  the  powers  in  the  state  to  secure  a  true 
social  order.  He  was  a  zealous  advocate  of 
freedom  of  opinion  and  freedom  of  the  press. 
He  sympathized  with  the  American  colonies 
in  their  struggle  against  Great  Britain,  and 
also  with  the  French  people  in  their  revolt 
against  monarchical  abuses. 

Kant's  religion,  it  must  be  confessed,  was 
not  of  the  conventional  t)rpe,  but  of  a  broader 
and  more  liberal  description  —  the  religion 
of  the  philosopher  rather  than  of  the  eccle- 
siastic. With  him  the  feeling  of  pure  obliga- 
tion on  an  inexorable  duty  was  paramount; 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


311 


in  fact,  his  sense  of  duty  was  so  strong  as  to 
leave  little  room  for  religious  sentiment.  He 
defined  religion  as  "the  recognition  of  our 
duties  as  divine  commands";  nor  did  the 
positive  truths  of  Christianity  as  a  redemptive 
system  modify  either  his  metaphysical  or 
ethical  theories.  Of  the  church  itself  he  had 
a  noble  idea,  but  did  not  find  it  realized  in  the 
church  of  the  day.  Hence  he  held  aloof  from 
them,  and,  indeed,  is  said  during  his  manhood 
never  to  have  entered  a  church  door  at  all. 
His  repugnance  to  the  spirit  of  sectarianism 
was  so  great  ■ —  but  the  spirit  of  sectarianism 
was  far  more  rampant  than  it  is  now  —  that 
he  refused  to  ally  himself  with  any  religious 
body  or  denomination  whatever.  He  claimed 
that  they  should  really  be  one,  but  as  they 
were,  each  was  infected  with  a  spirit  of  bigotry 
and  intolerance  quite  the  reverse  of  charitable 
toward  all  others  with  which  there  happened 
to  be  a  conflict  of  opinion.  With  such  feel- 
ings Kant  had  no  sympathy.  His  life  was 
severely  pure,  and  his  benevolence  great.  He 
lived  up  consistently  to  the  light  he  had, 
and  trusted  in  providence  with  the  confi- 
dence of  a  child.  "I  fear  not,"  said  he, 
"to  die.  If  this  very  night  the  summons  of 
death  were  to  overtake  me,  I  should  hear  it 
with  calmness;  I  should  raise  my  hands  to 
heaven  and  praise  God  1 " 

It  is  a  difficult  task  to  describe  Kant's 
philosophical  system  within  brief  hmits  —  or, 
indeed,  within  any  limits,  brief  or  otherwise. 
The  important  principle  resulting  from  it  is 
the  conception  of  knowledge  as  resulting 
from  the  interaction  of  two  factors  —  one 
supplied  by  the  outer  world,  the  other  by  the 
structure  of  the  human  mind.  Thus  Kant's 
fundamental  principle  is  a  special  instance  of 
the  essential  fact,  first  indicated  by  Comte, 
and  subsequently  illustrated  with  such  full- 
ness by  Spencer,  which  constitutes  life  of  every 
kind,  the  action  and  reaction,  tending 
toward  adjustment,  between  organism  and 
environment. 

The  starting  point  and  the  most  important 
development  of  this  great  system  is  the 
"Critique  of  Pure  Reason,"  which  was  the 
result  of  twelve  years  of  prodigious  thinking. 
This  masterpiece  is  a  direct  antithesis  of  the 
Novum  Organum  of  Bacon.  Its  leading  object 
was  to  check  philosophical  scepticism,  partic- 
ularly as  expounded  by  Hume,  and  in  a  less 
degree  by  Bacon  and  Locke.  The  doctrine 
had  been  propounded  that  all  our  knowledge 
is  derived  from  sensational  experience,  and 


that,  because  it  is  so,  no  absolutely  oertAio 
knowledge  is  possible  to  us  as  human  creatures 
—  since  all  that  we  know,  or  can  know,  of 
things  external  to  ourselves  is  resolvable  into 
our  sensations,  which  may  be  delusive  and 
phantasmal  altogether.  We  think  we  recog- 
nize things  without  us,  but  we  really 
recognize  nothing  but  our  sensations  within. 
Kant  argues,  and  endeavors  to  show,  that 
this  view  is  a  mistaken  one. 

"That  all  our  knowledge  begins  with  expe> 
rience  there  can  be  no  doubt,"  says  the  opening 
paragraph,  "but  though  all  begins  with  experi- 
ence, it  by  no  means  follows  that  all  arises  out 
of  experience."  "There  exists  a  knowledge 
independent  of  sensuous  impressions,  a  knowl- 
edge a  -priori."  "Philosophy,"  he  declares, 
"  stands  in  need  of  a  science  which  shall  deter- 
mine the  possibility,  principles,  and  extent  of 
human  knowledge  o  priori."  Such  a  knowl- 
edge is  given  to  us  by  intuition;  on  this  he 
founds  his  metaphysics,  the  transcendental 
philosophy. 

Space  is  not  a  concept  or  derived  from  out- 
ward experience.  Space  is  a  necessary  repre- 
sentation a  priori.  Space  is  the  subjective 
condition  of  the  sensibility  and  the  necessary 
foundation  of  external  perception.  Time  is 
not  a  conception  derived  from  outward  experi- 
ence. Time  is  the  formal  condition  a  priori 
of  all  phenomena  whatever ;  space  is  the  con- 
dition of  external  phenomena  alone.  Time 
and  space  have  no  empirical  reality,  but  an 
absolute  and  transcendental  reality.  These 
two  elements  are  all  that  are  pure  intuition. 
All  other  conceptions  appertain  more  or  less 
to  sensibility;  motion,  for  example,  unites 
both  these  elements  and  presupposes  aom^ 
thing  movable,  a  perception  besides. 

From  the  two  intuitions,  the  primary  de- 
ments, we  come  to  consider  the  four  concep- 
tions of  the  understanding,   the  secondary 
elements.    Two  of  these  are  mathematical, 
quantity  and   quality;    the  other  two  are 
dynamical,   for  instance,   cause   and  effect, 
necessity.    From  these  his  logic  gave  to  Kant 
his  whole  tree  of  categories  aa  syntheses  in 
correspondence  with  the  analyses  of  the  func- 
tions  of   judgment  —  his   twelve   categories 
being  unity,  multitude,  allness;  reality,  neg»> 
Ition,   limitation;    substance,   causality,  reci- 
jprocity;  possibihty;  actuality;  necessity.    In 
I  like  manner  he  arrived  at  the  three  ideas,  the 
[  objects  of  p8ychol(^y,  cosmology,  and  theol- 
I  ogy,  or  the  soul,  the  world,  and  God. 
I     The  soul  is  substance,  a  simple  unity;  ita 


812 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


qualities  are  immateriality,  incorruptibility, 
personality,  spirituality,  animality,  and  im- 
mortality. The  world  suggests  to  us  ideas 
of  a  beginning,  limits,  parts,  and  liberty  — 
spontaneity  —  and  also  necessity.  By  world 
we  mean  the  mathematical  whole,  by  nature 
the  dynamical  whole.  The  world  has  a 
beginning  in  time  and  is  limited  in  space ;  it 
is  made  up  of  simple  parts,  a  casuality  of  free- 
dom is  necessary;  there  exists  a  necessary 
being  as  its  cause. 

Of  God,  termed  the  Ideal  —  Plato's  idea  of 
the  divine  mind  —  two  ideas  are  given ;  the 
deist  cognizes  the  existence  of  a  supreme  being 
by  pure  reason  alone,  the  theist  discerns  him 
by  analogy  with  nature ;  to  one  he  is  the  cause 
of  the  world,  to  the  other  he  is  its  author. 
All  recognition  begins  with  intuitions,  pro- 
ceeds from  them  to  conceptions,  and  ends 
with  ideas. 

Reason  asks  the  questions,  what  can  I  know, 
what  ought  I  to  do,  and  what  may  I  hope? 
The  legislation  of  human  reason  has  two 
objects,  nature  and  freedom ;  the  philosophy 
of  nature  relates  to  that  which  is;  that  of 
morals  to  that  which  ought  to  be:  thus  we 
have  two  principal  sciences  of  reason,  mathe- 
matics and  ethics. 

So  far  the  philosophy  of  Kant  is  severely 
critical,  even  purely  negative  and  destructive ; 
but  his  stoical  morality  would  not  allow  him 
to  rest  satisfied  with  merely  negative  results. 
He  therefore  came  forward  with  this  "Cri- 
tique of  Practical  Reason,"  nobly  vindicating 
the  claims  of  duty  and  religion,  and  forming 
a  fitting  corallary  to  the  previous  work, 
but  inferior  to  it  as  a  work  of  genius.  In 
his  system  of  morality  he  maintained  the 
unconditional  validity  of  the  moral  law,  and 
the  consequences  which  legitimately  flow 
from  it.  He  first  proves  that  the  concept  of 
duty  has  an  objective  character,  which  is  not 
possessed  by  any  of  the  concepts  of  specula- 
tive reason.  He  then  maintains  that  this 
concept  of  duty  communicates  immediately 
its  objectivity  to  a  second  concept,  that  of 
liberty,  which  is  so  closely  bound  up  with  the 
first  that  they  form  together  an  inseparable 
whole.  Duty  and  liberty  become  the  pivots 
of  man's  conscious  being ;  and  his  life  is  one 
of  conflict  between  the  impulse  of  free  will  to 
assert  its  liberty,  and  the  impulse  of  conscience 
to  insist  on  duty,  as  a  curb.  This  conflict 
must  cease;  there  must  be  some  moral  equi- 
librium between  duty  and  liberty.  Therefore, 
there  is  a  future  life  and  a  God. 


There  is  nothing  really  good  in  this  world 
but  a  good  will.  A  good  will  is  the  absolute 
scope  and  end  of  man.  A  good  will  is  not 
estimated  by  its  good  effects,  but  must  be 
good  in  itself.  Temperance,  fortitude,  and 
like  virtues  aid  and  strengthen  good  will,  but 
have  no  inward  worth  of  their  own.  Good 
will  has  an  inward,  absolute,  and  necessary 
principle ;  this  is  the  moral  sense,  product  of 
pure  reason. 

Laws  are  either  hypothetical  or  categorical : 
a  hypothetical  law  is  one  which  indicates  a 
means  to  an  end,  but  a  categorical  imperative 
is  a  law  which  is  absolute.  Moral  laws  are  of 
this  kind.  "  Let  the  maxim  on  which  you  act 
be  fit  for  a  law  to  all  mankind" — this  is 
Kant's  famous  rule  of  life. 

His  "Critique  of  Judgment"  completed 
the  critical  philosophy,  and  of  its  merits 
Kant  had  the  most  superlative  notions.  He 
did  not  scruple  to  declare  that,  in  his  esti- 
mation, it  satisfied  the  reason,  and,  for  the 
highest  aims  of  humanity,  would  be  indis- 
pensable to  all  future  ages!  He  had  as  con- 
fident a  conviction  of  the  permanence  of  his 
philosophy  as  Horace  of  the  immortality  of 
his  Odes,  and  if  he  had  modesty  enough  not  to 
say  so  quite  with  the  boastfulness  of  the 
Roman  poet,  he  yet  felt  as  surely  as  the  latter 
in  his  inmost  consciousness.  That  he  was 
prophet  as  well  as  philosopher,  the  period  from 
his  death  to  the  present  is  ample  testimony. 

The  influence  of  Kant's  speculations  began 
to  be  felt  at  the  same  time  that  the  French 
revolution  was  changing  the  face  of  Europe, 
and  when  old  chaos  seemed  to  have  again 
revisited  the  earth.  Materialism  was  pre- 
dominant in  France;  in  Scotland,  Reid  was 
combating  scepticism  on  the  principles  of 
common  sense;  and  an  abstract  dogmatism 
ruled  the  German  mind.  Here  was  a  philoso- 
pher who,  with  unmatched  analytic  and 
synthetic  powers,  came  forward  to  show  to 
each  previous  and  prevalent  system  its  metes 
and  bounds.  Against  the  materialist  and  the 
sceptic,  he  proved  that  the  mind  had  its  a_ 
priori  principles  of  knowledge;  against  the 
dogmatist,  he  maintained  that  the  sphere  of 
the  supersensible,  though  a  reality,  is  not 
disclosed  to  positive  thought.  He  proved 
that  empiricism  is  right  so  far  as  it  asserts  that 
the  matter  of  our  ideals  is  drawn  from  without, 
but  wTong  so  far  as  it  implies  that  their  form 
can  also  there  be  found.  And  he  is  allied  with 
the  principle  of  the  common-sense  philosophy 
in  ascribing  an  absolute  validity  to  those 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


tu 


moral  ideas  by  which  life  is  and  must  be 
guided.  The  utterances  of  this  practical  rea- 
son are  true  and  valid,  whatever  may  be  the 
diflficulties  of  the  theoretical  reason.  We 
must  live  and  act  in  view  of  God,  freedom, 
and  immortality. 

His  philosophy  became  the  starting  point 
for  the  most  remarkable  development  of 
speculation  since  the  days  of  the  Greeks. 
German  speculation  was  thoroughly  quick- 
ened. Those  who  oppose  Kant  and  those  who 
espoused  his  views  equally  acknowledged  his 
greatness.  Reinhold  at  first  defended  and 
then  modified  his  system.  Schulze,  Beck,  and 
Bardih  tried  to  bring  it  into  more  popular 
forms.  Krug  wrote  a  new  Organon,  and 
Fries  a  new  "Criticism  of  the  Reason." 
Hamann,  Herder,  and  Jacobi  developed  their 
systems,  which  made  faith  the  basis  of  philoso- 
phy, with  constant  reference  to  the  principles 
of  Kant.  Herbart's  positive  philosophy 
claimed  to  have  the  true  key  to  the  Kantian 
metaphysics.  Fichte  unfolded  his  subjective 
idealism  as  the  only  logical  result  of  the 
critical  philosophy.  And  even  in  some  of  the 
latest  products  of  German  speculation  there 


are  not  wanting  attempts  to  show  that  Kant 
has  not  been  superseded  by  any  of  hi«  mi^ 

cessors. 

Although  we  live  now  at  a  distance  of  more 
than  a  century  from  the  publication  of  Kant's 
great  works,  they  are  still  growing  in  learned 
estimation,  and  it  is  probable  that  they  are 
more  appreciated  at  the  present  time  than  at 
any  former  period.  De  Quincey  asserted  that 
"  measured  by  one  test  of  power  —  namely, 
by  the  number  of  books  written  directly  for 
or  against  himself,  to  say  nothing  of  those 
which  indirectly  he  has  modified  —  there  is  no 
philosophic  writer  whatever,  if  we  except 
Aristotle,  Descartes,  and  Locke,  who  can  pr^ 
tend  to  approach  Kant  in  the  extent  or  in  the 
depth  of  influence  which  he  has  exercised  over 
the  minds  of  men."  Still  more  recently  Dr. 
Hutchinson  Stirling  in  his  textbook  says: 
"There  can  be  no  doubt  that  at  this  moment 
the  place  of  Kant,  as  generally  estimated,  is 
that  of  greatest  German  philosopher,  greatest 
modern  philosopher,  greatest  philosopher  of 
all,  with  only  the  usual  exceptions  of  Plato 
and  Aristotle." 


HEGEL 

A.  D.  AGE  A.  D. 

1770         Born  at  Stuttgart,  Wiirttemberg,    .      .  .  1811 

1788         Entered  the  university  of  Tiibingen,     18  1816 

1801         Settled  at  Jena;    privat-docent  at  1817 

university  of  Jena, 31 

180G  Professor-extraordinary    of    philos-  1818 

ophv,  Jena, 36 

1807  "The  Phenomenologv  of  the  Spirit,"     37  1821 

1808-16  Rector      of      the      gymnasium      at  1829 

Nuremberg, 38-46  1831 


AQB 

Married  Marie  von  Tucher,   ....  41 

Professor  at  Heidelberg, 40 

"Encyclopedia  of  the  Philosophical 

Sciences," 47 

Professor  of  philosophy  at  univer- 
sity of  Berhn 48 

"Philosophy  of  Right," 61 

Rector  university  of  lierlln,  ....  69 

Died  at  Berlin,  Prussia, 61 


/^EORGE  WILHELM  FRIEDRICH 
^-^  HEGEL,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of 
German  philosophers,  was  born  at  Stuttgart, 
Wiirttemberg,  August  27,  1770.  He  could 
trace  his  descent  through  a  long  line  of  Carin- 
thian  and  Swabian  ancestors  who  had  filled 
respectable  places  in  the  middle  ranks  of 
society.  Some  of  these  during  the  period  of 
the  thirty  years'  war  had  suffered  persecu- 
tion and  expatriation  on  account  of  their 
attachment  to  the  Protestant  cause.  His 
father  was  superintendent  of  the  ducal  finances 
—  a  post,  it  may  be  supposed,  of  much  trust 
and  responsibility. 

The  Swabian  temperament  —  characterized 
by  gravity,  straightforwardness,  and  perse- 
verance —  is  said  to  have  declared  itself  at  a 


very  early  age  in  the  life  and  conversation  of 
the  future  philosopher.  While  still  in  his 
"  teens  "  he  went  by  the  nickname  of  "  the  old 
man."  His  school  and  college  diaries,  ex- 
tracts from  which  have  been  published  by  his 
biographer,  Rosenkranz,  attest  the  extent 
and  variety  of  his  studies.  They  afford 
evidence  of  indefatigable  industry,  of  pains 
and  thoroughness,  rather  than  of  precocity  of 
genius.  Method  and  persistency  were  the 
characteristics  of  the  youthful  scholar,  as  they 
were  of  the  mature  metaphysician. 

At  the  university  of  Tiibingen,  to  which  he 
proceeded  in  1788,  he  was  a  fellow  student 
with  the  philosopher,  Schelling  — a  kindred 
spirit,  who  presented,  too,  some  very  decided 
points  of  contrast.    They  lived  together,  for 


314 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


a  time,  in  the  same  room;  and  the  intimacy 
thus  commenced  exercised  from  first  to  last 
a  marked  influence,  partly  through  sympathy, 
and  partly  through  rivalry,  on  the  destinies  of 
these  two  great  thinkers.  In  later  life  they 
had  their  differences.  "They  stood  aloof,  the 
scars  remaining";  and  so  wide,  indeed,  was 
the  breach  that,  after  Hegel's  death,  Schelling 
was  summoned  to  Berlin  to  preach  down  the 
doctrines  of  his  early  friend,  which  were  sup- 
posed to  have  become  too  dominant  and 
exclusive  —  an  enterprise  which  he  attempted 
without  much  success.  But  in  those  early 
days  at  Tubingen,  in  the  springtime  of  their 
youth,  the  identity  of  their  aspirations  seems 
to  have  knit  them  together,  as  it  afterward 
did  at  Jena,  in  the  closest  intellectual  fellow- 
ship. 

After  completing  his  university  course, 
Hegel  accepted  the  office  of  tutor  in  a  family 
in  Switzerland,  which  he  exchanged,  some 
years  afterward,  for  a  more  agreeable  appoint- 
ment of  the  same  kind  at  Frankfort.  For  six 
years  he  gave  his  attention  to  his  tutorial 
duties,  to  the  study  of  the  life  of  Jesus,  the 
philosophy  of  religion,  and  ancient  history. 
He  read  Thucydides,  Montesquieu,  Gibbon, 
Hume,  and  even  wrote  a  "Life  of  Jesus," 
which,  however,  was  never  published.  On  the 
death  of  his  father,  in  1799,  he  received  a 
small  patrimony.  In  the  year  ISOl  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Jena,  where  he  established  himself 
on  a  more  independent  footing,  and  began 
lectures  on  philosophy  at  the  university 
there  as  a  privat-docent. 

His  friend  Schelling,  although  some  years 
his  junior,  had  gotten  the  start  of  him,  and  was 
settled  as  a  professor-extraordinary  in  the 
same  place.  Goethe,  Schiller,  and  Wieland 
lived  at  Weimar,  which  was  not  far  off,  so 
that  he  was  in  contact  with  the  most  brilliant 
intellectual  society  which  Germany  at  that 
time  afforded.  The  genius  of  Schelling,  as 
prolific  as  it  was  precocious,  had  by  this  time 
given  to  the  world  a  series  of  profound  phil- 
osophical disquisitions.  At  the  age  of  nine- 
teen he  had  shown  a  wonderful  insight  into 
the  philosophy  of  Fichte,  and  had  even 
carried  it  forward  into  a  new  development; 
and  when  Hegel  now  joined  him  he  had  just 
published  his  system  of  transcendental  ideal- 
ism. 

Hegel  made  no  pretensions  to  such  pliancy  of 
intellect  and  rapid  power  of  composition ;  but 
he,  too,  was  laying  the  foundations  of  a  system 
which,  although  identical  in  its  groimdwork, 


or  nearly  so,  with  that  of  Schelling,  waa 
intended  to  be  far  more  rigorous  and  logical 
in  its  procedure.  It  was,  indeed,  in  their 
method  that  the  main  difference  between  the 
two  philosophers  lay.  Schelling  was  of  the 
opinion  that  the  citadel  of  truth  was  to  be 
carried  by  a  coup  de  main,  by  a  genial,  "intel- 
lectual intuition."  Hegel  conceived  that  it 
was  to  be  won  only  by  slow  sap  and  regular 
logical  approaches.  Accordingly,  he  pub- 
lished his  first  important  work  "On  the  Dif- 
ference between  the  Philosophical  Systems  of 
Fichte  and  Schelling." 

Hegel  remained  at  Jena  until  1807,  and 
edited,  along  with  Schelling,  a  journal  of 
philosophy,  besides  delivering  his  lectures  on 
philosophy.  Schelling,  however,  migrated  to 
Wiirzburg  about  1803,  and  after  three  years 
Hegel  was  promoted  to  the  chair  which  he  had 
vacated.  During  his  occupation  of  this  chair, 
he  completed  the  great  work  on  "The  Phe- 
nomenology of  the  Spirit " —  Die  Phanome- 
nologiedesGcistes — on  the  eve  of  the  celebrated 
victory  of  Napoleon  over  the  Prussians.  But 
the  emoluments  of  an  extraordinary  professor- 
ship being  inadequate  to  support  him  during 
the  excitement  of  war  and  conquest,  he 
resigned  the  appointment  and  removed  to 
Bamberg,  where  he  acted  for  a  short  time  as 
the  editor  of  a  political  journal. 

In  1808  Hegel  was  appointed  to  the  office 
of  rector  of  the  gymnasium  at  Nuremberg. 
Here,  in  1811,  he  married  Marie  von  Tucher, 
a  lady  of  strong  religious  convictions  and 
moral  virtues,  to  whom  he  was  always  devot- 
edly attached.  He  remained  at  Nuremberg, 
giving  elementary  courses  of  instruction  in 
philosophy  and  religion,  and  seeing  the  first 
two  parts  of  his  "  Logic  "  through  the  press, 
until  1816,  when  he  received  a  call  to  a  phil- 
osophical professorship  at  the  university  of 
Heidelberg.  At  Heidelberg  he  remained  two 
years,  and  completed  his  "Logic,"  under  the 
title  of  the  "  Encyclopedia  of  the  Philosophical 
Sciences  "  —  Encyklopddie  der  philosophischen 
Wissenschaften  —  in  which  his  entire  scheme 
of  philosophy  is  comprised.  In  1818  he  was 
summoned  to  fill  the  chair  of  philosophy  in  the 
university  of  Berhn,  which  had  been  vacant 
since  the  death  of  Fichte  in  1814. 

His  fame  now  rose  rapidly.  His  disciples 
began  to  be  ardent  and  prophetic.  His  sys- 
tem was  proclaimed  as  completing  the  struc- 
ture of  German  idealism.  His  lectures  soon 
became  the  rage.  Officers  of  state  and  the 
literati  and    savants    of  Berlin  sat   on  the 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


US 


students'  benches.  Hegellanism  was  the  road 
to  office.  His  previous  lectures  on  the  differ- 
ent branches  of  philosophy  were  carefully 
revised,  and  he  wrote  two  new  courses,  on  the 
"Philosophy  of  Religion"  in  1821,  and  on  the 
"  Philosophy  of  History  "  in  1827.  His  "  Out- 
lines of  the  Philosophy  of  Right "  was  issued 
in  1821,  combining  in  one  exposition  natural 
rights,  ethics,  and  the  philosophy  of  society 
and  the  state.  The  noted  aphorism  in  which 
he  summed  up  its  teachings,  "The  rational  is 
actual,  and  the  actual  is  rational,"  was  inter- 
preted in  an  ultra-conservative  sense.  He 
was  understood  as  supporting  the  existing 
Prussian  political  system  as  the  perfection  of 
reason  and  freedom. 

His  system  received  concentration  and 
impulse  from  the  establishment,  with  the 
favor  of  government,  of  the  Berhn  "  Yearbook 
of  Scientific  Criticism"  —  Jahrbiicher  jur 
wissenschaftliche  Kritik  —  in  1827.  All  things 
were  here  discussed  in  the  light  of  absolute 
knowledge.  The  school  had  solved  the 
problem  of  the  universe,  and  nothing  remained 
but  to  bring  all  thoughts  into  subjection. 
The  rationalists  had  no  more  violent  foe  than 
this  prophet  of  the  universal  reason.  He 
defended  against  them  the  truths  of  the  incar- 
nation of  sin,  and  of  redemption.  The  long 
conflict  between  philosophy  and  faith  was  now 
to  be  adjusted ;  the  absolute  idealism  was  to 
do  it,  and  it  was  to  be  done  in  Berlin.  In 
1829  he  became  rector  of  the  university,  and 
administered  its  affairs  with  the  punctuality 
and  painstaking  of  an  accomplished  disci- 
plinarian. 

In  the  autumn  of  1831  he  began  his  lectures 
in  the  university  with  more  than  usual  fresh- 
ness and  vigor,  but  died  suddenly  of  cholera 
on  November  14,  1831.  The  disease  seems  to 
have  attacked  his  brain  principally,  and  to 
have  run  a  milder  course  than  is  usual  with 
that  formidable  malady.  The  regulation 
which  declared  that  all  persons  dying  of 
cholera  should  be  buried  in  a  separate  church- 
yard was  relaxed,  by  high  authority,  in  his 
favor.  He  was  interred  beside  the  grave  of 
Fichte,  in  a  churchyard  near  one  of  the 
principal  gates  of  the  city. 

Thus,  although  the  events  of  Hegel's  Ufe 
were  simple  and  monotonous,  the  scene  of 
his  labors  was  not  a  Uttle  varied.  Stutt- 
gart, Tiibingen,  Jena,  Bamberg,  Nuremberg, 
Heidelberg,  and  Berlin  were  the  stages  in  his 
pilgrimage.  It  was  at  these  stopping  places 
along  the  way  that  he  taught  and  wrote ;  he 


evolved  one  of  the  most  profouod  philotopht 
cal  systems  that  the  world  haa  yet  pondered. 

Soon  after  Hegel's  death  an  edition  of  hit 
collecte<l  works  was  published  by  an  uaoci*- 
tion  of  his  friends.  This  collection  oompritM 
his  early  philosophical  treatises:  "The  Ph*- 
nomenology  of  the  Mind  " ; "  Science  of  Logic  *• 
(metaphysical);  "The  Encyclopedi*  of 
Science  "  (embracing  logic) ;  "The  Philooophy 
of  Law";  "The  Philosophy  of  History"; 
"  ^Esthetics  " ;  "  The  Philosophy  of  Religion  " ; 
"The  History  of  Philosophy";  and  "Miscel- 
laneous Writings  "  —  in  all,  eighteen  or  more 
volumes;  for  some  of  thorn  are  divided  into 
parts,  each  of  which  is  again  equal  to  a  volume. 

To  give  any  minute  account  of  the  writings 
so  multifarious  is  here  quite  out  of  the  que^ 
tion.  An  outline  of  its  groundwork  and 
general  scope  is  all  that  can  be  attempted. 

His  system,  which  is  usually  termed  the 
"philosophy  of  the  absolute,"  falls  into  throe 
departments  —  logic,  or  the  science  of  thought 
in  its  pure  unity  with  itself;  the  philosophy 
of  nature,  in  which  the  ideal  principle  is 
shown  to  underlie  even  the  material  world; 
and  the  philosophy  of  spirit.  It  properly 
begins  with  his  "Phenomenology."  This  he 
used  to  call  his  "voyage  of  discovery,"  and  ita 
object  is  to  describe  the  stages  and  process 
through  which  the  mind  must  proceed  from 
the  simplest  form  of  consciousness  up  to 
absolute  knowledge ;  and  to  exhibit  this,  not 
merely  as  a  matter  of  fact,  but  also  as  a  logi- 
cally necessary  ascent.  In  his  "Logic"  he 
developed  his  system  in  its  most  rigorous  and 
abstract  form.  This  is  designed  to  answer 
the  question  to  which  the  "  Phenomenology  " 
led,  viz. :  What  is  that  absolute  knowledge 
which  has  been  shown  to  be  necessary?  It  is 
the  completion  of  the  system  of  categories, 
which  Kant  had  elaborated,  after  Aristotle. 
It  is  not  logic  alone,  nor  metaphysics  alone; 
it  is  both  together.  The  terms  logic,  idea, 
and  reason  are  used  in  an  unusual,  in  a  uni- 
versal sense.  The  system  of  logic,  as  the 
first  part  of  philosophy,  contemplates  reason 
(the  idea)  as  it  is  in  itself,  and  not  in  its  mani- 
festations. The  whole  science  of  logic  is  dis- 
tributed into  three  parts  — being,  essence, 
and  conception ;  the  first  two  are  the  ontologi- 
cal  logic,  the  third  is  the  subjective  logic. 
This  logic  forms  the  first  great  diviaon  of 
Hegel's  whole  scheme  of  philosophy. 

Since  this  philosophy  gives  itself  out  as  the 

philosophy  of  the  absolute,  the  meaning  of  this 

i  word  absolute,  then,  is  what  must,  first  of  all. 


iii 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


be  determined.  It  is  nowhere  explained  by 
the  system,  or  by  any  of  its  opponents  or 
defenders.  It  may,  indeed,  be  said  that 
Hegel's  whole  philosophy  is  nothing  but  an 
explanation  of  the  absolute.  But  a  definition 
of  one  word  extending  over  a  score  of  volumes 
is  very  apt  to  evaporate  before  it  can  be  appre- 
hended. The  following  is  shorter.  The  abso- 
lute, or  truth  absolute,  is  whatever  is  true  for 
intellect  considered  simply  as  intellect,  and 
not  considered  as  this  or  as  that  particular 
intellect;  it  is  truth  for  all  intellect,  and 
not  merely  truth  for  some  intellect;  in  other 
words,  the  absolute  is  truth  for  pure  intellect, 
and  not  truth  for  modified  intellect. 

An  illustration  will  help  to  make  plain  this 
somewhat  abstract  definition.  Suppose  five 
intellects,  each  of  them  modified  by  the  pos- 
session of  one,  and  only  one,  of  our  five  senses. 
One  man  merely  sees,  another  merely  tastes, 
another  merely  smells,  another  merely  hears, 
and  another  merely  touches ;  and  suppose  an 
apple  presented  to  these  five  individuals. 
Each  of  them  would  apprehend  only  one  sen- 
sation; but  while  the  sensation  in  each  case 
would  be  different,  the  one  in  each  case  would 
not  be  different.  The  man  who  saw  the 
apple  would  see  one  sight,  the  man  who 
tasted  it  would  experience  one  taste,  the  man 
who  heard  it  (when  struck)  would  hear  one 
sound,  and  so  in  regard  to  the  others.  The 
sensations  would  be  peculiar  to  each  intellect ; 
each  would  have  its  own ;  but  the  one  would 
be  common  to  them  all  —  it  would  be  the 
same  for  all. 

Here,  then,  in  the  one  we  have  an  absolute 
truth,  or  at  any  rate  a  truth  which  may  be  ac- 
cepted as  an  illustration  of  such.  If  there  were 
no  other  intellects  in  the  universe  except  these 
five,  it  would,  in  the  strictest  sense,  be  an 
absolute  truth.  Here  the  one,  presenting 
nothing  but  what  is  common  and  intelligible 
to  all,  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  truth  of  intellect 
simply  —  of  pure  intellect :  the  one  sensation 
again  presenting,  in  each  case,  something 
which  is  peculiar  to  each  intellect,  is  to  be 
regarded  as  a  truth  of  modified  intellect. 
Looking  at  the  five  cases,  we  say  that,  in  each 
case,  the  one  sensation,  in  so  far  as  it  is  one, 
is  an  absolute  and  universal  truth;  while,  in 
so  far  as  it  is  sensation,  it  is  a  relative  and 
particular  truth.  Such  is  the  explanation  of 
the  absolute ;  and  it  seems  not  unintelligible 
if  one  will  keep  in  view  the  illustration  by 
which  it  is  enforced. 

As  a  further  illustration,  this  remark  may 


be  subjoined.  Again  consider  these  five  sen- 
sations. Each  of  them  is  a  peculiar  sensation ; 
but  at  the  same  time  each  of  them  is.  In  so 
far  as  each  of  them  is,  a  truth  for  pure  intellect, 
an  absolute  and  universal  truth,  emerges.  In 
so  far  as  each  of  them  is  peculiar,  a  relative 
and  particular  truth  is  presented.  Here,  then, 
we  have  number  and  being,  two  important 
categories,  set  forth  as  specimens  of  the 
absolute. 

The  analysis  thus  briefly  illustrated  is  the 
main  principle  of  the  German  philosophy  in 
general,  and  of  the  system  of  Hegel  in  par- 
ticular. It  is  true  that  he  nowhere  expressly 
supplies  this  analysis,  but  it  is  implied  in  the 
whole  tenor  of  his  speculations.  He  rather 
proceeds  prematurely  to  build  up  into  a 
synthesis  the  elements  of  pure  thought,  which 
are  the  result  of  the  analysis.  Hence  arises, 
in  a  great  measure,  his  obscurity,  which  seems, 
in  many  places,  to  be  absolutely  impenetrable. 

Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  all  its  defects,  his 
exposition  of  the  dialectual  movement  by 
which  the  categories  of  reason  evolve  them- 
selves, from  lowest  to  highest,  through  a  self- 
conversion  into  their  opposites,  is  a  work 
replete  at  once  with  the  profoundest  truth, 
and  the  most  mar\'el6us  speculative  sagacity. 
Retrospectively,  it  affords  a  solution  of  the 
antinomies  by  which  Kant  succeeded  in 
bewildering  the  reason  of  his  contemporaries, 
and  it  extinguishes,  by  anticipation,  the 
resurrection  of  these  same  sceptical  perplexi- 
ties which  certain  philosophers  of  the  sensa- 
tional school  endeavored  to  bring  about. 

In  "The  Encyclopedia  of  the  Philosophical 
Sciences,"  the  categories  worked  out  in  the 
"Phenomenology"  and  "Logic"  are  applied 
to  all  the  particular  sciences.  In  his  own 
terminology,  "pure  or  absolute  thought 
passes  into  something  other  than  itself, 
exists  out  of  itself  in  nature,"  and,  accordingly, 
the  philosophy  of  nature  ranks  as  the  second 
part  of  his  system.  In  the  philosophy  of 
nature  we  have  the  same  idea  in  its  objective 
manifestation,  in  the  forms  of  space  and  time. 
Nature  is  here  reconstructed  —  or,  Hegel 
would  say,  ■we  see  how  it  is  constructed  — 
according  to  the  high  a  priori  method,  in  its 
three  departments  of  mechanics,  physics,  and 
organized  beings.  Each  of  these  has,  again,  a 
threefold  division;  and  these  three  yet  other 
three;  and  this  rhythm  of  triads  makes  the 
harmony  of  the  system. 

Returning  again  from  its  estrangement  in 
nature,  thought  becomes  conscious  of  itself 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


117 


in  mind,  and  consequently  the  philosophy  of 
mind  or  spirit  forms  the  third  part.  Spirit 
here  finds  and  knows  itself,  of  course,  in  three 
stadia.  In  fine,  spirit  becomes  absolute 
spirit,  and  as  such  shows  itself  in  three  modes, 
art,  religion,  and  philosophy ;  and  in  the  last 
the  circle  is  completed,  the  end  returns  to  the 
beginning,  the  absolute  spirit  knows  itself, 
and  the  Hegelian  system  is  all  in  all. 

Hegel's  "Philosophy  of  History,"  while  it 
pursues  his  usual  method,  is  much  less  abstruse 
than  his  logic  and  metaphysics,  and  may  be 
studied  with  good  hope  of  profit  even  by  the 
unphilosophical  mind.  The  unity  of  history 
and  the  filiation  of  succeeding  generations  is 
clearly  and  strongly  grasped.  When  he  tells 
us  that  reason  is  the  substance  and  the  infinite 
energy  of  the  universe,  we  may  decline  to 
follow  him  into  such  fathomless  depths ;  but 
when  he  presents  his  philosophy  as  a  develop- 
ment of  the  view  of  Anaxagoras  that  mind 
governs  the  world,  and  further  explains  that 
in  this  he  refers  to  no  inscrutable  providence, 
but  to  the  informing  idea,  or,  the  abstract  law, 
visible  through  the  complications  of  history, 
we  feel  that  we  have  reached  firmer  ground. 

The  object,  Hegel  goes  on  to  explain,  of  the 
"Philosophy  of  History"  is  to  present  the 
series  of  human  events  as  the  embodiments 
of  the  informing  idea.  Slowly  and  step  by 
step  progress  becomes  more  rational,  con- 
formity of  fact  to  idea  more  complete.  The 
path  of  progress  is  through  the  play  of  himian 
passions:  without  passions  nothing  great  is 
accomplished.  "The  passions  of  men  are 
gratified :  they  deveFop  themselves  and  their 
aims  in  accordance  with  their  natural  tend- 
encies, and  build  up  the  edifice  of  human 
society;  thus  fortifying  a  position  for  right 
and  order  against  themselves."  The  ultimate 
perfection  of  the  state  is  when  the  conscious- 
ness of  freedom  is  perfect;  when  the  private 
interest  of  citizens  coincides  with  that  of  the 
state. 

Apart  from  the  main  peculiarity  of  his  sys- 
tem, the  impulse  which  this  extraordinary 
thinker  communicated  to  the  various  depart- 
ments of  philosophy  was  almost  unexampled. 
He  compelled  men  to  think  for  him  or  against 
him.  But  the  chief  conflicts  were  in  theology, 
and  in  the  relations  of  his  system  to  Chris- 
tianity. Strauss  ranged  the  school  in  three 
divisions,  the  right,  the  center,  and  the  left. 
The  right  wing  asserted  that  Hegelianism  and 
orthodoxy  were  harmonious.  On  the  left 
stood  the  radicals  in  religious  opinion,  who 


denied  immortality,  Um  divine  penooaUty, 
and  the  incarnation  aa  specific  in  the  penoa  of 
Christ.  The  tranaformation  of  Hifdianim 
into  naturalism  by  Fcurrhach  and  othen,  and 
the  direction  taken  by  the  development  ot  the 
natural  sciences  have  placed  Hegd'i  philoeo- 
phy  in  the  heart  of  the  materiaUatio  oontro> 
versies  of  recent  times.  Beyond  Gennany, 
Hegelianism  is  represented  in  France,  in  Italy, 
in  Denmark,  and  in  Sweden  by  niuneroua 
philosophers  of  note ;  and  has  alao  exerted  an 
important  influence  on  British  and  American 
thought,  especially  in  the  region  of  psychol- 
ogy- 

Hegel's  appearance  and  general  character- 
istics as  a  lecturer  are  thus  given  by  his  leading 
biographer,  Rosenkranz:  "Utterly  careleM 
about  the  graces  of  rhetoric,  thoroughly  real 
and  absorbed  in  the  business  of  the  moment, 
ever  pressing  forward,  and  often  extremely 
dogmatic  in  his  assertions,  Hegel  enchained 
his  students  by  the  intensity  of  his  speculative 
power.  His  voice  was  in  harmony  with  his 
eye.  It  was  a  great  eye,  but  it  looked 
inward;  and  the  momentary  glances  which 
it  threw  outward  seemed  to  issue  from  the 
very  depths  of  idealism,  and  arrested  the 
beholder  like  a  spell.  His  accent  was  rather 
broad,  and  without  sonorous  ring;  but 
through  its  apparent  commonness  there  broke 
that  lofty  animation  which  the  might  of 
knowledge  inspires,  and  which,  in  moments 
when  the  genius  of  humanity  was  adjuring 
the  audience  through  his  lips,  left  no  hearer 
unmoved. 

"  In  the  sternness  of  his  noble  features  there 
was  something  almost  calculated  to  strike 
terror,  had  not  the  beholder  been  again  pro- 
pitiated by  the  gentleness  and  cordiality  of 
the  expression.  A  peculiar  smile  bore  witness 
to  the  purest  benevolence,  but  it  was  blended 
with  something  harsh,  cutting,  sorrowful,  or 
rather  ironical.  His,  in  short,  were  the  tragic 
lineaments  of  the  philosopher,  of  the  hero 
whose  destiny  it  is  to  struggle  with  the  riddle 
of  the  universe." 

Professor  Edward  Cwrd,  another  of  his 
biographers  and  interpreters,  speaks  thus  of 
the  moral  influence  of  his  philosophy:  "As 
Socrates  was  compared  to  Uiose  figures  of 
Silenus  which  were  contained  within  the 
image  of  an  Olympic  god,  so  it  may  be  said 
that  in  Hegel  we  find  an  idealist,  for  whom 
truth  is  poetry  and  religion  one  with  philoso- 
phy, in  the  dress  of  a  punctual  and  orderly 
civil  servant  of    the  Prussian  government. 


318 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


♦  ♦  ♦  ♦  'Pq  ijiju,  therefore,  the  great 
aphorism,  in  which  the  Christian  ethics  and 
theology  may  be  said  to  be  summed  up,  that 
'he  that  saveth  his  Hfe  shall  lose  it,  and  he  that 
loseth    his  life   shall   find    it,'  is    no    mere 


epigrammatic  saying,  whose  self-contradic- 
tion is  not  to  be  regarded  too  closely;  it  is 
rather  the  first  distinct,  though  as  yet  unde- 
veloped, expression  of  the  exact  truth  as  to 
the  nature  of  the  spirit." 


SPENCER 

A.  D.  ^^^  ■*•  ''• 

1820         Born  at  Derbv,  England 1861 

1837         Takes  up  civil  enginoerine 17  1862 

1845         Went  to  London ;  devoted  himself  1863-67 

to  literature, 25  1871-72 

184»-63  Assistant  editor  of  The  Economist,  28-33  1876-96 

1850  Social  Statics, 30  1882 

1855         Principles  of  Psychology  first  pub-  1879-93 

lishe^, 35  1903 


AOB 

Education, 41 

First  Principles 42 

Principles  of  Biology, 43—47 

Principles  of  Psychology  revised,  .    51-52 

Princivles  of  Sociology, 56-7fJ 

Visited  the  United  States,     ....     62 

Principles  of  Ethics 59-73 

Died  at  Brighton,  England 83 


TTERBERT  SPENCER,  one  of  the  most 
•^  *■  distinguished  philosophers,  and  author 
of  the  System  of  Synthetic  Philosophy,  was 
born  at  Derby,  England,  April  27,  1820.  His 
father  was  a  teacher,  with  educational  views 
considerably  in  advance  of  his  time,  and  with 
strong  leanings  toward  mathematics  and  the 
natural  sciences.  He  believed  in  training  the 
student's  mind  in  observation  and  in  reflec- 
tion on  objective  facts  instead  of  mere  ideas. 
Both  parents  were  originally  Methodists  in 
their  religious  affiliations,  but  his  father 
latterly  became  a  Quaker. 

Herbert's  health  was  delicate  in  childhood, 
and  he  was  largely  educated  by  his  father  at 
home  with  as  much  outdoor  life  as  possible. 
A  little  later  he  was  put  in  charge  of  his  uncle, 
a  clergyman  of  the  church  of  England.  He 
early  showed  a  fondness  for  studies  of  nature, 
and  for  a  good  many  years  his  favorite  occu- 
pation was  the  catching  and  preserving  of 
insects  and  the  rearing  of  moths  and  butter- 
flies. He  also  studied  botany  with  some  pas- 
sion, and  in  these  ways  he  laid  the  foundation 
for  the  scientific  character  and  interest  of  his 
later  work. 

His  uncle  planned  to  send  him  to  Cam- 
bridge university,  but  the  boy  "persever- 
ingly  objected,"  and  continued  to  study 
privately.  He  had  no  aptitude  for  languages, 
and  made  little  progress  in  the  classics,  but 
showed  original  constructive  power  in  mathe- 
matics and  mechanics.  His  mind  rapidly 
developed  marked  independence,  and,  having 
yearly  been  brought  into  contact  with  the 
intellectual  influences  centering  about  John 
Stuart  Mill,  and  with  the  scientific  spirit,  he 
imbibed  the  tendencies  of  the  age  toward 
extreme  liberalism  in  theological  matters. 


At  first  it  was  his  father's  wish  that  he  take 
up  teaching,  but  an  accidental  opportunity 
decided  in  favor  of  another  vocation  more 
suitable  to  his  tastes.  In  the  autumn  of 
1837  work  was  ofTered  to  him  under  the 
chief  engineer  of  the  London  and  Birmingham 
railway,  with  whom  he  spent  nearly  a  year. 
For  some  ten  years  more  he  engaged  in  engi- 
neering pursuits;  and  while  still  in  the  rail- 
way service  —  though  a  mere  boy  —  he 
wrote  some  articles  for  The  Nonconformist 
on  The  Proper  Sphere  of  Government,  in 
which  he  outlined  the  principles  of  non-inter- 
ference which  regulated  all  his  thinking  in 
later  life. 

When  the  railway  mania  finally  subsided, 
SpenQer,  now  twenty-six  years  of  age,  was 
left,  like  many  other  young  men,  without 
occupation.  But  the  time  spent  at  home 
while  he  was  looking  for  something  to  do  was 
not  wasted.  He  had  leisure  for  a  good  deal 
of  miscellaneous  reading.  He  studied  Lyell's 
Principles  of  Geology,  in  which  the  doctrine  of 
evolution  was  defended  by  Lamarck's  doc- 
trine as  against  creationism.  About  1845  he 
found  his  w^ay  to  London  and  soon  obtained 
employment  on  The  Economist,  becoming  its 
assistant  editor  in  1848.  This  position,  which 
he  held  until  1853,  gave  him  time  for  his 
studies,  and  made  him  acquainted  with  that 
brilliant  coterie  of  thinkers,  chief  of  which 
were  George  Henry  Lewes,  "George  Eliot," 
and  John  Stuart  Mill. 

During  his  leisure  hours  he  wrote  the  first 
work  which  brought  him  notice  —  Social 
Statics  —  pubhshed  in  1850.  This  work  was 
of  a  decidedly  a  priori  character,  and  did  not 
follow  the  inductive  spirit  of  his  later  writings. 
It  shows,  however,  his  tendency  to  reconcile 


HERBERT   SPENCER 

From  a  fhotograph 


A  ?  \^l  y\  t!*'*^  •  '  '*c*» .  ,• 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


331 


opposing  influences  and  to  discover  closeness 
of  relations  where  others  did  not  suspect  them. 
Subsequently,  he  became  dissatisfied  with 
both  its  views  and  its  methods,  and  wished  to 
recall  it  from  circulation.  This  being  found 
impossible,  in  later  years  he  revised  it  by 
omitting  what  he  had  outgrown. 

For  eight  years  after  leaving  The  Economist, 
Spencer  pursued  with  eagerness  the  studies 
he  had  begun,  and  published  in  1855  a  work 
on  psychology  which  he  afterward  revised 
and  expanded  into  a  part  of  his  Synlhelic 
Philosophy.  Over-application  brought  on  a 
serious  attack  of  nervous  prostration,  which 
obliged  him  for  the  rest  of  his  life  to  abridge 
his  hours  of  study.  He  became  a  chronic 
sufferer  from  dyspepsia  and  insomnia,  so  that 
all  his  later  work  had  to  be  done  under  these 
disadvantages.  In  the  meantime  he  had  con- 
ceived a  system  of  philosophy  which  should 
embrace  the  general  principles  of  all  existing 
knowledge;  he  published  a  prospectus,  or 
outline  of  it,  indicating  his  intention  to  give 
twenty  years  to  its  development. 

The  first  installments  of  the  system  did  not 
meet  with  the  reception  he  expected  in  Great 
Britain,  and  he  feared  he  would  have  to 
abandon  his  undertaking.  But  the  timely 
aid  of  his  admirers  in  the  United  States, 
chief  among  whom  was  Youmans,  editor  of 
the  Popular  Science  Monthly,  enabled  him 
to  continue  his  work.  His  health,  however, 
was  so  precarious  that  at  one  time  he  feared 
he  would  not  live  to  complete  the  system. 
With  this  in  view  he  suspended  his  labors  on 
the  main  part  of  his  work  to  write  The  Data 
of  Ethics,  which  had  been  the  object  of  the 
whole  system,  and  in  which  it  was  intended 
to  culminate. 

Fortunately,  through  the  utmost  care,  his 
life  was  prolonged  far  beyond  all  expectations. 
He  was  enabled  to  complete  the  system, 
and  to  revise  an  important  portion  of  it  in 
order  to  bring  it  up  to  date.  It  consists  of 
the  following  parts  written  or  published  at 
or  within  the -dates  indicated:  First  Prin- 
ciples, 1862;  Principles  of  Biology,  1863-67; 
Principles  of  Psychology,  revised,  1871-72; 
Principles  of  Sociology,  1876-96;  Principles 
of  Ethics,  1879-93.  He  also  wrote  three 
volumes  of  Essays:  Scientific,  Political,  and 
Speculative,  between  1858  and  1863,  and 
the  small  but  exceedingly  popular  work  on 
Education.  In  1894  and  1895,  respectively, 
appeared  two  important  essays  on  the 
theories  of  the  German  scientist,  Weismann, 


]  and  a  number  of  other  fugitive  artielM  and 

addresses   have  found   their  wajr  into  hit 

complete  works.    In  1882  Spencer  made  a 

visit    to    the    United   States   and    lectured 

befoi-e  a  number  of  academic  and  scientific 

societies  and  institutions. 

I     It  is  doubtful  whether  the  works  of  any 

I  other   philosopher  have  been   more   widely 

[  translated  than  those  of  Spencer.    They  are 

known    and    studied    in    all    the    European 

languages,    as   well    as    in    several    oriental 

I  languages.    In  Japan  and  India,  particularly, 

they  have  received  a  high  place,  and  seem  to 

have  met  there  the  peculiar  needs  of  the 

j  speculative  mind  with  greater  success  than 

any  other  system. 

In  the  later  years  of  his  life  Spencer  was 
almost  wholly  occupied  with  his  Autobiog- 
raphy, which  has  recently  been  published  and 
forms  a  most  impressive  commentary  on 
contemporary  thought  and  thinkers,  as  well 
as  many  introspective  glances  into  the  life  of 
this  remarkable  man.  He  died  at  Brighton, 
England,  on  December  8,  1903. 

The  story  of  Spencer's  life  is  neither  eventful 
nor  picturesque,  but  it  commands  the  interest 
of  all  who  admire  faith,  courage,  and  loyalty 
to  an  ideal.  It  is  the  record  of  plain  Uving 
and  high  thinking  of  one  who,  though  vexed 
by  an  extremely  nervous  temperament,  was 
as  resolute  as  a  Hebrew  prophet  in  delivering 
his  message.  In  it  we  see  a  quiet  servant  of 
science,  indifferent  to  conventional  honors, 
careless  about  "getting  on,"  disliking  contro- 
versy, sensationalism,  and  noise,  trusting  to 
the  power  of  truth  alone,  that  it  must  prevail. 

Spencer's  personality,  according  to  W.  H. 
Hudson,  one  of  his  students,  rarely  made 
a  favorable  impression  upon  strangers.  This 
was  due,  in  part,  to  the  difficulty  which  many 
seem  to  have  experienced  in  getting  into 
touch  with  him  under  the  conditions  of  casual 
intercourse.  He  was  a  reserved  man;  his 
manner,  save  toward  personal  friends,  was 
habitually  cold  and  distant ;  there  was  nothing 
about  him  to  set  the  chance  comer  —  eq>e- 
cially  if  he  happened  to  be  of  the  all  too  com- 
mon lion-hunting  order  —  at  his  ease.  And 
even  his  friends  had  to  make  occasional  and 
sometimes  large  allowance  for  the  irritability 
which  was  an  inevitable  result  of  constant 
insomnia,  dyspepsia,  and  nervous  prostration. 

His  heroic  struggle  to  fulfill  the  purpose  of 
his  life  told  in  many  vf&ya  upon  him,  for  it 
involved  sacrifices,  which  in  turn  brought 
about  some  narrowing  of  personal  interests 


322 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


and  sympathies ;  while  the  fact  that  he  never 
married,  and  lost  most  of  his  immediate  rela- 
tives early  in  life,  undoubtedly  led  him  to 
dwell  overmuch  within  himself.  But  to 
emphasize  a  certain  austerity  which  marked 
him  in  his  more  formal  associations,  without 
at  once  adding  that  this  was  in  reality  only 
the  superficial  aspect  of  a  singularly  strong, 
upright,  and  noble  nature,  would  be  to  give 
an  altogether  false  idea  of  the  man. 

Continuing,  Hudson  observes,  "Absolute 
rectitude  seems  to  me  to  have  been  the 
keynote  of  his  character.  Throughout  his 
life,  in  small  things  as  in  great,  he  governed 
his  conduct  according  to  the  most  stringent 
principles  of  justice  and  right;  and  if  his 
severe  sense  of  what  was  due  from  others 
made  him  occasionally  seem  over-exacting  — 
if  in  his  judgments  of  men's  motives  and 
actions  he  might  sometimes  appear  to  take 
ordinary  human  weakness  too  little  into 
account,  he  at  all  events  claimed  from  other 
people  not  a  whit  more  than  he  demanded  of 
himself.  And  of  the  rest,  if  I  may  draw  upon 
the  memory  of  my  own  long  relationship  with 
him,  he  was  a  man  whom  intellectually  and 
morally  one  might  admire  at  a  distance,  but 
whom  one  grew  to  revere  and  love  as  one  came 
to  know  more  and  more  of  him.  The  real 
emotional  richness  of  his  nature,  his  trans- 
parent simplicity  and  freshness,  the  depth  of 
his  sympathy  and  kindness,  were  not  opened 
to  the  general  world,  and  revealed  themselves 
only  at  close  touch. 

"For  all  his  reserve,  for  all  his  hatred  of 
publicity,  he  was  not  by  temperament  a 
recluse.  Ill  health  and  the  urgent  need  of 
economizing  his  strength  alone  kept  him  out 
of  many  social  activities  he  would  otherwise 
have  enjoyed.  As  it  was,  he  was  devoted  to 
his  friends ;  was  fond  of  the  genial  intercourse 
of  the  dinner  table;  and  delighted  in  story 
and  repartee.  For  a  good  many  years,  until, 
indeed,  his  nervous  trouble  assumed  its  more 
serious  form,  when  he  was  well  on  toward 
seventy,  he  was  a  regular  habitue  of  the 
Athenaeum  club,  where  he  played  a  capital 
game  of  billiards.  Though  always  a  rather 
impatient  reader  of  general  literature,  he  was 
a  passionate  lover  of  music,  which,  during  the 
years  when  I  saw  most  of  him,  seemed  to 
jrield  him  his  greatest  solace  and  pleasure." 
So  much  for  Spencer's  personality;  now,  a 
brief  look  at  his  intellectual  achievements. 

By  a  happy  accident  Spencer  began  his 
career  at  a  time  when  the  great  theory  of 


evolution  was  being  propounded,  and  a  new 
world  seemed  to  open  for  scientific  discovery. 
With  the  enthusiasm  of  youth  he  set  himself 
to  map  out  this  new  world,  and  with  a  rare 
fidelity  he  continued  his  labors  unremittingly 
to  the  end  of  a  long  life.  To  unite  science 
and  abstract  thought,  to  deduce  from  the 
isolated  discoveries  of  departmental  science 
a  guiding  principle,  and  to  work  out  this 
principle  in  every  domain  of  human  activity 
was  the  task  he  set  for  himself. 

From  the  beginning  of  his  philosophical 
career  Spencer  surveyed  all  fields  of  physi- 
cal theory  and  of  biological  investigation,  and 
all  psychological,  sociological,  and  moral 
problems.  His  first  important  pamphlet, 
The  Proper  Sphere  of  Government,  soon 
expanded  into  the  radical  volume  Socicd 
Statics,  offered  a  carefully  constructed  theory 
of  human  happiness.  The  first  edition  of 
Principles  of  Psychology,  published  four 
years  before  Darwin's  Origin  of  Species 
appeared,  clearly  presented  a  conception  of 
life  and  of  mind  as  a  continuing  adaptation 
of  organic  and  nervous  changes  to  environing 
conditions,  and  outlined  the  hypothesis  of 
evolution  in  most  of  its  essential  features. 
The  essays  that  followed,  including  the  famous 
papers  on  Progress:  Its  Law  and  Cause,  and 
The  Social  Organism,  contained  in  brief  and 
striking  presentation  the  substance  of  the 
doctrine  aften^'ard  systematically  set  forth 
in  exhaustive  detail  in  the  ten  large  volumes 
of  the  Synthetic  Philosophy. 

Spencer's  philosophy  is,  in  a  word,  the 
philosophy  of  evolution;  its  object  is  to 
exhibit  the  life  history  of  the  world  as  a  com- 
plex result  of  a  universal  process,  the  funda- 
mental laws  of  which  are  first  established  and 
traced  down  to  their  ultimate  explanation  in 
terms  of  the  constant  and  necessary  redistri- 
bution of  matter  and  notion.  In  other  words, 
beginning  with  the  first  principles  of  all 
knowledge,  he  proposed  to  trace  how  the  law 
of  evolution  was  realized  in  Ufe,  mind,  society, 
and  morality.  The  truth  of  all  organic 
development  —  or  the  law  of  evolution  —  he 
defines  as  a  change  from  a  state  of  homoge- 
neity to  a  state  of  heterogeneity,  and  this  is 
regarded  as  the  organizing  principle  of  his 
entire  system.  This,  and  other  universal 
truths,  is  developed  in  his  First  Principles 
inductively  and  deductively,  and  used  as  the 
basis  for  a  complete  unificatioa  of  knowledge. 
The  ultimate  test  of  truth  is  the  inconceiv- 
ability of    the    negation    by  the    individual 


IN  PHILOSOPHY 


»S 


thinker;  the  "relativity  of  knowledge"  is 
much  insisted  on. 

This  done,  he  had  then  to  carry  sucK^  uni- 
versal truths  forward  into  the  particular 
phenomena  of  life  and  mind,  society,  and 
morality;  two  volumes  on  biology,  two  on 
psychology,  three  on  sociology,  and  two  on 
ethics,  embracing  the  entire  scheme.  Assisted 
by  elaborate  ethnographical  charts  (Descrip- 
tive Sociology)  he  attempted  to  trace  the 
development  of  human  ideas,  customs,  cere- 
monial usages,  and  political  institutions. 
The  genesis  of  religion  is  traced  generally  to 
ancestor  worship.  Ethics  has  its  root  in 
physical,  biological,  psychological,  and  social 
phenomena;  the  best  conduct  is  that  which 
most  fully  realizes  evolution. 

How  much  or  how  little  of  this  vast  edifice 
is  Ukely  to  stand  the  test  of  time  and  criticism 
is  a  question  that  the  future  alone  can  answer. 
Merely  to  have  created  so  huge  a  structure 
is  a  claim  to  immortality,  for  though  every 
axiom  and  conclusion  were  denied,  later  gen- 
erations might  well  wonder  at  the  vitality 
which  could  carry  one  thinker  through  so 
many  arduous  paths.  Every  system  of  phi- 
losophy, or  of  science,  must  be  judged  on  the 
qualitative  as  well  as  the  quantitative  side; 
it  must  not  only  be  complete,  it  must  be  true. 
A  laborious  industry  in  collecting  facts  will 
not  avail  if  the  basis  of  the  synthesis  is  false 
or  inadequate.  It  is  Spencer's  chief  claim 
on  the  attention  of  posterity  that  he  built 
broad  his  foundations  on  the  organic  unity  of 
the  world. 

Of  no  modern  thinker,  perhaps,  have  so 
many  or  so  varied  estimates  been  offered  to 
the  world  as  of  Spencer.  By  his  adversaries 
he  has  been  pictured  as  an  arch-heretic,  one 
of  the  flowers  of  nonconformity,  against 
theology  and  against  metaphysics,  against 
monarchy  and  against  moUy-coddhng  legis- 
lation, against  classical  education  and  against 
socialism,  against  war  and  against  Weismann. 
So  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  select  the 
man  who  has  tiot  some  crow  to  pick  with 
Spencer. 

It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  then,  that  we 
find  extraordinary  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
the  value  of  the  great  dissentec's  deliverances. 
By  his  disciples  he  has  been  described  as  the 
greatest  intellect  since  Aristotle.  By  his 
traducers  he  has  been  characterized  as  a  pur- 
veyor of  pretentious  explanations  of  the 
universe  that  already  have  passed  into  the] 


shadow  world  of  bygone  phiUMophies.  Ooe 
class  of  readers  has  found  his  pagea  charged 
with  inspiration;  another  class  has  reaented 
his  orderly  exposition  as  mechanical  and 
repellent.  His  very  personality,  aa  revealed 
in  his  philosophical  system,  haa  been  conceived 
by  some  among  his  critics  aa  commonplace, 
unrelieved  by  any  touch  of  genial  sympathy 
or  illuminating  humor;  and  by  others  aa 
heroic  in  its  straightfonn-ard  devotion  to  one 
single  aim. 

These  are  the  extremes  of  estimate.  Be- 
tween them  lies  every  imaginable  shade  of 
superficial  impression  and  of  critical  appre- 
ciation. However,  no  human  being  of  two 
generations,  intelligent  enough  to  know  any- 
thing of  the  great  issues  of  modern  thought, 
has  been  wholly  unmoved  by  the  magnitude 
and  power  of  this  commanding  mind.  He 
was  probably  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of 
our  day,  a  great  polymath,  whose  encyclo- 
pedic learning  may  justly  entitle  him  to  rank 
with  those  other  synthetic  philosophers, 
Aristotle  and  Bacon.  If  in  his  desire  for  a 
complete  system  of  thought  there  is  a  suggea* 
tion  of  the  German  metaphysician,  in  moat 
respects  he  was  a  t}'pical  English  philosopher. 
The  gravity  and  moderation  of  his  argumen- 
tative methods,  his  high  character,  hb  fidelity 
to  his  enormous  self-imposed  task,  were  all 
influences  of  the  highest  value  in  a  world 
which  is  becoming  daily  more  disposed  to 
judge  men  and  things  from  a  low  material 
standpoint,  and  look  askance  at  the  self- 
sacrificing  life  of  the  thinker  and  scholar. 

Few  men  have  ever  more  completely  domi- 
nated contemporary  thought  than  Spencer. 
He  made  popular  the  greatest  of  modem 
scientific  truths.  The  wide  knowledge  of  phys- 
ical science,  which  all  his  writings  display, 
and  his  constant  endeavor  to  illustrate  and 
support  his  system  by  connecting  his  positiona 
with  scientific  facts  and  laws  have  given  his 
philosophy  great  currency  among  men  of 
science.  The  impulse  given  by  him,  also,  to 
workers  in  almost  every  field  of  thought  and 
investigation  testifies  to  the  immense  range 
and  rare  originality  of  his  genius;  and  hia 
Synthetic  Philosophy  itself,  no  matter  in  what 
way  it  may  hereafter  be  modified  or  outgrown, 
will  unquestionably  be  regarded  by  future 
generations  not  only  as  one  of  the  grandeat 
achievements  of  the  century  which  brought  it 
to  birth,  but  also  as  a  permanent  landmark  in 
the  history  of  civilization. 


SCIENCE 
AND  DISCOVERY 


GUTENBERG 


A.  D.  AGE 

14007  Bom  at  Mainz,  Germany, 

1420     Exiled  to  Straasburg, 20 

1436     Formed  partnership  for  perfecting  his 

printing  devices 30 

1438     Press,  types,  and  forms  completed, .    .      38 


A.   D.  AOU 

1440  Returned  to  Mainx, 46 

1450  Partner  of  Jobann  Fu«t, 60 

1455  Partnersliin  dissolved, 55 

1405  p:nnohled  by  Adolph  of  Ni 


1468     Died  at  Mainz, 


JOHANNES  GUTENBERG,  the  inventor 
of  printing  from  movable  types,  was  bom 
at  Mainz,  Germany,  of  noble  lineage,  about 
the  year  1400.  Recent  investigations  tend  to 
show  that  his  true  name  was  Hans  Ganz- 
FLEiscH  DE  SuLGEix)CK,  and  that  he  assumed 
the  name  of  his  mother's  family,  Gutenberg, 
on  account  of  some  poHtical  troubles  that 
existed  at  the  time,  as  well  as  some  defects 
which  existed  in  the  feudal  title  to  the  family 
property.  It  seems  probable  that  he  devoted 
himself  at  an  early  age  to  mechanical  arts; 
and  that  about  1420,  when  the  disturbance 
at  Mainz  occurred,  immediately  succeeding 
the  entrance  of  the  emperor  Frederick  III., 
the  young  mechanician,  as  well  as  his  family, 
was  forced  to  quit  his  native  city.  It  is 
generally  believed  that  he  went  immediately 
to  Strassburg ;  at  least  he  was  in  that  city  in 
1434. 

Two  years  later  he  formed  a  partnership 
with  Andrew  Dritzehn,  in  the  business  of 
polishing  stones  and  manufacturing  mirrors. 
Subsequently,  he  formed  another  partnership 
with  Dritzehn  and  others  "for  the  working 
out  of  certain  secret  processes  invented  by 
him,"  by  which  he  bound  himself  to  instruct 
them  in  all  the  "secret  and  wonderful  arts," 
and  to  employ  these  for  their  common  advan- 
tage. His  associates,  it  appears,  were  of 
noble  birth,  like  himself,  and  the  fact  that 
they  had  compromised  their  social  position  by 
entering  into  industrial  pursuits  was  at  that 
time  viewed  with  considerable  suspicion. 
The  "secret  processes,"  undoubtedly,  com- 
prehended the  first  steps  in  the  art  of  printing. 

In  the  abandoned  convent  of  St.  Arbogaste 
the  first  attempt  had  been  made,  and  the 
works  had  been  executed  with  the  greatest 


secrecy.  There  is  a  mention  in  the  written 
agreement  of  "  materials  and  utensils,  of  lead, 
of  a  press,  of  a  vise  for  holding  the  parts 
together,"  etc.,  and  that  the  work  should  be 
ready  for  the  coming  fair  at  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
The  wording  is  anything  but  clear,  the  aim 
seeming  to  be  to  avoid  revealing  to  the  public 
anything  of  which  it  ought  to  remain  ignorant. 
At  that  epoch  all  industry  surrounded  itself 
with  secrecy. 

In  1439  the  death  of  Andrew  Dritzehn 
involved  Gutenberg  in  a  lawsuit  with  the 
former's  brother,  George.  The  suit  was 
decided  against  Gutenberg,  and  the  papers  in 
it,  which  are  now  carefully  preserved  in 
Strassburg,  form  the  earliest  documents 
relative  to  the  printer's  art. 

About  1446  he  returned  to  Mainz,  and 
permanently  located  there.  The  great  ex- 
pense involved  in  his  undertakings  had  con- 
sumed all  his  means,  and  in  1450  he  formed 
a  new  partnership  with  a  rich  goldsmith. 
Fust,  for  the  further  exploitation  of  his 
admirable  invention,  and  acquainted  him 
with  the  results  already  obtained.  Fust 
made  the  necessary  advances,  but  later  on 
introduced  a  third,  Schoeffer,  as  partner  or 
employee,  and  took  such  guarantees  for  the 
money  advanced  that  five  years  after  he  was 
able  to  break  the  connection  by  demanding 
a  reimbursement  from  Gutenberg.  The  latter, 
unable  to  satisfy  his  demands,  was  forced  to 
hand  over  to  him  his  apparatus  and  nearly  all 
his  stock. 

After  the  first  break  in  the  partnership. 
Fust  and  Schoeffer  continued  to  print,  and 
Gutenberg,  on  his  side,  succeeded  in  again 
establishing  himself  in  the  same  city,  where, 
with  the   assistance   of  Conrad   Hvunerj-,    a 


GUTENBERG 

From  the  painting  by  Ferris 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


m 


councilor  of  Mainz,  he  brought  out  the  first 
printed  Bible,  the  famous  Bible  of  thirty-six 
lines,  begun  long  before  with  other  partners 
at  Strassburg.  According  to  some,  four  edi- 
tions of  the  Donatxis  were  likewise  printed  by 
Gutenberg,  while  others  ascribe  them  to 
Fust  and  Schoeffer.  In  1457  appeared  the 
Latin  Psalterium,  or  rather  a  breviary  con- 
taining psalms,  with  antiphones,  collects,  etc., 
and  arranged  for  choruses  for  Sundays  and 
holidays. 

This  specimen  of  the  art  of  printing,  remark- 
able as  being  the  first  bearing  the  name  of  the 
printer  and  the  locality,  as  well  as  the  year 
and  day  of  its  completion,  and  valued  at  fifty 
thousand  pounds,  was  printed  with  an  elegance 
which  sufficiently  proves  the  rapid  progress 
that  had  been  made  in  the  newly  invented  art, 
and  the  diligence  with  which  it  had  been 
presented.  Gutenberg's  printing  establish- 
ment existed  until  1465  in  Mainz. 

His  last  years  were  passed  obscurely  in  the 
midst  of  hard  work,  and  xmhappily  in  the 
embarrassments  of  poverty.  In  1465  Adolph 
of  Nassau,  elector  of  Mainz,  named  him  one 
of  his  courtiers  and  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  a 
noble.  Three  years  after  this  occurred  his 
death  in  1468.  Nothing  is  known  of  his 
private  hfe.  That  he  married  appears  from 
the  fact,  that,  in  1437,  a  complaint  was 
entered  against  him  at  Strassburg  by  a  lady 
of  rank,  claiming  the  fulfillment  of  a  promise 
of  marriage,  and  later  her  name  is  identified 
with  his  in  the  register. 

The  obscurity  which  envelops  the  early 
epoch  of  the  history  of  printing  is  rendered 
more  cloudy  still  by  the  precautions  which  the 
inventor  and  his  partners  were  obliged  to  take 
to  conceal  their  proceedings.  The  books 
printed  by  them  were  done  with  such  rapidity 
—  for  those  times  —  that  their  work  gave 
rise  to  grave  suspicions  among  the  authorities. 
It  was  ascribed  to  magic,  and  Mephistopheles, 
rather  than  either  Gutenberg  or  Fust,  got 
the  credit  of  the  invention. 

Printing  from  engraved  wooden  blocks  had 
been  in  use  for  more  than  half  a  century, 
especially  in  Germany  and  the  low  coimtries. 
It  was  employed  in  connection  with  pictorial 
engraving  to  explain  such  series  of  pictures  as 
the  "Dance  of  Death,"  "Biblia  Pauperum," 
etc.,  but  was  obviously  inapplicable  to  works 
of  considerable  length. 

The  expedient  of  making  the  types  for  each 
letter  movable  may  be  compared  both  for 
ingenuity  and  for  momentous  results  with  the 


Phoenician  invention  of  the  alphabet  m  coo- 
trasted  with  ideographic  writing.  Theauihoiw 
ship  of  this  expe<lient,  while  at  ODe  time 
vehemently  debated,  is  now  almost  universally 
ascribed  to  Gutenberg.  The  story  that  gave 
currency  to  most  of  the  debate  on  this  matter 
is  that,  in  1445,  a  short  Latin  grammar  of 
^lius  Donatus,  and  the  Speculum  humana 
salvationis,  were  printed  in  Haarlem  with 
movable  types  by  Lourens  Jansxoon  Coster, 
and  that  shortly  afterward  a  servant  of 
Coster  stole  these  types  and  took  them  to 
Mainz,  where  they  came  into  the  poaseanoo 
of  Gutenberg. 

The  evidence  in  favor  of  Gutenberg's  being 
the  inventor  of  printing  is  considered  by  hit 
countrymen  quite  conclusive.  They  adduce 
the  testimony  of  Ulrich  Zell  of  Hanau,  who 
first  introduced  the  art  into  Cologne,  and 
who  declares  that  "this  noble  art  was  in- 
vented for  the  first  time  in  Germany,  at 
Mainz,  upon  the  Rhine,  by  a  citizen  of 
Mainz,  named  John  Gutenberg."  Similarly 
speaks  Wimpfeling,  a  learned  Alsacian,  born 
at  Strassburg  in  1451,  and  partly  contempo- 
raneous with  Gutenberg.  "In  the  year  1440, 
under  the  reign  of  Frederick  III.,  an  almost 
divine  benefit  was  conferred  on  mankind  by 
John  Gutenberg,  who  first  discovered  the  art 
of  printing."  So,  too,  says  Trithemius  (bom 
1462,  died  1516) :  "  At  this  epoch,  this  memor- 
able art  of  printing  was  devised  and  invented 
by  Gutenberg,  a  citizen  of  Mainz";  while 
Johann  Schoeffer,  son  of  Peter  Schoeffer,  the 
partner  of  Fust,  in  his  preface  to  a  German 
translation  of  Li\'y  in  1605,  expressly  affirms 
that  "at  Mainz  originally  the  admirable  art 
of  printing  was  invented  particularly  by  the 
ingenious  Johann  Gutenberg,  1450  A.  D.," 
and  that  it  was  "  subsequently  improved  and 
propagated  to  posterity  by  the  wealth  and 
labors  of  Johann  Fust  and  Peter  Schoeffer." 
That  Gutenberg  may  have  received  the  first 
hints  of  his  invention  from  the  Dutch  xylog- 
raphy is  not  denied.  Ulrich  Zell  himself 
admits  this ;  but  the  invention  of  typography, 
and  beyond  all  doubt  of  the  printing  preas, 
must  be  ascribed  to  the  German. 

Still  greater  uncertainty  exists  regarding 
the  steps  by  which  Gutenberg  arrived  at  his 
invention.  According  to  Didot,  Gutenberg, 
in  his  work,  probably  traversed  the  following 
phases :  (1)  The  engraving  of  movable  letters, 
first  in  wood,  then  in  lead,  and  the  adjusting 
more  or  less  regularly  these  letters  for  tiie 
impression.    (2)  The  casting  of  the  letter^ 


328 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


clay,  lead,  or  tin,  by  means  of  moulds  in  sand. 
(3)  The  retouching  of  these  characters  after 
the  casting.  (4)  The  engraving  of  the  letters 
on  soft  steel,  tempering  it  afterward,  and 
striking  these  letters  in  matrices  of  copper. 
(5)  Moulds,  of  which  the  mechanism  was 
probably  at  first  similar  to  that  the  ancients 
employed  in  making  medallions,  and  which 
were  afterward  perfected  by  Schoeffer.  (6) 
The  composition  of  a  siccative  ink,  and  the 
preparation  of  leather  pads  by  which  to 
extend  the  ink  over  the  characters.  (7)  The 
press,  chief  of  all,  the  embodiment  of  the 
whole  process,  of  which  it  terminated  the  dif- 
ferent operations. 

Within  sixteen  years  from  the  date  of  the 
first  printed  Bible,  the  art  of  printing  was 
practiced  in  the  principal  cities  of  Germany 
and  Italy.  Strassburg  was  the  first  after 
Mainz  to  adopt  the  process.  In  1466  we 
find  it  at  Cologne,  in  the  following  year  at 
Rome.  By  1471  it  was  established  in  Venice, 
Florence,  Naples,  Bologna,  and  Milan.  Eng- 
land, still  involved  in  the  wars  of  the  rose*, 
was  late  in  the  race.  The  date  of  the  first 
English  printed  book  is  1477,  while  that  of  the 
first  book  printed  in  America  is  1640. 

The  effect  of  printing  was  to  establish  the 
continuity  of  the  western  world  with  Greco- 
Roman  traditions,  and  this  with  the  previous 
life  of  humanity,  which  the  rise  and  progress 
of  the  mediaeval  church  had  for  centuries  dis- 
turbed. The  expression  "humane  letters" 
—  litterce  humanores  —  represents  accurately 
what  took  place.  The  thoughts  of  men  to 
whom  man's  life  and  man's  world  were  the 
things  best  worth  living  for,  and  who  revered 
the  Roman  state  as  the  best  security  for  peace- 
ful progress  —  men  like  Cicero  and  Vergil, 
and  with  them  all  the  poets,  historians,  and 
thinkers  of  Greece  and  Rome  —  became 
henceforth  familiar  household  words.  This 
at  least  was  the  case  with  a  large  and  powerful 
section  of  society.  Those  to  whom  Greek  and 
Latin  books  still  remained  sealed  were  at 
least  made  familiar  in  translations  of  the 
Bible  with  the  sources  of  their  own  religion : 
with  what  momentous  results  the  history  of 
the  next  two  centuries  was  to  show.  To 
mediaeval  theology  the  invention  of  printing 
dealt  as  powerful  a  blow  as  the  feudal  system 
received  from  the  invention  of  gunpowder, 
rendering  the  costly  armor  of  the  privileged 
classes  useless  in  battle. 

Rightly,  therefore,  does  this  invention  take 
precedence  of  other  forms  of  modem  industry. 


Lamartine  said  that  with  his  invention  of 
printing  Gutenberg  had  given  the  world  a 
soul.  In  the  long  run  the  world  is  governed 
by  ideas,  material  force  being  needed  only  to 
maintain  order  until  ideas  have  taken  hold  of 
men  and  rendered  them  self-governing.  The 
machine  that  disseminates  thought  is,  there- 
fore, the  greatest  of  machines.  Like  all  other 
forces,  the  power  it  wields  has  been  and  will 
be  misused.  But  it  offers  the  means  whereby 
the  masses  of  citizens  can  participate  actively 
or  passively  in  the  acts  of  the  state  of  which 
they  are  members.  And  its  right  use  in  the 
end  predominates  over  the  wrong. 

"The  multiplication  of  readers,"  says 
Victor  Hugo,  "is  the  multiplication  of  loaves. 
On  the  day  when  Christ  created  that  symbol, 
he  caught  a  glimpse  of  printing.  His  miracle 
is  this  marvel.  Behold  a  book.  I  will 
nourish  with  it  five  thousand  souls,  a  hundred 
thousand  souls  —  a  million  souls  —  all  human- 
ity. In  the  action  of  Christ  bringing  forth 
the  loaves,  there  is  Gutenberg  bringing  forth 
books.  One  sower  heralds  the  other.  *  ♦ 
Gutenberg  in  the  fifteenth  century  emerges 
from  the  awful  obscurity,  bringing  out  of  the 
darkness  that  ransomed  captive,  the  human 
mind.  Gutenberg  is  forever  the  auxiliary  of 
life;  he  is  the  permanent  fellow  workman  Id 
the  great  work  of  civilization.  Nothing  is 
[  done  without  him.  He  has  marked  the  tran- 
sition of  the  man-slave  to  the  freeman.  Try 
to  deprive  civilization  of  him,  you  become 
I  Egj^pt.  The  decrease  of  the  liberty  of  the 
I  press  is  enough  to  diminish  the  stature  of  a 
people.  ♦  *  ♦  ♦  A  Gutenberg  discov- 
ering the  method  for  the  sowing  of  civilization 
and  the  means  for  the  ubiquity  of  thought 
will  be  followed  by  a  Christopher  Columbus 
discovering  a  new  field.  A  Christopher 
Columbus  discovering  a  world  will  be  followed 
by  a  Luther  discovering  a  liberty.  After 
Luther,  innovator  in  the  dogma,  will  come 
Shakespeare,  innovator  in  art.  One  genius 
completes  the  other." 

Again,  Carlyle  says:  "When  Tamerlane 
had  finished  building  his  pyramid  of  seventy 
thousand  human  skulls,  and  was  seen  '  stand- 
ing at  the  gate  of  Damascus,  glittering  in 
steel,  with  his  battle-axe  on  his  shoulder,' 
till  his  fierce  hosts  filed  out  to  new  victories 
and  new  courage,  the  pale  onlooker  might 
have  fancied  that  nature  was  in  her  death 
throes,  for  havoc  and  despair  had  taken  pos- 
session of  the  earth,  the  sun  of  manhood 
seemed  setting  in  seas  of  blood.     Yet  it  might 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


be,  on  that  very  gala  day  of  Tamerlane,  a 
little  boy  was  playing  ninepins  on  the  streets 
of  Mainz,  whose  history  was  more  important 
to  men  than  twenty  Tamerlanes.  The 
Tartar  Khan,  with  his  shaggy  demons  of 
the  wilderness,  'passed  away  like  a  whirl- 
wind '  to  be  forgotten  forever ;  and  that 
German  artisan  has  wrought  a  benefit  which 


is  yet  immeasurably  expanding  itaclf,  and 
will  continue  to  expand  itaelf  through  all 
countries  and  through  all  tiraea.  What 
are  the  conquests  and  expeditions  of  the 
whole  corporation  of  captains,  from  Walter 
the  Penniless  to  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  com- 
pared with  these '  movable  types '  of  Jol 
Gutenberg?" 


COLUMBUS 


A.  D. 


1446?  Bom  at  Genoa,  Italy, 


1460 
1470 
1474 
1477 
1490 

1492 


First  went  to  sea, 14 

Settled  in  Lisbon;  married, 24 

Corresponded  with  Toscanelli,       ...  28 

Sailed  beyond  Iceland, 31 

His  scheme  of  discovery  unfavorably 

reported  by  committee, 44 

Sailed  westward;    reached  San  Salva- 
dor,      46 


1493  Embarked    on    second    voyage    from 

Cadiz, 47 

1496  Returned  to  Spain, SO 

1498  Third  voyage,      M 

1500  Returned  to  Spain  in  chains,    .    .    .    .  M 

1502  Fourth  voyage M 

1506  Died  at  Valladolid,  Spain, 00 


/CHRISTOPHER  COLUMBUS,  the  most 
^-^  famous  of  navigators  and  geographical 
discoverers,  and  thereby  one  of  the  greatest 
benefactors  of  the  world,  was  born  at  Genoa, 
Italy,  about  1446.  Though  virtually  the 
greatest  man  of  his  era,  there  is  little  definite 
information  about  his  family  and  his  early 
life. 

It  appears,  however,  that  his  father  was  a 
wool  weaver  or  a  wool  carder  in  Genoa. 
Christopher  had  two  brothers,  both  associated 
subsequently  with  his  fortunes,  and  both 
known  to  have  been  well-educated  men. 
Columbus  himself  was,  for  a  time  at  least,  at 
the  university  of  Pavia,  and  in  his  later  years 
he  looked  fondly  back  to  his  early  studies  of 
"  cosmography,  history,  philosophy,  and  other 
sciences."  At  fourteen  he  took  to  the  sea. 
"At  a  very  tender  age,"  he  wrote  in  1501,  "I 
took  to  navigation,  and  have  continued  it 
ever  since:  an  art  which  fills  whosoever 
follows  it  with  a  desire  to  know  the  secrets  of 
the  world ;  and  these  forty  years  past  have  I 
been  familiar  with  every  place  to  which  men 
sail  to-day." 

The  Italian  mariner  of  those  days  was  by 
necessity  a  fighting  man.  The  Mediterranean 
swarmed  with  pirates,  Mohammedan  and 
Christmn.  The  maritime  states  of  Italy,  hke 
the  others,  were  perpetually  at  war,  and 
privateering  was  a  recognized  profession,  and 
an  important  matter  of  resource  of  the  high 
as  well  as  of  the  low. 

From  this  wild  school  of  the  Mediterranean, 
voyaging  and  battling,  Columbus  emerged  to 


find  for  a  time  a  more  peaceful  and  tranquil 
existence  on  land.  About  1470  he  settled  at 
Lisbon,  Spain,  and  there  married  the  daughter 
of  an  Italian  named  Perestrello,  who  had  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  a  navigator  in  the 
Portuguese  service.  His  wife  —  Donna  Felipa 
Moniz  de  Perestrello  —  was  not  rich,  but  she 
brought  him  a  valuable  dower  of  geographical 
knowledge  and  stimulus.  Lisbon,  at  this 
time,  under  Prince  Henry  IV.  of  Portugal,  was 
the  headquarters  of  all  that  was  speculative 
and  adventurous  in  the  way  of  geographical 
discovery.  Donna  Felipa's  father  had  been 
governor  of  Porto  Santo,  an  island  recently 
discovered  in  the  very  neighborhood  of 
Madeira.  Her  sister  was  married  to  another 
ex-governor  of  Porto  Santo.  The  newly 
wedded  pair  resided  with  the  mother  of  Donna 
Felipa.  The  charts,  papers,  and  memoranda 
of  his  wife's  father  were  placed  in  the  hands  of 
Columbus,  and  with  the  conversation  of  his 
brother-in-law  excited  him  in  the  direction  of 
new  geographical  discovery. 

When  in  Lisbon  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
construction  of  maps  and  charts  for  a  liveli- 
hood, and  his  mind  began  to  compare  the 
known  of  the  earth's  surface  with  the  un- 
known. For  a  time  he  resided  at  Porto 
Santo,  where  his  wife  had  a  small  property, 
and  voyagers  from  the  Guinea  coast  were  in 
the  habit  of  touching.  Sometimes  he  took 
part  in  expeditions  to  the  coast  of  Guinea. 
His  greatest  adventure  of  thoae  3rean,  how- 
ever, was  a  voyage  to  the  northern  ocean 
beyond  Iceland  in  February  of  1477. 


330 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


The  earliest  trace  of  Columbus'  great  design 
belongs  to  the  year  1474,  a  year  otherwise 
memorable  for  the  introduction  of  printing 
into  England.  In  that  year  we  find  him  cor- 
responding with  Paolo  Toscanelli  of  Florence, 
on  the  feasibility  of  a  western  passage,  not  to 
America,  but  to  Asia.  The  learned  Toscanelli 
approved  of  the  design,  and  sent  Columbus  a 
chart  of  his  own  construction,  in  which  the 
eastern  coast  of  Asia  was  represented  as 
moderately  distant  from  the  western  coasts  of 
Africa  and  Europe,  and  in  the  intervening 
ocean  stood  Marco  Polo's  Cipango  —  Japan 
—  and  the  imaginary  island  of  Antilia,  still 
recognizable  in  the  Antilles.  This  map,  or 
some  redaction  of  it,  Columbus  had  with  him 
on  his  first  voyage  to  America.  For  his 
knowledge  of  the  general  literature  of  the  sub- 
ject Columbus  was  chiefly  indebted  to  the 
Imago  Mundi,  a  cosmographical  compilation 
of  Cardinal  Pierre  d'Ailly,  bishop  of  Cambray, 
written  in  1410,  and  printed,  probably,  about 
1490.  Here  he  found,  collected,  the  dim 
guesses  of  ancients  and  moderns  at  the  true 
figure  of  the  earth,  and  the  possibility  of  sail- 
ing from  west  to  east.  This  was  the  book 
that  furnished  him  with  weapons  for  his 
frequent  controversies  subsequently  with  the 
learned  sceptics  of  Spain  and  Portugal. 

But  it  was  not  only  from  fanciful  charts  and 
the  theorizings  of  scholars,  old  and  new,  that 
Columbus  derived  his  faith  in  the  existence  of 
easily  accessible  regions  to  the  west.  Eagerly 
he  inquired  from  practical  men  respecting 
vestiges  of  a  world  beyond  the  western  wave. 
By  two  happy  mistakes  he  diminished  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  earth,  and  gave  a  vast 
imaginary  extension  to  Asia.  It  grew  to  be 
for  his  mind  no  mere  matter  of  speculation, 
but  an  indubitable  fact,  that  the  eastern  shore 
of  Asia,  and  the  magnificent  civilization 
described  by  Marco  Polo  could  be  attained  by 
a  moderate  voyage  westward  from  Europe; 
and  the  behef  that  he  had  reached  Asia,  not 
that  he  had  discovered  a  new  continent, 
remained  with  him  to  his  dying  day. 

The  highest  religious  aspirations,  and  the 
intensest  worldly  desires  of  Columbus  gradu- 
ally ranged  themselves  round  this  central 
faith.  He  saw  immense  authority  and  illimit- 
able wealth,  the  reward  of  his  achieved  dis- 
covery; but  all  earthly  gains  were  subordi- 
nated to  the  triumphs  of  the  cross  among  new. 
and  vast  populations.  The  certain  wealth  to 
be  acquired  by  himself  should  be  devoted  — 
fuch  was  one  of  his  dreams  a  few  years  further 


on  —  to  another  crusade,  and  to  the  recovery 
of  the  holy  sepulchre  from  the  hands  of  the 
infidels,  with  whom  he  had  already  battled  in 
his  early  and  obscure  years  of  Mediterranean 
voyaging. 

In  1481  John  II.  ascended  the  throne  of 
Portugal.  It  was  shortly  after  the  accession 
of  this  monarch  that  Columbus  —  after  hav- 
ing, it  is  said,  vainly  applied  to  Genoa  —  pro- 
pounded to  him  the  daring  scheme  of  reaching 
India  by  the  western  ocean.  Preoccupied, 
probably,  by  the  idea  of  the  southeastern 
route,  John  at  first  discouraged  the  new  enter- 
prise, but  eventually  referred  it  to  a  junto 
composed  of  his  two  physicians  and  his  con- 
fessor, the  bishop  of  Ceuta.  By  them  the 
notion  was  condemned  as  chimerical,  a  verdict 
which  was  ratified  by  a  great  council  of  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  dignitaries  and  learned  men, 
whom  the  hesitating  king  constituted  a  court 
of  appeal.  The  king  still  hesitated,  when  an 
ignoble  compromise  was  offered  to  him  and 
accepted. 

Under  pretense  of  a  wish  to  thoroughly 
examine  them,  the  detailed  plans  of  Columbus 
were  procured  from  him.  Unknown  to  him, 
a  caravel  was  despatched  westward  on  a 
voyage  of  discovery.  After  a  few  days 
stormy  weather  frightened  the  conductors  of 
the  expedition  back  to  Lisbon,  where  they 
ridiculed  the  aim  of  Columbus.  Indignant  at 
this  treachery,  Columbus  declined  any  further 
negotiations  with  John  II.,  and  shook  the 
dust  of  Portugal  from  off  his  feet.  He  left 
Portugal,  it  is  beheved,  not  only  poor,  but  in 
debt.  His  wife  was  dead,  and  he  took  with 
him  his  Uttle  motherless  Diego,  who  hved  to 
be  a  second  admiral  of  the  Indies.  It  is 
supposed  that  he  now  applied  a  second  time 
to  Genoa  to  aid  him  in  his  enterprise,  and  that 
during  his  visit  to  his  native  city,  he  assisted, 
out  of  his  own  scanty  means,  his  aged  father, 
whom  he  had  already  helped  while  stniggling 
for  a  subsistence  as  a  chartographer  in  Portu- 
gal. A  deep  affectionateness  of  disposition  is 
one  of  the  most  noted  of  Columbus'  charac- 
teristics. 

It  is  in  1485,  and  in  the  south  of  Spain,  that 
we  next  see  Columbus  distinctly.  Great  dukes 
of  Medina  Sidonia  and  Medina  Cell,  with 
estates  and  ports  upon  the  seaboard,  gave  an 
attentive  ear  to  his  glowing  projects ;  but  his 
only  direct  gain  from  them  was  a  recommen- 
dation to  Queen  Isabella  of  Spain.  The 
astute  Ferdinand  and  the  noble-minded 
Isabella  were  then  occupied  with  their  cam- 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


831 


paigns  against  the  Moors.  At  intervals  they 
entertained  the  schemes  of  Columbus  so  far 
as  to  have  him  a  frequent  visitor  of  their 
camp,  and  to  relegate  his  enterprise  to  the 
discussion  of  eminent  men. 

From  Cordova,  Columbus  followed  the 
court  to  Salamanca  in  1486,  by  order  of  King 
Ferdinand,  and  there  he  held  a  solemn  con- 
ference with  a  junto,  chiefly  composed  of 
learned  and  scientific  ecclesiastics.  At  the 
epoch  of  this  discussion,  Copernicus  was  a  boy 
of  thirteen,  and  Columbus  was  met  with  quota- 
tions from  the  Bible  and  the  fathers  against 
the  rotundity  of  the  earth.  The  conference 
was  adjourned  without  definite  result. 

From  1487  to  1490  Columbus  hung  about 
the  Spanish  court  and  camp,  now  stoutly 
fighting  against  the  Moors,  and  summoned  to 
consultations  with  the  Spanish  sovereigns, 
sometimes  full  of  hope,  sometimes  so  discour- 
aged as  to  think  of  renewing  negotiations  with 
John  of  Portugal,  or  of  repairing  to  London 
and  Henry  VII.  At  last,  in  the  summer  of 
1490,  he  pressed  with  such  earnestness  for  a 
distinct  reply  to  his  application  that  the  old 
conference  was  ordered  to  give  him  one.  Its 
members  reported  against  him ;  and  the  cur- 
tain drops  for  a  time  on  Columbus,  the 
dejected  and  disappointed,  poor  and  isolated, 
beginning  once  more  his  weary  pilgrimage. 

When  the  curtain  rises  again,  it  is  to  dis- 
cover Columbus  approaching  the  gate  of  the 
convent  of  Santa  Maria  de  Rabida,  near  the 
haven  of  Palos  in  Andalusia,  for  the  purpose 
of  procuring  a  crust  of  bread  and  a  draught 
of  water  for  the  little  boy  by  whom  he  was 
accompanied.  The  prior  of  the  convent, 
passing  at  the  moment,  observed  that  he  was 
a  foreigner,  entered  into  conversation  with 
him,  and  learned  who  he  was. 

This  interview  with  the  prior  of  the  con- 
vent of  Rabida,  Juan  Perez  de  Marchena,  was 
the  turning  point  in  the  career  of  Columbus. 
The  prior  was  a  man  of  sense,  and  he  had  been 
the  queen's  confessor.  He  talked  with 
Columbus,  and  -was  so  struck  with  the  gran- 
deur of  his  views  that  he  introduced  him  to 
the  notables  of  the  neighborhood,  among 
others  to  Martin  Alonzo  Pinzon,  the  head  of 
a  flourishing  family  of  navigators  in  the 
thriving  and  adventurous  port  of  Palos. 
Pinzon  was  convinced,  and  offered  his  coope- 
ration, personal  and  pecuniary.  The  prior, 
presuming  on  his  old  connection,  wrote  fer- 
vently to  the  queen  for  a  decisive  encourage-  | 
raent  to  Columbus,  who  spoke  of  carrying  his . 


project*  to  the  court  of  France,  whither,  it  is 
said,  Charles  VII.  had  invited  him. 

Isabella,  perhaps  alarmed  lest  another 
country  should  profit  by  Columbus'  discover- 
ies, sent  for  both  Columbus  and  the  prior, 
and  with  womanly  thoughtfulness  trans- 
mitted a  considerable  sum  of  money  where- 
with the  impoverished  adventurer  might 
properly  array  himself  for  appearance  at  court. 
He  arrived  in  time  to  witness  the  surrender  of 
Granada,  and  in  the  glories  of  the  triumph  did 
not  grudge  a  little  delay.  At  last  he  was 
heard  once  more ;  but,  at  the  very  threshold 
of  the  negotiations,  the  lofty  and  unbending 
pride  of  Columbus  proved  almost  suicidal. 
He  insisted  on  high  titles  and  privileges;  he 
was  to  be  admiral  and  viceroy  of  all  the  coun^ 
tries  discovered;  and  one-tenth  of  all  gains 
derived  from  commerce  or  from  conquest  were 
to  be  his.  The  courtiers  laughed.  The 
official  person  who  more  directly  treated  with 
him  was  the  queen's  confessor,  the  new  arch- 
bishop of  Granada,  and  he  professed  himself 
shocked  at  the  claims  of  the  humble  projector. 
Even  Queen  Isabella  wavered.  It  shows  the 
genuine  confidence  which  Columbus  had  in 
himself  and  in  his  mission,  that,  at  this  ap- 
parent crisis  of  his  fate,  he  refused  to  give  way. 

At  the  commencement  of  Februarj',  1492, 
he  mounted  his  mule  and  set  forth  for  Cordova 
on  the  road  to  France.  Once  again  Queen 
Isabella  was  strenuously  appealed  to  by  an 
official  believer  in  Columbus,  and  once  again 
she  summoned  him  to  her  presence.  When  he 
reached  the  court  again,  he  found  his  demands 
conceded.  On  a  former  occasion,  during  his 
negotiations  with  Pinzon,  Columbus  had, 
when  twitted  with  his  poverty,  offered  to  bear 
one-eighth  of  the  expense  of  his  proposed 
expedition.  This  same  condition  was  em- 
bodied in  the  so-called  "capitulations," 
signed  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  on  the  17th 
of  April,  1492;  and  with  the  aid  of  the 
Pinzons  of  Palos  a  third  vessel  was  added  to 
the  expedition,  nominally  at  the  expense  of 
Columbus. 

Tlie  port  of  Palos,  the  headquarters  of  the 
Pinzons,  was  fixed  on  by  Columbus  as  that  of 
equipment  and  embarkation.  Toward  the 
beginning  of  August,  1492,  the  squadron  was 
ready  for  sea.  It  was,  for  the  magnitude  of 
the  enterprise,  on  a  wonderfully  small  scale, 
and  consisted  of  three  little  vessels.  Two  of 
them  were  of  the  class  called  "caravels"  — 
light  vessels,  somewhat  like  the  ordinary 
masted  schooner  used  in  coasting  trade  — 


332 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


built  high  at  prow  and  stern,  with  forecastles 
and  cabins  for  the  crew,  but  without  decks. 
One  of  these,  the  Pinta,  was  commanded  by 
Martin  Alonzo  Pinzon  and  his  brother;  the 
other,  the  Nina,  with  lateen  sails,  was  com- 
manded by  the  third  of  the  brothers  Pinzon. 
The  largest,  prepared  expressly  for  the  voyage 
and  decked,  was  the  Santa  Maria,  and  this 
was  the  admiral's  ship.  The  exact  tonnage 
of  the  vessels  cannot  be  ascertained,  but 
Columbus,  in  a  subsequent  voyage,  is  known 
to  have  complained  of  the  undue  size  of  his 
ship,  which  was  nearly  a  hundred  tons  burden. 

In  such  craft  did  the  brave  voyager  and  his 
friends  face  the  mysterious  terrors  of  the 
unknown  Atlantic.  Amid  the  doubts  and 
fears  of  those  on  shore,  with  prayers  to  heaven 
for  mercy  and  guidance,  the  expedition  set 
sail  from  the  sandbar  of  Suites  —  near  the 
confluence  of  the  Tinto  and  Odiel,  rivers  of 
Palos  and  Huelva  —  on  the  morning  of  Fri- 
day, the  3d  of  August,  1492.  One  hundred 
twenty  persons  constituted  the  population 
of  the  Santa  Maria,  Pinta,  and  Nina. 

Slight  mishaps  and  panics  ushered  in  this 
memorable  voyage.  The  loss  of  the  Pinta's 
rudder  kept  the  expedition  three  weeks  at  the 
Canaries  in  unsuccessful  search  for  another 
vessel,  and  the  volcanic  flames  of  TenerifFe 
terrified  the  ignorant  and  superstitious  crews. 
On  the  9th  of  September,  Ferro,  the  most 
southwesterly  of  the  Canaries,  faded  out  of 
sight,  and  lamentations  broke  out  among  the 
crews,  but  they  were  promptly  met  by  the 
sonorous  eloquence  of  the  confident  and 
enthusiastic  admiral. 

To  conceal  from  the  timid  crews  the  real 
distance  which  lay  between  them  and  their 
homes,  Columbus  kept  two  reckonings. 
A  correct  one  was  retained  for  his  own  secret 
inspection;  from  this  a  number  of  leagues 
was  daily  subtracted,  and  thus  the  diminished 
log  was  shown  to  the  crews.  On  the  13th  of 
September,  Columbus  noticed  for  the  first 
time  the  variation  of  the  magnetic  needle. 
He  endeavored  to  conceal  it  from  the  crews, 
but  the  pilots  soon  observed  it  and  were 
terror-struck  at  the  sight,  fearing  that  the 
compass  itself  was  about  to  desert  them  in 
the  unknown  waste  of  waters,  and  leave  them 
guideless  and  hopeless.  Columbus,  with  quick 
ingenuity,  ascribed  the  variation  to  a  move- 
ment in  the  polestar  itself,  and  by  one  of  his 
unfounded  but  lucky  theories  succeeded  in 
allaying  the  alarm  of  the  crews. 

Hope  and  fear  swayed  alternately  in  the 


breasts  of  the  seamen.  The  admiral  alone 
knew  no  vicissitudes  of  feeling.  Two  days 
before  the  first  notice  of  the  variation  of  the. 
needle,  the  seamen  were  dismayed  by  the 
sight  of  part  of  a  mast,  which  had  evidently 
been  long  in  the  water,  and  regarded  it  as  a 
warning  to  themselves.  Three  days  after- 
ward they  were  buoyed  up  by  the  appearance 
of  a  heron  and  a  tropical  bird,  neither  of  which, 
it  was  thought,  could  have  ventured  far  from 
land.  Soon  the  vessels  were  within  the 
influence  of  the  trade  wind,  and  were  wafted 
on  by  it,  pleasantly,  westward.  Patches  of 
herbs  and  weeds  came  drifting  from  the  west, 
and  some  of  them  were  thought  to  grow  only 
in  rivers.  For  a  time  the  crews  were  in  the 
highest  spirits.  Then  came  a  false  report  of 
land  to  the  west,  which  turned  out  to  be 
cloudland,  and  after  several  similar  disap- 
pointments the  men  began  to  murmur. 
Even  the  trade  wind  was  a  source  of  alarm  to 
them,  for  they  feared  that  in  those  seas  it 
blew  always  from  the  east,  and  they  could 
thus  never  return  to  Spain. 

The  crisis  of  their  discontent  arrived  when 
the  vessels  were  becalmed,  or  nearly  so,  amid 
vast  masses  of  weeds ;  and  it  was  in  vain  that 
Columbus  argued  with  them  that  the  calmness 
arose  from  the  nearness  of  land.  The  nearer 
they  approached  the  goal  the  more  mutinous 
they  became ;  and  at  last  they  began  to  speak 
of  making  away  with  the  admiral  and  return- 
ing home.  Columbus  preserved  his  serenity 
—  now  conciliating,  now  stern,  as  suited  the 
characters  of  those  with  whom  he  was  dealing. 

At  last,  after  many  disappointments,  and 
when  the  crews  could  scarcely  be  kept  from 
open  mutiny,  on  the  11th  of  October  there 
were  picked  up  not  only  river  weeds,  and  a 
branch  of  thorn  with  berries,  but  a  reed,  a 
small  board,  and  a  staff,  artificially  carved. 
Joy  and  hope  were  once  more  the  order  of  the 
day.  In  the  evening,  after  the  singing  of  the 
usual  vesper  hymn,  the  admiral  addressed  his 
men  in  pious  and  confident  accents.  At  ten 
at  night,  Columbus,  who  had  long  been  gazing 
anxiously  on  the  horizon  from  the  poop  of  his 
vessel,  descried  what  seemed  to  him  a  light. 
At  two  in  the  morning  a  gun  from  the  Pinta 
announced  that  land  was  seen.  The  vessels 
lay  to,  until  the  da\\-n  should  reveal  the  truth. 

There,  as  the  day  dawned,  was  disclosed  a 
level  island  —  which  proved  to  be  one  of  the 
Bahamas  —  covered  with  trees,  from  which 
the  naked  natives  were  running  astonished 
to  the  shore.     It  was  Friday,   the   12th  of 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


October,  1492,  a  date  forever  memorable  in 
the  history  of  the  world.  The  voyage  had 
lasted  seventy  days.  Here,  on  this  island, 
Columbus  solemnly  planted  the  cross,  called 
it  San  Salvador,  and  took  possession  of  it  in 
the  name  of  Spain.  Columbus  believed  then 
and  ever  afterward  that  he  liad  reached  the 
confines  of  India,  and  the  new  peoples  were 
spoken  of  as  Indians.  The  insular  regions 
then  touched  still  remain  the  West  Indies. 

Onward  from  this  point  reached  in  our  nar- 
rative, the  Ufe  of  Columbus  is  so  connected 
with  history,  general  and  special,  that  a  rapid 
summary  may  suffice  for  a  sketch  which  is 
avowedly  biographical.  Henceforth  the  biog- 
raphy of  Columbus  can  present  little  else  than 
developments  interesting,  indeed,  but  unim- 
portant, when  compared  with  the  grand  and 
primal  fact  of  the  discovery  itself.  Alas !  the 
"little  else  "is  of  a  saddening  and  tragical  kind. 

After  discovering,  among  other  islands, 
Cuba  and  Hayti  —  which  he  named  His- 
paniola  —  Columbus  erected  on  the  latter  the 
fortress  of  La  Navidad,  and  established  a 
colony.  On  the  loth  of  March,  1493,  he 
arrived  from  his  first  voyage  at  the  port  of 
Palos,  from  which  he  had  sailed  on  the  pre- 
ceding 3d  of  August.  His  reception  in  Spain 
was  magnificent;  his  triumphal  entry  into 
Barcelona  was  almost  worthy  of  the  man  and 
his  achievements.  In  September  of  the  same 
year  he  set  sail  from  Cadiz  on  a  second  expe- 
dition, with  seventeen  ships  and  fifteen  hun- 
dred men ;  but  calumnies  at  home  forced  him 
to  return  in  1496.  A  "department  of  Indian 
affairs,"  as  we  would  say,  had  been  created, 
and  at  the  head  of  it  was  placed  Juan  Rodri- 
gues  de  Fonseca,  archdeacon  of  Seville,  after- 
ward patriarch  of  the  Indies.  He  retained 
the  office  during  thirty  years,  and  was  ever 
the  jealous  and  malignant  enemy  of  Columbus. 
The  chief  discoveries  of  Columbus  during  his 
second  voyage  were  Jamaica  and  the  Caribbee 
islands.  He  was  continually  harassed  by 
disputes  and  jealousies  among  the  new  colo- 
nists—  whose  main  thought  was  the  search 
for  gold  —  and,  therefore,  he  did  not  greatly 
extend  his  first  discoveries.  He  did  not  reach 
Cadiz  until  the  11th  of  June,  1496,  and  such 
were  the  difficulties  of  the  homeward  voyage, 
that  he  and  his  crew  disembarked,  weather- 
worn and  emaciated,  and  received  but  a  cold 
reception  from  the  disappointed  and  luke- 
warm Spanish  public.  The  still-continued 
favor  of  royalty  made  some  amends  for  this 
mortification. 


The  eight  ships  which  he  requested  for  a 
third  voyage  were  verbally  coDoededf  yet 
official  intrigue  succeeded  in  deUyiog  hit 
departure  until  the  30th  of  May,  1408.  little 
more  than  six  months  had  elapeod  between 
his  return  from  his  first  voyage  and  his  depar- 
ture on  his  second  one.  Between  his  arrival 
from  his  second  voyage  and  his  departure  on 
his  third  one,  an  interval  of  nearly  a  year  was 
interposed.  During  his  third  voyage  Colum- 
bus discovered  Trinidad,  and  for  the  first  time 
touched  the  American  continent  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  the  volume  of  whose 
waters  convinced  him  that  southward  lay  a 
great  unknown  land.  True  to  his  belief  thai 
he  had  reached  Asia,  he  fancied  that  he  had 
found  at  Paria  the  abode  of  our  first  parents. 

On  reaching  Hispaniola  he  was  grieved  by 
the  spectacle  of  a  disorganized  and  disobe- 
dient colony.  His  enemies,  jealous  of  his 
honors  and  chafing  under  his  discipline, 
were  sending  home  evil  reports  of  his  adminis- 
tration, and  at  length  they  succeeded  in 
persuading  Ferdinand  to  despatch  another 
governor  to  supersede  him.  To  his  grievous 
wrong,  as  he  complained,  he  was  judged  as  a 
governor  who  had  been  sent  to  a  province 
under  regular  government  instead  of  as  a 
captain  sent  to  conquer  a  nation  numerous, 
warlike,  and  unsettled,  with  customs  and 
religions  different  from  their  own.  Wearied 
by  these  complaints,  which  were  skillfully 
aggravated  by  Fonseca,  King  Ferdinand,  in  an 
evil  hour,  despatched  Francisco  de  Bobadilla 
on  a  mission  of  inquiry,  with  authority  to 
supersede  Columbus  as  governor  of  the  new 
possessions,  if  found  desirable.  The  treat- 
ment of  the  great  navigator  by  this  person  has 
given  an  infamous  celebrity  to  his  name. 
When  he  arrived  at  Hispaniola  in  1500, 
Bobadilla  at  once  and  without  investigation 
superseded  Columbus,  seized  his  efTecta  and 
papers,  and  despatched  him  in  criminal 
fashion  to  Spain,  a  prisoner  and  in  chains. 

The  master  of  the  ship  which  bore  to  Spain 
the  illustrious  captive  offered,  with  respectful 
compassion,  to  remove  the  irons.  This 
with  characteristic  pride  Columbus  refused 
to  allow  without  the  king's  command;  and 
until  the  time  of  his  death  Columbus  kept 
the  fetters  as  memorials  in  his  chamber.  His 
arrival  under  such  circumstances  and  in  such 
a  condition  excited  the  indignation  of  the 
Spanish  people,  and  produced  a  reaction  in 
his  favor.  Ferdinand  and  IsabelU  ordered 
his  immediate  liberation,  and  provided  for  his 


834 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


dignified  progress  to  court,  where  he  was 
received  with  honor  and  graciousness.  Boba- 
dilla  was  to  be  removed  forthwith,  and  Colum- 
bus to  be  reinstated  in  his  governorship. 
But  instead  of  this  an  interim  governor,  in  the 
person  of  Nicholas  de  Ovando,  whose  subse- 
quent conduct  toward  Columbus  was  also  of 
the  basest  kind,  was  appointed  for  two  years, 
to  pave  the  way  for  the  return  of  the  great 
explorer. 

Columbus  was  advanced  in  years,  broken 
in  health,  maltreated,  betrayed,  impoverished 
—  such  was  his  exceeding  great  reward  for 
his  magnificent  discoveries.  Some  men  would 
have  lapsed  into  sullen  and  discontented 
inaction,  or  died  of  a  broken  heart.  But  he 
was  possessed  by  a  great  idea.  Still  he  would 
reach  India  by  the  west  —  India  which  Vasco 
da  Gama  five  years  before  had  reached  by 
the  passage  round  the  cape.  A  fourth  and 
last  expedition  was  organized  for  Columbus, 
but  it  was  petty  in  the  extreme,  compared  to 
that  with  which  Ovando  had  set  forth  to 
assume  the  government  of  Hispaniola.  Such 
as  it  was,  it  sailed  on  the  9th  of  May,  1502. 
The  last  of  his  voyages  was  also  the  most 
perilous. 

On  this  voyage  he  discovered  Cape 
Honduras;  and,  skirting  the  Mosquito  coast, 
he  encountered  a  terrific  storm.  The  name  of 
Cape  Gracias  k  Dios  still  survives  to  attest  the 
"  thanks  to  God "  there  offered  up  by  the 
devout  Columbus  for  his  preservation.  The 
rumored  gold  mines  of  Veragua  irradiated  him 
with  hopes  of  proximity  to  the  country  of  the 
grand  khan,  and  a  river  talked  of  by  the 
natives  he  fancied  to  be  the  Ganges.  After 
the  discovery  of  Puerto  Bello,  a  series  of  perils 
and  disasters,  greater  than  any  to  which 
Columbus  had  yet  been  exposed,  culminated 
when  he  reached  a  harbor  of  Jamaica  with  his 
ships  reduced  to  mere  wrecks.  He  ran  them 
aground  near  the  shore,  and  they  filled  with 
water  to  the  decks.  Cabins  were  erected  for 
the  accommodation  of  the  crews,  and  a  faith- 
ful coadjutor  was  despatched  to  Ovando  at 
San  Domingo. 

Then  there  came,  and  for  long  months  con- 
tinued, a  frightful  time  of  hardship  and  danger, 
which  staggered  even  the  stout  brain  and 
heart  of  a  man  hke  Columbus.  To  mutinies 
among  his  men  was  added  the  refusal  of  pro- 
visions by  the  natives.  Hard  fighting  could 
not  quell  the  mutineers,  and  they  were  at 
last  expelled  from  the  ships.  The  natives 
were   vanquished    by    Columbus'    dexterity 


and  astronomical  knowledge.  Foreseeing  an 
eclipse  of  the  moon,  he  threatened  them  with 
a  darkening  of  the  great  orb  of  night,  as  signifi- 
cant of  the  anger  of  the  divinity.  The  dark- 
ness came ;  the  terrified  natives  implored  the 
great  mariner's  intervention,  promising  in 
return  all  that  he  might  ask.  When  the 
eclipse  was  about  to  end,  he  came  forth  from 
his  cabin,  announcing  that  heaven  had 
relented;  and  as  the  moon  recovered  her 
I  brightness,  the  savages  believed  him. 

At  last  the  long  and  purposely  delayed  ships 
arrived  from  Ovando.  Columbus  and  the 
survivors  of  his  crew  reached  San  Domingo 
to  find  his  own  mild  policy  overturned,  and 
the  old  native  population  nearly  extinguished 
by  massacre.  With  heavy  heart  he  set  sail 
for  Spain,  and  on  the  7th  of  November,  1504, 
he  dropped  anchor  in  the  harbor  of  San  Lucar. 

Eighteen  months  more  and  Columbus  was 
at  last  to  enjoy  repose  —  the  repose  of  the 
grave.  Sad  and  dreary  months!  He  was 
steeped  in  poverty  —  his  just  dues  were 
denied  him.  "  I  five  by  borrowing,"  he  writes 
once.  Yet  he  was  more  solicitous  for  the 
pajinent  of  his  seamen  than  of  himself.  His 
health  was  irretrievably  gone,  and  ultimately 
rheumatism  prevented  him  from  continuing 
to  write  the  applications  for  justice  to  which 
the  coldest  replies  were  vouchsafed.  His  best 
friend,  Queen  Isabella,  died,  and  with  her 
Columbus'  hopes.  But  to  the  last  he  pre- 
served the  pride  which,  in  earlier  years,  had 
made  him  reject  the  offered  cooperation  of  the 
crown,  rather  than  abate  one  jot  of  his  just 
claims. 

From  Seville  he  dragged  himself  to  Segovia, 
where  Ferdinand  received  him  frostily.  The 
king  offered,  indeed,  to  refer  to  arbitration  all 
matters  in  dispute  between  Columbus  and  the 
crown,  but  he  insisted  on  including  in  them 
the  claim  to  reinstatement  in  his  office  of 
viceroy.  Columbus  refused.  All  mere  money 
matters  he  would  refer  to  arbitration,  but  his 
inalienable  honors  and  dignities,  never. 
Months  of  delay  ensued,  until  the  final  voyage 
was  to  be  made.  Conscious  of  his  approach- 
ing end,  Columbus  made  at  least  one  will,  of 
which  the  authenticity  is  indisputable,  and 
having  received  the  sacrament  and  performed 
the  other  oflSces  of  his  faith,  he  died  at  Valla- 
dolid  May  20,  1506. 

In  manus  tuas,  Domine,  commendo  spiritum 
meum  —  "  Into  thy  hands,  O  Lord,  I  commend 
my  spirit "  —  were  his  last  words.  To  make 
up  somewhat  for  his  injustice,  Ferdinand  gave 


COPERNICUS 

From  the  painting  by  0.  Brausevietter 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


337 


Columbus  a  pompous  funeral,  and  erected  a 
magnificent  monument  to  his  memory,  as  if 
"  Honor's  voice  "  could 

"Provoke  the  silent  dust, 
Or  flattery  soothe  the  dull  cold  ear  of  Death." 

He  was  buried  first  at  Valladolid,  whence  his 
remains  were  removed  to  the  Carthusian 
monastery  of  Las  Cuevas,  near  Seville. 

Columbus  was  tall  and  well  formed,  his 
complexion  fair  and  inclined  to  ruddy;  his 
nose  aquiline,  his  eyes  light  gray  and  apt  to 
kindle.  He  was  simple  in  his  dress  and  mode 
of  living.  His  sharp  temper  was  kept  well 
under  control.  He  was  eloquent  when  the 
discoxu-se  ran  on  high  topics,  affable  and  fas- 
cinating in  ordinary  intercourse,  and  his 
domestic  amiability  was  as  charming  as  his 
public  demeanor  was  elevated  and  dignified. 
His  devoutness  was  of  an  enthusiastic  kind, 
and  he  was  noted  for  his  strict  attention  to  the 
©flBces  of  religion. 

"To  his  intellectual  vision,"  says  Washing- 
ton Irving,  "  it  was  given  to  read  in  the  signs 
of  the  times,  and  in  the  reveries  of  past  ages, 
the  indications  of  an  unknown  world,  as 
soothsayers  were  said  to  read  predictions  in 
the  stars,  and  to  foretell  events  from  the 
visions  of  the  night.  'His  soul,'  observes  a 
Spanish  writer,  'was  superior  to  the  age  in 
which  he  Hved.     For  him  was  reserved  the 


great  enterprise  to  plough  a  sea  iHiicfa  had 
given  rise  to  so  many  fablm,  and  to  d^wiphw 
the  mystery  of  his  time.'  With  all  the  TiaoD- 
ary  fervor  of  his  imagination,  ita  fondest 
dreams  fell  short  of  the  reality.  He.  died  in 
ignorance  of  the  real  grandeur  of  his  discovery. 
Until  his  last  breath,  he  entertained  the  idea 
that  he  had  merely  opened  a  new  way  to  the 
old  resorts  of  opulent  commerce,  and  had  dia> 
covered  some  of  the  wild  regions  of  the  East. 
He  supposed  Hispaniola  to  be  the  ancient 
Ophir,  which  had  been  visited  by  the  ships  of 
Solomon,  and  that  Cuba  and  Terra  Firma  were 
but  remote  parts  of  Asia.  What  visions  of 
glory  would  have  broken  upon  his  mind,  could 
he  have  known  that  he  had,  indeed,  discov- 
ered a  new  continent,  equal  to  the  whole  of 
the  old  world  in  magnitude,  and  separated 
by  two  vast  oceans  from  all  the  earth  hitherto 
known  by  civilized  man  1  And  how  would  his 
magnanimous  spirit  have  been  consoled, 
amidst  the  chills  of  age  and  the  cares  of 
penury,  the  neglect  of  a  fickle  public,  and  the 
injustice  of  an  ungrateful  king,  could  he  have 
anticipated  the  splendid  empires  which  were 
to  spread  over  the  beautiful  world  he  had  dis- 
covered, and  the  nations  and  tongues  and 
languages  which  were  to  fill  its  lands  with  his 
renown,  and  to  revere  and  bless  his  name  to 
the  latest  posterity  1 " 


COPERNICUS 


A.  J5.  AGE 

1473         Bom  at  Thorn,  Prussia, 

1491  Entered  the  university  at  Cracow,  .      18 
1496-1500  Studied  at  Bologna,  Italy,     .    .    23-27 

1500  Lecturer  on  astronomy  at  Rome,     .     27 

1501  Studied  at  Padua 28 

1503  Received  doctorate  at  Ferrara,     .    .     30 


1 530  Completed  De  Revolvtionibua  Othium 
Caleatium,  "The  Revolution  of 
the  Celestial  Orbs," *7 

1543  Publication  of  his  great  work ;   died 

at  Frauenburg,  Prussia 70 


"^ICOLAS  COPERNICUS,  or 
^^  KoppERNiGK,  celebrated  mathematician, 
and  the  founder  of  modern  astronomy,  was 
bom  at  Thorn,  Prussia,  then  a  part  of  Poland, 
February  19,  1473.  Notwithstanding  the 
celebrity  of  the  system  —  the  Copemican  — 
which  still  bears  his  name,  the  materials  are 
very  scanty  regarding  his  life  and  character. 
His  father,  whose  name  was  also  Nicolas, 
was  a  surgeon,  and,  it  is  believed,  of  German 
extraction.  That  the  elder  Koppernigk  was 
not  a  native  of  Thorn,  or  of  Poland,  even, 
appears  from  the  fact  that  he  was  naturalized 
in  1462.  He  there  married  Barbara,  of  thej 
noble  Polish  family  of  Watzehrode,  one  ofj 


whose  brothers  attained  the  high  dignity  of 
bishop  of  Ermeland  in  the  year  1489.  Through 
the  prospects  of  advancement  which  this 
connection  held  out  to  young  Koppernigk, 
his  father  was  probably  induced  to  destine 
him  for  the  ecclesiastical  profession. 

Copernicus  first  acquired  at  home  the  ele- 
ments of  a  liberal  education,  and,  in  1491, 
entered  the  university  at  Cracow,  where  he 
remained  until  he  received  the  diploma  of 
doctor  in  arts  and  medicine.  He  is  said  to 
have  gained  considerable  proficiency  in  the 
latter  branch  of  study ;  and  he  possessed,  even 
in  more  advanced  life,  so  high  a  reputation 
for  skill  and  knowledjge,  as  to  produce  an 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


erroneoiis  belief  that  he  had  once  followed 
the  practice  of  medicine. 

Copernicus  also  exhibited  at  an  early  age 
a  very  decided  taste  for  mathematical  studies, 
especially  for  astronomy;  and  attended  the 
lectures,  both  public  and  private,  of  Albert 
Brudzewski,  then  mathematical  professor  at 
Cracow.  Under  the  latter,  Copernicus,  as  we 
shall  hereafter  call  him,  became  acquainted 
with  the  works  of  the  astronomer,  John 
Miiller  —  now  more  commonly  known  by  his 
assumed  appellation  of  Regiomontanus  — 
and  the  reputation  of  this  celebrated  man  is 
said  to  have  exercised  a  marked  influence  in 
deciding  the  bent  of  his  future  studies.  A 
journey  into  Italy,  which  Copernicus  under- 
took about  the  year  1496,  also  added  to  his 
zeal  in  this  direction.  One  of  his  brothers 
and  his  maternal  imcle  were  already  settled 
in  Rome,  and  this  was  the  destination,  there- 
fore, to  which  his  steps  eventually  tended. 

He  quitted  home  in  his  twenty-fourth  year, 
when  his  diligence  in  cultivating  the  practical 
part  of  astronomy  had  already  procured  for 
him  some  reputation  as  a  skillful  observer. 
It  seems  to  have  been  in  contemplation  of 
this  journey,  too,  that  he  began  to  study 
painting,  in  which  he  afterward  became 
tolerably  proficient.  He  first  settled  for  a 
time  at  Bologna,  where  he  was  drawn  by  the 
reputation  of  the  astronomical  professor, 
Dominic  Maria  Novarra.  Copcrniciis  was  not 
more  delighted  with  this  able  instructor  than 
Novarra  with  his  intelligent  pupil.  He  soon 
became  an  assistant  and  companion  of 
Novarra  in  his  observations,  and  in  this 
capacity  acquired  considerable  distinction,  so 
that  on  his  departure  from  Bologna  and 
arrival  at  Rome,  in  1500,  he  found  that  his 
reputation  had  preceded  him.  At  Rome  he 
was  appointed  to  a  professorship  of  mathe- 
matics, lectured  on  astronomy,  and  observed 
an  eclipse  of  the  moon.  In  1501  he  con- 
tinued his  studies  at  Padua,  and  in  1503  he 
was  made  doctor  of  canon  law  by  the  univer- 
sity at  Ferrara. 

It  does  not  appear  at  what  time  Copernicus 
entered  into  holy  orders:  probably  it  may 
have  been  during  his  residence  at  Rome ;  for 
on  his  return  home  in  1505  he  was  made 
superintendent  of  the  principal  church  in  his 
native  city.  Thorn.  In  the  year  1497  his 
uncle,  Luke  Watzelrode,  who  in  1489  succeeded 
Nicolas  von  Thimgen  in  the  bishopric  of  Erme- 
land,  had  enrolled  him  as  one  of  the  canons  of 
his  chapter.    The  cathedral  church  of  the  dio- 


cese of  Ermeland  is  situated  at  Frauenburg,  a 
small  town  built  near  one  of  the  mouths  of 
the  Vistula,  on  the  shore  of  the  lake  called 
Frisches  Haff,  separated  only  by  a  narrow 
strip  of  land  from  the  gulf  of  Dantzig.  In 
this  situation,  rendered  unfavorable  to  astro- 
nomical observations  by  the  frequent  marshy 
exhalations  rising  from  the  river  and  lake, 
Copernicus  took  up  his  future  abode,  and 
made  it  the  principal  place  of  his  residence 
during  the  remainder  of  his  hfe.  Here  those 
astronomical  speculations  were  renewed  and 
perfected,  the  results  of  which  have  forever 
consigned  to  oblivion  the  subtle  contrivances 
invented  by  his  predecessors  to  account  for 
the  anomalies  of  their  own  complicated 
theories. 

We  should  form  a  very  erroneous  opinion 
of  the  life  and  character  of  Copernicus,  how- 
ever, if  we  considered  him,  as  he  sometimes 
is  considered,  the  quiet  inhabitant  of  a 
cloister,  immersed  solely  in  speculative  in- 
quiries. His  disposition  did  not  unfit  him 
for  taking  an  active  share  in  the  stirring 
events  which  were  occurring  around  him,  and 
it  was  not  left  entirely  to  his  choice  whether 
he  would  remain  a  mere  speculator  of  them. 

The  chapter  of  Ermeland,  at  the  time  when 
he  became  a  member  of  it,  was  the  center  of  a 
violent  pohtical  struggle,  in  the  decision  of 
which  Copernicus  himself  was  called  on  to  act 
a  considerable  part.  In  the  latter  half  of  the 
fifteenth  century  a  bitter  war  was  carried  on 
between  the  king  of  Poland  and  a  military- 
religious  fraternity,  called  the  Teutonic  or 
German  knights  of  St.  Mary  of  Jerusalem, 
who  were  incorporated  toward  the  end  of  the 
twelfth  century.  Having  first  been  invited 
temporarily  into  Prussia,  they  finally  estab- 
lished themselves  permanently  in  that  coun- 
try, built  Thorn  and  several  other  cities,  and 
gradually  acquired  a  considerable  share  of 
independent  power. 

On  the  death  of  Paul  von  Sengedorf,  bishop 
of  Ermeland,  Casimir,  king  of  Poland,  in 
pursuance  of  a  design  which  he  was  then 
prosecuting,  to  get  into  his  own  hands  the 
nomination  of  all  the  bishoprics  in  his 
dominions,  appointed  his  secretary,  Stanislas 
Opporowski,  to  the  vacant  see.  The  chapter 
of  Ermeland  proceeded,  notwithstanding,  to 
a  separate  nomination,  and  elected  Nicolas 
von  Thvmgen.  Opporowski,  supported  by 
Casimir,  entered  Enneland  at  the  head  of 
a  powerful  army.  From  this  period  the 
new   bishop  of    Ermeland  necessarily  made 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


common  cause  with  the  German  knights; 
they  renounced  their  allegiance  to  the  crown 
of  Poland,  and  threw  themselves  on  the 
protection  of  Matthias,  king  of  Hungary. 

At  length,  Casimir,  finding  himself  unable 
to  master  the  confederacy,  separated  Nicolas 
von  Thungen  from  it,  by  agreeing  to  recognize 
him  as  prince  bishop  of  Ermeland,  on  the 
usual  condition  of  homage.  Nicolas  thus 
became  conformed  in  his  dignity,  but  his 
unhappy  subjects  did  not  fare  better  on  that 
account,  the  country  being  now  exposed  to 
the  fury  of  the  German  knights,  as  it  had  suf- 
fered before  from  the  violence  of  the  Polish 
soldiery.  These  disturbances  were  continued 
during  the  life  of  Luke  Watzelrode,  and  the 
city  of  Frauenburg,  as  well  as  its  neighbor 
Braimsberg,  frequently  became  the  theater 
of  warlike  operations. 

The  management  of  the  see  was  often  com- 
mitted to  the  care  of  Copernicus  during  the 
absence  of  his  uncle,  who  on  political  grounds 
resided  for  the  most  part  at  the  court ;  and 
his  activity  in  maintaining  the  rights  of  the 
chapter  rendered  him  especially  obnoxious  to 
the  Teutonic  order.  In  one  of  the  short 
intervals  of  tranquillity  they  took  occasion  to 
cite  him  before  the  meeting  of  the  states  at 
Posen,  on  account  of  some  of  his  reports  to 
his  vmcle  concerning  their  encroachments. 
Gassendi,  who  mentions  this  circumstance, 
merely  adds  that  at  length  his  work  and  his 
uncle's  merit  secured  the  latter  in  the  posses- 
sion of  his  dignity.  In  1512  Watzelrode 
died,  and  Copernicus  was  chosen  adminis- 
trator of  the  see  until  the  appointment  of  the 
new  bishop,  Fabian  von  Losingen.  In  1518 
the  knights  under  their  grand  master,  Albert 
of  Brandenburg,  took  possession  of  Frauen- 
burg and  burned  it. 

During  the  following  year  hostilities  con- 
tinued in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of 
Frauenburg,  but  in  the  course  of  that  simimer 
negotiations  for  peace  between  the  Teutonic 
order  and  the  king  of  Poland  were  begun, 
through  the  mediation  of  the  bishop.  At  last 
a  truce  was  agreed  upon  for  four  years,  during 
which  Fabian  von  Losingen  died,  and  Coper- 
nicus was  again  chosen  administrator  of  the 
bishopric.  In  1525  peace  was  concluded 
with  the  Teutonic  knights,  Albert  having 
consented  to  receive  Prussia  as  a  temporal 
fief  from  the  king  of  Poland.  It  was  probably 
on  this  occasion  that  Copernicus  was  selected 
to  represent  the  chapter  of  Ermeland  at  the 
diet  of  Graudenz,  where  the  terms  of  peace 


were  finally  settled ;  and  by  his  firmiien  the 
chapter  recovered  a  great  part  of  the  po«w 
sions  which  had  been  endangered  during  the 

war. 

This  service  to  his  chapter  was  followed  by 
another  of  a  more  strictly  political  nature. 
During  the  struggle  which  had  continued  with 
little  interruption  for  more  than  half  a  century, 
the  currency  had  become  greatly  debased  anid 
depreciated ;  and  one  of  the  most  important 
subjects  of  deliberation  at  the  meeting  at 
Graudenz  related  to  the  best  method  of 
restoring  it.  There  was  a  great  diflerencc  of 
opinion  whether  the  intended  n  w  coinage 
should  be  struck  according  to  the  old  value  of 
the  currency,  or  according  to  the  depreciated 
value.  To  assist  in  the  settlement  of  this 
important  question,  Copernicus  drew  up  a 
table  of  the  relative  value  of  the  coins,  then 
in  circulation  throughout  the  country.  This 
he  presented  to  the  states,  accompanied  by  a 
report  on  the  subject  of  great  practical  value. 
Throughout  the  whole  troublesome  period  of 
which  we  have  just  given  an  outline,  Coper- 
nicus seems,  indeed,  to  have  displayed  much 
political  courage  and  talent,  entirely  aside 
from  his  scientific  endowments.  When  tran- 
quillity was  at  length  restored,  he  resumed  the 
astronomical  studies  which  had  been  thus 
interrupted  by  more  active  duties. 

There  appears  to  be  little  doubt  that  the 
philosopher  began  to  meditate  on  the  ideas 
which  led  him  to  the  theory  of  the  solar  system 
set  forth  in  his  book  —  De  Revolulionibus 
Orbium  Ccelestium  —  at  least  as  early  as  1507. 
The  publication  of  this  book,  however,  he 
delayed  for  many  years.  During  the  greater 
part  of  that  time  he  was  employed  in  collect- 
ing, by  careful  observation,  the  materials  of 
which  it  is  constructed  and  the  opinions  on 
which  it  is  based,  comprising  the  whole  of  what 
was  afterward  declared  by  him  long  before 
the  work  itself  appeared.  He  delayed  to  an- 
nounce them  formally,  until  he  was  able  at  the 
same  time  to  show  that  they  were  not  random 
guesses,  taken  up  from  a  mere  affectation  of 
novelty ;  but  that  with  their  assistance  he  had 
compiled  tables  of  the  planetary  motions, 
which  were  immediately  acknowledged,  even 
by  those  whose  minds  revolted  most  against 
the  means  by  which  they  were  obtained,  to  be 
far  more  correct  than  any  which  until  then  had 
appeared. 

Copernicus  seems  to  have  practicaDy  com- 
pleted this  work  about  1530,  but  it  was  not 
until  the  year  of  his  death  that  he  could  be 


340 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


persuaded  to  give  his  book  to  the  world  by  his 
friends,  who  urged  its  publication  out  of 
regard  at  once  to  his  fame  and  the  interests  of 
science.  Perhaps  the  strongest  motive  for  his 
reticence  was  the  fear  of  the  unpopularity 
which  the  work  threatened  to  bring  him. 
Many,  who  had  heard  of  the  views  it  ad- 
vocated, doubted  if  these  were  in  harmony 
with  religion.  But  it  is  quite  certain  that  his 
desire  to  conciliate  the  church  led  him  to 
dedicate  his  book,  when  it  was  published,  to 
Pope  Paul  III. 

The  first  copy  of  this  Ufe  work  reached 
Copernicus  when  he  was  no  longer  able  to 
enjoy  the  triumph.  An  attack  of  dysentery, 
followed  by  paralysis  of  the  right  side,  had 
destroyed  his  memory  and  obscured  his  under- 
standing. In  this  state  he  lingered  several 
days.  The  copy,  it  is  said,  arrived  just  a  few 
hours  before  he  died.  It  was  placed  in  his 
hands,  and  he  seemed  to  know  it  1  He  died 
May  24,  1543,  aged  seventy  years,  a  century 
before  the  birth  of  Newton. 

He  was  buried  in  the  cemetery  of  the 
chapter  of  Ermeland,  and  only  a  plain  marble 
slab  inscribed  with  his  name  for  a  long  time 
marked  the  place  of  his  interment.  Until 
this  was  rediscovered  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  an  opinion  prevailed  that 
his  remains  had  been  transported  to  Thorn, 
and  buried  in  the  church  of  St.  John.  A  colos- 
sal statue  of  him,  executed  by  Thorwaldsen, 
was  erected  at  Warsaw  in  1830,  with  all  the 
demonstrations  of  honor  due  to  the  memory 
of  a  man  who  holds  so  distinguished  a  place  in 
the  history  of  human  discoveries. 

From  the  little  that  is  known  of  the  private 
character  of  Copernicus,  his  morals  appear  to 
have  been  most  exemplary,  his  temper  good, 
his  disposition  kind,  but  inclining  to  serious- 
ness. He  was  so  highly  esteemed  in  his 
neighborhood  that  the  attempt  of  a  dramatic 
author  to  satirize  him  by  introducing  his 
doctrine  of  the  earth's  motion  upon  the  stage 
at  Elbing  was  received  by  the  audience  with 
the  greatest  indignation.  The  house  at  Thorn, 
in  which  he  is  said  to  have  been  bom,  as  well 
as  that  at  Frauenburg,  in  which  he  passed  the 
greater  part  of  his  life,  for  centuries  after  his 
death  were  objects  of  veneration.  A  hydrau- 
lic machine  for  supplying  the  houses  of  the 
canons  with  water,  and  another  of  similar 
construction  at  Graudenz,  which  long  con- 
tinued in  use,  were  said  to  have  been  con- 
structed by  him. 

In  the  year  1584,  Tycho  Brahe,  the  cele- 


brated Swedish  astronomer,  commissioned 
Elia  Olai  to  visit  Frauenburg  for  the  purpose 
of  more  accurately  determining  the  latitude 
of  Copernicus'  observatory,  and  on  that 
occasion  received  as  a  present  from  the 
chapter  the  Ptolemaic  scales,  made  by  the 
astronomer  himself,  which  he  used  in  his 
observatory,  and  also  a  portrait  of  him  said  to 
have  been  painted  by  his  own  hand.  Tycho 
placed  these  memorials,  with  great  honor,  in 
his  own  observatory,  but  it  is  not  known  what 
became  of  them  after  his  death  and  the  dis- 
persion of  his  instruments. 

Besides  "The  Revolution  of  the  Celestial 
Orbs,"  Copernicus  also  wTote  a  treatise  on 
trigonometry,  and  several  other  minor  works. 
But  that  upon  which  his  fame  rests,  is  this 
principal  work.  It  must  be  observed,  how- 
ever, that  the  phrase  "Copernican  system" 
suggests  that  our  debt  to  Copernicus  is  really 
greater  than  his  work  warrants.  For  it  was 
not  until  Kepler,  Galileo,  Newton,  and  others 
had  supplemented  it  that  the  system,  in  its 
present  form,  could  be  said  to  be  finally  estab- 
lished. Almost  everyone  who  has  heard  the 
name  of  Copernicus  mentioned,  is  aware  that 
before  him  the  general  belief  was  that  the 
earth  occupies  the  center  of  the  imiverse; 
that  the  changes  of  day  and  night  are  pro- 
duced by  the  rapid  revolution  of  the  heavens, 
such  as  our  senses  erroneously  lead  us  to 
believe,  until  more  accurate  and  complicated 
observation  teaches  us  the  contrary ;  that  the 
change  of  seasons  and  apparent  motions  of  the 
planetary  bodies  are  caused  by  the  revolution 
of  the  sun  and  planets  from  west  to  east  round 
the  earth,  in  orbits  of  various  complexity, 
subject  to  the  conunon  daily  motion  of  all 
from  east  to  west. 

The  Copernican  system  of  to-day  represents 
the  sun  to  be  at  rest  in  the  center  of  the  solar 
system,  and  the  earth  and  planets  to  move 
round  it  in  elliptical  orbits.  The  actual  con- 
tribution of  Copernicus  to  it  will  appear  from 
a  brief  consideration  of  his  book.  The  char- 
acter of  the  reasoning  which  then  passed  for 
demonstration  must  be  borne  in  mind  in 
judging  of  the  author's  procedure  in  estab- 
lishing his  various  positions.  It  was  then 
thought  a  suflBcient  demonstration  of  a 
phenomenon  to  make  a  supposition,  on 
which  its  occurrence  would  be  intelligible, 
without  attempting  to  bring  the  supposition 
itself,  by  an  induction  of  facts,  within  the 
truth  of  nature ;  many  abstract  propositions, 
too,  which  would  not  appear  to  be  simply 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


841 


silly,  were  at  that  time  universally  admitted  to 
be  of  great  weight  in  scientific  arguments. 

Illustrations  of  both  of  these  peculiarities 
may  be  gleaned  from  the  first  of  the  six  books 
of  De  Revoluiionibus.  It  contains  the  follow- 
ing propositions:  (1)  That  the  universe  is 
spherical.  This  is  established  by  such  argu- 
ments as  that  the  sphere  is  the  most  perfect 
figure,  etc.  (2)  That  the  earth  is  spherical, 
which  flows  from  the  same  kind  of  considera- 
tions. (3)  That  the  earth  and  the  sea  make 
one  globe.  (4)  That  the  motions  of  all  the 
heavenly  bodies  mustbe  uniform  and  circular  or 
compounded  of  uniform  and  circular  motions. 
Here,  again,  we  meet  with  singular  reasons. 
A  simple  body  must  move  circularly,  and 
nothing  but  circular  motion  could  give  peri- 
odicity to  phenomena.  (5)  That,  supposing 
the  distance  of  the  stars  to  be  immense,  there 
is  no  reason  why  the  earth  should  not  have 
a  motion  round  its  axis  as  well  as  a  motion  in 
its  orbit.  (6)  That  the  sphere  of  the  stars  is 
immensely  distant.  The  proof  is  fanciful, 
and  shows  he  had  no  notion  of  a  universe  of 
stars  pervading  space.  (7)  and  (8)  The 
ancients  were  wrong  in  placing  the  earth  at 
the  center  of  the  universe.  The  arguments 
under  this  head  are  as  imaginary  as  those 
which  they  were  designed  to  refute.  The 
falling  of  a  body  to  the  earth  he  deduces  from 
the  assumption  that  it  is  only  given  to  wholes 
to  move  circularly,  while  it  is  of  the  nature  of 
parts,  separated  from  their  wholes,  to  move 
in  right  lines.  That  there  must  be  a  centrum 
mundi,  an  entity  unknown  to  modem  science, 
is  admitted,  the  question  being  as  to  its  posi- 
tion. (9)  It  is  possible  for  the  earth  to  have 
several  motions.  (10)  He  establishes  the 
order  of  the  planets,  and  draws  a  diagram  of 
the  system  much  as  it  is  now  represented.  It 
may  be  observed  that,  following  the  old  sys- 
tems, such  as  the  Ptolemaic,  he  lays  down  a 
sphere  for  the  fixed  stars.  It  is  clear,  also, 
that  he  had  no  idea  of  the  motions  of  planets 
other  than  that  they  were  such  as  would  be 
caused  by  their  being  fixed  in  immense  crystal 
spheres  revolving  round  the  sun. 

The  most  brilliant  and  valuable  part  of  the 
De  Revolvdionihus  is  that  in  which  he  ex- 
plained, for  the  first  time,  the  variations  of 
the  seasons,  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes, 
and  the  stations  and  retrogradations  of  the 
planets.  In  general,  his  explanations  are 
right  and  perfect  as  to  the  general  nature  of 
the  causes  of  the  phenomena.  But  Coper- 
nicus had  neither  mathematical  nor  mechani- 


cal knowledge  sufficient  to  enable  him  to 
explain  more  than  the  mean  mottOM  of  the 
solar  system.  To  account  for  irregularitiee, 
he  was  obliged  to  introduce  a  lystein  of 
epicycles  entirely  resembling  that  of  Ptolemy. 

This  arose  from  the  false  notion  of  his 
times,  that  all  motions  must  be  compounded 
of  circular  ones,  with  the  application  of  which 
idea,  and  with  the  invention  of  convenient 
epicycles,  the  greater  part  of  the  De  Revolu- 
iionibus is  occupied.  It  may  further  be  added 
that  Copernicus  had  no  ans^iv-er  to  offer  to  the 
mechanical  objections  to  his  system.  Most 
of  them,  indeed,  were  such  as  could  not  poe- 
sibly  be  met  in  the  state  of  mechanical  knowl- 
edge at  the  time.  One  of  the  commonest  was 
that  against  the  axial  motion  of  the  earth: 
that  it  was  inconsistent  with  the  fact  of  bodies 
falling  to  the  points  of  the  earth  directly 
beneath  the  points  from  which  they  are 
dropped.  For  this  he  had  no  ansiR-cr,  nor 
could  he  have,  the  laws  of  motion  not  yet 
being  discovered.  Such  being  the  state  of  the 
case,  the  reader  w^ill  consider  whether,  when 
Copernicus  wrote  that  he  held  the  doctrine  of 
the  earth's  motion  as  a  mere  hypothesis,  and 
not  as  absolutely  in  fact  true,  it  is  more  likely 
that  he  made  a  concession  to  the  religious  prej- 
udices of  his  times,  or  to  difficulties  surround- 
ing his  hypothesis,  which  he  could  well 
appreciate  though  not  overcome. 

Copernicus  came  into  the  world  at  that 
period  of  revival  when  the  human  mind 
seemed  suddenly  to  wake  up  after  a  sleep  of 
ages.  That  sleep,  however,  had  been  appar- 
ent and  not  real,  for  all  the  great  problems 
then  so  eagerly  canvassed  were  not  few. 
More  than  once  they  had  been  put  forward 
by  bold  thinkers  whose  utterances  were  soon 
stifled  by  the  dominant  authority,  or  failed 
to  find  an  echo  among  their  contemporaries. 

As  a  general  rule  it  may  be  safely  nuun- 
tained  that  every  revolution  openly  accepted 
has  been  previously  accepted  in  men's  minds. 
Thus  a  long  time  prior  to  the  discovery  of 
America  the  probable  existence  of  a  fourth 
part  of  the  world  had  been  spoken  of,  and 
Copernicus  himself  was  well  aware  that  he  was 
not  the  first  to  make  the  earth  move  round 
the  sun.  But  extraordinary  perseverance 
was  required  in  order  to  gain  a  hearing  for  his 
theory;  and  in  this  respect  the  recent  dis- 
covery of  the  new  world  was  a  great  help  to  a 
revolutionary  astronomer.  There  was  now 
no  obstacle  to  the  earth's  circulating  in  spaee, 
since  it  had  been  demonstrated  that  it  forms. 


842 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


with  the  ocean,  one  single  globe;  that  it  is 
not  immoderately  large,  and  that  there  may 
really  exist  underneath  us  inhabitants  whose 
feet  are  opposed  to  our  own. 

Yet  to  no  man  is  granted  the  power  of 
discovering  all  truths  at  once.  Copernicus 
continued  to  deceive  himself,  in  common  with 
the  ancients,  in  reference  to  the  movements 
of  the  planets,  and  he  made  a  great  error  in 
his  theory  of  what  he  called  the  "  third  move- 
ment of  the  earth."  In  spite  of  these  mis- 
takes and  shortcomings,  Copernicus  is  the 
father  of  those  men  of  genius  who  have 


created  modem  astronomical  science ;  and  the 
name  of  the  canon  of  Frauenburg  will  be  ever 
memorable,  because,  to  cite  his  own  stately 
language,  he  placed  "  the  light  of  the  world  — 
the  orb  which  governs  the  planets  in  their 
circulation  —  upon  a  royal  throne,  in  the 
midst  of  the  temple  of  nature."  Kepler  and 
Newton  penetrated  much  more  deeply  into 
the  mysteries  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  but  it 
was  Copernicus  who  gave  them  the  key ;  and 
even  at  the  present  day,  after  their  immortal 
labors,  the  true  explanation  of  the  universe  is 
rightly  called  the  Copemican  system. 


PALISSY 

A.  D.  AQE  A.  D.  AOB 

1510     Bom  at  La  Chapelle  Biron,  France,    .      . .  1540  Embraced  Protestantism, 36 

1528     Began  his  travels  in  France  and  Ger-  1555  Enamel  experiments  successful,    ...  45 

many, 18  1575  Public  lecturer  in  Paris, 65 

1639     Married;   settletl  at  Saintes,  France,   .      29  1580  "Discourses on  Waters  and  Fountains,"  70 

1543     Appointed  to  survey  the  marslies  of  1588  Imprisoned  in  the  Bastille,  Paris,    .    .  78 

SaiHtonge, 33  1589  Died  in  the  Bastille, 79 


"DERNARD  DE  PALISSY,  potter  and 
■*-^  naturalist,  famous  as  the  discoverer  of 
china  enamel,  was  born  at  La  Chapelle  Biron, 
in  the  province  of  P^rigord,  France,  about 
1510.  His  father  was  a  tile  maker,  or  worker 
in  clay,  and  in  his  early  youth  Palissy  kneaded 
marl  and  burned  tile  at  his  father's  kiln. 
Later  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  glass  stainer  at 
Agen,  and  made  rapid  progress. 

To  render  himself  better  fitted  for  the  art 
which  he  had  adopted,  he  spent  the  hours  of 
the  night,  and  what  money  he  could  spare 
from  his  wages,  to  obtain  all  the  scientific 
knowledge  and  manual  skill  relating  to  his 
craft.  His  mind,  both  ardent  and  persever- 
ing, became  trained  as  well  as  his  hand.  He 
soon  acquired  geometry,  drawing,  painting, 
and  the  elementary  part  of  sculpture.  The 
search  for  subjects  for  design  also  led  him  to 
study  sacred  and  profane  literature,  as  he 
turned  over  the  pages  of  books  to  find  scenes, 
descriptions,  and  allegories.  While  studying 
a  single  business,  with  the  view  of  extending 
his  knowledge  to  its  utmost  limits,  he  learned 
a  little  of  everything.  He  thus,  unwittingly, 
laid  the  foundation  for  the  man  of  letters, 
poet,  theologian,  philosopher,  and  politician, 
which  he  became  in  later  years. 

The  art-glass  craft  at  that  time  ranked 
almost  on  the  same  plane  as  that  of  the  nobil- 
ity itself  because  of  the  technique  and  dignified 


form  of  art  it  implied.  It  included  not  only 
the  melting  of  glass,  but  the  geometrical  and 
artistic  shaping  of  it  to  cathedral  or  chapel 
windows,  and  its  decoration  with  landscapes, 
animals,  figures,  and  the  mysteries  of  religious 
symbolism.  In  the  language  of  Lamartine, 
"The  glass  windows  were  a  poetical  lesson- 
book  for  the  people  that  frequented  the 
churches.  They  brought  home  to  the  minds 
of  the  peasantry  the  creation  of  the  world, 
the  delights  of  the  terrestrial  paradise,  with 
its  rivers,  trees,  lions,  lambs,  and  birds,  the 
companions  of  men ;  the  miracles  of  revealed 
religion,  the  sufferings  of  the  crucifixion,  the 
martyrdoms  in  the  circus,  the  resurrection 
and  the  assumption  of  the  victims  of  the  new 
faith  —  then  the  heavens  open,  with  the 
Father  eternal,  the  Son,  the  Word,  and  the 
mercy  of  God,  and  the  Holy  Spirit  under  the 
form  of  a  dove  fl)nng  from  the  one  to  the 
other,  to  denote  the  \mity  of  the  Trinity,  and 
giving  forth  rays  from  its  glowing  breast,  to 
spread  everywhere  light  and  love.  Lastly, 
the  souls  of  the  blessed,  represented  by  num- 
berless winged  faces,  scattered  about  like  the 
stars  in  the  sky,  and  rejoicing  in  the  divine 
radiance  in  the  dwelling  of  the  Father." 
:  "It  is  characteristic  of  real  genius,"  con- 
tinued this  same  writer,  "  always  to  aspire  to 
universality.  The  hmits,  indeed,  which  are 
said  to  separate  one  science  from  another  are 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


848 


simply  the  limits  of  our  knowledge.  Genius 
always  overleaps  them  to  reach  the  infinite, 
the  true  field  of  human  thought.  In  the 
infinite,  all  things  are  united  completely  and 
harmoniously  into  one  great  whole.  The 
universe  is  but  infinite  art,  which  sketches, 
carves,  draws,  paints,  writes,  and  sings  the 
revelation  of  the  beautiful,  which  is  God. 
Thus  it  was  understood  by  Palissy." 

His  contact  with  geometry  and  designing, 
as  well  as  his  love  of  outdoor  life,  led  Palissy 
also  to  study  surveying,  and,  in  an  elementary 
way,  topographical  engineering.  When  he 
had  acquired  considerable  proficiency  in  these 
various  arts,  he  set  out  to  make  the  tour  of 
France  —  which  was  the  custom  among 
artisans  of  that  time  —  living  by  the  products 
of  his  two  trades  of  glass  painting  and  survey- 
ing. Between  1528  and  1530  he  first  worked 
his  way  from  town  to  town  until  he  reached 
Tarbes,  built  on  a  table-land  facing  the 
Pyrenees,  and  in  which  glass  painting  then 
flourished.  Soon,  attracted  by  the  pictur- 
esque scenes  which  were  spread  before  his 
eyes,  he  felt  himself  a  painter,  at  the  sight  of 
this  picture  of  nature,  and  left  for  a  time  his 
glass  and  clay  to  wander  among  the  gorges 
and  cliffs  of  the  mountains,  in  which  the 
Divine  Artist  seems  to  have  sported  with 
peaks  and  ravines  amid  the  grandest  and  most 
beautiful  scenes  of  nature.  If  Bernard  de 
Palissy  was  a  mere  workman  when  he  entered 
the  labyrinth  of  the  Pyrenees,  he  left  it  a 
painter  and  a  poet. 

His  wanderings  over  the  Alps  and  the 
Pyrenees,  and  the  great  interest  he  took  in  the 
various  qualities  of  the  earths,  rocks,  sands, 
and  waters,  on  account  of  the  relation  they 
bore  to  his  business,  had  made  him  a  natur- 
alist, also.  He  employed  his  leisure  hours  in 
wandering  over  the  woods  and  meadows ;  in 
searching  the  beds  of  springs ;  in  catching  the 
reptiles,  beetles,  and  insects  which  inhabit  the 
marsh  among  the  rushes  and  tall  water  plants ; 
in  climbing  the  mountains,  and  finding  his 
way  to  the  precipitous  ravines  and  deep 
caverns.  The  vast  view  within  the  distant 
horizon  of  the  mountain-top,  the  varying  hues 
of  the  sky,  the  changes  of  the  leaf  and  of  the 
greensward  of  the  meadows,  made  a  pleasing 
and  a  lasting  impression  on  his  sight,  hereafter 
to  be  reproduced  under  his  hand.  To  the  soli- 
tary child  of  genius,  nature  was  both  a  teacher 
and  a  store.  He  reveled  in  the  ecstasy,  the 
truth,  and  the  simplicity  of  his  feelings ;  and  | 
the  want  of  an  interpreter  in  these  conversa- 1 


tions  between  Palissy  and  nature  afterwaid 
gave  rise  to  a  new  art. 

He  married  about  1530  and  settled  per- 
manently at  Saintcs.  His  trade  of  gUas 
painter  gave  him  but  a  pittance.  He  was 
restless  and  constantly  experimenting.  It 
was  necessary-  to  provide  for  a  rapidly  ex- 
panding family,  and  in  1543  he  temporarily 
turned  to  the  surveying  of  land  in  the  Sain- 
tonge,  under  the  officers  of  the  revenue,  who 
came  in  the  king's  name  to  mark  out  and 
measure  estates  for  the  land  tax.  This  work 
did  not  take  him  away  from  the  constant 
object  of  his  study  —  the  earth.  While  sur- 
veying, he  tried  the  clay,  felt  the  sand, 
crushed  the  stones,  and  thought  upon  the 
mixtures  and  combinations  of  ingredienta 
most  likely  to  lead  to  those  fortuitous  dis- 
coveries of  material,  ground,  color,  and  glaac, 
which  had  been  the  object  of  his  thoughts 
from  the  day  when  he  first  handled  a  trowel. 

A  small  fragmentary  cup  of  Italian  majolica 
ware  —  evidently  of  Luca  della  Robbia  — 
falling  into  his  hands,  he  set  himself  to  find 
out  the  secret  of  making  glaze,  enameled  ware 
being  at  that  time  unknown  to  French  indus- 
try. If  he  could  make  such  cups  as  this  he 
thought  he  should  obtain  both  wealth  and 
fame.  This  bit  of  majolica  seemed  to  stimu- 
late his  mind,  as  the  fall  of  an  apple  did 
Newton's ;  or  as  the  ivy  branch  floating  on  the 
ocean,  with  its  leaves  still  green,  led  the  first 
navigators  of  the  Atlantic,  the  companions 
of  Columbus,  to  suspect  that  land  was  near. 

Tired  of  the  lucrative  but  temporary  and 
monotonous  employment  of  surveying,  he 
returned  home  to  his  wife,  with  a  determina- 
tion to  try  all  and  risk  all  for  her  sake  and  the 
sake  of  his  children  —  to  complete  his  inven- 
tion or  perish  in  the  attempt.  The  story  of 
his  struggles,  his  poverty,  the  contempt  of 
friends  and  neighbors,  the  cries  and  upbraid- 
ings  of  wife  and  children,  have  been  too  often 
told  at  length  to  be  more  than  mentioned.  It 
is  sufficient  to  know  that  sixteen  years  had 
elapsed  since  he  first  entertained  the  idea 
before  the  final  triumph  came,  and  he  was  able 
to  produce  in  all  their  perfection  of  color  the 
works  of  art  which  had  been  ever  present  in  his 
imagination.  He  now  made  vases,  statuettes, 
dishes,  plates,  and  divers  utensils,  ornamented 
in  relief,  richly  colored  and  highly  enameled, 
which  he  callal  rustic  figulines. 

His  renown  now  spread  with  his  works; 
and  the  price  that  he  received  for  his  enameled 
earthenware  —  his  sculpture  in  clay  —  raind 


344 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


his  house  and  his  family  from  their  misery. 
Glory  and  wealth  visited  together,  although 
late,  his  furnaces.  His  productions  —  rough 
at  first,  and  imperfect,  but  in  which  we  may 
see  the  rising  vigor  of  a  new  art,  born  of  itself, 
and  not  trammeled  by  tradition  —  soon 
adorned  mansions  and  palaces.  Paris  —  to 
which  Catharine  de'  Medici  had  called  the 
genius,  the  arts,  and  the  ideas  of  Italy  — 
attracted  him,  as  it  had  attracted  the  great 
sculptors  of  the  age  —  Jean  Cousin,  Germain 
Pilon,  and  Jean  Goujon,  the  heirs  of  Raphael 
and  Michaelangelo.  Great  men  received  him ; 
little  men  envied  him.  The  Marshal  de 
Montmorency  became  his  patron,  and  Catha- 
rine de'  Medici  gave  him  a  site  for  his  furnaces 
on  a  portion  of  the  ground  now  occupied  by 
the  palace  of  the  Tuileries.  She  used  to  visit 
him  at  his  work,  like  the  princes  of  her  family 
at  Florence,  who  spent  much  of  their  time  in 
the  studios  and  society  of  artists  —  those 
princes  of  nature,  of  labor,  and  of  genius. 

It  was  at  a  happy  and  honored  period  of  his 
life  that  he  made  his  numberless  master- 
pieces of  porcelain  in  relief,  and  dishes  orna- 
mented with  figures,  beasts,  reptiles,  insects, 
beetles,  plants,  and  flowers,  which,  after 
having  been  dug  up  at  the  end  of  three  centu- 
ries from  the  burial  places  in  the  mansions  of 
the  rich,  now  make  their  appearance,  and  sell 
for  their  weight  in  gold,  as  treasures  of  art, 
full  of  grace,  beauty,  and  simplicity,  to  take 
their  places  in  the  museums  of  palaces  and 
in  the  cabinets  of  the  wealthy,  who  do  honor 
to  their  riches  by  making  their  houses  the 
repositories  of  art. 

Many  of  the  masterpieces  of  Palissy,  after 
he  had  become  a  more  consummate  artist  by 
seeing  great  pictures  and  fine  sculpture  during 
liis  stty  in  Paris  under  the  patronage  of 
Catharine  de'  Medici,  later  found  their  way 
to  the  private  collections  of  Prince  Soltikoff, 
in  Paris;  of  Baron  Rothschild,  in  London; 
of  M.  Sauvageot;  M.  RalUer;  and  of  M. 
Sellieres,  who  devoted  himself  to  the  memory 
of  this  great  artist  by  making  his  house  a 
museum  of  the  great  potter's  works.  Mag- 
nificent specimens  of  his  work  are  also  to  be 
found  in  the  Louvre,  the  Musee  de  Cluny, 
and  at  Sevres.  Some  may  be  seen  in  the 
South  Kensington  and  British  museums, 
London,  and  the  Fountaine  collection  at 
Narford  hall,  England,  is  scarcely  equaled  by 
any  even  in  France. 

At  the  present  day  his  works  are  almost 
beyond  price,   and  his  ornaments  and  ara- 


besques must  be  classed  among  the  most 
beautiful  of  the  renaissance  period.  His 
faience  is  of  a  peculiar  style.  All  figures  and 
other  ornaments  are  executed  in  colored 
relief,  the  colors  being  unusually  bright,  but 
not  of  great  variety.  The  blues,  grays,  and 
yellows  generally  prevail. 

It  was  about  1559  that  France  was  greatly 
beset  by  the  struggles  between  Catholicism 
and  Protestantism.  In  1546,  with  all  his 
family,  Palissy  had  embraced  the  new  ideas 
of  Luther  and  Calvin,  and  contributed  much 
toward  the  foundation  of  a  reformed  church 
at  Saintes.  It  was  not  to  be  8upix)sed,  there- 
fore, that  he  could  escape  the  rigors  of  perse- 
cution. He  was  denounced  to  the  authorities, 
incarcerated  at  Bordeaux,  and  it  required  the 
intervention  of  Montmorency,  aided  by  Catha- 
rine de'  Medici,  to  save  his  life.  The  ingenious 
inventor  of  rustic  figulines  must  not  become  a 
sacrifice  to  religious  contention;  so  a  strata- 
gem was  resorted  to  that  clemency  might  be 
shown  without  opposition  to  the  edict.  By 
the  intercession  of  Catharine  he  was  named 
inventor  of  rustic  figulines  to  the  king,  and  by 
j  this  became  answerable  only  to  the  grand 
j  council.  By  means  of  these  powerful  friends 
I  he  escaped  the  jurisdiction  of  the  parliament 
I  at  Bordeaux,  and  went  to  Paris  soon  after, 
being  charged  with  the  decoration  of  the  royal 
gardens  of  the  Tuileries,  in  which  work  he 
associated  with  him  his  two  sons,  Nicolas  and 
Mathurin. 

During  many  years  he  lived  at  Paris, 
sheltered  and  protected  by  royalty,  escaping 
the  horrors  of  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew, and  giving  his  leisure,  not  only  to  his 
artistic  employments,  but  to  the  study  of 
chemistry,  geology,  and  natural  history,  for 
all  of  which  he  had  a  special  genius.  In  1575 
the  "Huguenot  potter"  began  a  course  of 
public  lectures,  to  which  he  called  all  the 
learned  doctors  of  the  capital  to  assemble  and 
hear  in  three  lessons  the  exposition  of  his 
theories  on  natural  history;  these  discourses 
became  so  popular  that  they  were  continued 
for  many  years.  In  1580  a  number  of  them 
were  published  under  the  title  "Discourses  on 
Waters  and  Fountains." 

French  science  owes  a  large  debt  to  Palissy ; 

he  was  the  first  in  France  to  substitute  for  the 

vain  explanations  of  the  philosophers  positive 

I  facts  and  rigorous  demonstrations.   M.  Hoefer, 

I  in  his  "History  of  Chemistry,"  remarks  that 

!  Francis  Bacon  was  still  a  child  when  Palissy 

was  publicly  teaching  at  Paris  that  to  obtain 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERT 


Mi 


the  truth  it  is  necessary  to  have  recourse  to 
experience.  Palissy  did  for  chemistry  what 
Bacon  did  for  science  in  general,  pointed  out 
its  true  method.  Many  of  Palissy's  observa- 
tions are  beyond  the  teaching  of  his  time. 
His  classification  of  salts  is  still  regarded  as 
exact,  and  he  was  the  first  to  establish  a 
rational  theory  of  crystallization. 

The  hate  of  the  theologians,  excited  no 
doubt  by  his  scientific  opinions,  revealed 
itself  all  at  once  in  the  midst  of  the  comfort 
which  he  was  enjoying.  In  1588  the  royal 
family  could  shelter  him  no  longer;  he  was 
arrested  as  being  a  Protestant  and  sent  to 
the  Bastille.  Here  he  occupied  his  captivity 
in  writing  those  things  concerning  his  art,  his 
soul,  and  his  faith,  which  have  been  pro- 
nounced by  able  critics  as  among  the  most 
remarkable  in  any  language. 

He  was  then  approaching  those  last  hours 
of  life  when  the  voice  of  the  soul  acquires 
additional  melancholy  and  solemnity,  hke 
the  sounds  of  evening  when  nature  puts  on 
her  veil  of  darkness  and  repose.  His  patron 
took  pity  on  the  aged  man,  who  was  about  to 
die  in  his  fetters,  and  thus  change  from  one 
tomb  to  another.  King  Henry  IH.  went  to 
visit  him  in  his  prison,  desiring  to  give  him 
his  liberty,  and  asking,  as  the  price  of  his  par- 
don, the  easy  condition  of  giving  up  his  faith. 

"My  worthy  friend,"  said  the  king,  "you 
have  now  been  forty-five  years  in  the  service 
of  my  mother  and  myself;  we  have  suffered 
you  to  retain  your  religion  amid  fire  and 
slaughter.  I  am  so  pressed  by  the  Guises 
and  by  my  people,  that  I  find  myself  com- 
pelled to  deliver  you  into  the  hands  of  your 
enemies;  and  to-morrow  you  will  be  burned 
unless  you  are  converted."  The  old  man 
bowed,  touched  by  the  goodness  of  the  king, 
humbled  by  his  weakness,  but  inflexible  in 
the  faith  of  his  fathers.  "  Sire,"  he  answered, 
"  I  am  ready  to  give  up  the  remainder  of  my 
life  for  the  honor  of  God.  You  have  told  me 
several  times  that  you  pity  me,  and  now,  in 
my  turn,  I  pity  you,  who  have  used  the  words 
/  am  compelled.  It  was  not  spoken  like  a 
king,  sire !  and  they  are  words  which  neither 
you,  nor  the  Guises,  nor  the  people  shall  ever 
make  me  utter.    I  can  die ! " 

The  courtiers  who  accompanied  the  king, 
instead  of  admiring  his  courage,  were  angry. 
"Here  is  insolence!"  exclaimed  they;  "one 
would  suppose  he  had  read  Seneca,  and  was 
parodying  the  words  of  the  philosopher,  'He 
who  can  die  need  never  be  constrained.' " 


Henry  III.,  more  merciful  than  hit  court, 
in  consideration  of  the  beautiful  works  which 
graced  his  palace,  and  of  his  mother's  memory, 
would  not  give  up  Palissy  to  the  Guiaos,  but 
suffered  age  and  natural  decay  to  finiflh  the 
prisoner.  A  voluntary  martyr,  in  the  dun- 
geons of  the  Bastille,  he  gained  his  liberty 
only  in  death,  in  the  year  1589. 

The  principal  book  of  Palissy's  maturity  is 
a  collection  of  philosophical,  religious,  artistic, 
and  especially  horticultural  meditations, 
which  he  calls  his  "Garden."  These  writings 
have  been  eloquently  characterized  by  Lamar- 
tine  as  follows:  "The  old  workman,  reposing 
like  Solomon  in  the  setting  sun  of  a  holy  and 
laborious  life,  remembers  the  phenomena  of 
nature,  of  his  art,  and  of  his  soul,  which  have 
left  an  impression  on  his  mind  and  heart 
during  his  pilgrimage  here  below.  It  breathes 
the  spirit  of  the  laborer,  the  workman,  and 
the  dreamer;  we  feel  that  it  is  pervaded  by 
the  adoration  of  the  great  Creator  in  spirit 
and  in  truth.  The  love  of  nature  gives  him 
the  power  of  understanding  her,  and  his 
knowledge  of  his  model  explains  to  him  the 
laws,  the  powers,  and  the  beauties  of  creation. 

"Alas!  it  was  within  the  walls  and  moats 
of  his  prison-house,  separated  from  his  wife 
by  the  grave,  and  from  his  children  by  his 
captivity;  shut  out  from  the  view  of  the 
Seine  by  proscription;  from  the  tools  and 
pursuit  of  his  trade  by  old  age;  from  his 
brothers  in  religion  by  martyrdom,  that 
Palissy  wrote  these  records  as  mental  consola- 
tion for  his  ruin,  his  dungeon,  and  his  ap- 
proaching death.  His  scattered  leaves,  long 
forgotten,  and  at  last  collected,  form  two 
volumes,  real  treasures  of  human  wisdom, 
divine  piety,  and  eminent  genius,  as  well  as  of 
great  simplicity,  vigor,  and  copiousness  of 
style.  It  is  impossible,  after  reading  them, 
not  to  consider  the  poor  potter  one  of  the 
greatest  writers  of  the  French  language. 
Montaigne  is  not  more  free  and  flowing ;  Jean 
Jacques  Rousseau  is  scarcely  more  graphic; 
neither  does  Bossuet  excel  him  in  poetical 
power.  In  his  allegories,  his  reflections,  his 
pathos,  his  descriptions,  and  his  poetry,  he  is 
as  great  as  any  of  the  authors  I  have  named." 

Palissy  is  an  original  genius  —  Uke  Rabelais, 
Cellini,  and  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  a  character- 
istic product  of  the  renaissance.  His  life, 
aims,  and  opinions  are  well  worth  the  study 
of  those  who  are  seeking  for  new  ideas.  Like 
Benjamin  Franklin,  he  is  the  highest  possible 
example  for  the  self-made  man,  and,  as  with 


346 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


the  American,  a  money  success  was  but  the 
stepping-stone  to  a  higher  life. 

It  is  as  a  practical  man,  however,  and  not 
as  a  man  of  science,  that  the  world  is  most 
indebted  to  Palissy.  He  is  the  most  perfect 
model  of  the  craftsman.  "It  is  by  his 
example,"  says  Lamartine,  "rather  than  by 
his  works,  that  he  has  exercised  an  influence 
on  civilization,  and  that  he  has  deserved  a 
place  to  himself  among  the  men  who  have 
ennobled  humanity.  Though  he  had  re- 
mained unknown  and  Hstless,  making  tiles  in 
his  father's  pottery;  though  he  had  never 
purified,  moulded,  or  enameled  his  handful  of 
clay;  though  his  living  groups,  his  crawling 
reptiles,  his  slimy  snails,  his  slippery  frogs, 
his  lively  lizards,  and  his  damp  herbs  and 
dripping  mosses  had  never  adorned  the  bot- 
toms or  edges  of  those  dishes,  ewers,  or  salt- 
cellars, those  quaint  and  elaborate  ornaments 
of  the  tables  and  cupboards  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  it  is  true  nothing  would  have  been 
wanting  to  the  art  of  Phidias  or  of  Michaelan- 
gelo  —  to  the  porcelain  of  Sevres,  of  China,  of 
Florence,  or  of  Japan,  but  we  should  not  have 
had  his  life  for  the  operative  to  admire  and 
imitate.  He  is  the  patriarch  of  the  work- 
shop, the  poet  of  manual  labor  in  modern 
days;  he  is  the  potter  of  the  Odyssey,  the 
Bible,  and  the  gospel,  the  type  incarnate  to 
exalt  and  ennoble  every  business,  however 
trivial,  so  that  it  has  labor  for  its  means, 
progress  and  beauty  for  its  motive,  and  the 
glory  of  God  for  its  end." 

Although  Lamartine  has  probably  been 
somewhat  over-enthusiastic  in  his  glowing 
estimate  of  Palissy,  yet  we  can  turn  to  no 
other  biographer  who  has  a  finer  appreciation 
of  Palissy's  true  place  in  history.  "Un- 
taught," says  this  writer,  "save  by  himself, 
he  feels  that  he  has  a  genius  in  his  fingers' 
ends.  He  does  not  trample  the  fine  earth 
under  his  feet ;  he  despises  not  the  common 
material  which  his  situation  has  placed  in  his 
hands ;  he  endeavors  to  purify  and  ennoble  it 
by  an  infusion  of  his  own  spirit ;  he  travels 
over  the  country  with  his  trowel  and  knife, 
earning  his  bread  honorably  from  kiln  to  kiln ; 
and,  when  his  business  has  nothing  more  to 
teach  him,  he  goes  into  the  wilderness  to 
examine  nature,  the  teacher  of  teachers,  by 
unveiling  her  mysteries ;  he  acquires  love  and 
enthusiasm  for  her  by  dint  of  contemplation ; 
he  rivals  her  in  form,  color,  and  in  playful 
ease;  he  transports  the  leaf,  the  herb,  the 
fly,  the  reptile,  the    insect,  the  brook,  the 


dew,  the  dampness,  the  freshness,  and  the 
gleam  of  light  to  a  piece  of  clay.  In  seeking 
the  perfection  of  art,  which  hides  itself  that 
it  may  be  discovered,  and  which  holds  it- 
self back  that  it  may  be  mastered  by  force, 
he  meets  with  misery,  unbelief,  and  the 
scorn  of  his  neighbors ;  he  follows  his  pursuit 
obstinately,  and  even  savagely;  he  burns 
his  house  to  feed  his  last  furnace;  he  forces 
his  inventive  genius;  he  exhausts  the  folly 
of  hope  and  the  heroism  of  labor;  finally, 
he  is  rewarded,  he  triumphs,  he  becomes 
illustrious,  and  enriches  his  children. 

"But  these  earthly  rewards,  for  which  he 
gives  thanks  to  Providence,  are  as  yet  as 
nothing  to  him:  the  laborer  is  satisfied,  but 
not  the  man ;  he  thirsts  after  the  beauty  and 
glory  of  the  Eternal.  The  most  precious  dis- 
covery of  his  solitary  contemplation  of  nature 
is  not  his  art,  but  God,  the  object  and  end  of 
every  perfect  art.  In  his  leisure  hours  he 
writes  his  wonderful  meditations;  he  gives 
full  scope  to  his  intellect  in  his  hymns,  the 
produce  of  his  piety,  far  more  than  in  his 
vases,  the  work  of  his  hands.  Without  study 
and  unlettered,  his  soul  bursts  forth  with  a 
holy  enthusiasm.  He  attaches  himself  with 
steadfast  faith  to  the  persecuted  worship  of 
his  brethren.  He  devotes  his  youth  to  trade ; 
he  sacrifices  his  house  for  his  art ;  he  gives  up 
his  old  age,  his  liberty,  and  his  life  to  his  God ; 
he  flies  from  his  dungeon  to  heaven  on  the 
wings  of  celestial  hope ;  he  leaves  behind  him 
masterpieces  —  vain  works,  doubtless,  hke 
the  grottoes  of  earth,  sand,  or  shells  that 
children  leave  forgotten  where  they  have 
played  with  their  companions,  but  he  be- 
queaths impressive  lessons  and  immortal 
examples  of  labor,  of  patience,  of  perseverance 
under  difficulties,  of  mastery  over  matter,  of 
gentle  dignity,  piety,  and  virtue  to  workmen 
of  all  professions. 

"His  life  signifies  labor;  his  works,  inven- 
tion; his  death,  martyrdom.  His  book  be- 
comes the  manual  not  only  of  the  manu- 
facture of  earthenware,  but  also  of  the  more 
sublime  profession  of  speaking  right,  doing 
right,  and  living  right ;  his  name  is  a  beacon 
to  all  unkindly,  stubborn,  yet  successful 
occupations.  Palissy  has  thus  won  a  legiti- 
mate place  among  the  great  men  who  have 
risen  from  obscurity.  Some  will  say,  'But 
he  only  moulded  clay ! '  What  can  it  signify? 
Greatness  does  not  depend  upon  the  occupa- 
tion, but  upon  the  mind.  If  stick  a  man  be 
little,  who  then  is  great?  " 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 

GALILEO 


347 


K.  D.  AOB 

1S64         Born  at  Pisa,  Italy 

1581  Entered  university  of  Pisa 17 

1582  Discovered  law  of  vibration  of  pen- 

dulum,   Ig 

1589-92  Lecturer  and    professor  of   mathe- 
matics at  Pisa, 25-28 

1592         Professor  of  mathematics  at  Padua,     28 

1609  Constructed  telescope, 46 

1610  Discovered    satellites     of     Jupiter: 

Sidereus       Nundus,       "Sioereal 
Messenger," 46 

1611  Visited  Rome, 47 


1615-16  His  work  condemned  by  Um  inqol* 

sition  at  Home, 61-62 

1624  Revisited  Rome, QQ 

1632  Dialo^o  aopra  i  dut  moMnmi  Sitttmi, 

"Dialogue  on  the  Two  Chief  8y»- 
tems," Qg 

1633  Summoned  to  Rome;   tined  •biu> 
,i.oo         ^ration  of  "Copcrnlcantheory,''  .     00 
1638         Dialoqhi   ddU   due   Suov  Seimm, 

"Dialogues    on    the    Two    N«w 

Sciences," 74 

1642         Died  at  Arcetri,  near  Floranee.    ,    .     78 


/^ALILEO  GALILEI,  celebrated  scientist, 
^^  the  founder  of  physics,  was  born  at  Pisa, 
Italy,  February  15,  1564,  three  days  before 
the  death  of  Michaelangelo.  His  father  was 
a  distinguished  musician,  and  a  descendant  of 
the  ancient  and  illustrious  Florentine  family 
of  Bonajuti,  who,  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
had  changed  their  name  to  Galilei.  The  boy 
showed  early  signs  of  ardent  and  versatile 
genius.  He  constructed  mechanical  toys  for 
his  schoolfellows;  he  threw  himself  eagerly 
into  Greek  and  Latin  study ;  he  inherited  his 
father's  skill  in  music;  and  he  showed 
remarkable  aptitude  for  painting,  to  which 
two  generations  earlier  his  life  would  probably 
have  been  devoted.  In  his  eighteenth  year 
he  was  sent  to  the  university  of  Pisa,  where 
he  attended  the  lectures  of  the  great  Cesal- 
pino,  one  of  Harvey's  forerunners. 

In  accordance  with  the  desire  of  his  father, 
Galileo  at  first  directed  his  attention  exclu- 
sively to  medical  studies  and  the  prevailing 
Aristotelian  philosophy,  the  dogmas  of  which 
he  soon  ventured  to  disbelieve.  At  the  age 
of  eighteen  he  made  one  of  his  most  important 
discoveries.  Happening  on  one  occasion  to 
observe,  in  the  cathedral  of  Pisa,  the  oscilla- 
tion of  a  lamp  casually  set  in  motion,  he  was 
struck  with  the  regularity  of  its  vibrations. 
He  then  proceeded  to  test  the  correctness 
of  this  observation  by  comparing  the  beat  of 
his  own  pulse  with  the  action  of  the  pendulum, 
and  concluded  that  by  means  of  the  equality 
of  oscillation  a  simple  pendulum  might 
become  an  invaluable  agent  for  the  exact 
measurement  of  time.  This  discovery  he 
subsequently  utilized  by  the  successful  appli- 
cation of  the  pendulum  in  constructing  a  clock 
for  astronomical  purposes. 

Galileo's  decided  bent  toward  mechanical 
construction  and  experimental  science  re- 
ceived a  new  impulse  from  his  contact  with  a 
friend  of  his  father's,  Ostilio  Ricci,  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Pisa,  who  now  directed  his 


studies,  and  from  whom  he  received,  at  Uie 
age  of  twenty-two,  his  first  lesson  in  Euclid. 
From  this  time  onward  he  seems  to  have 
practically  abandoned  medicine  and  conoeii- 
trated  his  powers  on  his  chosen  sciences.  He 
soon  passed  from  Euclid  to  Archimedes,  and 
fastened  upon  that  part  of  his  work,  in  which 
the  greatest  of  geometers  stood  alone,  the 
marvelous  researches  on  the  lever  and  on 
floating  bodies. 

The  first  fruit  of  his  geometrical  investiga- 
tions was  the  invention  of  a  hydrostatic 
balance,  by  which  the  spyecific  gravity  of 
solid  bodies  might  be  ascertained  with  the 
nicest  accuracy.  In  1589,  the  fame  of 
Galileo's  extraordinary  learning  having 
reached  the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany,  this 
enlightened  prince  appointed  him  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  university  of  Pisa,  where 
he  covertly  inculcated  many  of  those  great 
innovations  in  physical  science  which  have 
since  added  such  luster  to  his  memory. 
About  this  period  he  turned  his  attention  to 
the  then  very  imperfectly  comprehended 
laws  of  bodies  in  motion ;  and,  in  opposition 
to  all  received  systems,  he  propounded  the 
novel  theorem  that  all  falling  bodies,  great 
or  small,  descend  with  equal  velocity.  This 
soon  led  him  to  the  discovery  of  "the  three 
laws  of  motion,"  and  the  law  regulating  the 
motion  of  falling  bodies.  This  theory  of 
falling  bodies  was  proved  correct  by  several 
experiments  which  were  made  from  the  sum- 
mit of  the  leaning  tower  ef  Pisa. 

Galileo  and  his  colleagues  did  not  long 
remain  on  good  terms.  The  latter  were  con- 
tent with  the  superstructure  which  a  priori 
reasoners  had  raised  upon  Aristotle,  and  w«e 
by  no  means  desirous  of  the  trouble  of  learning 
more.  Galileo  chose  to  investigate  physical 
truths  for  himself ;  he  engaged  in  experiments 
to  determine  the  truth  of  some  of  Aristotle's 
positions,  and,  when  he  found  him  in  the 
wrong,  he  said  so,  and  so  taught  his  pupils. 


848 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


This  made  the  "paper  philosophers,"  as  he 
called  them,  very  angry.  He  repeated  his 
experiments  in  their  presence;  but  they  set 
aside  the  evidence  of  their  senses  and  quoted 
Aristotle  as  much  as  before. 

The  enmity  arising  from  these  disputes 
rendered  his  situation  so  unpleasant,  that,  in 
1592,  at  the  invitation  of  the  Venetian  com- 
monwealth, he  gladly  accepted  the  professor- 
ship of  mathematics  at  Padua.  There,  under 
the  shelter  of  the  Venetian  republic,  he  spent 
the  following  eighteen  years,  and  did  most  of 
his  constructive  work.  His  lecture  hall  had 
an  audience  of  two  thousand,  and  was  crowded 
with  pupils  from  all  parts  of  Europe ;  and  it 
was  here  by  him  that  the  Italian  idiom  was 
first  adapted  to  scientific  instruction.  His 
latest  discoveries  and  his  suggestions  for 
original  research  were  poured  out  to  all 
comers  ungrudgingly.  The  range  of  subjects 
was  wide.  Besides  the  laws  of  equilibrium 
and  motion,  he  dwelt  upon  the  importance  of 
measuring  all  natural  forces,  great  or  small, 
abstruse  or  familiar,  so  as  to  bring  them 
within  the  range  of  geometry,  and  thus  adapt 
them  to  the  service  of  man.  No  one  before 
him  had  sought  to  measure  heat  with  pre- 
cision, and  among  the  notable  discoveries 
which  he  there  gave  to  the  world  were: 
his  thermometer;  a  proportional  compass 
or  sector;  and  his  refracting  telescope.  It 
was  his  pupil,  Torricelli,  who  first  measured 
the  weight  of  the  atmosphere  with  the 
barometer. 

In  astronomy  it  was  well  known  that 
Galileo  took  the  Copemican  view.  He  held, 
with  Bruno,  that  the  universe  was  infinite, 
not  finite ;  and  that  the  stars  and  planets  were 
made  of  the  same  substance  as  the  world  we 
live  in.  So  when  he  became  acquainted  with 
the  crude  telescope,  invented  in  Holland  in 
1608,  he  immediately  set  to  work  to  improve 
it,  and  to  adapt  it  to  a  verification  of  his  views. 
The  Dutch  telescope  was  for  terrestrial  pur- 
poses only ;  his  was  for  the  exploration  of  the 
heavens.  It  was  completed  in  the  early  part 
of  1609,  and  offered  to  the  doge  of  Venice, 
Leonardi  Deodati,  by  whom  it  was  tested 
from  the  tower  of  St.  Mark  with  equal  sur- 
prise and  delight.  In  the  same  year  he  con- 
structed a  microscope;  and  then  this  inde- 
fatigable interpreter  of  the  mysteries  of  nature 
commenced  his  astronomical  researches  by 
means  of  his  own  telescope. 

He  speedily  discovered  Jupiter's  four  moons, 
the  irregular  surface  of  oxir  own  satellite,  the 


phases  of  Saturn,  and  the  solar  spots.  The 
first  of  these  has  been  well  described  as  a 
miniature  Copemican  system:  all  of  them 
showed  the  solar  system  to  be  far  more  com- 
plicated than  men  thought.  His  resolution 
of  the  milky  way  into  separate  stars  gave 
another  proof  that  our  sun  with  its  planets 
was  but  an  atom  in  a  boundless  universe. 
The  moons  of  Jupiter  he  named  the  Medicean 
stars.  They  have  long  ceased  to  be  known 
by  that  name;  but  so  highly  prized  was  the 
distinction  thus  conferred  upon  the  ducal 
house  at  Florence  that  Galileo  received  an 
intimation  that  he  would  "  do  a  thing  just  as 
proper  in  itself,  and  at  the  same  time  render 
himself  and  his  family  rich  and  powerful 
forever,"  if  he  "named  the  next  star  which 
he  should  discover  after  the  name  of  the  great 
star  of  France,  as  well  as  the  most  brilliant  of 
all  the  earth,  Henry  IV."  These  discoveries 
were  made  known  in  1610,  in  a  work  entitled 
Sidereus  Nuncius. 

When,  in  1609,  he  received  an  invitation  to 
return  to  his  original  situation  at  Pisa,  he 
sent  a  letter,  still  extant,  which  indicates  the 
catalogue  of  undertakings  on  which  he  was 
already  employed : 

"The  works  which  I  have  to  finish,"  he 
says,  "are  principally  two  books  on  the  'Sys- 
tem or  Structure  of  the  Universe,'  an  immense 
work,  full  of  philosophy,  astronomy,  and 
geometry ;  three  books  on  '  Local  Motion,'  a 
science  entirely  new,  no  one,  either  ancient  or 
modem,  having  discovered  any  of  the  very 
many  admirable  accidents  which  I  demon- 
strate in  natural  and  violent  motions,  so  that 
I  may,  with  very  great  reason,  call  it  a  new 
science,  and  invented  by  me  from  its  very  first 
principles.  Although  others  have  treated  this 
same  matter,  yet  all  that  has  been  hitherto 
written,  neither  in  quantity  nor  otherwise,  is 
a  quarter  of  what  I  am  writing  on  it. 

"I  have  also  different  treatises  on  natural 
subjects  —  on  'Sound  and  Speech,'  on  'Light 
and  Colors,'  on  the  'Tides,'  on  the  'Composi- 
tion of  Continuous  Quantity,'  on  the  'Motions 
of  Animals,'  and  others  besides.  I  have  also 
an  idea  of  writing  some  books  relating  to  the 
military  art,  giving  not  only  a  model  of  a 
soldier,  but  teaching  with  very  exact  rules 
everjrthing  which  it  is  his  duty  to  know  that 
depends  upon  mathematics,  as  the  knowledge 
of  castrametation,  drawing  up  of  battalions, 
fortifications,  assaults,  planning,  surveying, 
the  knowledge  of  artillery,  the  use  of  instm- 
ments,  and  so  on." 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


Out  of  this  comprehensive  list,  the  treatises 
on  the  xiniveree,  on  motion  and  mechanics, 
on  tides,  on  fortification,  or  other  works  upon 
the  same  subjects,  have  been  made  known  to 
the  world.  Many,  however,  of  Galileo's 
manuscripts,  through  fear  of  the  inquisition, 
were  destroyed,  or  concealed  and  lost,  after 
the  author's  death. 

Shortly  after  this  letter  was  written,  the 
Venetian  senate  raised  Galileo's  salary. 
But  as  the  grand  duke  offered  him  equal 
advantages  in  Florence,  with  a  liberal  salary, 
exemption  from  the  necessity  of  residence, 
and  complete  leisure  to  pursue  his  studies, 
patriotism  turned  the  scale.  He  left  Padua 
for  Florence  in  1610,  and  from  that  time  until 
his  death  he  never  knew  peace.  Neither 
Copernicus  nor  his  immediate  followers  suf- 
fered inconvenience  or  restraint  on  account 
of  their  astronomical  doctrines:  nor  had 
Galileo,  until  this  period  of  his  life,  incurred 
ecclesiastical  censure  for  anything  which  he 
had  said  or  written.  But  in  the  war  between 
science  and  theology,  which  was  now  insti- 
tuted, he  was  eager  for  the  fight;  he  had 
powerful  friends,  and  felt  sure  of  victory. 
In  1611  he  visited  Rome,  and  freely  advo- 
cated the  new  conception  of  the  universe. 
Systematic  clerical  opposition  now  began. 
A  letter  from  Galileo  to  Castelli,  in  which  he 
took  the  dangerous  course  of  trying  to  har- 
monize science  and  scripture,  was  laid  before 
the  inquisition  in  1615.  Early  in  1616  the 
propositions  of  the  sun's  fixity  and  the  earth's 
diurnal  motion  were  formally  condemned; 
the  work  of  Copernicus,  pubhshed  seventy 
years  before,  was  placed  on  the  index ;  and  a 
promise  was  extorted  from  Galileo  not  to 
defend  his  theory. 

Galileo  now  remained  silent  for  seven 
years;  but  after  his  friend  Maffeo  Barberini 
became  Pope  Urban  VIII.,  he  went  to  Rome 
in  1624  and  strove  to  get  those  edicts  reversed. 
In  this  he  failed,  yet  still  persisted  in  writing 
his  celebrated  "Dialogue  on  the  Two  Chief 
Systems."  This  work  with  much  difficulty  he 
obtained  leave  to  print  in  1632,  on  the  con- 
dition of  inserting  reservations  dictated,  it  is 
thought,  by  Urban  himself,  which  disfigure 
the  preface  and  the  first  section  of  the  work. 
But  the  dramatic  form  gave  free  play  to  the 
irony  of  which  Galileo  was  a  master.  Sim- 
plicius,  the  personage  who  advocates  obscur- 
antism, was  said,  truly  or  not,  to  be  Urban 
himself.  The  book  spread  swiftly  through 
Europe  from  south  to  north.    It  was  resolved  , 


that  Galileo  should  be  crushed.  He  was  l 
moned  to  Rome ;  and  on  June  22, 1633,  he  wa« 
forced  to  read  and  sign  a  fomuU  abjuratioD 
of  his  belief  in  the  Copemican  doctrine.  It 
is  said  by  one  of  his  biographers  that  even 
after  Galileo  had  taken  the  oath  of  abjuration 
that  the  earth  moved,  he  whispered  to  one  of 
his  friends,  as  he  rose  from  his  knees,  B  pitr  H 
muove  —  "  It  does  move  though." 

He  was  then  sentenced  to  an  indefinite 
term  of  imprisonment  by  the  inquisition, 
which  after  four  days  waa  commuted  by 
Pope  Urban,  and  he  waa  reconducted  to  the 
Florentine  ambassador's  palace.  In  July 
he  was  sent  to  Siena,  where  he  remained  five 
months  in  strict  seclusion;  but  he  then 
obtained  permission  to  return  to  his  villa 
at  Arcetri,  a  mile  from  Florence,  near  the 
convent  of  St.  Matthew,  where  his  daughter, 
Sister  Maria  Celeste,  was  a  nun.  It  is  sad 
to  know  that  this  daughter,  whose  touching 
letters  are  preserved,  and  whose  loving  care 
had  been  his  mainstay  for  years,  should  have 
died  soon  after  his  return  from  Rome,  worn 
out  by  anxiety. 

But  his  strenuous  activity  survived.  His 
greatest  book,  the  "Dialogues  on  the  Two 
New  Sciences,"  summing  up  his  work  at 
Pisa  and  Padua,  was  completed  at  this 
time,  and  published  in  1638  in  Holland.  He 
carried  on  a  long  correspondence  with  the 
Dutch  government  as  to  adopting  observa- 
tions of  Jupiter's  satellites  for  determination 
of  longitudes.  His  last  astronomical  work 
was  to  discover  the  moon's  libration.  In 
the  course  of  1636-37  he  lost  successively 
the  sight  of  both  eyes.  He  mentions  this 
calamity  in  a  tone  of  pious  submission, 
mingled  with  a  not  unpleasing  pride :  "  Alas, 
your  dear  friend  and  servant,  Galileo,  has 
become  totally  and  irreparably  blind;  so 
that  this  heaven,  this  earth,  this  universe, 
which  with  wonderful  observations  I  had 
enlarged  a  hundred  and  thousand  timet 
beyond  the  belief  of  by-gone  ages,  henoo- 
forward  for  me  is  shnmk  into  the  narrow 
space  which  I  myself  fill  in  it.  So  it  pleasei 
God ;  it  shall  therefore  please  me  also." 

In  1638  he  obtained  leave  to  visit  Florence, 
still  under  the  same  restrictions  as  to  society ; 
but  at  the  end  of  a  few  months  he  was  re- 
manded to  Arcetri,  which  he  never  again 
quitted.  From  that  time,  however,  the 
strictness  of  his  confinement  waa  relaxed,  and 
he  was  allowed  to  receive  the  friends  who 
crowded  around  him,  as  well  as  the  many 


360 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


distinguished  foreigners  who  eagerly  visited 
him.  Among  these  we  must  not  forget  Milton, 
whose  poems  contain  several  allusions  to  the 
celestial  wonders  observed  and  published  by 
the  Tuscan  astronomer.  Though  blind  and 
nearly  deaf,  GaUleo  retained  to  the  last  his 
intellectual  powers ;  and  his  friend  and  pupil, 
the  celebrated  Torricelli,  was  employed  in 
arranging  his  theories  on  the  nature  of  per- 
cussion, when  he  was  attacked  by  his  last 
illness.  He  died  of  heart  disease  complicated 
with  fever,  on  January  8,  1642,  aged  seventy- 
eight.  His  remains  were  placed,  by  ducal 
orders,  in  the  cathedral  of  Santa  Croce, 
Florence,  where  a  majestic  memorial  now 
symbolizes  his  great  achievements. 

GaUleo  was  of  small  stature,  but  of  a  robust 
and  healthy  frame;  his  countenance  was 
attractive,  and  his  conversation  cheerful. 
He  loved  art,  and  cultivated  especially  music 
and  poetry.  Ariosto  he  knew  almost  by 
heart,  and  appreciated  keenly  the  beauties  of 
this  great  classic.  Tasso,  on  the  other  hand, 
he  unduly  depreciated,  and  inflicted  much  pain 
on  the  sensitive  spirit  of  the  poet  by  his  severe 
criticism  of  him.  His  own  style  is  nervous, 
flowing,  and  elegant,  and  is  at  its  best  in  his 
"Dialogues"  and  "The  Assayer,"  a  contro- 
versial work.  In  the  former,  nothing  can 
exceed  the  classic  beauty  of  its  style  and  the 
compactness  of  its  chain  of  argument.  The 
latter  is  a  model  of  philosophical  composi- 
tion. 

GaUleo  keenly  enjoyed  the  social  wit  and 
banter  of  his  chosen  friends,  and  the  generous 
pleasures  of  the  banquet;  and  the  readiness 
with  which  he  offered  or  accepted  atonement 
modified  a  somewhat  irascible  disposition. 
The  greatest  deficiencies  in  his  character  were 
a  want  of  tact  to  keep  out  of  difficulties,  and 
a  want  of  moral  courage  to  defend  himself 
when  involved  in  them.  His  biting  satirical 
turn,  more  than  his  physical  discoveries,  was 
the  cause  of  his  misfortunes.  The  dignita- 
ries of  the  church,  who  persecuted  Galileo, 
warned  him  beforehand  in  the  friendliest  way 
to  be  "more  prudent."  Their  conduct  in 
persecuting  opinion,  or  rather,  in  Galileo's 
case,  demonstrated  fact,  is,  of  course,  utterly 
inexcusable;  but  that  is  no  reason  why  we 
should  run  to  the  other  extreme,  and  declare 
GaUleo  to  be  a  martyr.  No  great  man  had 
ever  less  claim  to  the  title.  It  is  also  right  to 
add  that  the  congregation  of  the  inquisition 
by  which  Galileo  was  condemned,  is  not  now 
beUeved  to  have  spoken  with  the  plenary 


authority  of  the  Catholic  church,  nor  are  ita 
decisions  regarded  as  infaUible  even  by  the 
most  extreme  ultramontanes. 

It  may  be  said  generally  that  the  note  of 
GaUleo's  whole  work  is  mathematical  research 
controlUng  and  controUed  by  observation  of 
nature.  What  he  did  was  to  found  the 
science  of  dynamics  —  essentially  mathemati- 
cal —  and  to  lay  the  foundations  of  Newton '8 
demonstrations,  nearly  a  century  later.  Hia 
most  important  contributions  to  physical 
science  may  be  summed  up  under  the  following 
heads:  (1)  The  relation  between  space  and 
time  in  the  case  of  falling  bodies,  also  the 
"three  laws  of  motion";  (2)  The  path  of 
projectiles  is  a  parabola;  (3)  The  isochronism 
of  the  pendulum;  (4)  That  air  has  weight, 
also  partial  discovery  that  suction  is  owing 
to  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere;  (5) 
The  reinvention  of  Aristotle's  theory  re- 
specting sound;  (6)  The  invention  of  the 
telescope ;  (7)  The  discovery  of  the  satellites 
of  Jupiter,  phases  of  Venus,  and  spots  on  the 
sun. 

By  many  scientists  his  discovery  of  the  law 
of  velocity  is  regarded  as  the  crowning  point 
of  his  fame.  GaUleo  tells  us  that  he  put  to 
himself  as  the  simplest  hypothesis  that  equal 
increments  of  velocity  took  place  in  equal 
times.  As  time  is  infinitely  divisible,  these 
increments  are  infinitely  small  and  numerous, 
and  the  problem  was  to  sum  them.  It  was 
a  problem  of  integration,  though  so  simple  as 
not  to  need  a  special  calculus.  He  shows  by 
a  simple  geometric  process  that,  in  motion 
uniformly  accelerated,  the  time  occupied  is 
equal  to  that  spent  by  a  body  moving  uni- 
formly with  velocity  equal  to  half  that 
attained  by  the  accelerated  body  at  the  end 
of  the  period;  that  the  spaces  traversed  are 
as  the  squares  of  the  time ;  and,  as  a  corollary 
from  this,  that  the  spaces  in  each  successive 
interval  are  to  one  another  as  the  series  of  the 
odd  numbers.  In  a  further  section  of  the 
work  Galileo  shows,  with  extreme  fullness, 
that  a  body,  Uke  a  projectile,  acted  on  simul- 
taneously by  an  impulse  and  by  the  continu- 
ous force  of  gravity,  will  move  in  a  parabola. 
The  second  law  of  motion  also  was  clearly 
known  to  him. 

Original  as  his  discoveries  in  djrnamics  were, 
those  in  statics  were  hardly  less  important; 
and  Lagrange,  in  the  first  section  of  the 
Mecanique  Analytique,  fully  appreciated  their 
importance.  His  work  on  the  "  Utility  of 
Mechanical  Science  and  the  Instnunents  it 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


Ml 


Employs  "  contains  on  its  first  page  the  dis- 
tinct germ  of  the  principle  of  virtual  veloci- 
ties, as  solving  the  apparent  paradox  that  the 
small  weight  at  the  long  arm  of  the  lever 
could  balance  a  large  one.  The  velocity  with 
which  the  two  arms  tended  to  move  was 
inversely  proportionate  to  the  weights;  and 
the  case  was,  therefore,  as  though  a  man, 
having  to  carry  to  a  certain  distance  a  load 
beyond  his  strength,  undertook  many  jour- 
neys and  conveyed  a  portion  of  it  in  each. 
The  element  of  time  comes  in. 

Galileo  tested  his  law  of  falling  bodies 
partly  by  direct  observation,  partly  by  com- 
paring the  spaces  traversed  in  given  times 
upon  incUned  planes  of  the  same  altitude. 
The  velocity,  identical  at  the  end  of  the  fall, 
admitted  of  measurement  more  easily  in  the 
earlier  parts  than  when  the  fall  was  vertical. 
For  abstract  mathematics  he  had  little  taste. 
"Philosophy,"  he  says  in  his  Saggiatore,  "is 
written  in  the  great  book  of  the  universe 
which  lies  always  open.  But  we  must  first 
understand  the  language  and  the  character  in 
which  it  is  written.  That  language  is  mathe- 
matics. Its  characters  are  triangles,  circles, 
and  other  geometric  figures,  without  which 


we  cannot,  humanly  speaking,  undentand 
the  words,  and  wander  aimlessly  through  A 
dark  labyrinth." 

The  almost  numberless  inventions  of  hii 
acute  industry ;  the  use  of  the  telescope,  and 
the  brilliant  discoveries  to  which  it  led ;  the 
patient  investigation  of  the  laws  of  weight  and 
motion,  must  all  be  looked  upon  as  forming  but 
a  part  of  his  real  merits,  as  merely  particular 
demonstrations  of  the  spirit  from  traditional 
opinions  to  the  judgment  of  reason  and  com- 
mon sense.  He  claimed  and  bequeathed  to 
us  the  right  of  exercising  our  faculties  in 
examining  the  beautiful  creation  which  sur- 
rounds us.  Emerson  says  that  "Galileo, 
with  an  opera  glass,  discovered  a  more 
splendid  series  of  celestial  phenomena  than 
any  one  since." 

If  an  intense  desire  of  being  useful  is  every- 
where worthy  of  honor;  if  its  value  is  im- 
measurably increased  when  united  to  genius 
of  the  highest  order ;  if  we  feel  for  one,  who, 
notwithstanding  such  titles  to  regard,  is 
harassed  by  intolerant  persecution,  then 
none  deserves  our  sympathy,  our  admiration, 
and  our  gratitude  more  than  Galileo. 


KEPLER 


A.  D.  AGE 

1571     Bom  at  Well,  Wurttemberg, 

1591     M.  A.,  Tubingen, 20 

1594  Lecturer  on  astronomy  at  Gratz,     .    .     23 

1596  "Cosmographical  Mystery,"      ....      25 

1601     Assistant  to  Tycho  Brahe, 30 

1606     "Supplement  to  Vitellio," 35 

1609  Astronomia  Nova,  "New  Astronomy,"     38 


A.  D.  Aoa 
1612     Professor  at  Linr;    mathematician  to 

emperor, 41 

1619     Harmonice  Mundi,  "The  Harmonies  of 

the  World," « 

1627     "Rudolphine  Tables," 66 

1629  Profes-sor  at  university  of  Rostock,     .  S8 

1630  Died  at  Ratisbon, W 


lOHANN  KEPLER,  or  Von  Kappel  (as 
*'  his  family  was  originally  called),  was  one 
of  the  chief  founders  of  modern  astronomy. 
He  was  the  son  of  Henry  Kepler,  an  officer  in 
the  German  army,  and  Catherine  Gulden- 
mann,  who  had  made  an  unhappy  marriage, 
and  whose  wedded  life  was  continually  beset 
with  trouble.  The  date  of  his  birth  was 
December  27,  1571,  and  the  place  Weil  der 
Stadt,  in  the  kingdom  of  Wiirttemberg, 
Germany. 

As  a  child,  Kepler  was  of  sickly  constitution, 
and  of  equally  marked  precocity.  To  add  to 
his  constitutional  weakness,  he  had  a  severe 
attack  of  smallpox  in  his  early  youth,  which 
left  him  in  delicate  health  throughout  life. 
After  his  recovery  from  smallpox,  he  was  sent 


to  school  in  1577.  In  the  year  1586  he  waa 
admitted  to  the  school  at  the  monastery  of 
Maulbronn,  which  was  established  during  the 
German  reformation,  and  maintained  at  the 
expense  of  the  duke  of  Wurttemberg,  as 
preparatory  for  the  university  of  Tiibingen. 
He  entered  the  university  a  year  later  and 
received  his  bachelor's  and  master's  degrees, 
respectively,  in  1588  and  1591. 

While  attending  the  mathematical  lectures 
of  Maestlin,  a  disciple  of  Copernicus,  he 
adopted  the  opinions  of  his  teacher,  and 
wrote  an  essay  to  prove  that  the  primary 
motion  was  produced  by  the  rotation  of  the 
earth.  In  1594  he  was  unwillingly  made  to 
accept  the  astronomical  class  at  Gratz,  thou^ 
he  knew  little  of  the  subject.    He  was  thus 


862 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


forced  to  study  astronomy,  and,  in  1595,  he 
devoted  all  his  leisure  time,  and  all  his  mental 
energy  to  studying  the  size  and  the  motions  of 
the  planets,  and  their  orbits.  To  find  them,  he 
built  up,  with  every  resource  of  a  most  power- 
ful imagination,  hypothesis  after  hypothesis 
—  all  of  them  daring,  and  many  extravagant. 
In  1596  he  published  his  "  Cosmographical 
Mystery  "  —  Mysterium  Cosmographicum  — 
containing  the  first  of  these  conjectures,  that 
the  orbits  of  the  planets  corresponded  to 
circles  inscribed  or  circumscribed  round  one 
of  the  five  regular  solids.  This  theory  of  the 
order  of  the  heavenly  bodies  was,  of  course, 
purely  fanciful,  and  he  was  saved  from  further 
extravagance  of  this  kind  by  his  future  con- 
nection with  the  celebrated  astronomical 
observer,  Tycho  Brahe,  at  Prague, 

In  1597  he  made  a  foolish  marriage  with  a 
young  widow,  and,  in  addition  to  pecuniary 
difficulties  in  which  this  involved  him,  he  was 
obliged  to  retire  into  Hungary  to  escape  from 
religious  persecution.  Though  he  was  soon 
recalled  to  his  professorship  by  the  states  of 
Styria,  he  did  not  occupy  it  long. 

Tycho  Brahe  —  probably  the  greatest  of 
observers  —  whom  he  visited  at  Prague  in 
1600,  induced  him  to  become  his  assistant. 
When  Kepler  came  to  Prague  in  1601,  Tycho 
presented  him  to  the  emperor,  who  gave  him 
the  title  of  "imperial  mathematician,"  on 
the  condition  of  assisting  Tycho  in  his  calcu- 
lations. Their  first  joint  work  was  the  com- 
putation of  the  "Rudolphine  Tables,"  the 
expense  of  which  was  to  be  defrayed  by 
Rudolph  II.,  and  hence  named  for  him. 
Upon  the  death  of  Tycho  in  1601,  Kepler 
succeeded  him  as  principal  mathematician 
to  the  emperor,  with  a  handsome  salary,  partly 
from  the  imperial  treasury,  and  partly  from 
the  states  of  Silesia.  He  also  inherited  from 
Tycho  his  vast  store  of  facts,  and  his  habits  of 
accurate  and  patient  observation,  without 
impairing  the  creative  energy  of  his  own  mas- 
ter spirit. 

In  1606  he  published  a  "Supplement  to 
Vitellio,"  in  which  he  treats  of  the  optical  part 
of  astronomy,  and  had  very  nearly  stumbled 
on  the  law  of  refraction,  afterward  discovered 
by  the  Dutch  mathematician,  SneUius.  In 
1611  he  published  his  Dioptrics,  an  admirable 
work,  which  laid  the  foundation  of  the  science 
of  optics.  In  this  work  he  gives  the  theory  of 
the  telescope  —  describes  the  astronomical 
one  with  two  convex  lenses  —  expoimds  the 
spherical  aberration  of   lenses,  and  the  law 


of  total  reflexion  at  the  second  surfaces  of 
bodies. 

The  work,  however,  on  which  his  fame  rests 
is  his  "  New  Astronomy,  or  Commentaries  on 
the  Motions  of  Mars,"  published  in  1609.  In 
this  work  he  proves  that  Mars  moves  in  an 
elliptical  orbit,  in  one  of  the  foci  of  which  the 
sun  is  placed,  and  that  the  radius  vector,  or 
the  Une  joining  the  planet  and  the  sun, 
describes  equal  areas  in  equal  times.  These 
two  great  discoveries,  the  first  made  in  physi- 
cal astronomy,  he  extended  to  all  the  planets 
in  the  solar  system,  and  it  was  through  them 
that  Newton,  Hooke,  Halley,  and  Wren 
independently  arrived  at  the  great  law  of  the 
diminution  of  gravity  with  the  square  of  the 
distance. 

In  the  midst  of  the  studies  which  led 
Kepler  to  these  fine  discoveries,  he  was  har- 
assed with  pecuniary  difficulties,  which  were 
the  bane  of  his  existence.  His  salary  was 
ever  in  arrears,  and  the  treasury  of  Rudolph 
was  always  empty.  Upon  the  death  of  the 
emperor,  however,  in  1612,  Kepler's  arrears 
were  paid.  Matthias,  the  brother  and  suc- 
cessor of  Rudolph,  reappointed  him  imperial 
mathematician,  and  he  was  permitted  to 
accept  the  professorship  of  mathematics  at 
Linz,  in  Austria.  He  had  lost  his  wife  and  one 
of  his  children  by  smallpox  in  1611,  and  his 
family  now  consisted  of  a  daughter  born  in 
1602,  and  a  son  born  in  1607.  He  married  a 
second  time  in  1615,  and  added  to  his  family 
three  sons  and  two  daughters,  who,  along 
with  their  mother,  survived  him. 

About  this  time  Kepler  was  summoned  to 
the  diet  at  Ratisbon,  to  give  his  opinion  on 
the  reformation  of  the  calendar,  a  subject 
upon  which  he  published  a  short  essay.  His 
pension  was  again  in  arrears,  and  in  order  to 
support  his  family  he  was  obliged  to  compose 
what  he  calls  "a  vile  prophesying  almanac," 
which,  he  adds,  "is  scarcely  more  repu- 
table than  begging,  unless  from  its  saving 
the  emperor's  credit,  who  abandons  me 
entirely,  and  would  suffer  me  to  perish  with 
hunger." 

In  1619  there  appeared  one  of  the  most 
interesting  of  his  works,  entitled  "The  Har- 
monies of  the  World."  It  is  dedicated  to 
James  I.  of  England,  and  is  remarkable  as 
containing  his  celebrated  law  that  the  squares 
of  the  periodic  times  of  the  planets  are  as  the 
cubes  of  their  distances.  This  law  occurred 
to  him  on  March  8,  1618,  but  from  a  blunder 
in  his  calculations  he  rejected  it.    Having 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


discovered  his  error  on  May  15tli,  he  recog- 
nized with  transport  the  absolute  truth  of  a 
principle  which  for  seventeen  years  had  been 
the  object  of  incessant  pursuit.  He  was 
almost  frantic  with  joy.  "The  die  is  cast," 
he  exclaimed,  "  the  book  is  written  to  be  read, 
either  now  or  by  posterity,  I  care  not  which. 
It  may  well  wait  a  century  for  a  reader,  as  God 
waited  six  thousand  years  for  an  observer." 
In  the  same  year  Kepler  published  the  three 
first  books  of  his  "  Epitome  of  the  Copernican 
Astronomy,"  the  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  and 
seventh  appearing  in  1622. 

In  1620  Sir  Henry  Wotton,  the  English 
ambassador  at  Venice,  visited  Kepler  while 
passing  through  Germany.  He  urged  the 
astronomer  to  take  up  his  residence  in  Eng- 
land, assuring  him  of  a  welcome  and  an 
honorable  reception ;  but  neither  the  welcome 
nor  the  reception,  which  is  all  the  encourage- 
ment he  would  have  received,  would  have 
released  him  from  his  pecuniary  difficulties. 
"If  the  imperial  mathematician,  therefore," 
said  Sir  David  Brewster,  in  his  Martyrs  of 
Science,  "had  no  other  assurance  of  a  com- 
fortable home  in  England  than  that  of  Sir 
Henry  Wotton,  he  acted  a  wise  part  in  dis- 
trusting it,  and  we  rejoice  that  the  sacred 
name  of  Kepler  was  thus  withheld  from  the 
long  hst  of  distinguished  characters  whom 
England  has  starved  and  dishonored." 

Notwithstanding  his  own  pecuniary  difficul- 
ties, the  emperor  Ferdinand,  in  1622,  ordered 
the  whole  of  Kepler's  arrears  to  be  paid, 
including  those  due  by  Rudolph  II.  and 
Matthias  I.,  and  he  supplied,  also,  the  neces- 
sary funds  for  continuing  the  "Rudolphine 
Tables."  The  wars  of  the  reformation,  how- 
ever, interfered  with  this  and  with  every  other 
peaceful  pursuit.  Kepler's  residence  at  Linz 
was  blockaded  by  the  religious  reactionaries, 
and  his  library  sealed  up. 

It  is  too  often  forgotten  that,  while  pursiiing 
his  purely  scientific  researches,  Kepler  was 
incessantly  laboring  at  the  practical  business 
of  his  fife,  bequeathed  to  him  by  Tycho  —  the 
construction  of  astronomical  tables.  These 
appeared  at  last  in  1627,  with  a  long  historical 
title-page,  indicating  the  part  which  Tycho, 
Frederick  II.  of  Denmark,  three  successive 
emperors  of  Germany,  and  finally  Kepler 
himself  had  taken  in  their  construction. 
Without  the  invention  of  logarithms,  which 
Kepler  eagerly  adopted  from  Napier,  these 
tables  could  hardly  have  been  constructed; 
and  they  figure  side  by  side  with  Kepler's 


ellipse  and  Galileo'*  toltioope,  in  the  AUagori- 

cal  frontispiece. 

The  grand  duke  of  Tuscany  sent  him  a 
gold  chain  in  testimony  of  his  approbation  of 
this  great  work,  and  Albert  Wallcnstein,  duka 
of  Friedland,  munificently  invited  him  to 
reside  at  Sagan,  in  Silesia.  With  the  em- 
peror's permission  he  accepted  this  offer, 
took  his  family  to  Sagan  in  1629,  and  by  the 
duke's  influence  obtained  a  professorship  in 
the  university  of  Rostock. 

Finding  it  difficult  in  this  remote  locality 
to  obtain  payment  of  his  imperial  pension,  the 
arrears  of  which  were  eight  thousand  crowns, 
he  went  to  the  imperial  assembly  at  Ratisbon 
to  obtain  them.  The  vexation  which  the 
failure  of  this  attempt  occasioned,  and  the 
fatigue  of  his  journey,  threw  him  into  ft 
catarrhal  fever,  which  was  accompanied  with 
an  abscess  of  the  brain,  the  result  of  excessive 
study.  Medical  skill  failed,  and  he  died  on 
November  15,  1630,  in  his  sixtieth  year.  His 
remains  were  interred  in  St.  Peter's  church- 
yard  at  Ratisbon,  and  on  his  tombstone  was 
placed  an  inscription  written  by  himself. 
This  monument  was  destroyed  in*  the  wars 
which  desolated  Germany,  and  it  was  not 
until  1803  that  the  prince  bishop  of  Constance 
erected  a  handsome  monumental  temple  near 
the  place  of  his  interment,  surmounted  by  a 
marble  bust  of  Kepler. 

This  great  man  published  no  fewer  than 
thirty-three  separate  works.  His  discoveries 
in  optics,  general  physics,  and  geometry  are 
numerous;  but  his  fame  rests  chiefly  on  the 
discovery  of  three  remarkable  laws  by  which 
the  movements  of  all  the  planets  are  explained. 
The  first  of  "Kepler's  laws,"  as  they  are 
called,  is  that  planets  move  round  the  sun  in 
ellipses  or  ovals,  and  not  in  circles;  the 
second  law  is  that  planets  describe  equal 
areas  about  their  center  in  equal  times;  and 
the  third  law  is  that  the  squares  of  the  periodic 
times  of  the  planets  are  proportional  to  the 
cubes  of  their  distances.  Even  if  Kepler  had 
never  turned  his  attention  to  the  heavens,  his 
optical  labors  would  have  given  him  high 
rank  among  the  original  inquirers  of  his  age. 

Kepler  had  a  strong,  though  very  vague,  con- 
ception of  planetary  gravitation.  "  Gravity," 
he  says,  in  the  introduction  to  the  work  on 
Mars,  "  is  a  mutual  tendency  of  similar  bodies 
to  imite.  Heavy  bodies  do  not  tend  to  the 
center  of  the  world,  but  to  that  of  the  spheri- 
cal body  of  which  they  are  a  part.  If  the 
earth  was  not  spherical,  bodies  would  not 


354 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


fall  vertically  to  its  surface.  If  the  earth  and 
the  moon  were  not  kept  at  their  respective 
distances,  they  would  fall  one  on  the  other; 
supposing  them  of  the  same  density,  the 
moon  would  pass  through  fifty-three  fifty- 
fourths  of  the  distance,  the  earth  through  the 
remaining  part."  He  attributed  the  tides 
also  to  their  true  cause  —  the  action  of  the 
moon  on  successive  points  of  the  ocean  as  the 
earth  rotated. 

Between  these  floating  conjectures  and  the 
solid  ground  of  Newton's  Principia  there  was 
a  wide  gulf  which  only  the  calculus  of  Leibnitz 
or  Newton  could  bridge  over.  But  they  show 
the  soundness  of  Kepler's  scientific  instinct. 
In  the  same  work  is  to  be  found  the  earliest 
indication  of  the  first  law  of  motion :  that  a 
body  unaffected  by  external  force  remains  at 
rest  or  in  uniform  rectilinear  motion. 

The  history  of  science  does  not  present  us 
with  any  discoveries  more  truly  original,  or 
which  required  for  their  establishment  a  more 


acute  and  vigorous  mind.  The  speculations 
of  his  predecessors  afforded  him  no  assistance. 
From  the  cumbrous  machinery  adopted  by 
Copernicus,  Kepler  passed  at  one  step  to  an 
elliptical  orbit,  with  the  sun  in  one  of  its  foci ; 
and  from  that  moment  astronomy  became  a 
demonstrative  science.  The  splendid  dis- 
coveries of  Newton  sprang  immediately  from 
those  of  Kepler,  and  completed  the  great 
chain  of  truths  which  constitute  the  laws  of 
the  planetary  system.  The  eccentricity  and 
boldness  of  Kepler's  genius  form  a  striking 
contrast  with  the  calm  intellect  and  enduring 
patience  of  Newton.  The  bright  spark  which 
the  genius  of  the  one  elicited  was  fostered  by 
the  sagacity  of  the  other  into  a  steady  and 
enduring  flame.  Kepler's  simple  but  solemn 
announcement  that  the  two  things  which 
filled  him  with  wonder  —  "  the  starry  heavens 
above,  and  the  moral  law  within  "  —  will,  in 
itself,  long  continue  to  impress  his  greatness 
upon  the  soul  of  the  ages. 


HARVEY 


A.  D.  AOE 

1578     Bom  at  Folkestone,  England, 

1593  Entered  Cambridge  university,  ...  15 
1598     Studied  at  Padua,  Italy,  under  Fabri- 

cius, 20 

1602     M.  D.  from  Padua,  and  Cambridge,    .  24 

1604     Married;  settled  in  London, 26 

1615     Lecturer    on    anatomy    and    surgery, 

collie  of  physicians,  London,  ...  37 

1618     Physician  to  James  I., 40 


A.   D.  AOB 

1628     ExercitatiodeMotuCordiitrt  Sanguinis, 
"Exercise  on  the  Motion  of  the  Heart 

and  Blood," 50 

1632     Physician  to  Charles  I., 54 

1645     Warden  of  Merton  college,  Oxford, .    .      67 
1651     Ezerciiationet  de  Genrratirme  Anima- 
lium,  "Exercises  on  Generation  of 

Animals," 73 

1657     Died  at  London 79 


VyiLLIAM  HARVEY,  celebrated  English 
'  ^  anatomist,  physiologist,  and  physician, 
and  discoverer  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood, 
was  born  at  Folkestone,  England,  April  1, 
1578.  He  was  the  son  of  Thomas  Harvey,  a 
merchant  of  good  repute,  and  Joan  Halke. 
Five  of  his  brothers  followed  merchandizing 
in  the  city  of  London,  and  the  sixth  was  a 
member  of  parliament  for  Hythe. 

After  attending  the  grammar  school  at 
Canterbury,  young  Harvey  in  his  sixteenth 
year  entered  Caius  college,  Cambridge,  where 
he  was  graduated,  B.  A.,  in  1597.  TTie  fol- 
lowing year  he  went  to  Padua,  Italy,  then  the 
most  celebrated  school  of  medicine  in  the 
world,  where  he  spent  four  years  in  preparation 
for  his  professional  career.  He  studied  at 
Padua  imder  the  noted  Fabricius  of  Aqua- 
pendente,  Julius  Casserius,  Gahleo,  and  other 
eminent  men,  who  then  adorned  that  univer- 
sity, and  received  his  diploma  as  doctor  of 


medicine  in  1602.  Returning  to  England  in 
the  same  year,  he  obtained  also  a  doctor's 
diploma  from  his  alma  mater,  Cambridge 
university. 

It  is  frequently  noted  that  in  his  subsequent 
discoveries  Harvey  owed  a  large  debt  to  the 
distinguished  Fabricius,  who  discovered  the 
valves  in  the  veins,  favoring  the  flow  of  blood 
in  a  special  direction.  Galileo's  lectures  at 
Padua,  on  motion  and  mechanical  force,  were 
at  that  time  also  revolutionizing  thought  on 
all  physical  questions,  and  it  is  not  likely  his 
influence  was  totally  lost  on  Harvey's  keen 
intellect. 

In  1604,  when  twenty-six  years  of  age,  he 
married  the  daughter  of  Dr.  Lancelot  Browne ; 
and,  entering  his  name  on  the  list  of  candi- 
dates for  a  fellowship  in  the  college  of  physi- 
cians, he  settled  to  the  practice  of  medicine  in 
London.  In  1609  he  was  appointed  physi- 
cian   to    St.    Bartholomew's    hospital,    and 


o 

2 

H 

z 

IS 


a    "" 

a: 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


817 


devoted  himself  assiduously  to  his  professional 
duties.  His  rise  to  distinction  appears  to 
have  been  rapid,  for  we  find  him,  after  no  very 
protracted  practice,  in  the  position  of  physi- 
cian to  many  of  the  foremost  men  of  the  age 
—  among  whom  were  the  earl  of  Arundel, 
Lord  Chancellor  Bacon,  and  others  of  dis- 
tinction. In  the  year  1615  Harvey  was 
chosen  lecturer  on  anatomy  and  surgery  to 
the  college  of  physicians,  on  the  foundation 
of  Dr.  Richard  Caldwell ;  and  from  this  year 
dates  the  most  important  period  in  his  career. 
Shortly  thereafter  he  began  to  give  oral 
expositions  of  his  views  on  the  action  of  the 
heart  and  the  motion  of  the  blood  through  all 
parts  of  the  body  in  a  continuous  circle.  It 
was  not,  however,  until  much  later  that  he 
gave  wider  publicity  to  his  discoveries  by 
his  Exercitatio  de  Motu  Cordis  et  Sanguinis, 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1628. 

Up  to  this  time  the  views  of  Harvey  were 
probably  unknown  beyond  the  sphere  of  his 
own  immediate  influence.  There  was  no  stir  in 
the  anatomical  world  about  the  circulation  of 
the  blood,  and  no  notice  of  Harvey  as  an  inno- 
vator until  after  the  publication  at  Frank- 
fort. Shortly  after  that  event,  however, 
there  is  evidence  that  the  subject  was  attract- 
ing the  notice  of  anatomists;  and  various 
dissertations  in  contravention  of  his  views 
began  to  make  their  appearance  on  the 
continent  of  Europe. 

At  home  he  had  no  public  opponent ;  but 
his  opponents  there  had  their  revenge  in 
another  way,  by  questioning  his  skill  as  a 
practitioner;  so  that  he  complained  to  his 
friend  and  contemporary,  Aubrey,  that  "  after 
the  coming  out  of  his  book  his  practice  had 
greatly  declined." 

It  is  important  here  to  observe  that  the 
conclusions  of  Harvey,  of  course,  took  the 
professional  world  by  surprise.  Among  his 
original  opponents  there  is  no  hint  at  similar 
views  already  entertained  by  others.  Dif- 
fering entirely  from  current  and  long  accred- 
ited notions,  Harvey's  inferences  were  at  first 
simply  rejected,  and  rejected  by  all  the 
authorities  of  continental  Europe  with  singu- 
lar unanimity;  his  merit  as  a  discoverer  in 
contrast  with  others  was  not  even  made  the 
subject  of  discussion.  It  is  only  later,  when 
the  possibility  of  the  truth  of  Harvey's  dis- 
covery was  dawning  on  men's  minds,  that 
envy  began  to  see  things  in  the  writings  of 
older  anatomists  which  had  never  been  seen 
there  before,  and  which,  with  the  new  inter- 


pretation, went  to  rob  Harvey  of  almost  all 
merit  as  a  discoverer.  The  worics  of  Realdua 
Columbus,  Cesalpino,  and  Servetus  were 
now  declared  to  contain  enunciations  of  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  — of  the  leaser  cir^ 
culation  at  all  events,  if  not  of  the  greater  — 
and,  strange  to  say,  it  was  not  until  the  earlier 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century  that  it  waa 
conclusively  shown,  by  immediate  reference 
to  the  writings  of  these  celebrated  men,  that 
they  had  in  no  instance  conceived  a  circulation 
of  the  blood  in  the  sense  in  which  Harvey 
demonstrated  and  we  now  understand  it. 

Michael  Servetus,  it  is  true,  in  his  Ratilip- 
tio  Christianismi,  published  in  1553,  had 
described  the  circulation  of  the  blood  from 
the  right  side  of  the  heart,  through  the  lungs, 
to  the  left  side.  He  knew  the  change  of  the 
color  of  the  blood  from  dark  to  bright  red 
that  took  place  in  the  lungs;  he  knew  also 
that  in  the  act  of  expiration  the  blood  was 
purified  from  "fuliginous  vapors."  Rcaldus 
Columbus  in  1559,  and  after  him  Cesalpino  of 
Arezzo,  Galileo's  first  teacher,  by  careful  study 
of  the  valves  of  the  heart,  had  shown  that  the 
course  of  the  pulmonary  circulation  must  be 
as  Servetus  had  stated.  Cesalpino  went  so 
far  as  to  conjecture  that  by  the  great  artery 
(aorta)  and  its  branches  bright  blood  passed 
to  all  parts  of  the  body;  and  that  in  the 
veins  the  passage  was  not  from  the  main 
trunk  to  branches,  but  from  branches  to 
trunk. 

But,  in  the  first  place,  these  views,  espe- 
cially as  regarded  the  systematic,  or  general 
circulation,  were  conjectural  only,  and  were 
complicated  with  erroneous  views  aa  to  the 
relations  of  the  heart  and  liver.  Secondly, 
what  is  far  more  important,  neither  these 
great  anatomists,  nor  any  one  else,  had  any 
conception  of  the  muscular  contraction  of  the 
heart  as  the  mechanical  force  that  impelled 
the  blood.  They  were  still  under  the  full 
dominion  of  metaphysical  fancies  as  to  motion 
being  naturally  in  circles,  and  as  to  the 
effervescing  spirits  which  caused  the  heart,  in 
its  diastole,  to  swell  and  so  attract  the  blood ; 
whereas,  in  systole,  the  heart  collapsed,  when 
the  body  drew  from  it  a  supply  of  nutriment. 
Harvey  showed  for  the  first  time  that  the 
periods  of  activity  and  rest  were  exactly  the 
reverse  of  what  had  been  thought ;  that  the 
energy  of  each  chamber  of  the  heart  was 
exerted  in  contraction.  Combining  the  re- 
searches of  his  predecessors,  and  availing 
himself  of  the  discovery  of  Fabricius  as  to  the 


368 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


valves  of  the  veins,  he  showed  the  precise 
manner  in  which  the  machine  worked.  It 
was  the  first  introduction  into  biology  of  the 
laws  of  mechanical  science. 

Harvey's  title  of  his  great  work  gives  the 
key  to  the  right  understanding  of  the  vital 
points  of  his  system.  It  is  not  an  exercise  on 
the  circulation  of  the  blood,  but  an  "  Exercise 
on  the  movement  of  the  Heart  and  Blood  " : 
the  action  of  the  heart  has  precedence,  as  of 
right,  over  the  motion  of  the  blood.  The 
action  of  the  heart  once  understood,  the 
double  circulation  of  the  blood  through  the 
lungs,  and  through  the  body  at  large,  follows 
as  a  necessity  from  the  arrangement  of  the 
wonderful  valvular  apparatus  of  the  pro- 
pelling organ. 

Though  his  scientific  inquiries  may  have 
interfered  with  his  popularity,  and  led  to  the 
decline  of  his  general  practice,  Harvey  seems 
to  have  made  steady  way  with  the  court  and 
the  great  world.  Three  years  after  he  had 
been  made  lecturer  to  the  college  of  physi- 
cians, he  was  chosen  one  of  the  physicians 
extraordinary  to  James  I.,  and  in  1G23  re- 
ceived promise  of  the  office  of  physician-in- 
ordinary  on  the  first  vacancy.  To  this  latter 
dignity  he  attained  about  1632,  but  it  was 
after  the  death  of  James  and  when  his  son 
Charles  I.  had  already  occupied  the  throne  for 
several  years.  The  treatise  on  the  heart  and 
blood  was  dedicated  to  Charles,  who  took  such 
a  decided  interest  in  the  studies  of  his  physi- 
cian as  to  have  commanded  a  demonstration 
of  the  matters  in  question  in  his  presence. 
Charles  also  most  liberally  furnished  Harvey 
from  the  royal  parks  with  the  does  which  he 
required  in  the  observations  he  was  now  pur- 
suing upon  the  subject  of  generation. 

Harvey's  position  as  physician  to  the  coxirt 
had  led  in  1630  to  an  engagement  as  medical 
attendant  on  the  young  duke  of  Lennox  in  his 
travels  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  in  the 
course  of  which  Venice  and  the  north  of  Italy 
were  visited.  In  1636  we  again  find  Harvey 
in  the  suite  of  the  earl  of  Arundel  in  his 
extraordinary  embassy  to  the  emperor  of 
Germany,  during  which  journey  he  publicly 
demonstrated,  in  the  city  of  Nuremberg,  to 
the  celebrated  anatomist,  Caspar  Hoffmann 
—  one  of  the  chief  opponents  of  his  views  — 
the  anatomical  particulars  and  necessary 
conclusions  of  his  theory.  This  demonstra- 
tion, it  seems,  was  absolutely  conclusive  to 
all  present  except  Hoffmann  himself,  who 
still  continued  to  lU'ge  futile  objections. 


Charles  I.,  now  having  in  1640  brought 
political  matters  to  a  crisis  between  himself 
and  his  people,  the  standard  of  despotic 
power  on  one  hand,  and  of  parliamentary 
and  constitutional  government  on  the  other, 
was  unfurled,  and  the  battle  of  Edgehill  was 
fought  in  1642.  At  this  conflict  Harvey  was 
present;  and  during  the  fight,  according  to 
Aubrey,  the  prince  and  duke  of  York  were 
committed  to  his  care.  Charles  continued  to 
have  his  headquarters  at  Oxford  for  several 
years  after  the  battle  of  Edgehill,  and  Harvey 
remained  with  him;  and,  besides  his  court 
duties,  began  those  studies  which  seem  for 
many  years  to  have  absorbed  a  large  share  of 
his  attention.  Oxford  university  conferred 
upon  him  its  honorary  degree  of  doctor  of 
physic ;  and,  in  1645,  by  order  of  the  king,  he 
was  made  warden  of  Merton  college,  an  office 
which  he  did  not  long  retain,  for,  in  July, 
1646,  Oxford  surrendered  to  the  parliamen- 
tary party,  and  he  returned  to  London. 

Harvey  was  now  sixty-eight  years  of  age, 
and  seems  to  have  withdrawn  himself  from 
practice,  and  from  all  further  participation  in 
the  fortunes  of  his  royal  master.  Indeed,  he 
seems  not  to  have  resided  constantly  in  Lon- 
don, but  to  have  spent  much  of  his  time  at 
the  houses  of  more  than  one  of  his  brothers  in 
the  country.  Through  his  very  lucrative 
practice  before  the  civil  war  broke  out,  he 
accumulated  a  fund  which  grew  so  fast  under 
the  prudent  management  of  his  brother, 
Eliab,  the  city  merchant,  that  at  his  death 
Harvey  was  worth  more  than  one  hundred 
thousand  dollars,  a  very  ample  fortune  in 
those  days.  In  retiring  from  public  life,  how- 
ever, he  did  not  by  any  means  abandon  him- 
self to  idleness.  He  had  long  been  engaged 
in  the  study  of  the  difficult  subject  of  genera- 
tion, and,  in  1651,  at  the  especial  instance  of 
Dr.  Ent,  by  far  the  most  bulky  of  his  works  — 
"Exercises  on  Generation  of  Animals"  — 
was  given  to  the  world. 

Ent's  account  of  his  interview  with  Harvey 
on  the  occasion  of  his  obtaining  this  work  for 
publication  is  extremely  interesting,  and 
brings  us  face  to  face  with  the  great  anato- 
mist, whose  language  to  Ent  is  highly  imagi- 
native as  he  refers  to  the  troubles  he  had 
brought  upon  himself  by  the  publication  of 
the  "  Exercise  on  the  Heart." 

"Would  you  be  the  man,"  he  exclaimed  to 
Ent,  who  was  pressing  him  to  share  with  the 
world  some  further  fruits  of  his  ingenuity, 
"  Would  you  be  the  man  to  have  me  quit  the 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


peaceful  haven  where  I  now  pass  my  life, 
and  launch  again  upon  the  faithless  sea? 
You,  who  know  well  what  a  storm  my  former 
lucubrations  raised!  Much  better  is  it, 
oftentimes,  to  grow  wise  at  home  than  by 
publishing  what  you  have  gathered  with 
infinite  pains,  to  stir  up  tempests  that  may 
rob  you  of  peace  and  quiet  for  the  rest  of 
your  days."  Ent,  nevertheless,  succeeded 
in  overcoming  the  objections  of  the  scientist, 
and  carried  ofif  the  MS.,  comparing  himself 
to  a  second  Jason  laden  with  another  golden 
fleece,  and  engaging  to  perform  the  midwife's 
part  in  ushering  the  work  into  the  world. 

The  scope  and  character  of  the  work  on 
"  Generation  "  were  of  themselves  guarantees 
that  Harvey  would  not  be  disturbed  by  the 
cavils  and  objections  of  ill-informed  and  specu- 
lative opponents.  Here  he  offended  no  accred- 
ited ideas,  came  in  rude  contact  with  no  fore- 
gone conclusions  by  his  observations.  It 
contained,  like  his  first  work,  a  mass  of 
original  and  carefully  classified  observations 
on  human  beings  and  animals,  but  was  less 
fertile  in  immediate  discovery.  But  it  con- 
tinued, with  alternate  strivings  of  the  positive 
and  metaphysical  spirit,  the  researches  of 
Aristotle,  and  it  fills  a  most  important  place  in 
the  history  of  embryology.  His  striking 
generalization,  Omne  vivum  ex  ovo,  though  not 
true  absolutely,  shows  most  prescient  insight 
into  the  process  of  organic  evolution. 

The  work  on  generation,  then,  does  not 
appear  to  have  made  any  stir  in  the  world  of 
science;  but  that  it  enhanced  its  author's 
reputation  among  his  contemporaries  is 
unquestionable.  Harvey  was,  in  fact,  now 
looked  up  to  by  common  consent  as  the  most 
distinguished  anatomist  and  physician  of  his 
age,  and,  soon  after  the  publication  of  the 
work  in  question,  the  college  of  physicians 
decreed  him  a  statue  to  be  erected  in  their 
hall,  where,  with  a  suitable  inscription  on  its 
base,  it  stood  until  the  great  fire  of  1666 
desolated  London. 

From  this  period  on  to  the  time  of  his 
death,  the  chief  object  which  occupied  his 
mind  was  the  welfare  and  improvement  of 
the  college  of  physicians.  He  built,  furnished, 
and  endowed  a  handsome  hbrary  for  this 
institution  at  his  own  expense,  but  his  name 
did  not  even  appear  in  connection  with 
the  gift;  the  inscription  round  the  cornice 
merely  annotmced  that  the  building  was 
erected  under  the  auspices  of  Dr.  Prujean,  the 
president  of  the  year. 


Harvey  preserved  his  mental  activity  and 
vigor  to  the  very  end  of  his  life.  Hit  letter 
to  Clegel  of  Hamburg,  written  in  his  seventyo 
fifth  year,  has  all  the  perspicuity  and  force 
of  a  much  younger  man's  productioo.  In 
1654  he  was  elected,  in  his  absence,  preaident 
of  the  college,  but  he  declined  the  office 
on  account  of  his  age.  In  July,  lft56,  he 
resigned  his  Lumleian  lectureship,  which  he 
had  held  for  more  than  forty  yean;  and, 
in  taking  leave  of  the  college,  presented  to  it 
his  patrimonial  estate  at  Burmarsh,  in  Kent, 
then  valued  at  fifty-six  pounds  per  annum. 
He  did  not  long  survive,  but,  worn  down  by 
repeated  attacks  of  gout,  he  died  at  London 
on  June  3,  1657,  and  was  buried  in  a  vault 
at  Hempstead,  in  Essex,  which  his  brother 
Eliab  had  built. 

Aubrey,  Harvey's  chief  biographer,  has 
left  us  the  following  graphic  description  of 
him:  "In  person,  he  was  of  the  lowest 
stature,  round-faced,  and  with  an  olivaster 
complexion.  He  had  little  eyes,  round,  very 
black,  and  full  of  spirit.  His  hair  was  black 
as  a  raven.  In  temper,  he  was  very  choleric, 
and  in  his  younger  days  he  wore  a  dagger,  as 
the  fashion  then  was,  which  he  would  be  apt 
to  draw  out  upon  every  occasion." 

Harvey,  however,  was  unquestionably  of  a 
most  placable  and  amiable  disi>osition.  With 
his  own  family  he  lived  on  terms  of  entire 
intimacy,  and  he  was  universally  beloved  and 
honored  among  his  professional  friends.  He 
seems  to  have  been  entirely  free  from  all  love 
of  ostentation.  He  was  fond  of  meditation 
and  retirement;  and  there  is  much  in  his 
works  to  characterize  him  as  a  man  of  wahn 
and  unaffected  piety. 

With  the  ancient  philosophers  he  i^pears  to 
have  regarded  the  universe  and  its  parts  as 
existing  by  the  will,  and  actuated  by  the 
power,  of  a  supreme  and  all-pervading  intelli- 
gence. In  this  he  seems  to  have  anticipated 
the  celebrated  philosopher,  Schopenhauer  — 
without,  however,  the  latter's  pessimism. 
He  was  a  great  admirer  of  Vergil,  whose  works 
were  frequently  in  his  hands,  and  whose 
religious  philosophy  he  appears  also  in  a 
great  measure  to  have  adopted,  though  upwi 
the  purely  deistic  notions  of  cultivated  an- 
tiquity he  undoubtedly  engrafted  a  speaal 
faith  on  the  Christian  dispensation. 

It  is  impossible  to  overestimate  the  influence 
which  Harvey's  induction  has  had  on  the 
progress  of  physiological  knowledge,  and  on 
the  science,  as  contrasted  with  the  empirical 


360 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


practice,  of  medicine.  He  was  universally 
inquisitive  into  natural  things  and  natural 
phenomena,  and  his  industry  in  collecting 
facts  and  recording  them  was  unwearied. 
He  was  the  first  English  comparative  anato- 
mist; that  is,  he  was  the  first  physiologist 
that  country  produced  whose  superiority  of 
mental  endowment  led  him  to  perceive  the 
relations  between  the  lowest  and  the  highest 
organized  beings,  and  who  made  the  simplicity 
of  structure  and  function  in  the  one  the  means 
of  explaining  the  complexity  of  structure  and 
function  in  the  other.  The  great  British 
physiologist  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Hun- 
ter, had  certainly  a  herald  in  the  great  com- 
parative anatomist  and  physiologist  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  "Had  anatomists," 
says  Harvey,  "only  been  as  conversant  with 
the  dissection  of  the  lower  animals  as  they  are 
with  that  of  the  human  body,  many  matters 
that  have  hitherto  kept  them  in  a  perplexity 
of  doubt  would  in  my  opinion  have  met  them 
freed  from  every  kind  of  difficulty." 

Aubrey  mentions  particularly  Harvey  as 
having  often  said  that,  of  all  the  losses  he 
sustained,  no  grief  was  so  crucifying  to  him  as 
the  loss  of  his  papers  containing  notes  of  his 


dissections  of  many  of  the  lower  animals, 
which,  together  with  his  goods  in  his  lodgings 
at  Whitehall,  were  plundered  at  the  beginning 
of  the  rebellion.  But  these  notes  on  com- 
parative anatomy  were  not  the  only  loss ;  the 
"Medical  Observations,"  or  "Medical  Anat- 
omy," perished  at  the  same  time,  a  great  work 
still  more  to  be  regretted,  in  which  Harvey 
himself  informs  us  that  he  intended,  from  the 
many  dissections  he  had  made  of  the  bodies  of 
persons  worn  out  by  serious  and  strange  affec- 
tions, to  relate  how  and  in  what  way  the 
internal  organs  were  changed  in  their  situa- 
tion, size,  figure,  structure,  consistency,  and 
other  sensible  quahties  from  their  natural 
forms  and  appearances.  For  even  as  the 
dissection  of  healthy  bodies  contributes 
essentially  to  the  advancement  of  philosophy 
and  sound  physiology,  so  does  the  inspection 
of  diseased  and  cachectic  subjects  powerfully 
assist  philosophical  pathology. 

This  is  precisely  the  system  which  the 
celebrated  Morgagni  —  founder  of  pathologi- 
cal anatomy  —  pursued,  and  it  is  still  the 
grand  business  which  the  most  illustrious 
among  modern  pathologists  are  striving  to 
extend  and  perfect. 


NEWTON 


A.  D.  AOE 

1642         Bom  at  Woolsthorpe,  England,   .    . 

1661         Entered  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  19 

1663         Invented  the  "binomial  theorem,  '  21 

1665  Established    the  "theory    of    flux- 

ions," or  calculus, 23 

1666  Doctrine  of  colors 24 

1668  Constructed  reflecting  telescope,  .    .  26 

1669  Professor  of  mathematics  at  Cam- 

bridge university, 27 

1672         Fellow   of   the  royal   society;    dis- 
covered the  composition  of  light,  30 


A.  D.  AOB 

168&-87  The  Principia 44-45 

1689         Member  of   parliament  for  univer- 
sity of  Cambridge, 47 

1696         Warclen  of  the  mint, 54 

1699         Master  of  the  mint 57 

1701         Reelected  to  parliament  for  Cam- 
bridge university, 59 

1703         President  of  the  royal  societv, ...  61 

1705         Knighted  bv  Queen  Anne,     ....  63 

1727         Died  at  Kensington 85 


CIR  ISAAC  NEWTON,  one  of  the  most 
^^  celebrated  mathematicians  and  natural 
philosophers,  was  bom  at  Woolsthorpe,  near 
Grantham,  in  Lincolnshire,  England,  Decem- 
ber 25,  1642.  His  father,  also  Isaac  Newton, 
was  a  farmer  and  small  landed  proprietor  of 
Lincolnshire,  who  married  Hannah  Ayscough, 
and  died  a  few  months  after  his  marriage. 
Young  Newton  was  then  a  posthumous  child, 
and,  dviring  his  earliest  years,  was  of  very 
delicate  physical  constitution.  For  three 
years  his  mother  watched  over  him  with 
great  maternal  anxiety,  when  she  married 
Rev.  Barnabas  Smith.     In  consequence  of 


this  marriage,  the  boy  was  then  left  under  the 
care  of  his  grandmother,  who  had  general 
oversight  of  his  youthful  education. 

Newton,  at  the  age  of  twelve  years,  attended 
Grantham  grammar  school,  but  he  was  slow 
in  book  learning,  and  much  absorbed  in 
mechanical  contrivances,  windmills,  water- 
clocks,  carriages,  and  paper  kites ;  and  among 
his  early  tastes  may  be  mentioned  his  love  for 
drawing  and  writing  verses,  in  neither  of 
which  he  was  destined  to  excel. 

On  the  death  of  his  stepfather  in  1656,  his 
mother  returned  to  Woolsthorpe  with  her 
children;    and  Isaac,  who  was  now  in  his 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


Ml 


fifteenth  year,  was  recalled  from  school  to 
assist  in  the  management  of  the  farm.  At 
this,  however,  he  was  far  from  a  success. 
While  he  was  occupied  with  his  books,  models, 
water  wheels  and  dials,  the  business  of  the 
farm  was  neglected,  and  the  cattle  were  luxu- 
riating among  the  corn.  When  he  thus 
demonstrated  his  unfitness  for  the  business  of 
a  farmer,  he  was  sent  back  to  Grantham 
school,  where  he  made  a  distinguished  record 
for  himself,  and  finally  stood  at  the  head  of 
the  school  in  scholarship.  On  June  5,  1661, 
when  nineteen  years  old,  he  was  admitted 
subsizar  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge  but 
was  somewhat  unprepared  for  its  course  of 
instruction  by  his  preliminary  mathematical 
studies.  He  had  been  disposed  to  undervalue 
ancient  geometry,  and  afterward  confessed 
to  Dr.  Pemberton  that  he  had  applied  himself 
to  the  works  of  Descartes  and  others  before 
he  had  sufficiently  considered  the  Elements  of 
Euclid.  He  now  devoted  himself  eagerly  to 
mathematical  study,  and  within  a  very  few 
years  not  only  made  himself  master  of  most  of 
the  works  of  any  value  on  such  subjects  then 
existing,  but  also  made  marked  progress  in  the 
methods  for  extending  that  science.  In  1663 
he  invented  what  is  now  known  as  the 
binomial  theorem.  In  April,  1664,  he  was 
elected  to  a  scholarship.  He  took  his  degree 
of  B.  A.  in  January,  1665,  was  elected  major 
fellow  in  March,  and  took  his  degree  of  M.  A. 
in  July,  1668. 

In  May,  1665,  it  appears  that  Newton  com- 
mitted to  writing  his  first  ideas  on  fluxions, 
or  the  calculus  —  that  subject  which  subse- 
quently gave  rise  to  so  extensive  a  controversy 
with  Leibnitz.  In  1666,  having  procured  a 
prism,  he  discovered  the  unequal  refrangi- 
bility  of  light,  and  the  true  doctrine  of  colors, 
and,  having  drawn  the  erroneous  conclusion 
that  the  improvement  of  the  refracting  tele- 
scope was  impossible,  he  set  himself  to  the 
construction  of  a  reflecting  telescope.  While 
thus  occupied  he  was  driven  from  Cambridge 
by  the  plague^  in  1665,  and  went  to  Wools- 
thorpe,  where  the  fall  of  an  apple,  as  he  sat  in 
his  garden,  suggested  to  him  the  most  magnifi- 
cent of  his  subsequent  discoveries  —  the  law 
of  gravitation. 

On  his  first  attempt,  however,  by  means  of 
the  law  so  suggested  to  his  mind,  to  explain 
the  lunar  and  planetary  motions,  he  employed 
an  estimate  then  in  use  of  the  radius  of  the 
earth,  which  was  so  erroneous  as  to  produce  a 
discrepancy  between  the  real  force  of  gravity 


and  that  required  by  theory  to  explain  the 
motions.  He  accordingly  abandoned  the 
hypothesis  and  returned  to  his  inquiries  into 
the  application  of  fluxions,  and  to  the  con- 
struction of  a  small  reflecting  teleaoope,  which 
latter  he  completed  in  1668. 

In  1669  Newton  waa  appointed  to  the 
Luca.sian  chair  of  mathematics  at  Cambridge, 
on  the  resignation  of  Dr.  Harrow,  and  from 
this  time  we  may  date  the  conunencement 
of  his  great  discoveries.  In  1672  he  wm 
elected  a  member  of  the  royal  society,  and 
his  first  communication  to  that  body  waa  a 
description  of  a  second  reflecting  telescope, 
which  excited  great  interest  in  England  koA 
abroad.  The  telescope  itself  waa  sent  to  the 
society  in  December,  1671,  "for  his  majesty'i 
perusal."  In  January,  1672,  he  announced 
to  the  secretary,  Oldenburg,  a  philosophical 
discovery  which  he  considered  the  boldest 
if  not  the  most  considerable  detection  hitherto 
made  in  the  operations  of  nature.  This  was 
the  discovery  of  the  composition  of  light, 
which  was  read  to  the  society  on  February  8, 
1672,  and  which  led  him  into  interminable 
controversies  with  Hooke,  Huygens,  and 
several  other  eminent  scientific  investigators. 
These  controversies  embittered  his  peace,  and 
led  him  to  resolve  to  have  nothing  more  to  do 
with  that  litigious  lady,  philosophy. 

In  1673  he  was  disappointed  in  a  competi- 
tion for  a  law  fellowship,  then  vacant  at 
Cambridge  —  a  disappointment  increased  by 
the  fact  that  he  was  about  this  time  in  such 
wretched  financial  circumstances  as  to  be 
unable  to  afford  the  weekly  payment  to  the 
royal  society,  which  "excused  him."  Very 
soon  afterward,  however,  when  his  fellowship 
was  about  to  expire,  he  obtained  permission 
from  the  crown  to  hold  the  Lucaaian  chair 
along  with  a  fellowship,  without  being  obliged 
to  take  orders  in  the  church.  In  1675  Newton 
read  before  the  royal  society  a  dissertation  on 
colors,  which  contained  fuller  details  on  the 
composition  and  decomposition  of  white  light, 
and  a  new  hypothesis  concerning  colors,  with 
some  proposition  explaining  the  colors  of  thin 
transparent  plates,  and  their  relation  to  the 
colors  of  natural  bodies.  This  again  brought 
Newton  into  a  controversy  with  Hooke,  but, 
notwithstanding  the  interruption,  he  was 
soon  occupied  with  those  profound  studies, 
the  results  of  which  were  afterward  set  forth 
in  his  immortal  work,,  the  Principia. 

He  had  long  since  deduced  from  the  laws 
of  Kepler  the  important  law  that  gravity 


362 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


decreases  with  the  square  of  the  distance,  a 
law  to  which  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  Halley,  and 
Hooke  had  all  been  led  by  independent  study. 
No  demonstration  of  it,  however,  had  been 
given,  and  no  proof  obtained  that  the  same 
power  which  made  the  apple  fall  was  that 
which  retained  the  moon  and  the  other 
planets  in  their  orbits. 

Adopting  the  ordinary  measure  of  the 
earth's  radius,  Newton  had  been  led  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  force  which  kept  the 
moon  in  its  orbit,  if  the  same  as  gravity,  was 
one-sixth  greater  than  that  which  was  actually 
observed,  a  result  which  perplexed  him,  and 
prevented  him  from  communicating  to  his 
friends  the  great  speculation  in  which  he  had 
engaged.  In  1682,  however,  he  had  heard 
of  Pi  card's  more  accurate  measure  of  the 
earth's  diameter,  and,  repeating  with  this 
measure  his  former  calculations,  he  found  to 
his  extreme  delight  that  the  force  of  gravity 
by  which  bodies  fall  at  the  earth's  surface, 
four  thousand  miles  from  the  earth's  center, 
when  diminished  as  the  square  of  two  hundred 
forty  thousand  miles,  the  moon's  distance, 
was  almost  exactly  equal  to  that  which  kept 
the  moon  in  its  orbit.  Hence  it  followed 
that  the  same  power  retained  all  the  other 
satellites  round  their  primaries  and  aU  the 
primaries  round  the  sun. 

When  Dr.  Halley  visited  Newton  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1684,  the  former  learned  from  him 
that  he  had  surmounted  the  difficulties  of  the 
planetary  motion,  and  promised  him  a 
treatise  he  had  written  on  the  subject.  This 
treatise,  De  Motu  Corporum  —  which  was  the 
germ  of  the  Principia  —  was  after  some  delay 
completed,  and  presented  to  the  royal 
society  in  1686.  It  was  subsequently  made 
the  first  book  of  the  Principia.  The  second 
book  was  sent  to  the  society  in  March,  1687, 
the  third  on  April  6th,  and  the  whole  work 
published  at  the  expense  of  Dr.  Halley  about 
midsummer  of  that  year. 

It  has  been  already  noted  that  Newton's 
alleged  discovery  of  fluxions,  or  calculus,  led 
to  an  embittered  controversy  between  Newton 
and  Leibnitz,  as  to  the  priority  of  the  dis- 
covery. The  verdict  of  the  impartial  histo- 
rian of  science  to-day  is  that  the  mettods  were 
invented  quite  independently.  It  is  admitted 
now  that  Newton  made  his  discovery  prior  to 
that  of  Leibnitz,  but  no  description  of  New- 
ton's fluxions  was  publjfhed  until  1693.  The 
letters  of  Leibnitz  show  that  he  had  invented 
his  differential  and  integral  calculus  in  1675 ; 


and  a  full  account  of  it  was  published  in  the 
Acta  Eruditorum  at  Leipzig,  1684.  It  must 
be  further  admitted  that  the  differentials  and 
integrals  of  Leibnitz  proved  more  fertile  in  the 
subsequent  development  of  mathematics  than 
the  fluxions  and  fluents  of  Newton. 

But  it  fell  to  the  lot  of  Newton  to  combine 
the  discovery  of  the  calculus  with  what  was  by 
far  the  most  important  of  its  applications. 
And  hence  it  is  that  the  Principia,  notwith- 
standing the  archaic  form  into  which  he 
thought  fit  to  transpose  his  discoveries,  will 
by  many  be  looked  upon  as  the  greatest,  and 
by  all  as  one  of  the  two  or  three  greatest  mas- 
terpieces of  scientific  intellect.  In  unity  of 
purpose,  though  not  in  native  power,  it  sur- 
passes the  work  of  Archimedes;  in  the 
importance  of  its  application,  though  not 
in  philosophic  breadth,  the  Mecanique  of 
Lagrange.  There  was  only  one  solar  system, 
as  Lagrange  himself  observed,  for  man's 
intellect  to  master. 

Shortly  before  the  Principia  was  given  to 
the  public,  Newton  had  been  called  to  take 
an  active  part  in  defending  the  rights  of 
Cambridge  university  against  the  illegal 
encroachments  of  James  II.  The  conspicuous 
part  which  he  had  taken  on  that  occasion 
procured  him  a  scat  in  the  convention  parlia- 
ment, in  which  he  sat  from  January,  1689,  to 
its  dissolution  in  1690.  In  1696  he  was  made 
warden  of  the  mint,  and  was  afterward 
promoted  to  the  office  of  master  of  the  mint 
in  1699,  an  ofllice  which  he  held  until  the  end 
of  his  life.  He  again  took  a  seat  in  parlia- 
ment in  the  year  1701,  as  the  representative 
of  his  university,  and  in  1705  the  honor  of 
knighthood  was  conferred  upon  him  by 
Queen  Anne,  at  Trinity  lodge,  Cambridge. 

Thus  engaged  in  the  public  service,  he  had 
little  time  left  for  mere  scientific  studies  — 
pursuits  which  he  always  held  of  secondary 
importance  to  the  public  duties  in  which  he 
was  engaged.  In  the  interval  of  public  duty, 
however,  Newton  showed  that  he  still  retained 
the  scientific  power  by  which  his  great  dis- 
coveries had  been  made.  This  was  shown  in 
his  solution  of  two  celebrated  problems 
proposed  in  June,  1696,  by  John  Bernouilli, 
as  a  challenge  to  the  mathematicians  of 
Europe.  A  similar  mathematical  feat  is 
recorded  of  him  as  late  as  1716,  in  solving  a 
problem  proposed  by  Leibnitz,  for  the  pur- 
pose, as  he  expressed  it,  of  feeling  the  pulse  of 
the  English  analysts. 

When  in  parliament,  Newton  recommended 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


the  public  encouragement  of  the  invention  of 
a  method  for  determining  the  longitude  — 
the  first  reward  in  consequence  being  gained 
by  John  Harrison  for  his  chronometer.  He 
was  president  of  the  royal  society  from  1703 
until  his  death,  a  period  of  twenty-five  years, 
being  each  year  reelected.  In  this  position, 
and  enjoying  the  confidence  of  Prince  George 
of  Denmark,  he  did  much  toward  the 
advancement  of  science.  One  of  his  most 
important  works  during  this  time  was  the 
superintendence  of  the  publication  of  Flam- 
steed's  "Greenwich  Observations"  —  a  task, 
however,  not  accomplished  without  much 
controversy  and  some  bitterness  bfetween 
himself  and  that  astronomer. 

Newton  continued  to  enjoy  a  regular  and 
pretty  equal  state  of  health  until  he  attained 
his  eightieth  year,  when,  having  become  sub- 
ject to  a  urinary  disorder,  his  health  gradually 
declined.  He  presided  for  the  last  time  at  a 
meeting  of  the  royal  society  on  March  2, 1727, 
and  died  at  Kensington  on  March  20th,  in  the 
eighty-fifth  year  of  his  age.  His  body  lay  in 
state  for  a  time  in  the  Jerusalem  chamber, 
adjoining  the  house  of  lords,  from  whence  it 
was  conveyed  to  and  interred  in  Westminster 
abbey,  the  pall  being  borne  by  the  lord 
chancellor,  two  dukes,  and  three  earls.  In 
1731  a  magnificent  monument  designed  by 
Kent,  and  sculptured  by  Rysbrack,  was 
erected  in  the  abbey  at  the  expense  of  his 
relatives;  and  his  statue  by  Roubillac  was 
subsequently  placed  in  Trinity  college, 
Cambridge. 

Besides  the  scientific  works  particiilarly 
mentioned,  Newton  published  a  treatise  on 
Universal  Arithmetic,  on  Analytical  Geometry, 
and  on  Optics.  His  literary  and  theological 
works  included  a  work  on  Chronology,  Obser- 
vations on  the  Prophesies  of  Holy  Writ,  and  an 
Historical  Account  of  Two  Notable  Corrup- 
tions of  Scripture.  These  latter  were  published 
after  his  death  in  Sir  David  Brewster's 
Memoirs  of  Newton,  and  clearly  indicate  that 
he  accepted  the  Arian  view  of  Christian  dogma. 
Prior  to  1692  Newton  was  popularly  known 
as  an  "excellent  divine,"  and  it  is  therefore 
probable  that  his  posthumous  papers  were 
written  in  the  prime  of  life  at  Cambridge. 

At  the  time  of  his  death  Newton  left 
a  private  fortime  exceeding  one  hundred 
fifty  thousand  dollars,  which  was  divided 
among  his  four  nephews  and  four  nieces  — 
descendants  of  his  mother's  second  marriage. 
He  himself  never  married. 


In  stature  Newton  wm  bekm  ratlMr  than 
above  the  middle  height,  and  became  aom^ 
what  corpulent  as  he  advanced  in  age. 
Thomas  Heame,  the  antiquary,  and  a  contem- 
porary of  his,  speaks  of  him  as  "a  short  well- 
set  man  looking  deep  in  thought  and  little 
inclined  to  conversation."  His  hair,  which 
was  abundant,  turned  grey  before  be  was 
thirty,  and  late  in  life  was  completely  white, 
giving  him  when  divested  of  his  peruke  an 
extremely  venerable  appearance.  His  eye 
was  bright  and  penetrating  up  to  the  latest 
years  of  his  life.  Conduitt  informs  us  that 
"until  his  last  illness  he  had  the  bloom  and 
color  of  a  young  man,  never  wore  spectacles, 
nor  lost  more  than  one  tooth  to  the  day  of  his 
death." 

In  his  latter  years  Newton  lived  in  hand- 
some style  in  London,  attended  by  a  coterie 
of  servants.  He  was  extremely  generous  and 
liberal  in  the  use  of  money,  and  for  mere 
worldly  wealth  he  had  a  supreme  contempt. 
He  entertained  a  very  modest  opinion  of  his 
own  abilities,  saying,  when  complimented  on 
the  extraordinary  power  of  his  mind,  if  he  had 
done  anything  worthy  of  notice,  and  of  service 
to  the  world,  it  was  owing  more  to  his  industry 
and  patience  of  thought  than  to  any  extraor- 
dinary sagacity.  "I  keep  the  subject  con- 
stantly before  me,"  said  he,  "and  wait  until 
the  first  dawnings  open  slowly,  by  Uttle  and 
little,  into  a  full  and  clear  light."  On  one 
occasion,  when  his  friends  expressed  their 
admiration  of  his  splendid  discoveries,  he 
said,  "  I  know  not  what  I  may  appear  to  the 
world,  but  to  myself  I  seem  to  have  been  only 
like  a  boy  playing  on  the  seashore,  and  diverts 
ing  myself  in  now  and  then  finding  a  smoother 
pebble  or  a  prettier  shell  than  ordinary,  whilst 
the  great  ocean  of  truth  lay  all  undiscovered 
before  me." 

When  engaged  in  the  solution  of  diffictilt 
problems,  he  was  often  so  completely  lost  to 
the  world  as  to  forget  the  common  concerns 
of  life.  He  has  been  known  to  sit  for  hours 
on  the  side  of  his  bed  with  his  clothes  half  on 
and  half  off,  absorbed  in  thought;  at  other 
times  he  has  gone  through  the  day  without 
food,  having  forgotten  the  wants  of  nature,  in 
the  contemplation  of  some  mathematical 
truth.  His  temper  is  said  to  have  been  so 
mild  and  equal  that  scarcely  any  accident 
could  disturb  it. 

One  instance  in  particular  is  mentioned  of 
this  disposition :  he  had  a  favorite  little  dog 
called  Diamond,  which,  being  left  in  his  study, 


8M 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


had  overset  a  lighted  candle  among  his  papers, 
and  burnt  the  almost  finished  labors  of  many- 
years.  This  loss  was  irretrievable,  yet  the 
philosopher  only  exclaimed,  "O  Diamond! 
Diamond  1  thou  little  knowest  the  mischief 
thou  hast  done."  His  patience  indeed  may 
be  said  sometimes  to  have  been  carried  too 
far ;  particularly  in  suffering  other  men  to  run 
away  with  the  merit  of  his  discoveries. 

Although  Newton  was  a  profound  thinker, 
at  no  time  of  his  life  was  he  a  ready  speaker. 
When  he  gave  his  evidence  in  1714  before  a 
parliamentary  committee  on  the  problem  of 
finding  the  longitude  at  sea,  it  was  said  by 
Whiston,  who  was  present  at  the  time,  that 
"what  the  rest  had  to  say  they  delivered  by 
word  of  mouth,  but  Sir  Isaac  Newton  delivered 
what  he  had  to  say  on  paper."  Nor  was  he  a 
ready  writer.  "At  no  period  of  his  life," 
says  Brewster,  "  was  he  fond  of  writing  letters, 
and  least  of  all  in  his  old  age.  He  wrote 
scrolls  of  almost  every  letter  he  composed." 

Like  the  great  philosopher,  Kant,  he  is  also 
a  remarkable  instance  of  a  distinguished  man 
who  never  traveled.  While  in  mind  he  sur- 
veyed the  heavens  and  journeyed  to  the 
remotest  stars,  he  traversed  in  body  but  a 
tiny  portion  of  the  earth. 

It  is  a  notable  coincidence  in  the  history 
of  science,  that  the  same  year  — 1642  — 
chronicled  the  death  of  Galileo  and  the  birth 
of  Newton.  The  circumstances  with  which 
the  pursuit  of  truth  in  scientific  matters  was 
at  this  time  surrounded,  in  the  respective 
countries  of  these  great  philosophers,  were 
not  more  different  than  the  characters  of  the 
philosophers  themselves.  Galileo  died  a  pris- 
oner, under  the  surveillance  of  the  inquisition, 
"for  thinking,  in  astronomy,"  as  Milton  says, 
"otherwise  than  the  Franciscan  and  Domini- 
can hcensers  thought." 

In  England  it  had  become  the  practice,  and 
soon  became  the  fashion  through  the  influence 
of  Bacon  and  Descartes,  to  discard  altogether 
the  dictates  of  authority  in  matters  of  science. 
The  dispositions  of  the  two  philosophers  were 
happily  suited  to  the  situations  in  which  they 
thus  found  themselves.  Galileo's  was  a  mind 
whose  strength  and  determination  grew  by 
the  opposition  it  encountered.  The  disposi- 
tion of  Newton,  on  the  other  hand,  diffident 
of  the  value  and  interest  of  his  own  labors, 
and  shrinking  from  the  encoimter  of  even 
scientific  controversy,  might  have  allowed  his 
most  remarkable  discoveries  to  remain  in 
obscurity,  had  it  not  been  for  the  constant  and 


urgent  solicitation  of  his  friends  that  they 
should  be  published  to  the  world. 

In  viewing  the  character  and  genius  of  this 
great  man,  it  is  not  easy  to  determine  whether 
sagacity,  penetration,  strength,  or  diligence 
had  the  greatest  share  in  his  composition. 
We  hardly  know  whether  to  admire  more  the 
sublime  discoveries  at  which  he  arrived,  or 
the  extraordinary  character  of  the  intellectual 
processes  by  which  those  discoveries  were 
reached.  "To  the  highest  powers  of  inven- 
tion," says  Sir  David  Brewster,  "he  added, 
what  so  seldom  accompanies  them,  the  talent 
of  simpUfying  and  communicating  his  pro- 
foundest  speculations.  In  the  economy  of 
her  distributions  nature  is  seldom  thus  lavish 
of  her  intellectual  gifts.  The  inspired  genius 
which  creates  is  rarely  conferred  along  with 
the  matured  judgment  which  combines,  and 
yet  without  the  exertion  of  both  the  fabric  of 
human  wisdom  could  never  have  been  reared. 
Though  a  ray  from  heaven  kindled  the  vestal 
fire,  yet  a  humble  priesthood  was  required  to 
keep  alive  the  flame." 

In  his  speech,  unveiling  the  statue  of,  New- 
ton at  Grantham,  Lord  Brougham  said: 
"The  contemplation  of  Newton's  discoveries 
raises  other  feelings  than  wonder  at  his 
matchless  genius.  The  light  with  which  it 
shines  is  not  more  dazzling  than  useful. 
The  difficulties  of  his  course,  and  his  expedi- 
ents, alike  copious  and  refined  for  surmounting 
them,  exercise  the  faculties  of  the  wise,  while 
commanding  their  admiration;  but  the 
results  of  his  investigations,  often  abstruse, 
are  truths  so  grand  and  comprehensive,  yet 
so  plain,  that  they  both  captivate  and  instruct 
the  simple.  Nor  when  we  recollect  the 
Greek  orator's  exclamation,  '  The  whole  earth 
is  the  monument  of  illustrious  men,'  can  we 
stop  short  of  declaring  that  the  whole  universe 
is  Newton's." 

It  has  been  said  by  others  that  the  history 
of  Sir  Isaac  Newton  is  also  the  history  of 
science ;  yet  the  character  of  his  life  and  work 
does  not  entirely  exclude  him  from  the  cate- 
gory of  men  of  letters.  While  his  great  book, 
the  Principia,  is  written  in  Latin  and  treats 
of  mathematics,  its  tremendous  scope  and 
magnificent  revelations  entitle  it  to  be  placed 
without  incongruity  among  those  works 
which,  like  Paradise  Lost  or  the  "Divine 
Comedy,"  have  widened  men's  outlook  into 
the  universe. 

Milton  and  Dante  dealt  with  the  spiritual 
order  of  creation.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  with  the 


LINNAEUS 

From  a  painting  by  Rodin 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


m 


material ;  yet  to  those  who  perceive  an  almost 
mystical  significance  in  numbers  —  to  whom 
the  science  of  mathematics  is,  in  a  sense,  a 
gateway  to  the  unseen  — the  author  of  the 
Princijria  and  of  the  treatise  on  Optics  will 
seem  scarcely  less  a  teacher  than  the  poets. 
His  soul  was  childlike  in   the  presence  of 


mysteries  to  which  he  held  one  key.  His 
bequests  to  posterity  are,  therefore,  not  only 
his  stupendous  discoveries,  but  the  example  of 
the  scientific  temper  of  mind  which  is  positive 
rather  than  negative,  and  which  seeks  a 
spiritual  order  behind  the  veil  of  matter. 


LINNiEUS 


A.  D. 

1707 
1727 
1728 
1730 

1731 
1732 
1735 

1736 
1737 


AQB  A.  D. 

Bom  at  Rashult,  Sweden, 173S 

Attended  the  university  of  Lund,    .    .     20  1739 

Entered  the  university  of  Upsala,    .    .      21  1741 

Curator    of     the    botanic    garden    at  1742 

Upsala, 23 

Wrote  Hortus  Uplandicus, 24  1751 

Traveled  in  Lapland, 25  1753 

M.    D.,      university     of    Harderwijic, 

Holland;  Systema  Naturae,    ....      28  1773 
Visited  England ;  Fundamenta  Botanica,  29 

Visited  France;    Genera  Plantarum,   .     30  1778 


Returned  to  Stockholm,  Sweden, 
Married 


Aoa 
31 

82 

Professor  of  medicine  at  Upsala,  .  .  84 
Transferred    to   chair   of     botaoy   at 

Upsala 85 

Philoaophia  Botanica 44 

Species  Plantarum ;  knight  of  the  polar 

star, 49 

One  of  the  translators  of  the  Bible  into 

Swedish, 00 

Died  at  Upsala,  Sweden, 71 


/^AROLUS  LINN.EUS  is  the  usual  Latin- 
^-^  ized  name  of  Carl  von  Linne,  the  cele- 
brated botanist  and  naturalist,  and  founder 
of  the  "  Linnaean  system  "  of  botany.  He  was 
born  in  Rashult,  province  of  Smaland,  Sweden, 
on  May  23,  1707.  His  father,  Nils  Linn6,  was 
a  Lutheran  minister,  in  straightened  circum- 
stances, and  a  collector  of  curious  plants. 
His  mother,  Christina  Broderson,  was  a 
daughter  of  the  previous  village  pastor. 
Hence  both  parents  were  eager  in  their  efforts 
to  fit  their  son  for  a  ministerial  career. 

Carl,  however,  showed  little  inclination 
toward  a  clerical  life,  and  took  infinitely  more 
interest  in  his  father's  plants  and  garden,  and 
the  indigenous  species  of  the  neighborhood. 
He  was  then  apprenticed  to  a  shoemaker  for 
a  brief  period,  but  his  enthusiasm  for  outdoor 
studies,  as  well  as  the  encouragement  of  Dr. 
Rothman,  a  physician,  and  friend  of  his 
father's,  soon  led  him  to  devote  himself  almost 
exclusively  to  the  physical  sciences.  Botany, 
which  was  then  Uttle  cultivated  in  Sweden, 
more  particularly-  engrossed  his  attention. 
He  formed  a  small  library  of  botanical  works, 
and  although  unable  to  comprehend  some  of 
the  authors  he  possessed,  yet  he  continued  to 
read  them  day  and  night.  He  even  learned 
some  of  them  by  heart,  and  acquired,  among 
his  teachers  and  fellow  scholars,  the  name  of 
the  "little  botanist."  Dr.  Rothman  aided 
him  in  a  very  practical  way  by  taking  him  into 


wise  upon  the  right  method  of  studying  his 
favorite  science  of  botany,  according  to  the 
system  of  Tournefort.  In  1727  Linnayus 
went  to  study  medicine  at  the  university  of 
Lund,  and  was  equally  fortunate  there  in 
gaining  admission  into  the  family  of  Dr. 
Stobaeus,  professor  of  physics  and  botany. 
Here  he  pursued  his  botanical  studies  with 
great  zeal,  and,  in  the  following  year,  he 
entered  the  university  of  Upsala,  by  advice  of 
his  friend,  Dr.  Rothman.  At  Upsala  he  was 
at  first  greatly  disappointed,  and  his  scanty 
means  led  him  through  miserable  straits  of 
poverty.  He  even  mended  his  own  shoes 
with  the  bark  of  trees,  but  followed  his  work 
of  observing  plants  and  insects  with  unflagging 
persistency. 

In  the  autumn  of  1729  a  fortunate  incident 
greatly  relieved  his  impoverished  circum- 
stances, and  forwarded  his  ambitions.  While 
examining  some  plants  in  the  university  gar- 
den, he  attracted  the  attention  of  one  of  the 
noted  professors  of  the  university  —  who 
subsequently  proved  to  be  the  celebrated  Dr. 
Celsius  —  who,  after  some  inquiry  into  the 
nature  and  extent  of  the  youth's  botanical 
studies,  received  him  into  his  own  house  and 
employed  him  to  assist  in  a  work  on  the  plants 
mentioned  in  scripture,  and  to  collect  botani- 
cal specimens  around  Upsala. 

Linnaeus  enjoyed  great  advantages  in  his 
new  situation.    He  had  the  full  use  of  an 


his  own  house  for  a  period,  during  which  he '  extensive  library,   rich   in  botanical  works, 
instructed  the  youth  in  physiology,  and  like- 1  He  lived  on  most  familiar  terms  with  his 


868 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


patron,  and  was  introduced  by  him  to  Dr. 
Rudbeck,  the  professor  of  botany,  who, 
obliged  by  age  to  execute  the  duties  of  his 
office  by  deputy,  in  1730  made  Linnaus  his 
assistant  and  associate  in  his  work,  and  placed 
him  in  charge  of  the  botanical  collections.  It 
was  while  discharging  the  duties  of  this  posi- 
tion that  he  published  his  first  scientific  work, 
Hortus  Uplandicus,  in  1731. 

The  young  man's  reputation  as  a  naturalist 
was  now  established  in  the  university;  and 
the  royal  academy  of  sciences  at  Upsala 
deputed  him  to  make  a  tour  through  Lapland, 
with  the  sole  view  of  examining  the  natural 
productions  of  that  desolate  region.  He  set 
out  on  horseback  in  May,  1732,  with  few 
encumbrances  of  any  kind,  and  bearing  all  his 
baggage  on  his  back.  In  the  flower  of  youth, 
bold,  enterprising,  and  in  robust  health,  he 
was  well  adapted  to  traverse  the  wild  countries 
of  northern  Sweden  and  Lapland,  in  which  he 
met  with  a  number  of  romantic  and  dangerous 
adventures.  When  in  the  districts  of  Pitea 
and  Lulea,  on  the  gulf  of  Bothnia,  his  life 
itself  was  endangered,  the  circumstances  of 
which  he  has  given  in  the  following  animated 
account : 

"  Several  days  ago  the  forests  had  been  set 
on  fire  by  lightning,  and  the  flames  raged  at 
this  time  with  great  violence,  owing  to  the 
drought  of  the  season.  I  traversed  a  space, 
three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  extent,  which  was 
entirely  burnt,  so  that  the  place,  instead  of 
appearing  in  her  gay  and  verdant  attire,  was 
in  deep  sable :  a  spectacle  more  abhorrent  to 
my  feelings  than  to  see  her  clad  in  the  white 
livery  of  winter.  The  fire  was  nearly  extin- 
guished in  most  of  the  spots  we  visited,  except 
in  ant-hills  and  dry  trunks  of  trees. 

"After  we  had  traveled  about  half-a-quar- 
ter  of  a  mile  across  one  of  these  scenes  of  deso- 
lation, the  wind  began  to  blow  with  rather 
more  force,  upon  which  a  sudden  noise  arose 
in  the  half-burnt  forest,  such  as  I  can  only 
compare  to  what  may  be  imagined  among  a 
large  army  attacked  by  an  enemy :  we  knew 
not  whither  to  turn  our  steps.  The  smoke 
would  not  suffer  us  to  remain  where  we  stood, 
nor  durst  we  turn  back.  It  seemed  best  to 
hasten  forward,  in  hopes  of  speedily  reaching 
the  outskirts  of  the  wood ;  but  in  this  we  were 
disappointed.  We  ran  as  fast  as  we  could  in 
order  to  avoid  being  crushed  by  the  falling 
trees,  some  of  which  threatened  us  every 
minute.  Sometimes  the  fall  of  a  huge  trunk 
was  so  sudden  that  we  stood  aghast,  not 


knowing  whither  to  turn  to  escape  destruction, 
and  throwing  ourselves  entirely  on  the  pro- 
tection of  providence. 

"In  one  instance  a  large  tree  fell  exactly 
between  me  and  my  guide,  who  walked  not 
more  than  a  fathom  from  me ;  but,  thanks  to 
God!  we  both  escaped  in  safety.  We  were 
not  a  little  rejoiced  when  this  perilous  adven- 
ture ended,  for  we  had  felt  all  the  time  like  a 
couple  of  outlaws,  in  momentary  fear  of  sur- 
prise." 

In  the  space  of  five  months  Linnaius  per- 
formed, mostly  on  foot,  a  journey  of  three 
thousand  seven  hundred  ninety-eight  Eng- 
lish miles,  and  with  the  approach  of  winter 
he  returned  to  Upsala.  On  that  occasion  he 
was  admitted  to  membership  in  the  Swedish 
academy,  and  received  the  equivalent  of 
about  fifty  dollars  for  his  expenses.  The 
Flora  Lapponica  was  the  result  of  this  journey. 
It  was  not  published,  however,  until  1737. 

Scarcely  had  Linnaus  recovered  from  the 
fatigues  of  this  tour  through  Lapland,  when 
he  again  felt  the  pressure  of  poverty.  He 
consequently  began  a  course  of  lectures  on  the 
assaying  of  metals,  but  his  success  excited  the 
jealousy  of  Dr.  Rosen,  the  successor  of  Dr. 
Rudbeck,  at  Upsala,  who  insisted  that,  in  con- 
formity with  the  statutes,  Linnseus  should  no 
longer  be  allowed  to  lecture.  The  authorities 
had  no  alternative  except  to  enforce  the 
statutes,  and  thissevere  blow  deprived  Linnaeus 
of  all  present  means  of  advancement.  He 
then  quitted  Upsala  and  took  up  his  residence 
at  Fahlun,  the  capital  of  Dalecarlia,  where  he 
gave  lectures  on  assajring  to  the  copper  miners 
of  that  district. 

In  1735,  having  saved  a  small  sum  of  money, 
he  resolved  upon  another  tour  of  travel,  with 
the  view  to  taking  a  medical  degree  at  some 
foreign  university.  He  directed  his  course 
first  to  Hamburg,  then  to  Holland,  and 
obtained  the  degree  of  M.  D.  from  the  little 
university  of  Harderwijk.  In  Holland  he 
gained  the  friendship  of  Gronovius  and  the 
celebrated  Dutch  physician,  Boerhaave,  by 
whom  he  was  strongly  urged  to  settle  in  Hol- 
land, then  in  the  height  of  its  commercial 
prosperity.  But  Linnaeus'  mind  was  set  upon 
returning  to  Sweden,  where  he  had  formed  an 
attachment  for  the  eldest  daughter  of  Dr. 
Moraeus,  a  physician  at  Fahlun. 

Intending  to  pass  homeward  through 
Amsterdam,  Linnaeus  obtained  from  Boer- 
haave an  introduction  to  an  eminent  botanist, 
Dr.  Burmann,  with  whom  he  resided  for  a 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


800 


short  time.  During  his  stay  at  Amsterdam 
he  formed  the  acquaintance  of  George  ClifTord, 
a  rich  burgomaster,  who  had  a  magnificent 
countryseat  and  garden  at  Hartecamp,  near 
Haarlem,  and  into  whose  services  he  now 
entered  for  several  years,  as  director  and 
naturalist.  The  Hortus  Cliffortianus,  a  mag- 
nificent work,  describes  these  collections. 
His  entire  period  of  residence  in  Holland  he 
made  in  publications,  the  most  important  of 
which  were  the  Systema  Naturae,  containing 
his  classification  of  animals,  and  the  Genera 
Plantarum,  in  which  the  sexual  system  of 
plants  was  fully  developed. 

In  1736  Linnaeus  made  a  tour  of  England 
at  the  expense  of  CUfford,  who  wished  him 
to  inspect  the  gardens  of  that  country,  and 
confer  with  the  most  eminent  English  botan- 
ists of  that  time.  The  English  professors  were 
warmly  attached  to  the  system  of  Ray;  but 
Dillenius,  the  botanical  professor  at  Oxford, 
was  so  impressed  with  the  talents  of  Linnaeus 
that  he  urged  him  to  take  up  his  residence 
there,  even  offering  to  share  the  profits  of  his 
professorship  with  him.  Professor  Martyn  of 
Cambridge,  Miller,  CoUinson,  and  others  gave 
him  a  most  courteous  reception,  and  he 
returned  to  Holland  with  very  favorable 
impressions  of  the  English  scientists. 

About  the  close  of  1737,  contrary  to  the 
wishes  of  Clifford,  Linnaeus  left  Hartecamp 
with  the  intention  of  returning  to  Sweden. 
His  fame  as  a  scientist  was  now  thoroughly 
established.  The  regard  in  which  he  was 
held  in  Holland  was  probably  best  expressed 
by  Boerhaave,  practically  on  his  deathbed. 
Before  the  time  of  Linnaeus'  intended  depar- 
ture from  Leyden,  Boerhaave  became  too 
ill  to  admit  visitors.  Linnaeus  was  the  only 
person  in  whose  favor  an  exception  was 
made,  so  that  the  dying  physician  might 
bid  him  an  affectionate  farewell.  "I  have 
lived,"  he  said,  "my  time  out,  and  my  days 
are  at  an  end;  I  have  done  everything  that 
was  in  my  power.  May  God  protect  thee! 
What  the  world  required  of  me  it  has  got; 
but  from  thee  it  expects  much  more.  Fare- 
well, my  dear  Linnaeus." 

When  upon  the  point  of  leaving  Leyden, 
Linnaeus  was  attacked  by  illness ;  and  upon  his 
recovery  he  determined  to  visit  France  before 
his  return  to  Sweden.  At  Paris  he  received 
great  kindness  from  the  famous  French 
botanist,  Jussieu ;  and  also  received  the  high 
compliment  of  being  elected  a  corresponding 
member  of  the  French  academy  of  sciences. 


In  the  summer  of  1738  he  embarked  at 
Rouen  for  Helsingborg.  Soon  after  his 
arrival  in  Sweden  he  established  himself  in 
Stockholm  as  a  physician.  Notwithstanding 
the  fame  he  had  acquired  abroad  as  a  natural- 
ist, his  early  efforts  to  gain  practice  met  with 
little  encouragement.  He  met  with  so  much 
opposition  that  he  almost  resolved  to  quit  his 
native  country.  But  by  perseverance  he 
worked  his  way  into  a  highly  reputable  prac- 
tice, and  was  fortunate  enough  to  number  the 
queen  of  Sweden  among  his  clients.  In  1739 
he  married  Sara,  the  daughter  of  Dr.  Moneus, 
to  whom  he  had  been  so  long  attached.  In 
the  same  year  he  contributed,  with  some 
other  like-spirited  persons,  to  form  an  acad- 
emy of  sciences  at  Stockholm,  of  which  he 
was  elected  president. 

The  professional  success  of  Linnsus  did  not 
lead  him  aside  from  his  favorite  studies,  how- 
ever; and  he  kept  his  eye  steadily  on  the 
great  object  of  his  ambition,  the  botanical 
chair  at  Upsala.  In  1741  he  was  appointed 
medical  professor  in  that  university,  and  soon 
entered  into  an  agreement  with  Professor 
Rosen  to  allow  him  to  perform  the  duties  of 
the  botanical  chair,  while  his  colleague 
lectured  on  physiology  and  other  subjects. 
Before  entering  the  duties  of  his  professorship, 
he  pronounced  a  Latin  oration  before  the 
university,  "  On  the  Necessity  of  Traveling  in 
our  own  Country."  In  1747,  in  addition  to 
his  duties  as  professor  of  botany,  he  was  also 
made  archiater  or  rector  of  the  university. 

Linnaeus  was  at  last  placed  in  the  situation 
which  of  all  things  he  had  most  coveted.  The 
academical  garden  was  soon  laid  out  on  a  new 
plan.  When  he  was  appointed  professor,  it 
did  not  contain  above  fifty  exotic  plants.  In 
1748,  six  years  afterward,  he  published  a 
catalogue  from  which  it  appears  that  he  had 
introduced  eleven  hundred  additional  speci- 
mens, besides  most  of  the  vegetable  produc- 
tions of  Sweden  itself. 

He  now  applied  to  all  his  scientific  corre- 
spondents for  plants.  In  a  letter  to  Albert 
Haller,  he  says,  "  Formerly  I  had  plants,  but 
no  money ;  and  now,  of  what  use  is  my  money, 
without  plants?"  His  exertions  so  much 
extended  the  fame  of  the  university  that  the 
number  of  students  considerably  increased, 
particularly  during  the  time  he  hold  the  office 
of  rector.  They  came  from  Russia,  Norway, 
Denmark,  Great  Britain,  Holland,  Germany, 
Switzerland,  and  even  from  America.  He 
made  summer  excursions  attended  by  his 


870 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


pupils,  often  to  the  number  of  two  hundred. 
When  some  rare  or  remarkable  plant  or  other 
natural  curiosity  was  found,  a  signal  was  given 
by  a  horn,  at  which  the  whole  party  assembled 
round  their  leader  to  hear  his  analysis. 

His  pupils  spread  themselves  over  the  globe ; 
they  carried  everywhere  with  them  the  spirit 
of  their  master,  and  diffused  the  love  of 
natural  history.  When  Captain  Cook's  first 
voyage  around  the  world  was  undertaken,  one 
of  Linnaeus'  most  celebrated  pupils.  Dr. 
Solander,  accompanied  the  distinguished  Eng- 
lish botanist  and  naturalist.  Sir  Joseph  Banks. 
It  was  not,  however,  from  his  pupils  alone 
that  Linnaeus  received  botanical  information 
and  help ;  in  every  part  of  the  world  persons 
were  found  anxious  to  fon^'ard  specimens  to 
him,  and  his  collections  thus  became  unrivaled. 

The  chief  publication  of  Linnaeus  after  his 
establishment  at  Upsala  were  his  Philosophic 
Botanica,  and  Species  Plantarum,  in  1751  and 
1753  respectively.  Of  these,  the  first  is  a  col- 
lection of  treatises  on  various  subjects;  the 
second  is  the  foundation  of  the  Linnsean  sys- 
tem of  botany,  and  from  it,  for  a  long  time, 
many  introductions  to  the  study  of  botany 
were  compiled.  The  latter  is  termed  by 
Haller  his  "great  and  everlasting  master- 
piece." 

The  introduction  of  the  Linnaean  system 
was  attended  with  such  great  change,  espe- 
cially of  nomenclature,  that  it  experienced 
considerable  opposition  from  the  older  natural- 
ists; and  the  biographers  of  Linnaeus  have 
recorded  several  literary  feuds  with  distin- 
guished contemporaries,  and  especially  with 
Albert  Haller,  a  genius  of  almost  equal  merit 
with  himself.  Even  to-day  he  is  commonly 
thought  of  as  the  constructor  of  the  artificial 
system  of  classifying  plants  which  bears  his 
name,  and  is  sometimes  unfavorably  con- 
trasted with  the  constructors  of  the  natural 
system.  His  Systema  Naturce,  first  published 
in  1735,  and  republished  by  him  in  successive 
editions  until  1770,  was  a  comprehensive 
survey  of  the  "three  kingdoms  of  nature, 
systematically  arranged  in  classes,  orders, 
genera,  and  species."  In  the  formation  of 
natural  groups,  very  much  had  been  done  by 
Aristotle,  and  his  work  was  carried  on  in  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  by  Aldro- 
vandus,  Conrad,  Gesner,  and  others;  but  the 
merit  of  first  arranging  these  groups  in  orderly 
succession  belongs  to  Linnaeus. 

Owing  to  the  greater  complexity  of  functions 
and  organs  in  the  animal  kingdom,  this  proc- 


ess, especially  the  latter  part  of  it,  was  far 
more  possible  with  animals  than  with  plants. 
Linnaeus,  in  1735,  distinguished  six  sub- 
kingdoms:  (1)  quadrupeds,  afterward  called 
by  him  mammalia ;  (2)  birds ;  (3)  amphibia, 
in  which  reptiles  were  included;  (4)  fishes; 
(5)  insects;  (6)  worms.  Each  was  sub- 
divided into  orders.  Mammals,  e.  g.,  were 
arranged  in  the  following  orders :  (a)  anthro- 
pomorpha  or  primates,  including  the  genera 
man,  ape,  sloth;  (b)  ferae  or  carnivora; 
(c)  glires  or  rodents;  (d)  jumcnta,  including 
horse,  hippopotamus,  elephant,  and  pig; 
(e)  pecora  or  ruminants.  In  subsequent 
editions  the  scheme  was  somewhat  modified, 
but  it  was  not  substantially  altered  until,  at 
the  close  of  the  century,  the  invertebrate 
terms  of  the  series  received  vast  development 
under  Lamarck.  Linnaeus  made  an  attempt 
to  illustrate  the  diminishing  complexity  of  his 
descending  series  as  shown  in  the  structure  of 
the  heart  and  the  respiratory  system,  an 
attempt  renewed  afterward  in  a  far  more 
effective  way  by  Vicq  d'AzjT  and  John  Hun- 
ter. 

In  the  vegetable  kingdom,  where  the  dif- 
ferentiation of  organs  is  less  conspicuous, 
Linnaeus  found  the  formation  of  natural 
groups,  and  especially  an  attempt  at  serial 
arrangement,  to  be  impracticable.  He  con- 
structed, therefore,  the  well-known  provisional 
system  which  bears  his  name,  based  on  a 
single  character,  the  sexuality  of  plants,  a 
character  recognized  vaguely  by  some  pre- 
vious botanists,  as  by  Burkhard  in  1702,  an4 
more  explicitly  by  Vaillant,  who  died  in  1722, 
to  whom  Linnaeus  freely  owned  his  obligations. 
As  a  mode  of  orderly  arrangement  and  simple 
nomenclature,  the  value  of  this  artificial  sys- 
tem to  botanists  has  been  incalculable.  But 
Linnaeus  most  emphatically  maintained  the 
necessity  for  a  natural  system  based  on  no 
single  character,  but  on  the  aggregate  of  real 
affinities,  though  he  was  not  able  himself  to 
construct  it. 

The  latter  years  of  Linnaeus  were  spent  in  a 
state  of  ease,  affluence,  and  honor,  very  dif- 
ferent from  the  poverty  and  obscurity  of  his 
early  life.  His  fame  increased,  apparently, 
with  his  years,  and  his  scientific  connections 
and  correspondence  with  foreign  countries 
became  very  extensive. 

In  1753  the  Swedish  sovereign,  Gustavus 
III.,  bestowed  upon  him  a  most  flattering 
mark  of  his  regard,  by  creating  him  a  knight 
of  the  polar  star.    This  order  had  never  before 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


871 


been  conferred  on  any  literary  or  scientific 
personage;  nor  had  any  person  below  the 
rank  of  a  nobleman  been  honored  with  it. 
In  1761  the  king  issued  a  patent  of  nobility 
in  his  honor  and  thereafter  he  was  Carl  von 
Linn6.  He  was  made  a  member  of  the  royal 
academy  of  sciences  of  Paris,  of  St.  Peters- 
burg, and  of  Berlin,  and  elected  a  fellow  of 
the  royal  society  of  London.  There  was 
hardly  a  learned  body  in  Europe  that  did 
not  enroll  his  name  among  their  numbers. 
A  most  flattering  compliment  was  received 
from  the  king  of  Spain,  who  invited  him  to 
settle  at  Madrid,  with  the  offer  of  an  annual 
pension  for  life  of  two  thousand  pistoles, 
letters  of  nobility,  and  the  free  exercise  of 
his  own  religion.  He,  however,  did  not 
accept  this  offer,  and  simply  answered  that, 
if  he  had  any  merit,  his  services  were  due  to 
his  own  country. 

In  1773  the  reigning  king  of  Sweden  ap- 
pointed him,  in  conjunction  with  others,  to 
make  a  new  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
the  Swedish  language.  In  May,  1774,  while 
lecturing  in  the  botanical  garden  of  the  uni 
versity,  he  was  attacked  with  apoplexy,  the 
debilitating  effects  of  which  obliged  him  to 
relinquish  the  more  active  parts  of  his  pro- 
fessional duties,  and  to  close  his  literary 
career.  In  1776  a  second  apoplectic  stroke 
paralyzed  his  right  side  and  impaired  his 
mental  powers.  Even  in  this  painful  and 
miserable  state  the  study  of  nature  remained 
his  greatest  pleasure,  and  he  was  constantly 
carried  into  his  museum  to  survey  the  treas- 
ures there  accumulated.  He  died  January  10, 
1778,  in  the  seventy-first  year  of  his  age. 

His  death  threw  a  general  pall  of  mourning 
over  Upsala.  A  medal  was  struck  upon  the 
occasion,  and  a  monument  erected  to  his 
memory  in  the  cathedral  church  of  Upsala. 
The  king  of  Sweden  himself  pronounced  a 
panegyric  on  his  distinguished  subject  before 
the  royal  academy  of  Sweden. 

In  person  LinnjBus  is  described  as  of  medium 
height,  with  heavy  limbs,  piercing  brown 
eyes,  acute  vision,  and  quick-tempered.  He 
was  accustomed  to  sleep  five  hours  in  sum- 
mer and  ten  in  winter.  He  lived  simply, 
acted  promptly,  and  noted  down  his  observa- 
tions at  the  moment.  His  handwriting  was 
peculiar,  and  not  very  easy  to  read ;  copies  of 
his  own  books  were  interleaved  and  copiously 
annotated,  every  new  discovery  being  posted 
in  its  proper  place  at  once,  so  that  new 
editions  were  readily  prepared  when  wanted. 


Linmeus  was  one  of  those  great  men,  who 
have  shown  by  example  how  much  the  geniuf 
and  activity  of  an  individual  are  c^Mble  of 
accomplishing.  He  was  the  reformer  of 
botany,  and  perhaps  the  greatest  promoter  of 
natural  history  that  ever  lived.  So  much, 
at  any  rate,  has  never  been  done  for  that 
science,  in  so  short  a  space  of  time,  as  at  the 
period  in  which  he  flouriahetl,  and  imme- 
diately after.  With  him  arrangement  seemf 
to  have  been  a  passion ;  he  delightixl  in  deriv- 
ing classifications;  not  only  did  he  system*' 
tize  the  three  kingdoms  of  nature,  but  even 
drew  up  a  treatise  on  the  Genera  Morbonan,  or 
"Classification  of  Diseases."  He  found  biology 
a  chaos ;  he  left  it  a  cosmos. 

When  he  appeared  upon  the  scene,  new 
plants  and  animals  were  in  course  of  daily  dis- 
covery in  increasing  numbers,  due  to  the 
increase  of  trading  facilities;  he  devised 
schemes  of  arrangement  by  which  these 
acquisitions  might  be  sorted  provisionally, 
until  their  natural  affinities  should  have 
become  clearer.  He  made  many  mistakes; 
but  the  honor  due  to  him  for  having  first 
enunciated  the  true  principles  for  defining 
genera  and  species,  and  his  uniform  use  of 
trivial  names,  will  last  as  long  as  biology 
itself  endures. 

His  style  is  terse  and  laconic ;  he  methodi- 
cally treated  of  each  organ  in  its  proper  turn ; 
he  had  a  special  term  for  each,  the  meaning  of 
which  did  not  vary,  so  that  the  term  did  not 
suggest  two  ideas  at  once.  The  reader  cannot 
doubt  the  author's  intention;  his  sentences 
are  business-like,  and  to  the  point.  The 
omission  of  the  verb  in  his  descriptions  was  an 
innovation,  and  gave  an  abruptness  to  his 
language  which  was  foreign  to  the  writing  of 
his  time ;  but  it  probably  by  its  succinctnea 
added  to  the  popularity  of  his  works. 

By  his  force  of  character  he  shifted  the 
scientific  center  of  gravity  during  his  life  to  * 
small  town  in  Sweden.  He  was  constantly 
receiving  presents  and  praise  from  crowds  of 
correspondents  in  every  civilized  country,  and 
in  every  station  of  life;  hence  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  this  universal  homage  should  have 
bred  the  vanity  which  dbfigures  the  latter 
part  of  his  diary. 

No  modem  naturalist  has  impressed  his  own 
character  with  greater  force  upon  his  pupils 
than  did  Linnaeus.  He  imbued  them  with 
his  own  intense  acquisitiveness,  reared  them 
in  an  atmosphere  of  enthusiasm,  trained  them 
to  close  and  accurate  observation,  and  then 


872 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


dispatched  them  to  various  parts  of  the  globe. 
His  students  being  drawn  from  many  quarters, 
he  had  an  extensive  choice ;  some  fell  victims 
to  fatigue  and  unkindly  cUmates,  but  there 


was  no  lack  of  successors.  With  these  young 
enthusiasts  their  master's  lore  was  like  a 
gospel ;  they  were  eager  to  extend  the  knowl- 
edge of  it,  and  to  contribute  to  its  richness. 


ARKWRIGHT 


A.  D.  AGE 

1732     Bom  at  Preston,  England, 

1750     Barber  at  Bolton  Willows, 18 

1700     Hair  merchant  and  dyer, 28 

1767     Constructed  model    of   spinning   ma- 
chine,      36 

1769     Obtained  patent;   erected  first  mill  at 

Nottingnam, 37 


A.  D.  AOB 

1771  Built  mill  at  Cromford, 39 

1775  Obtained  second  patent, 43 

1785  Patent  nullified, 63 

1786  High  sheriff  of  Derbyshire;   knighted 

by  George  III., 64 

17^2  Died  at  Cromford, 60 


rj  ICHARD  ARKWRIGHT,  inventor  of  the 
*^  spinning  frame,  and  founder  of  the  fac- 
tory system  in  manufactures,  was  born  at 
Preston,  Lancashire,  England,  December  23, 
1732.  He  was  the  son  of  poor  parents,  and 
the  youngest  of  thirteen  children. 

His  early  educational  opportunities  were 
exceedingly  limited,  and  in  his  boyhood  he 
learned  the  trade  of  a  barber.  About  1750 
he  seemed  to  have  settled  at  Bolton  Willows, 
or  Bolton-le-Moors,  near  Manchester,  and 
here  pursued  his  trade  up  to  1760,  when  he 
invented  a  process  for  dyeing  human  hair.  In 
that  day,  when  wigs  were  general,  this  dis- 
covery was  of  considerable  value,  and  in  con- 
nection with  it  he  traveled  about  collecting 
hair,  and  disposing  of  it  again  when  dyed. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  very  little  is  known 
of  the  steps  by  which  he  was  led  to  those 
inventions  that  raised  him  to  affluence,  and 
have  immortalized  his  name.  He  resided  in 
a  district  where  a  considerable  manufacture 
of  linen  goods  and  of  linen  and  cotton  mixed 
was  carried  on.  This  contact  gave  him 
ample  opportunities,  it  may  be  reasonably 
assumed,  of  becoming  acquainted  with  the 
various  processes  that  were  then  in  use.  If 
we  add  to  this  the  fact  that  he  was  endowed 
with  a  most  original  and  inventive  genius,  and 
had  the  sagacity  to  perceive  what  was  Ukely 
to  prove  the  most  advantageous  pursuit  in 
which  he  could  embark,  his  attention  was 
naturally  drawn  to  the  employment  of  the 
method  of  spinning  practiced  in  his  neighbor- 
hood. 

He  stated  that  he  accidently  derived  the 
first  hint  of  his  great  invention  from  seeing  a 
red-hot  iron  bar  drawn  through  two  pairs  of 
rollers,  the  second  pair  moving  more  rapidly 
than  the  first.    Between  this  operation  and 


that  of  elongating  a  thread,  aa  practiced  in 
spinning,  there  is  very  little  mechanical 
analogy;  yet  this  hint  suggested  to  Ark- 
wright  that  cotton,  when  cleaned  and  carded, 
might  be  dealt  with  in  the  same  way ;  and  it 
ultimately  produced  an  invention,  which  in 
its  consequences  has  been  a  source  of  indi- 
vidual and  general  wealth  almost  unparalleled 
in  the  annals  of  the  world. 

The  precise  date  of  the  discovery  is  not 
known,  but  it  is  most  probable  that  the  idea  of 
spinning  by  rollers  had  occurred  to  Ark- 
wright's  mind  as  early  aa  the  period  when 
Hargreaves  was  engaged  in  the  invention  of 
the  spinning  jenny  in  1767.  No  previously 
invented  machinery  had  been  able  to  produce 
cotton  thread  of  sufficient  tenuity  and  strength 
to  be  used  as  warp.  Hargreaves's  invention 
had  multiplied  the  spindles  that  a  single  work- 
man could  manage ;  but  the  yarn  produced  by 
it  was  soft,  and  could  be  used  only  for  weft  in 
conjunction  with  linen  warps.  An  unsuccess- 
ful invention  by  Charles  Wyatt  of  Birming- 
ham, England,  about  1738,  deprives  Ark- 
wright,  also,  of  the  honor  of  having  been  the 
first  to  use  rollers  in  spinning ;  but  there  is  no 
reason  to  believe  that  he  owed  anything  to 
this  previous  attempt. 

On  the  principle  mentioned,  therefore, 
Arkwright,  with  the  assistance  of  John  Kay, 
a  watchmaker  of  Warrington,  whom  he 
employed  to  work  out  the  mechanical  diffi- 
culties, completed  his  celebrated  spinning 
frame  —  or  at  least  a  model  of  it  —  about 
1767.  Its  paramount  advantage  was  that  by 
it  several  threads  might  be  spun  at  the  same 
time,  and  by  one  application  of  force,  in  the 
place  of  a  single  thread  produced  on  the 
ordinary  spinning  wheels.  The  method  by 
which  he  ultimately  succeeded  in  doing  this 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


878 


is  thus  described  in  Baines's  History  of  the 
Cotton  Trade,  in  a  passage  which  renders  the 
operation  and  the  invention  as  clear  as  it  can 
be  made  by  a  mere  verbal  description : 

"  In  every  mode  of  spinning,  the  ends  to  be 
accomplished  are,  to  draw  out  the  loose  fibres 
of  the  cotton  wool  in  a  regular  and  continuous 
line,  and,  after  deducing  the  fleecy  roll  to  the 
requisite  tenuity,  to  twist  it  into  a  thread. 
Previous  to  the  operation  of  spinning,  the 
cotton  must  have  undergone  the  process  of 
carding,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  comb  out, 
straighten,  and  lay  parallel  to  each  other  its 
entangled  fibres.  The  carding  or  sliver  •—  as 
it  is  called  —  of  cotton  requires  it  to  be  drawn 
out  to  great  fineness,  before  it  is  thin  enough 
to  be  twisted  into  a  thread. 

"The  way  in  which  this  is  done,  is  by  means 
of  two  or  more  pairs  of  small  rollers  placed 
horizontally  —  the  upper  and  lower  roller  of 
each  pair  revolving  in  contact.  The  carding 
or  sliver  of  cotton  being  put  between  the  first 
pair  of  rollers,  is,  by  their  revolution,  drawn 
through  and  compressed;  while  passing 
through  the  rollers,  it  is  caught  by  another 
pair  of  rollers  placed  immediately  in  front, 
which  revolve  with  three,  four,  or  five  times 
the  velocity  of  the  first  pair,  and  which, 
therefore,  draw  out  the  sliver  to  three,  four,  or 
five  times  its  former  length  and  degree  of 
fineness;  after  passing  through  the  second 
pair  of  rollers,  the  reduced  sliver  is  attached 
to  a  spindle  and  fly,  the  rapid  revolutions  of 
which  twist  it  into  a  thread,  and  at  the  same 
time  wind  it  up  on  a  bobbin.  That  the 
rollers  may  take  hold  of  the  cotton,  the  lower 
roller  is  fluted  longitudinally,  and  the  upper 
is  covered  with  leather. 

"Such  is  the  beautiful  and  admirable  con- 
trivance, by  which  a  machine  is  made  to  do 
what  was  formerly,  in  all  ages  and  countries, 
effected  by  the  fingers  of  the  spinner.  It  is 
obvious  that,  by  lengthening  or  multiplying 
the  rollers,  and  increasing  the  number  of 
spindles,  all  of  which  may  be  turned  by  the 
same  power,  many  threads  may  be  spun  at 
once,  and  the  process  may  be  carried  on  with 
much  greater  quickness  and  steadiness  than 
by  hand  spinning.  There  is  also  the  impor- 
tant advantage  —  the  thread  produced  will  be 
of  more  regular  thickness,  and  more  evenly 
twisted." 

Such  was  Arkwright's  machine,  for  which 
he  obtained  a  patent  in  July,  1769,  and 
from  that  day  the  subsequent  rise  and  great- 
ness of  cotton  manufactures  dates.    At  this 


time  Arkwright  was  so  poor  that  he  Deeded  to 
be  supplied  with  a  suit  of  clothes  before  he 
could  appear  to  vote  at  an  election  for  bur- 
gess of  Preston.  Soon  after,  he  removed  to 
Nottingham  to  escape  the  popular  rage  of  a 
Lancashire  mob,  such  as  had  already  driven 
out  Hargreaves,  and  destroyed  his  machinery. 
Here  his  operations  were  at  first  greatly  fet- 
tered by  lack  of  capital ;  but  he  finally  set  up 
his  first  mill,  on  a  small  scale,  and  o|)eratod 
the  machinery  by  horse  power.  This  motive 
power  proved  too  expensive;  and  then,  in 
1771,  in  association  with  two  partners  — 
Strutt,  of  Derby,  an  extensive  stocking 
manufacturer,  and  Reed  —  he  built  a  second 
mill  at  Cromford,  near  Matlock,  in  Derby- 
shire, the  machinery  of  which  was  turned  by 
the  river  Derwent. 

Soon  after  the  erection  of  this  mill,  Ark- 
wright made  many  improvements  in  the  mode 
of  preparing  the  cotton  for  spinning,  and 
invented  a  variety  of  ingenious  machines  for 
effecting  this  purpose  in  the  most  correct  and 
expeditious  manner,  for  all  of  which  he 
obtained  patents  in  1775.  He  also  formed 
other  establishments,  similar  to  the  one  at 
Cromford,  in  other  parts  of  England  and  in 
Scotland.  These  produced  for  him  and  his 
associates  prodigious  fortunes  for  those  times, 
and  gave  a  wonderful  impulse  to  the  industry 
and  productive  power  of  Great  Britain,  as 
well  as  to  other  countries.  The  results  of 
Arkwright's  discovery  were,  however,  multi- 
plied a  hundred  fold  by  James  Watt's  not  less 
wonderful  improvement  of  the  steam  engine, 
which  created  a  motive  power  of  inexhaustible 
strength,  and  capable  of  being  produced 
wherever  fuel  could  be  procured  in  sufficient 
abundance.  Combined,  these  discoveries 
made  Manchester,  Glasgow,  and  Liverpool  the 
greatest  industrial  and  commercial  cities  of 
the  eighteenth  century. 

The  vast  importance  of  the  discovery  for 
which  Arkwright  had  taken  out  patents 
became  very  speedily  known,  and  it  is  not 
surprising  that  every  effort  should  have  been 
made  in  the  courts  of  law  to  have  them  set 
aside,  and  Arkwright  deprived  of  the  profit 
and  honor  to  be  derived  from  them.  From 
both  the  employers  of  Lancashire  and  from 
the  workmen  he  was  compelled  to  meet  oppo- 
sition, and  frequently  open  revolt.  They 
entered  into  a  combination  not  to  buy  his 
yarn.  They  strenuously  resisted  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  tax  on  cotton  cloth.  They  aUowed 
one  of  his  factories  at  Chorley  to  be  destroyed 


374 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


by  a  mob,  in  the  presence  of  police  and 
soldiers,  without  any  attempt  at  interference. 
Lawsuit  after  lawsuit  was  brought  against 
Arkwright's  patent  right;  and  to  such  an 
extent  did  other  cotton  spinners  use  his 
designs  that  he  was  obliged,  in  1781,  to 
bring  legal  action  against  nine  different 
manufacturers. 

The  first  action  against  Colonel  Mordaunt, 
backed  by  a  strong  combination  of  Lancashire 
manufacturers,  was  lost  solely  on  the  ground 
that  his  description  in  his  specification  was 
not  sufficiently  clear  and  distinct.  The  other 
actions  were  abandoned ;  and,  in  the  following 
year,  Arkwright  published  a  pamphlet  con- 
taining a  statement  of  his  case.  In  a  new 
trial  in  1785  he  obtained  a  favorable  verdict. 
The  whole  question,  however,  was  brought 
finally  before  the  court  of  king's  bench  a  few 
months  after,  when  Arkwright's  claim  to  the 
inventions  patented  was  for  the  first  time 
called  into  dispute.  On  the  doubtful  evidence 
of  a  person  named  Highs,  or  Hayes,  com- 
bined with  that  of  Arkwright's  old  assistant, 
Kay,  the  jury  decided  against  him,  and  his 
patent  was  annulled.  This  was  but  the  for- 
mal outcome  of  an  opposition  which  had 
from  the  beginning  marked  out  Arkwright  as 
an  object  of  hostility. 

Fortunately,  not  for  himself  only,  but  for 
his  country  and  the  world,  every  corner  of 
which  is  benefited  by  his  inventions,  the 
energy  and  good  sense  of  Arkwright  triumphed 
over  all  opposition.  The  same  ingenuity  and 
skill  which  had  originally  enabled  him  to 
invent  his  machine  and  get  it  introduced, 
likewise  enabled  him  to  overcome  the  various 
combinations  with  which  he  had  subsequently 
to  contend.  Notwithstanding  the  nullifica- 
tion of  his  patent,  Arkwright  continued  his 
prosperous  career.  Wealth  flowed  upon  him 
with  a  full  stream  from  his  judiciously  man- 
aged concerns ;  and  at  the  time  of  his  death 
the  value  of  his  property  amounted  to  about 
half  a  million  sterling,  or  two  and  a  half 
million  dollars.  For  several  years  he  fixed 
the  price  of  cotton  twist,  all  other  spinners 
conforming  to  his  prices.  In  1786  he  was 
appointed  high  sheriff  of  Derbyshire,  and, 
having  presented  an  address  of  congratulation 
from  that  county  to  King  George  III.  on  his 
escape  from  the  attempt  of  Margaret  Nichol- 
son on  his  majesty's  life,  Arkwright  received 
the  honor  of  knighthood. 

When  it  is  considered  that  for  many  years 
he  was  afl3icted  with  a  violent  asthma,  which 


was  extremely  oppressive,  and  sometimes 
threatened  immediately  to  terminate  his 
existence,  his  great  activity  and  exertion 
must  excite  astonishment.  For  some  time 
previous  to  his  death  he  was  rendered  inca- 
pable of  continuing  his  usual  pursuits  by  a 
complication  of  maladies  which  at  last  de- 
prived him  of  life  at  the  Rock  House,  Crom- 
ford,  August  3,  1792. 

Arkwright's  is  the  greatest  name  in  textile 
industry;  but  it  may  also  be  interesting  to 
take  a  quick  glance  at  a  few  other  aspects  of 
this  important  form  of  human  labor,  leading 
up  tt)  the  marvelous  revolution  effected  in  the 
eighteenth  century.  Spinning  by  the  distaff 
and  spindle  is  prehistoric.  We  cannot  tell 
when  it  was  that  parallel  vegetable  fibres  were 
first  formed  into  a  continuous  thread  by 
twisting;  the  drawing  out  of  the  thread  and 
the  twist  being  effected  by  a  slender  cylinder 
of  wood,  weighted  with  a  central  whorl  of 
stone,  rotated  by  the  fingers,  and  then 
allowed  to  fall.  Not  merely  does  this  primi- 
tive invention  do,  in  its  own  slow  way,  all  that 
can  be  done  by  the  machines  of  our  own  time, 
but  it  surpasses  them  in  delicacy  and  fineness. 
Linen  yarn  for  the  finest  lace  is  still  spun  by 
the  spindle,  and  surpasses  the  highest 
"counts"  —  that  is,  the  slenderest  threads 
—  produced  by  the  most  elaborate  machine. 
The  spindle  used  for  the  yarn  of  the  ethereal 
muslins  of  Dacca  was  hardly  larger  than  a 
needle,  kept  steady  by  a  slight  pellet  of  clay ; 
which,  yet  being  too  heavy  for  the  fine  thread, 
was  supported  by  a  socket  of  shell  in  which 
it  revolved. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci,  regardful  of  the  hum- 
blest forms  of  industry,  is  believed  to  be  the 
first  to  improve  the  spindle  by  adding  a  flyer. 
Toward  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century 
the  spinning  wheel,  turning  two  spindles,  and 
worked  with  a  treadle  motion,  so  that  both 
hands  were  free,  came  into  common  use. 
Then  came  Hargreaves's  spinning  jenny,  al- 
ready referred  to.  Arkwright's  invention 
followed;  and  immediately  after  it  Samuel 
Crompton  of  Bolton  combined  many  of  the 
merits  of  Arkwright's  and  Hargreaves's 
machines  in  his  "mule,"  capable  of  spinning 
a  fine  thread  of  great  strength.  When  the 
mule,  at  first  worked  by  hand,  was  made  self- 
acting  half  a  century  afterward,  spinning 
machinery  in  all  its  essential  principles  was 
complete. 

In  addition  to  the  merit  of  inventing  the 
spinning  frame,  Arkwright  may  also  claim  the 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


179 


merit  of  having  invented  and  organized  the 
factory  system,  which  added  immensely  to 
the  resources  of  the  laboring  classes,  and 
enlarged  the  productivity,  not  only  of  wealth, 
but  of  intelligence  and  virtue. 

The  most  marked  traits  in  his  character 
were  his  wonderful  ardor,  energy,  and  perse- 
verance. He  commonly  labored  in  his  numer- 
ous concerns  from  five  o'clock  in  the  morning 
until  nine  at  night;  and,  when  considerably 
more  than  fifty  years  of  age,  feeling  that  the 
defects  of  his  education  placed  him  under 
great  difficulty  and  inconvenience  in  conduct- 
ing his  correspondence,  and  in  the  general 
management  of  his  business,  he  encroached 
upon  his  sleep,  in  order  to  gain  an  hour  each 
day  to  learn  English  grammar,  and  another 
hour  to  improve  his  writing  and  spelling. 

He  was  impatient  with  whatever  interfered 
with  his  favorite  pursuits ;  and  the  fact  is  too 
strikingly  characteristic  not  to  be  mentioned, 
that  he  separated  from  his  wife  not  many 
years  after  his  marriage,  because  she,  con- 
vinced that  he  would  starve  his  family  by 
scheming  when  he  should  have  been  shaving, 
broke  some  of  his  experimental  models  of 
machinery.  Arkwright  was  a  severe  econo- 
mist of  time ;  and,  that  he  might  not  waste  a 
moment,  he  generally  traveled  with  four 
horses,  and  at  a  very  rapid  speed. 

So  unbounded  was  his  confidence  in  the 
success  of  his  machinery,  and  in  the  national 
wealth  to  be  produced  by  it,  that  he  would 
make  light  of  discussions  on  taxation,  and  say 


that  he  would  pay  the  national  debt.  His 
speculative  schemes  were  vast  and  daring; 
he  contemplated  at  one  time  entering  into 
very  extensive  mercantile  tranaactions,  and 
buying  up  all  the  cotton  in  the  world,  in 
order  to  make  an  enormous  profit  by  the 
monopoly.  From  the  extravagance  of  aoine 
of  these  designs,  his  judicious  friends  were  of 
the  opinion  that,  if  he  had  tried  to  put  them 
into  practice,  he  might  have  overturned  the 
whole  fabric  of  his  prosperity. 

But  no  man  ever  better  deserved  his  good 
fortune,  or  has  a  stronger  claim  on  the  grati- 
tude of  posterity  than  Sir  Richard  Arkwright. 
His  inventions  opened  a  new  and  boundless 
field  of  employment ;  and  while  they  conferred 
infinitely  more  real  benefit  on  his  native 
country  than  it  could  have  derived  from  the 
absolute  dominion  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  they 
have  been  universally  productive  of  wealth, 
prosperity,  and  many  other  forms  of  human 
benefit. 

"It  required,"  says  Ure,  "a  man  of  Napo- 
leonic nerve  and  ambition  to  subdue  the 
refractory  tempers  of  workpeople  accustomed 
to  irregular  paroxysms  of  diligence,  and  to 
urge  on  his  multifarious  and  intricate  con- 
structions in  the  face  of  prejudice,  passion, 
and  envy.  Such  was  Arkwright,  who,  suf- 
fering nothing  to  turn  aside  his  progress, 
arrived  gloriously  at  the  goal,  and  has  forever 
affixed  his  name  to  a  great  era  in  the  annals  of 
mankind." 


A.  D. 

1736 
1755 
1756 
1757 

1759 
1763 
1765 
1769 
1774 
1775 


WATT 

AGE  A.  D. 

Bom  at  Greenock,  Scotland, 1782 

Mechanical  apprentice  in  London,  .    .      19  1783 
Settled  at  Glasgow,  Scotland,  ....     20 

Mathematical   instrument    maker  for  1784 

university  of  Glasgow, 21 

Began  his  experiments  with  steam,     .     23  1785 

First  marriage, •    •    •      ^^  1800 

Invented  condensing  steam  engine,     .     29  1806 

Patented  Ms  engine, 33  1808 

Partner  of  Boulton  at  Soho, 38  1819 

Patent  for  his  engine  extended,   ...     39 


^        Aoa 

Double-acting  engine  constructed,  .    .     4C 

Discovered  the  chemical  compoaition 
of  water, <7 

Fellow  of  the  royal  Bocicty  of  Edin- 
burgh,   •    • 

Fellow  of  the  royal  society,  London, 

Retired  from  active  business,      .    .    . 

LL.  D.  from  university  of  Glucow,   . 

Member  French  in»titute,  London,.    . 

Died  at  Ileathfield,  England,   .... 


JAMES  WATT,  a  celebrated  Scotch  engi- 
neer and  mechanician,  and  inventor  of  the 
condensing  steam  engine,  was  born  at  Green- 
ock, on  the  Clyde,  Scotland,  January  19,  1736. 
His  father,  James  Watt,  was  a  merchant, 
ship  chandler,  and  magistrate  of  Gre§nock, 
who  had  settled  there  after  the  confiscation  of 


his  land  in  Aberdeenshire  during  the  dWl 
wars.  His  mother  was  Agnes  Muirhead,  an 
intelligent  woman,  and  said  to  be  "bounti- 
fully gifted  with  graces  of  person  as  well  as  ci 
mind  and  heart." 

As  a  boy  James  had  feeble  health,  and 
carried  on  his  studies  at  home  undtf  the 


376 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


direction  of  his  parents.  His  mother,  to 
amuse  him,  encouraged  him  to  draw  with  a 
pencil  upon  paper,  or  with  chalk  upon  the 
floor,  and  he  was  supplied  with  a  few  tools 
from  the  carpenter's  shop,  which  he  soon 
learned  to  use  with  considerable  expertness. 
The  mechanical  dexterity  he  acquired  was 
the  foundation  upon  which  he  built  the 
speculations  to  which  he  owes  his  glory,  nor 
without  this  mechanical  training  is  there  the 
least  likelihood  that  he  would  have  become 
the  greatest  improver,  and  practically  the 
creator,  of  the  steam  engine. 

Several  remarkable  instances  of  precocity 
are  related  of  Watt.  On  one  occasion,  when 
he  was  bending  over  a  marble  hearth,  with  a 
piece  of  chalk  in  his  hand,  a  friend  of  his 
father  said :  "  You  ought  to  send  that  boy  to 
a  public  school,  and  not  allow  him  to  trifle 
away  his  time  at  home."  "Look  how  the 
boy  is  occupied,"  replied  the  father,  "before 
you  condemn  him."  Though  only  six  years 
of  age,  he  was  "trying  to  solve  a  problem  in 
geometry."  A  still  more  wonderful  story  is 
told  of  the  idle  James  watching  the  steam 
escaping  from  the  teakettle.  Let  these  pass 
for  what  they  are  worth;  Watt's  teakettle 
may  be  placed  alongside  the  little  hatchet  of 
George  Washington. 

His  early  years  were  passed  at  Greenock, 
but  from  the  age  of  fourteen  he  was  often  in 
Glasgow  with  his  uncle,  and  read  and  studied 
much  on  chemistry  and  anatomy.  Having 
finished  his  education  at  the  grammar  school 
of  his  native  town,  he  received  no  further 
instruction.  As  with  all  distinguished  men, 
his  extensive  after-acquirements  in  science 
and  literature  were  entirely  by  his  own 
self-culture. 

In  the  year  1755  he  went  to  London  to 
place  himself  under  a  mathematical  instru- 
ment maker,  and,  after  acquiring  such  a 
knowledge  of  that  profession  as  a  year's 
instruction  could  give  him,  he  returned  to 
Glasgow  in  1756,  with  the  intention  of  carrying 
on  his  business  there.  He  had  not  acquired, 
however,  the  privilege  of  so  doing  from  a 
burgess,  and  the  incorporation  of  trades  pro- 
hibited him  from  establishing  a  shop  within 
the  limits  of  the  city.  The  university  of 
Glasgow  thus  became  the  sanctuary  of  Watt, 
and  the  academical  authorities,  having  found 
for  him  a  small  shop  within  its  walls,  employed 
him  in  fitting  up  the  instrvunents  in  the 
Macfarlane  observatory. 

These  premises  he  occupied  from  1757  to 


1763;  but  they  seem  to  have  been  badly 
situated  for  his  business,  for  which,  moreover, 
at  that  time  there  was  but  little  room  in 
Glasgow.  Watt  during  those  years  was 
scarcely  able  to  make  a  hving.  In  1763  he 
secured  a  place  of  business  in  the  town,  and 
after  that  he  did  somewhat  better.  Still,  he 
had  to  eke  out  his  livelihood  by  making  or 
mending  fiddles  —  which  he  was  able  to  do, 
though  he  had  no  ear  for  music  —  or  doing 
any  mechanical  job  which  came  in  his  way. 
No  work  requiring  ingenuity  or  the  applica- 
tion of  scientific  knowledge  seems  to  have 
come  amiss  to  him. 

At  length,  in  1767,  he  obtained  a  new  and 
a  more  lucrative  occupation.  In  that  year 
he  was  employed  to  make  the  surveys  and 
prepare  the  estimates  for  a  canal  projected  to 
unite  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde.  This  work 
could  not  be  carried  out  at  the  time,  because 
it  failed  to  obtain  the  sanction  of  parliament ; 
but  Watt  had  now  made  a  beginning  as  a  civil 
engineer,  and  henceforth  he  secured  consider- 
able employment  in  this  capacity.  He  made 
surveys  for  various  canals,  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  harbors  of  Ayr,  Port  Glasgow, 
and  Greenock,  and  for  the  deepening  of  the 
Forth,  the  Clyde,  and  other  rivers. 

One  of  the  tasks  committed  to  him  was  to 
decide  whether  a  projected  canal  between  the 
Firth  of  Clyde  and  the  western  ocean  should 
be  made  by  way  of  Crinan  or  of  Tarbert ;  and 
the  last  —  also  the  greatest  —  undertaking 
of  this  kind  on  which  he  was  employed  was  a 
survey  for  a  canal  between  Fort  William  and 
Inverness,  a  work  which  was  subsequently 
executed  on  a  greater  scale  by  Telford.  In 
his  surveys  he  made  use  of  a  new  micrometer, 
and  of  a  machine,  also  of  his  own  invention, 
for  dravving  in  perspective  —  the  latter  of 
which  appears  to  have  been  for  several  years, 
about  this  time,  one  of  his  sources  of  income. 
The  reports  which  he  drew  up  in  the  capacity 
of  engineer  are  said  to  have  been  remarkable 
for  perspicuity  and  accuracy. 

Living  in  the  college  at  Glasgow,  in  con- 
stant intercourse  with  the  professors  of  the 
university,  with  access  to  books,  and  with 
much  unemployed  time  on  his  hands  —  hav- 
ing, too,  a  great  love  of  knowledge,  and  a 
lively  interest  in  mechanical  novelties  — 
Watt  had  been  a  diligent  student  of  science, 
and  experimented  in  the  application  of 
science  to  the  arts.  As  early  as  1759  his 
attention  had  been  directed  to  the  capabili- 
ties of  steam  as  a  motive  force  by  Robison, 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


tn 


afterward  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in 
the  university  of  Edinburgh,  who  was  then 
a  student  in  Glasgow.  It  had  occurred  to 
Robison  that  steam  pressure  might  be  used 
to  propel  wheeled  carriages ;  but  it  does  not 
appear  that  either  Watt  or  Robison  attempted 
to  carry  out  this  idea.  In  1761  or  1762,  how- 
ever. Watt  made  a  series  of  experiments  on 
the  force  of  steam,  using  a  Papin's  digester. 
These  do  not  seem  to  have  led  to  any  results ; 
and  it  was  not  until  the  winter  of  1763-64 
that  he  began  the  investigations  which  ended 
in  his  improvement  of  the  steam  engine. 
During  that  winter  a  working  model  of  the 
Newcomen  engine,  kept  for  the  use  of  the 
natural  philosophy  class  in  the  college,  was 
sent  to  him  to  be  put  in  repair.  Watt  quickly 
foimd  out  what  was  wrong  with  the  model, 
and  easily  put  it  in  order. 

Watt  was  much  struck  with  the  contrivance, 
but  he  soon  perceived  defects  in  it  which  pre- 
vented it  from  becoming  more  generally  use- 
ful. From  that  time  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  improvement  of  this  machine,  directing 
his  attention  chiefly  to  the  saving  of  heat  in 
the  production  and  condensation  of  steam. 
So  much  confusion  seems  to  exist  as  to  the 
actual  achievements  of  Watt  in  connection 
with  the  steam  engine  that  a  brief  review  of 
his  improvements  will  tend  to  a  better  under- 
standing of  his  true  place  in  the  history  of 
invention. 

The  Newcomen  engine  was  still  but  little 
used,  and  only  for  pumping  water  out  of  mines. 
It  was  a  cumbersome  machine,  and  it  required 
so  much  fuel  that  the  expense  of  working  it 
had  restricted,  and  must  always  have  re- 
stricted, its  use.  It  was  not  a  steam  engine 
at  all.  It  was  worked  by  means  of  the  atmos- 
pheric pressure,  steam  being  only  used  in 
producing,  by  its  condensation,  a  vacuum  in 
a  cylinder,  into  which  —  the  vacuum  made  — 
a  piston  was  depressed  by  the  pressure  of  the 
air.  The  steam  issuing  from  a  boiler  was 
admitted  into  the  cylinder  until  it  filled  it, 
when  the  supply  was  cut  off  by  a  self-acting 
cock;  and  then  the  steam  was  condensed  in 
the  cylinder  by  means  of  a  jet  of  water.  The 
water  so  greatly  cooled  the  cylinder  that  the 
greater  part  of  the  steam  at  each  stroke  of  the 
piston  was  wasted  in  heating  its  walls;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  much  of  the  injected 
water  was  heated  to  the  boiling  point,  and 
gave  off  steam,  which  resisted  the  descent  of 
the  piston. 

Watt  foimd  that  about  four-fifths  of  the 


steam,  and  consequently  of  the  fuel,  wu 
wasted;  and  he  saw  that  to  make  the  machine 
work  economically,  two  apparently  inoom- 
patible  conditions  must  be  obtained  —  first, 
that  the  walls  of  the  cylinder  must  oonsUntly 
be  of  the  same  temi)crature  as  the  steam 
which  came  in  contact  with  them ;  and  second, 
that  the  injected  water  must  never  be  heated 
up  to  one  hundred  degrees,  the  boiling  point 
in  vacuo.  He  now  experimented  upon  the 
conducting  power  of  various  substances,  and 
made  trial  of  a  cylinder  made  of  wood  steqMd 
in  oil ;  but  with  this  cylinder,  though  it  cooled 
less  rapidly  than  a  metallic  one,  there  was 
still  far  too  much  waste  of  steam.  Constantly, 
from  the  end  of  1763,  occupied  with  the  sub- 
ject of  steam,  he  at  length,  eariy  in  1705,  hit 
upon  the  expedient  which  solved  all  his  diffi- 
culties —  the  separate  condenser,  an  air- 
exhausted  vessel,  into  which  the  steam  should 
be  admitted  from  the  cylinder  and  there  con- 
densed. The  separate  condenser  at  once  pre- 
vented the  loss  of  steam  in  the  cylinder  which 
had  arisen  in  the  process  of  condensation; 
and  there  was  no  difficulty  in  keeping  it  cool, 
so  as  to  prevent  the  undue  heating  of  the 
injection  water.  He  had  now  a  perfectly 
economical  engine  on  Newcomen's  principle. 

This  was  the  condition  of  Watt's  invention 
in  1765.  But  he  did  not  rest  content  with 
this.  He  resolved  to  make  steam  his  motive 
power.  Closing  the  cylinder  at  both  top  and 
bottom,  and  connecting  the  piston  with  the 
beam,  to  which  it  was  to  communicate  motion, 
by  a  piston  rod  passing  through  a  stuffing 
box,  he  admitted  the  steam  by  suitable  valves 
alternately  above  and  below  the  piston,  to 
push  it  downward  and  upward  in  turn ;  and 
this  done,  his  invention  was  substantially 
complete.  He  had  at  last  made  a  real  steam 
engine,  capable  of  being  worked  with  a  com- 
paratively small  expenditure  of  fuel,  and  of 
yielding  any  desired  amount  of  power.  He 
received  a  patent  for  his  engine  in  1769 ;  and 
in  1775  parliament  granted  him  a  prolonga- 
tion of  it  for  twenty-five  years.  Comparing 
his  invention  with  the  atmospheric  engine  of 
Newcomen,  it  must  be  admitted  that  it  is  not 
without  justice  that  the  popular  voice  has 
awarded  him  the  name  of  inventor  of  the 
steam  engine. 

The  machine  was  still  employed  as  a  pump 
only,  and  surpassed  that  of  Newcomen 
simply  in  its  economy  of  fuel.  The  force 
applied  was  intermittent,  ceasing  at  the  end 
of  the  down  stroke  of  the  piston.    It  was 


378 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


unavailable  for  all  purposes  in  which  continu- 
ous force  was  required,  such  as  mill  work. 
Its  direction  was  rectilinear,  whereas  for  the 
purpose  of  turning  machinery  rotation  round 
an  axis  was  necessary. 

Soon  after  perfecting  his  model,  Watt 
formed  a  partnership  with  Dr.  Roebuck,  then 
of  the  Carron  iron  works,  for  the  construction 
of  engines  on  a  scale  adapted  to  practical  uses ; 
and  a  model  was  erected  at  Kinneil,  near 
Borrowstounness,  where  Dr.  Roebuck  then 
lived.  But  Roebuck  got  into  difficulties; 
and  nothing  further  was  done  until,  in  1774, 
Watt  entered  into  a  partnership  with  Matthew 
Boulton  of  Soho,  near  Birmingham,  when, 
Roebuck's  interest  having  been  repurchased, 
the  manufacture  of  the  new  engine  was  com- 
menced at  the  Soho  iron  works. 

In  1782  Watt  invented  his  double-acting 
piston,  which  allowed  the  circular  motion  of 
the  engine's  beam,  and  thus  rendered  it  adapt- 
able to  any  system  of  machinery.  Yet  there 
remained  the  fact  that  from  various  causes 
the  motive  'power,  or  the  resistance  to  be 
overcome,  would  frecjuently  vary.  Unless 
absolute  uniformity  could  be  secured  in  the 
rate  of  evaporation,  the  supply  of  steam  would 
not  be  uniform.  Again,  if  at  any  moment  a 
particular  machine  was  brought  to  rest,  or 
others  previously  at  rest  were  set  in  motion, 
the  work  to  be  done  by  the  driving  shaft 
would  diminish  or  increase,  and  the  equability 
of  the  general  motion  be  disturbed.  To 
remedy  this  inconvenience,  a  valve  called  the 
throttle  valve  was  placed  in  the  steam  pipe, 
controlling  the  amount  of  steam  that  passed 
through  it.  An  extremely  ingenious  device, 
known  as  the  governor,  attached  to  the  fly- 
wheel, was  made  to  control  this  valve  auto- 
matically. Two  balls  attached  by  jointed 
rods  to  a  spindle  round  which  they  revolved, 
diverged  by  centrifugal  force  when  the  wheel 
moved  more  quickly,  and  thus  by  a  system 
of  levers  partially  closed  the  valve,  diminish- 
ing the  steam  supply;  when  speed  was 
slackened,  then  gravitation  brought  them 
nearer  together,  with  the  opposite  result. 

By  the  combination  of  these  six  distinct 
inventions  —  the  condenser,  the  employment 
of  steam  above  and  below  the  piston,  parallel 
motion,  the  crank,  the  flywheel,  and  the  gov- 
ernor, which  extended  over  the  period  from 
1769  to  1785  —  Watt's  engine,  beginning  as 
a  mining  pump,  became  at  last  available  for 
the  most  delicate  as  well  as  the  most  laborious 
form  of  industry :  spinning  the  finest  thread 


as  surely  as  it  forged  a  mass  of  iron.  And  to 
this  must  be  added  that  Watt  endowed  it 
with  the  power  of  registering  the  precise 
amount  of  work  done,  not  in  every  stroke 
merely,  but  in  every  part  of  the  stroke.  His 
steam  indicator,  an  apparatus  in  which  steam 
is  admitted  into  a  small  cylinder,  and  presses 
against  a  spring  attached  to  a  pencil  in  con- 
tact with  a  moving  roll  of  paper,  has  been 
found  of  use  in  recent  investigations  of  heat 
as  a  motive  power. 

In  1783  Watt  discovered  the  chemical  com- 
position of  water,  which  is  also  claimed  by 
some  writers  for  Henry  Cavendish,  a  noted 
English  chemist  and  physicist.  The  terms 
which  Watt  applied  to  the  chemical  substances 
which  unite  to  fomi  water  were  phlogiston  and 
dephlogisticated  air;  nevertheless,  Dalton  in 
his  Chemical  Philosophy  did  not  hesitate  to 
say  that  "  the  composition  and  decomposition 
of  water  were  ascertained,  the  former  by 
Watt  and  Cavendish,  and  the  latter  by 
Lavoisier  and  Meusnier."  Many  other  chemi- 
cal authorities,  besides,  divided  the  honor  of 
the  discovery  between  Watt  and  Cavendish. 

After  the  formation  of  the  partnership 
between  Watt  and  Boulton,  Watt  removed 
to  Soho,  near  Birmingham,  where  he  was 
employed  in  the  management  of  what  is  still 
one  of  the  principal  establishments  in  England 
for  the  construction  of  steam  engines.  The 
success  of  the  engines,  which  were  widely 
introduced,  brought  a  like  financial  success 
to  the  works  at  Soho,  and  greatly  enriched 
both  partners.  Watt  remained  an  active 
partner  with  Boultop  until  the  year  1800, 
and  then  gave  up  his  extensive  interest  to  his 
two  sons.  But  his  mind  continued  to  be 
actively  employed  in  scientific  investigations 
for  many  years  thereafter.  He  had  been 
made  a  fellow  of  the  royal  society  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  of  the  royal  society  of  London, 
respectively,  in  1784  and  1785,  and  now 
he  was  honored  with  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  laws  by  the  university  of  Glasgow  in 
1806,  and  as  a  foreign  member  of  the  institute 
of  France  in  1808.  At  the  age  of  eighty-three 
a  tranquil  death  ended  his  career  at  his  home 
in  Heathfield,  near  Birmingham,  on  August 
25,  1819.  His  statue  in  marble  —  considered 
the  masterpiece  of  the  noted  English  sculptor, 
Chantrey,  now  adorns  Westminster  abbey. 

Watt  was  twice  married:  first,  in  1763,  to 
his  cousin,  a  Miss  Miller,  who  died  in  1773; 
and  a  few  years  later,  soon  after  his  removal 
to  Birmingham,  he  married  a  Miss  MacGregor 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


S?9 


of  Glasgow.  At  his  death  no  issue  was  left  to 
him  except  one  son,  long  associated  with  him 
in  his  business  and  studies,  and  two  grand- 
children by  a  daughter  who  predeceased  him. 

This  truly  great  man  may  justly  be  placed 
high  on  the  roll  of  those  creative  minds  who 
have  improved  the  condition  of  mankind  by 
the  application  of  science  to  the  practical  pur- 
poses of  life.  The  work  done  by  Gutenberg 
and  Columbus  was  the  foundation  of  the 
great  industrial  impetus  of  the  renaissance. 
The  work  done  by  Arkwright,  Watt,  and 
Stephenson  forms  the  foundation  of  the  still 
greater  industrial  impetus  of  our  time.  It  is 
this  last  movement  which,  in  the  life  of  Eng- 
land, created  America,  revived  France,  Ger- 
many, Belgium,  and  Italy,  and  extended  a  new 
impelling  force  to  the  entire  civilized  world. 

But  independent  of  his  great  attainments 
in  mechanics.  Watt  was  an  extraordinary  and 
in  many  respects  a  wonderful  man.  Perhaps 
no  individual  in  his  age  possessed  so  much 
and  such  varied  and  exact  information,  had 
read  so  much,  or  remembered  what  he  had 
read  so  accurately  and  well.  He  had  infinite 
quickness  of  apprehension,  a  prodigious 
memory,  and  a  certain  rectifying  and  method- 
izing power  of  understanding,  which  extracted 
something  precious  out  of  all  that  was  pre- 
sented to  it.  His  stores  of  miscellaneous 
knowledge  were  immense,  and  yet  less  aston- 
ishing than  the  command  he  had  at  all  times 
over  them.  It  seemed  as  if  every  subject 
that  was  casually  started  in  conversation 
with  him  was  that  which  he  had  been  last 
studying  and  exhausting;  such  was  the 
copiousness,  the  precision,  and  the  admirable 
clearness  of  the  information  which  he  poured 
out  upon  it  without  effort  or  hesitation.  Nor 
was  this  promptitude  and  compass  of  knowl- 
edge confined,  in  any  degree,  to  the  studies 
connected  with  his  ordinary  pursuits. 

That  he  should  have  been  minutely  and 
extensively  skilled  in  chemistry  and  the  arts, 
and  in  most  of  the  branches  of  physical 
science,  might  -perhaps  have  been  conjec- 
tured. It  could  not  have  been  inferred  from 
his  usual  occupations,  however,  and  probably 
is  not  generally  known  that  he  was  curiously 
learned  in  many  branches  of  antiquity, 
metaphysics,  medicine,  and  etymology;  and 
perfectly  at  home  in  all  the  details  of  archi- 
tecture, music,  and  law.  He  was  well 
acquainted,  too,  with  most  of  the  modem 
languages,  and  familiar  with  their  most  recent  ^ 
literature.    Nor  was  it  at  all  extraordinary! 


to  hear  the  great  mechanician  and  engineer 
detailing  and  expounding,  for  hours  togethar, 
the  metaphysical  theories  of  the  QennaD 
logicians,  or  criticising  the  measures  or  the 
matter  of  the  German  poetry. 

"It  is  needless  to  say,"  observes  one  of  his 
biographers,  "  that  with  his  vast  intellcctuel 
resources,  his  conversation  was  at  all  times 
rich  and  instructive  in  no  ordinary  degree. 
But  it  was,  if  possible,  still  more  pleasing  then 
wise,  and  had  all  the  charms  of  familiarity, 
with  all  the  substantial  treasures  of  knowl- 
edge. No  man  could  be  more  social  in  his 
spirit,  less  assuming  or  fastidious  in  his  man- 
ners, or  more  kind  and  indulgent  toward  all 
who  approached  him.  His  talk,  too,  though 
overflowing  with  information,  had  no  sem- 
blance to  lecturing,  or  solemn  discoursing; 
but,  on  the  contrary,  was  full  of  colloquial 
spirit  and  pleasantry.  He  had  a  certain  quiet 
and  grave  humor,  which  ran  through  most  of 
his  conversation,  and  a  vein  of  temperate 
jocularity,  which  gave  infinite  zest  and  effect 
to  the  condensed  and  inexhaustible  informa- 
tion which  formed  its  main  staple  and  char- 
acteristic. 

"There  was  usually  a  little  air  of  affected 
testiness,  and  a  tone  of  pretended  rebuke  and 
contradiction,  which  he  used  toward  his 
younger  friends,  that  was  always  felt  by  them 
as  an  endearing  mark  of  his  kindness  and 
familiarity,  and  prized  accordingly  far  beyond 
all  the  solemn  compliments  that  ever  pro- 
ceeded from  the  lips  of  authority.  His  voice 
was  deep  and  powerful ;  though  he  commonly 
spoke  in  a  low  and  somewhat  monotonous 
tone,  which  harmonized  admirably  v^nth  the 
weight  and  brevity  of  his  obscr\'ation8,  and 
set  off  to  the  greatest  advantage  the  pleasant 
anecdotes  which  he  delivered  with  the  same 
grave  tone,  and  the  same  calm  smile  plajring 
soberly  on  his  lips.  There  was  nothing  of 
effort,  indeed,  or  of  impatience,  any  more  than 
of  pride  or  levity  in  his  demeanor ;  and  there 
was  a  finer  expression  of  reposing  strength, 
and  mild  self-possession  in  his  manner,  than 
we  ever  recollect  to  have  met  with  in  any 
other  person.  He  had  in  his  character  the 
utmost  abhorrence  for  all  sorts  of  forward- 
ness, parade,  and  pretension." 

Wordsworth,  the  English  poet,  referring  to 
Watt,  said :  "  I  look  upon  him,  when  I  con- 
sider both  the  magnitude  and  the  universality 
of  his  genius,  as  perhaps  the  most  extnk- 
ordinary  man  that  this  country  (England) 
ever  produced." 


380                                              MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 

LAVOISIER 

A.  D.                                                                                                      AQE  A.  D.                                                                                                      AOE 

1743     Born  at  Paris,  France, 1776     Improved    gunpowder;      director     of 

1766     Received  prize  ofifered  by  French  acad-  government  powder  mills,     ....     33 

emy  of  sciences 23  1787     MHhode    de    Nomenclature    Chimique. 

1768  Associate  of  the  academy, 25  "Metiyxl  of  Chemical  Nomenclature,''    44 

1769  Farmer-general  of  revenue, 26  1789     TraiU  El&mentaire  de  Chimie,   "Ele- 

1771     Married 28  mentary  Treatise  on  Chemistry,"   .     46 

1774     Opuscules     Chitniques     et     Physiques,  1794     Guillotined  at  Paris, 61 

"Physical  and  Chemical  Essays,"    .     31 


A  NTOINE  LAURENT  LAVOISIER,  a 
'^*-  celebrated  French  chemist,  and  the 
chief  founder  of  modem  chemistry,  was  born 
at  Paris,  France,  August  26,  1743.  His 
parents  were  in  affluent  circumstances,  and 
he  was  given  a  careful  education  under  his 
father's  direction  at  the  College  Mazarin,  in 
Paris,  which  he  left  with  high  honors.  He 
early  showed  a  decided  inclination  for  the 
physical  sciences;  and  before  he  was  twenty 
years  old  had  made  himself  master  of  the 
principles  of  mathematics,  botany,  and  espe- 
cially chemistry,  under  Lacaille,  Jussieu,  and 
Rouelle,  respectively. 

In  1764  the  French  government,  through 
the  academy  of  sciences,  proposed  an  extra- 
ordinary premium  for  the  best  and  cheapest 
means  of  lighting  the  streets  of  Paris,  and  other 
large  cities.  To  this  subject,  involving  a 
knowledge  of  several  branches  of  science, 
Lavoisier  immediately  devoted  his  attention. 
He  produced  so  able  a  memoir,  full  of  most 
masterly,  accurate,  and  practical  views,  that 
he  was  awarded  the  gold  medal  in  1766. 
This  production  was  the  means  of  introducing 
him  into  the  academy  of  sciences,  to  which, 
after  a  severe  contest,  he  was  admitted  to 
membership  May  13,  1768;  and  he  proved 
himself  through  life  one  of  its  most  useful  and 
valuable  associates.  He  was  in  the  following 
year  appointed  farmer-general  of  revenue. 

Lavoisier  began  his  scientific  career  by 
treating  the  whole  subject  of  the  sciences  in 
the  true  spirit  of  the  experimental  method. 
First  he  clearly  showed  that  the  pretended 
conversion  of  water  into  earth  was  either  a 
deposition  of  earthly  particles,  or  a  sediment 
arising  from  the  action  of  the  water  on  the 
internal  surface  of  the  retort.  He  also 
labored  on  the  analysis  of  the  gj^jsum  found 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Paris,  and  on  the 
crystallization  of  salts.  He  discussed  the 
project  of  conveying  water  from  L'Yvette  to 
Paris,  and  the  theory  of  congelation ;  and  to 
these  researches  added  extensive  observations 
on  the  phenomena  of  thunder  and  the  aurora 
borealis. 


He  next  directed  his  attention  more  espe- 
cially to  mineralogy;  and  made  excursions, 
in  conjunction  with  Guettard,  into  all  parts  of 
France,  endeavoring  to  form  from  different 
districts  a  complete  collection  of  their  charac- 
teristic mineral  productions.  He  made  ad- 
vances toward  a  systematic  classification  of 
facts  connected  with  the  localities  of  fossils, 
which  afterward  served  as  the  basis  of  his 
work  on  the  revolutions  of  the  globe  and  the 
formation  of  successive  strata,  of  which  two 
admirable  abstracts  were  inserted  in  the 
memoirs  of  the  academy  of  sciences  for 
1772  and  1787.  Thus  during  the  earlier  part 
of  his  life  Lavoisier  does  not  seem  to  have 
devoted  himself  in  particular  to  any  one 
branch  of  science. 

At  this  time  the  whole  range  of  chemical 
and  physico-chemical  science  was  in  an 
extremely  imperfect  state ;  and  the  first  stops 
toward  a  more  improved  system  involved  the 
necessity  of  clearing  away  a  vast  mass  of  error 
which  encumbered  it.  Particularly  among 
the  encumbrances  was  the  great  hypothesis  of 
phlogiston.  It  was  by  overthrowing  this,  and 
putting  in  its  place  a  new  explanation  of  com- 
bustion, that  he  organized  modem  chemistry. 
Let  us  see  how  this  hypothesis  of  phlogiston 
came  about. 

The  awakening  in  favor  of  inductive  science, 
which  gave  rise  to  the  physical  discoveries  of 
Galileo  and  the  philosophy  of  Bacon,  led,  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  to  the  first  attempts 
to  raise  chemistry  to  the  rank  of  a  science. 
Before  this  time,  for  a  thousand  years,  the 
alchemists  had  sought  in  vain  for  a  method  of 
converting  the  baser  metals  into  gold  and 
silver.  But  this  search,  commenced  by  the 
Arabians,  and  introduced  by  them  into 
Europe,  and  which  produced  such  men  as 
Geber,  RajTnond  Lully,  Roger  Bacon,  and 
Basil  Valentine,  gave  to  the  world  indirectly 
an  immense  nimiber  of  facts,  the  organization 
of  which  afterward  made  chemistry.  Then 
there  came  a  transition  period  in  which 
chemistry  was  identified  with  medicine,  such 
as  it  was  under  Paracelsus  and  the  celebrated 


LAVOISIER  AND  HIS  VIFE 

From  a  painting  by  David 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


88S 


Van  Helmont,  who,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  roughly  anticipated 
much  of  the  pneumatic  chemistry  of  Black, 
Cavendish,  and  Priestley. 

But  it  was  not  until  1661,  when  Robert 
Boyle,  the  British  chemist,  published  his 
Sceptical  Chemist,  that  the  science  began.  In 
this  remarkable  work  he  subjected  to  a  rigid 
criticism  the  Aristotelian  principles  of  earth, 
fire,  air,  and  water,  and  the  alchemical 
principles  of  salt,  sulphur,  and  mercury,  and 
showed  that  as  ultimate  elements  they  are 
entirely  inadequate.  He,  at  the  same  time, 
indicated  indirectly  what  a  chemical  element 
should  be.  This  put  the  science  on  a  firm, 
independent  basis,  distinct  from  art  of  any 
kind  and  from  biology.  It  led  afterward  to 
its  final  separation  from  physics.  About  this 
time  the  German  physician  and  chemist, 
Becher,  formulated  the  hypothesis  of  phlogis- 
ton, which  was  afterward  applied  and  main- 
tained by  his  great  fellow  countryman,  Stahl. 
According  to  Becher  and  Stahl,  when,  for 
example,  iron  is  converted  into  rust,  it  loses 
something  —  phlogiston.  If,  by  means  of 
some  substance,  such  as  charcoal,  rich  in 
phlogiston,  the  phlogiston  be  again  added  to 
the  rust,  it  becomes  phlogisticated  rust,  or 
metallic  iron.  A  metal  was  a  compound  of  its 
earth  or  calyx  (oxide)  with  phlogiston,  and 
calcination  or  combustion  (oxidation)  was 
the  evolution  of  phlogiston. 

The  invaluable  discoveries  just  alluded  to 
—  the  existence  of  more  than  one  species  of 
gaseous  matter  —  had  opened  a  new  world  to 
the  inquirer  into  nature;  and  the  labors  of 
those  distinguished  experimentalists  had  con- 
spired to  commence  a  fresh  era  in  science. 
Lavoisier  was  one  of  the  first  to  appreciate  at 
once  the  importance  of  the  results  they  had 
arrived  at,  and  the  immense  field  of  further 
research  to  which  those  results  had  opened  the 
way.  He  perceived  by  a  sort  of  instinct  the 
glorious  career  which  lay  before  him ;  and  the 
influence  which  this  new  science  thus,  as  it 
were,  created,  njust  have  over  every  sort  of 
physical  research.  Priestly  possessed  precisely 
those  qualifications  which  are  most  available 
for  striking  out  new  and  brilliant  discoveries 
of  facts;  a  boundless  fertility  of  invention; 
a  power  of  rapidly  seizing  remote  analogies ; 
and  an  equal  readiness  in  framing  and  in 
abandoning  hypotheses,  which  have  no  value 
but  as  guides  to  experiment.  Lavoisier,  less 
eminent  in  these  respects,  possessed  in  a  more 
peculiar   degree    the   mental    characteristics 


which  enable  their  owner  to  advance  to  grand 
generalizations  and  scientifio  principlet  upon 
the  sure  basis  of  facts.  He  poenand,  in  ito 
fullest  sense,  the  true  spirit  of  inductive  cau- 
tion, and  even  geometrical  rigor;  and  hit 
observations,  eminently  precise  and  luminous, 
always  pointed  to  more  general  views. 

Lavoisier  turned  his  attention  to  the  defects 
of  the  existing  theory  about  1770.  He  pur- 
sued his  researches  with  unwearied  industry ; 
and,  by  a  long  series  of  experiments  of  the 
most  laborious  and  precise  nature,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  determining  that,  in  all  cases  of 
combustion,  the  one  substance  which  is  the 
real  combustible  receives  an  addition,  or 
enters  into  a  new  combination ;  and  the  mat- 
ter with  which  it  combines  is  in  all  cases  that 
same  substance  which  had  been  shown  by 
Priestley  to  be  one  of  the  constituents  of  the 
atmosphere,  then  known  by  the  name  of 
vital  air. 

In  1774  he  published  his  Opuscules  Chi- 
miques  et  Physiques,  in  which,  after  a  full  and 
truly  philosophical  examination  of  the  labors 
of  preceding  experimenters  in  the  discovery 
of  the  gases  and  their  characteristic  proper- 
ties, he  proceeded  to  describe  his  own  funda- 
mentally important  researches  into  the  true 
theory  of  combustion,  which  may  be  termed 
the  very  sun  and  center  of  the  whole  modem 
system  of  chemistry. 

It  was,  however,  long  before  Lavoisier 
gained  a  single  convert.  At  length  Ber- 
thollet,  at  a  meeting  of  the  French  academy 
of  sciences  in  1785,  publicly  renounced  the 
old  opinions  and  declared  himself  a  convert. 
Fourcroy  followed  his  example.  In  1787 
Morveau  acquiesced,  and  all  the  younger 
chemists  speedily  embraced  the  new  views, 
and  their  establishment  was  thus  complete. 

These  discoveries  introduced  Lavoisier  to 
the  notice  of  the  most  eminent  persons  in 
France;  and  in  1776  Tui^got,  then  minister 
of  finance,  engaged  him  to  superintend  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder  for  the  govern- 
ment. He  introduced  many  valuable  im- 
provements in  the  process  of  manufacture, 
and  many  judicious  reforms  into  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  establishment,  and  a  couple  of 
years  later  was  appointed  one  of  the  trustees 
of  the  bank  of  discount  of  France. 

In  1778  Lavoisier,  having  been  tpoes- 
santly  engaged  on  the  subject  of  gases  and 
combustion,  annoiulced  the  great  discov- 
ery, "that  the  respirable  portion  of  the 
atmosphere  is  the   constituent   principle  of 


384 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


acids,"  which  he  therefore  denominated 
oxygen. 

The  question  as  to  "the  acidifying  prin- 
ciple "  in  chemistry  had  long  formed  the  sub- 
ject of  discussion.  The  prevalent  theory  was 
that  of  Becher  with  various  modifications, 
which  made  the  acid  principle  a  compound  of 
earth  and  water  regarded  as  elements. 
Lavoisier  found  in  the  instance  of  a  great 
number  of  acids  that  they  consisted  of  a  com- 
bustible principle  united  with  oxygen,  and 
upon  these  results  he  advanced  the  general 
theory  that  all  compounds  have  a  binary  con- 
stitution. He  showed  this  both  analytically 
and  synthetically,  and  hence  proceeded  to  the 
conclusion  that  oxygen  is  the  acidifying 
principle  in  all  acids. 

BerthoUet  opposed  this  doctrine,  and  con- 
tended that,  in  general,  acidity  depended  on 
the  manner  and  proportion  in  which  the  con- 
stituents are  combined.  The  fact  is,  in  this 
instance,  Lavoisier  had  advanced  a  little  too 
rapidly  to  his  conclusion.  Had  he  contented 
himself  with  stating  that  this  principle  applied 
to  a  great  number  of  acids,  it  would  have  been 
strictly  true;  but  he  had  certainly  no  proof 
of  its  being  universally  the  case.  Sir  Hum- 
phry Davy,  some  years  after,  showed,  in  the 
course  of  his  important  alkaline  discoveries, 
that  one  of  the  most  powerful  acids  —  the 
muriatic  —  does  not  contain  a  single  particle 
of  oxygen ;  and  when  the  researches  of  Gay- 
Lussac  and  others  had  exhibited  other  proofs 
of  the  same  thing,  it  became  evident  that 
Lavoisier's  assertion  required  considerable 
modification.  Though  nearly  all  acids  have 
been  since  included  under  the  general  law  of 
containing  some  supporter  of  combustion, 
modern  chemistry  now  classifies  them  as 
mono-basic,  di-basic,  tri-basic,  etc.,  according 
to  the  maximum  number  of  their  hydrogen 
atoms  replaceable  by  metals;  but  a  perfect 
theory  of  acidity  is,  perhaps,  yet  wanting. 
Lavoisier's  discovery,  however,  was  one  of 
first  rate  magnitude  and  importance,  and  with 
this  qualification  certainly  forms  the  basis 
of  all  our  present  knowledge  of  the  subject. 

Another  important  research  in  which 
Lavoisier  engaged,  in  conjunction  with 
Laplace,  was  the  determination  of  the  specific 
heats  of  bodies  by  means  of  an  ingenious 
apparatus,  which  they  denominated  the 
calorimeter.  These  were  by  far  the  most  pre- 
cise experiments  on  the  subject  which  had  as 
yet  been  made,  though  some  inaccuracies  in 
the  method  have  since  been  pointed  out. 


Lavoisier  owed  much,  it  must  be  owned,  to 
those  external  advantages  of  fortune,  the 
absence  of  which,  though  it  cannot  confine  the 
flights  of  real  genius,  yet  may  seriously  impair 
the  value  and  efficiency  of  its  exertions ;  and 
the  presence  of  which,  though  it  cannot  confer 
the  powers  of  intellect,  may  yet  afford  most 
invaluable  aids  to  the  prosecution  of  research, 
and  the  dissemination  of  knowledge.  In  the 
instance  before  us  these  advantages  were 
enjoyed  to  the  full  extent,  and  turned  to  the 
best  use.  Lavoisier  was  enabled  to  conunand 
the  most  unlimited  resources  of  instrumental 
aid ;  he  pursued  his  researches  in  a  laboratory 
furnished  with  the  most  costly  apparatus,  and 
was  able  to  put  every  suggestion  to  the  test 
of  experiment  by  the  assistance  of  the  most 
skillful  artists,  and  instruments  of  the  most 
perfect  construction. 

But  as  he  could  thus  command  these  essen- 
tial advantages  for  the  prosecution  of  his  own 
investigations,  he  was  equally  mindful  of  the 
extension  of  similar  advantages  to  others. 
He  always  evinced  himself  ready  to  assist  the 
inquiries  of  those  who  had  not  the  same  means 
at  their  disposal,  and  was  no  less  liberal  in 
aiding  them  by  his  stores  of  information  and 
able  advice.  Indeed,  no  one  could  be  more 
sensible  of  the  mutual  advantage  to  be  derived 
from  such  intercourse  between  those  engaged 
in  the  same  scientific  labors ;  and  this  convic- 
tion, joined  with  a  full  perception  of  the  im- 
mense benefits  accruing  from  personal  ac- 
quaintance among  men  of  kindred  pursuits, 
and  the  interchange  of  social  good  offices,  led 
him  to  the  regular  practice  of  opening  his 
house  on  two  evenings  in  every  week,  for  an 
assembly  of  all  the  scientific  men  of  the 
French  capital.  His  house  very  soon  became 
a  point  of  general  resort  and  reunion  to  the 
philosophers  of  Europe. 

At  these  meetings  general  discourse  and 
philosophic  discussion  were  agreeably  inter- 
mingled; the  opinions  of  the  most  eminent 
philosophers  were  freely  canvassed ;  the  most 
striking  and  novel  passages  in  the  publications 
of  foreign  countries  were  made  known,  recited, 
and  commented  upon;  and  the  progress  of 
experiment  was  assisted  by  candid  criticism 
and  comparison  with  theory.  In  these 
assemblies  might  be  found,  mingling  in 
instructive  and  delightful  conversation,  all 
those  whose  names  made  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury memorable  in  the  annals  of  science. 
Priestley,  Fontana,  Landriani,  Watt,  Bolton, 
and  Ingenhouz  were  associated  with  Laplace, 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


Lagrange,  Borda,  Cousin,  Monge,  Morveau, 
and  BerthoUet. 

There  was  also  an  incalculable  advantage 
in  bringing  into  communication  and  intimacy 
men  engaged  in  distinct  branches  of  science. 
The  intercourse  of  the  mathematician  with  the 
geologist,  of  the  astronomer  with  the  chemist, 
of  the  computer  with  the  experimenter,  and  of 
the  artist  with  the  theorist  could  not  fail  to 
be  of  mutual  advantage.  In  no  instance  were 
the  beneficial  effects  of  such  intercourse  more 
strikingly  displayed  than  in  the  chemical 
sciences,  which,  from  this  sort  of  comparison 
of  ideas  and  methods,  began  now  to  assume  a 
character  of  exactness  from  an  infusion  of  the 
spirit  of  geometry.  The  science,  in  short, 
which  had  hitherto  been  abandoned  to  the 
wildest  speculations,  and  encumbered  with 
the  most  vague  and  undefined  phraseology  — 
derived  from  the  jargon  of  the  alchemists  — 
began  to  assume  something  like  arrangement 
and  method  in  its  ideas,  and  precision  and 
order  in  its  nomenclatiire.  The  direct  result 
was  Lavoisier's  "  Method  of  Chemical  Nomen- 
clature "  in  1787. 

Lavoisier  individually  profited  greatly  by 
the  sources  of  improvement  and  information 
thus  opened.  Whenever  any  new  result  pre- 
sented itself  to  him,  which  perhaps,  from  con- 
tradicting all  received  theories,  seemed  para- 
doxical, or  at  variance  with  all  principles 
hitherto  recognized,  it  was  fully  laid  before 
these  select  assemblies  of  philosophers.  The 
experiment  was  exhibited  in  their  presence, 
and  they  were  invited  with  the  utmost  candor 
to  offer  their  criticisms  and  objections.  In 
perfect  reliance  on  the  mutual  spirit  of  candor, 
they  were  not  backward  in  urging  whatever 
difficulties  occurred  to  them,  and  the  truth 
thus  elicited  acquired  a  firmness  and  stability 
in  its  public  reception  proportioned  to  the 
severity  of  the  test  it  had  imdergone. 
Lavoisier  seldom  announced  any  discovery 
until  it  had  passed  this  ordeal. 

At  length  he  combined  his  philosophical 
views  into  a  connected  system,  which  he  pub- 
lished in  1789,  under  the  title  of  Traile  ^le- 
mentaire  de  Chimie.  This  was  a  beautiful 
model  of  scientific  composition,  clear  and 
logical  in  its  arrangement,  perspicuous  and 
even  elegant  in  its  style  and  manner.  These 
perfections  are  rarely  to  be  foimd  in  elemen- 
tary works  written  by  original  discoverers. 
The  genius  which  qualifies  a  man  for  enlarging 
the  boundaries  of  science  by  his  own  inven- 
tions and  researches  is  of  a  very  different  class 


from  that  which  confers  the  ability  to  dud- 
date,  in  a  simple  and  systematic  oourae,  the 
order  and  connection  of  elementary  truths. 
But  in  Lavoisier  these  different  tpodm  ol 
talent  were  most  happily  blended.  He  not 
only  added  profound  truths  to  science,  but 
succeeded  in  adapting  them  to  the  appidten- 
sion  of  students,  and  was  able  to  render  them 
attractive  by  his  eloquence. 

In  1791  he  entered  upon  extenave  re- 
searches, having  for  their  object  the  applicft* 
tion  of  pneumatic  chemistry  to  the  advance* 
ment  of  medicine,  in  reference  to  the  prooesa 
of  respiration.  With  this  view  he  examined 
in  great  detail  the  changes  which  the  air  under- 
goes, and  the  products  generated  in  that  proc- 
ess of  the  animal  economy.  He  had  previ- 
ously, however,  as  far  back  as  1780,  in  the 
memoirs  of  the  French  academy,  detailed  a 
series  of  experiments  to  determine  the  quan- 
tity of  oxygen  consumed  and  carbonic  acid 
generated  by  respiration,  in  a  given  time. 

In  the  twenty  volumes  of  the  academy  of 
sciences,  from  1772  to  1793,  are  not  less  than 
forty  memoirs  by  Lavoisier,  replete  with  all 
-the  grand  phenomena  of  the  science:  the 
doctrine  of  combustion  in  all  its  bearings ;  the 
nature  and  analysis  of  atmospheric  air;  the 
generation  and  combinations  of  elastic  fluids; 
the  properties  of  heat;  the  composition  of 
acids;  the  decomposition  and  recomposition 
of  water;  the  solutions  of  metals;  and  the 
phenomena  of  vegetation,  fermentation,  and 
animalization.  These  are  some  of  the  most 
important  subjects  of  his  papers ;  and  during 
the  whole  of  this  period  he  advanced  steadily 
in  the  course  which  was  pointed  out  to  him  by 
the  unerring  rules  of  inductive  inquiry,  to 
which  his  original  genius  supplied  the  com- 
mentary. 

So  well  did  he  secure  every  point  of  the 
results  to  which  he  ascended  that  he  never 
made  a  false  step.  It  was  only  in  one  subject, 
before  alluded  to,  that  he  may  be  said  to  have 
gone  a  few  steps  too  far.  Nor  did  he  ever 
suffer  himself  to  be  discouraged,  or  his  ardor 
to  be  lessened  by  the  difficulties  and  obstacles 
which  perpetually  impeded  his  progress.  He 
traced  new  paths  for  investigation,  and 
founded  a  new  school  of  science ;  and  his  suc- 
cessors had  ample  employment  in  following 
out  the  inquiries  which  he  had  indicated,  and 
exploring  those  recesses  to  which  he  had 
opened  the  way.  Upon  the  basis  thus  estab- 
lished by  Lavoisier,  Davy  and  Berselius, 
Liebig  and  Dumas,  and  others  more  recently 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


have  built  the  etructure  of  modern  chemis- 
try. 

In  the  relations  of  social  and  civil  life 
Lavoisier  was  exemplary;  and  he  rendered 
essential  service  to  the  state  in  several 
capacities.  He  was  treasurer  to  the  academy, 
and  introduced  economy  and  order  into  its 
finances.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the  board 
of  consultation,  and  took  an  active  share  in 
its  business.  As  a  member  of  the  commis- 
sion of  weights  and  measures,  in  1790,  he  took 
an  active  part  in  the  preparation  of  the 
metric  system ;  and,  when  it  was  proposed  to 
determine  a  degree  of  the  meridian,  he  made 
accurate  experiments  on  the  dilation  of  metals, 
in  conjunction  with  Laplace  in  1782,  to  ascer- 
tain the  corrections  due  to  change  of  tempera- 
ture in  the  substances  used  as  measuring  rods 
in  those  delicate  operations. 

By  the  national  convention  he  was  con- 
sulted on  the  means  of  improving  the  manu- 
facture of  assignats,  and  of  increasing  the 
difficulty  of  forgery.  He  also  turned  his 
attention  to  matters  of  rural  economy,  and, 
by  improved  methods  of  agriculture,  on 
scientific  principles,  he  increased  the  produc- 
tiveness of  an  experimental  farm  nearly  one- 
half.  In  1791  he  was  invited  by  the  constit- 
uent assembly  to  digest  a  plan  for  simplifying 
the  collection  of  taxes,  and  produced  an 
excellent  treatise  on  this  subject  under  the 
title  of  "The  Territorial  Riches  of  France." 
He  was  Ukewise  appointed  a  commissioner 
of  the  national  treasury,  in  which  he  effected 
some  beneficial  reforms. 

Lavoisier  had  continuously  held  one  of  the 
posts  of  farmer-general  of  revenue  for  more 


than  twenty  years.  Many  of  the  farmers- 
general  were  men  of  eminent  social  position 
and  wealth,  and  during  the  reign  of  terror  in 
France,  under  the  tyranny  of  Robespierre, 
Lavoisier  foresaw  that  he  would  be  stripped  of 
all  his  property.  He  accordingly  prepared 
to  enter  the  profession  of  an  apothecary  so 
that  he  might  be  able  to  gain  a  livelihood. 
But  in  1794  Dupin  preferred  charges  of  the 
most  flimsy  and  absurd  nature  before  the 
revolutionary  tribunal  against  the  entire 
number  of  farmers-general  —  twenty-seven  in 
all  —  and  they  were  condemned  to  the  guillo- 
tine. On  being  seized,  Lavoisier  entreated 
at  least  to  be  allowed  time  to  finish  some 
experiments  in  which  he  was  engaged,  to  com- 
plete his  final  work  on  chemical  philosophy  — 
Memoires  de  Chimie ;  but  Coffinhall,  the  presi- 
dent of  the  tribunal  who  condemned  him, 
with  characteristic  brutality,  replied:  "The 
republic  does  not  want  savants  or  chemists, 
and  the  course  of  justice  cannot  be  sus- 
pended." He  was  accordingly  executed 
May  8,  1794. 

Lavoisier  in  person  was  tall  and  graceful, 
and  of  hvely  manners  and  appearance.  He 
was  mild,  sociable,  and  obliging;  and  in  his 
habits  unaffectedly  plain  and  simple.  He 
was  liberal  in  pecuniary  assistance  to  those  in 
need  of  it ;  and  his  hatred  of  all  ostentation  in 
doing  good  probably  concealed  greatly  the 
real  amount  of  his  beneficence.  He  married, 
in  1771,  Marie-Anne-Pierrette  Paulze,  a  lady 
of  great  talents  and  accomplishments,  who 
after  his  death  became  the  wife  of  Count 
Rumford. 


A.  D. 

1769  Bom  at  Montbdliard,  France,  .  . 
1784         Entered     Karlschule,     Stuttgart, 

Wiirttemberg, 

1788-94  Private  tutor  in  family  of  Count 

d'H^ricy,  in  Normandy,     .    .    . 

1795  Assisted  superintendent  of  botan- 

ical gardens,  Paris, 

1796  Member  of   the   French  national 

institute, 27 

1798         Tableau  Elimentaire  de  VHistoire 

Naturelle  des  Animaux,  ....  29 
1800         Professor  in  the  College  de  France ; 

secretary  of  the  French  institute,  31 

1803         Married, 34 


CUVIER 

AOE 

A.  D. 

1812 

15 

19-25 

26 

1814 
1815 
1817 
1818 
1819 

1822 
1826 


1831 
1832 


Reehereha  aur  lea  Osaementa  Foa- 

silea, 43 

Councilor  of  state, 45 

Chancellor  of  university  of  Paris,  46 

Le  Rigne  AninuU, 48 

Member  of  the  French  academy,  49 
President  of  the  committee  of  the 

interior;  created  baron,  ...  50 
Grand  master  of   the  faculties  of 

Protestant  theology, 53 

Grand    officer    of    the    legion    of 

honor, 57 

Created  a  peer  by  Louis  Philippe,  62 

Died  at  Paris, 63 


GEORGES   CHRfiTIEN   LEOPOLD 
FRfiDfiRIC    DAGOBERT    CUVIER, 
the  greatest  naturahst  of  his  age,  and  f  oimder 


of  comparative  anatomy,  was  born  August 
23, 1769,  at  what  is  now  Montb^liard,  France, 
but  at  the  time  of  his  birth  was  known  as 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


m 


Mompelgard,  Wiirttemberg.  His  parents  were 
French  Huguenots,  who  fled  from  France  on 
account  of  the  persecutions,  and  throughout 
life  Cuvier  was  distinguished  for  his  attach- 
ment to  the  Protestant  cause.  His  father 
was  an  officer  in  a  Swiss  regiment,  who 
married  late  in  life,  and  his  mother  being 
young  and  accomplished,  much  of  the  early 
education  of  their  son  devolved  on  her. 

In  1784  the  youth  was  admitted  to  Karl- 
schule  in  Stuttgart,  Wiirttemberg,  an  institu- 
tion primarily  designed  for  the  education  of 
young  men  desiring  to  enter  the  public  serv- 
ice. Here  he  was  distinguished  for  his  great 
memory,  and  the  avidity  with  which  he 
studied  Greek,  Latin,  and  French.  He  also 
acquired  marked  skill  in  drawing,  and  culti- 
vated with  unusual  zeal  the  various  branches 
of  natural  history.  He  is  said,  however,  to 
have  most  distinguished  himself  in  the  depart- 
ment devoted  to  the  study  of  the  principles 
and  science  of  government.  While  in  the 
academy  he  obtained  prizes  in  every  depart- 
ment of  study,  and  at  the  end  of  his  course 
was  one  out  of  five  or  six  who  were  presented 
with  a  medal  for  their  general  proficiency. 
In  this  academy  he  was  the  fellow  student  of 
Schiller,  the  great  German  dramatist,  and  of 
Sommering,  the  anatomist.  Although  thus 
early  distinguished,  he  did  not  remain  at 
Stuttgart  long  enough  to  enter  upon  any 
public  employment,  and  perhaps  to  this  cir- 
cumstance we  may  trace  his  illustrious  career 
as  a  naturalist. 

At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  accepted  the  post 
of  tutor  to  the  only  son  of  Count  d'Hericy, 
in  Normandy.  The  residence  of  the  count 
was  near  the  sea,  a  situation  well  adapted  to 
foster  Cuvier's  love  for  the  study  of  natural 
objects  which  he  had  acquired  \mder  the 
guidance  of  Professor  Abel,  at  Stuttgart. 
The  turmoil  of  the  great  French  revolution, 
which  soon  stirred  France  to  its  very  depths, 
did  not  reach  him  in  his  quiet  residence,  and 
he  was  enabled  to  lay  the  foundations  of  his 
exhaustive  knowledge  of  natural  history  in 
seclusion  and  peace.  But  here  an  event 
occurred  which  quickly  brought  him  to  the 
sphere  of  his  future  activity. 

The  abh6  Tessier,  widely  known  for  his 
articles  on  agriculture  in  the  Encyclopidie 
Methodique,  was  obliged  to  flee  from  Paris, 
and,  under  the  guise  of  a  surgeon,  sought 
refuge  in  Valmont,  a  small  town  near  the 
residence  of  the  count.  One  of  the  out- 
growths of  Tessier's  activity  in  this  retreat 


was  a  society  formed  for  the  promotioo  ol 
agriculture,  and  at  one  of  its  early  meeUii^ 
young  Cuvier  detected,  in  the  siufeoo  of 
Valmont,  the  writer  of  the  articles  in  the 
Encyclopidie.  This  incident  led  to  a  friend- 
ship between  the  two,  which  waa  eventually 
attended  by  important  results  for  Cuvier. 

Under  this  new  stimulation  in  Normandy, 
Cuvier  worked  with  so  much  diligence  at  the 
anatomy  and  forms  of  the  lower  ■w«f««iT 
that  after  Tessier's  introduction  he  N>rfnnf 
a  constant  correspondent  of  Lac^pdde,  Olivier, 
Geoffroy,  and  other  eminent  men  in  Paris. 
Of  such  far  reaching  results  were  his  re- 
searches at  this  period  that  they  enabled 
him  to  recognize  the  whole  of  the  inverte- 
brate division  of  animals,  which  had  been 
included  by  Linnaeus  in  his  class  vermu. 
Here  he  also  diligently  dissected  the  moUusca, 
which  subsequently  enabled  him  to  follow 
with  so  much  success  the  classification  of  the 
moUusca,  pointed  out  by  Adanson,  and 
founded  rather  upon  the  structure  of  the 
animal  than  of  its  shell. 

In  1795,  through  the  exertions  of  Tessier, 
Cuvier  was  invited  to  Paris  as  a  member  of 
the  new  commission  of  arts.  He  was  also 
appointed  assistant  to  Mertrud  in  the  super- 
intendence of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  or 
botanical  gardens,  and  professor  of  natural 
history  to  the  central  school  of  the  museum. 
In  these  positions  he  began  that  career 
through  which  he  acquired  the  reputation  of 
being  the  greatest  teacher  of  his  day,  and  the 
museum  of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  became  the 
most  famous  collection  of  comparative  anat- 
omy in  Europe. 

He  now  began  to  publish  various  papers, 
more  especially  on  the  structure  of  the  lower 
animals,  and,  in  1798,  produced  his  work 
entitled  Tableau  ^Umentaire  de  VHidoirt 
Naturelle  des  Animanx,  or  "Elementary  View 
of  the  Natural  History  of  Animals,"  in  which 
he  began  his  epoch-making  classification  of 
animals.  In  the  same  year  he  published  his 
researches  on  fossil  bones,  by  the  publication 
of  a  paper  on  the  "Bones  Found  in  the 
Gypsum  Quarries  of  Montmartre."  In  his 
earlier  papers  he  had  devoted  considerable 
attention  to  the  comparison  of  fossil  and 
recent  species  of  animals,  and  in  the  bones  of 
Montmartre  he  foimd  a  rich  depository  for 
the  exercise  of  his  skill  in  comparing  recent 
with  extinct  species.  He  early  seized  the 
idea  that  each  group  of  animals  was  formed 
on  a  homogenous  plan,  and  that  the  whole 


388 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


structure  of  each  species  was  adapted  to  its 
living  requirements.  He  was  thus  enabled 
by  small  fragments  of  bone  to  reconstruct 
the  whole  fabric  of  an  animal,  and  to  give  a 
living  picture  of  the  creatures  that  inhabited 
the  earth  in  past  times.  It  was  by  these 
researches  that  he  was  enabled  subsequently 
to  give  to  the  world  his  great  work,  "Re- 
searches on  Fossil  Bones,"  in  which  numerous 
forms  of  animal  life  were  presented  which 
had  long  since  been  destroyed. 

In  1796  the  national  institute  of  France 
was  formed,  and  Cuvier  was  made  a  member. 
In  1800  he  became  secretary.  On  the  death 
of  the  naturalist,  Daubenton,  Cuvier,  in  1800, 
was  named  his  successor  in  the  chair  of 
the  philosophy  of  natural  history  in  the 
Coll(ige  de  France.  He  still,  however,  held 
his  position  of  professor  in  the  Jardin  des 
Plantes.  His  lectures  had  been  so  successful 
there  that  they  were  published  by  his  pupils, 
MM.  Dumeril  and  Duvernoy,  in  five  volumes. 
The  first  appeared  in  1800,  and  the  fifth  in 
1805.  They  were  subsequently  republished 
in  1839,  in  ten  volumes,  and  contain  a  vast 
mass  of  interesting  matter  on  the  subject  of 
zoology  and  comparative  anatomy,  and  are 
written  as  they  were  delivered,  in  an  eloquent 
and  attractive  style.  Cuvier  lectured  from 
copious  notes,  and  was  remarkable  for  his 
accurate  and  fluent  style,  and  the  interest 
which  he  threw  into  the  subject  of  discourses. 

But  a  new  sphere  of  activity  awaited  him. 
Napoleon's  great  successes  had  placed  him  at 
the  head  of  French  affairs,  and  after  the 
confusion  of  the  revolution  he  began  the 
legislative  reconstruction  of  France.  The  first 
consul  was  not  long  in  detecting  the  adminis- 
trative ability  of  the  eloquent  teacher  of 
natural  history;  and,  in  1802,  Cuvier  was 
appointed  one  of  six  inspectors,  to  establish 
lyceums  or  public  schools  in  the  principal 
towns  of  France.  He  established  those  of 
Marseilles,  Nice,  and  Bordeaux.  During  his 
absence  on  this  duty,  in  1803,  the  French 
institute  was  remodeled,  and  Cuvier  was 
made  perpetual  secretary  of  the  section  of 
natural  sciences,  with  a  salary  of  six  thousand 
francs  a  year. 

Nothing  gave  a  greater  brilliancy  to  the 
conquests  of  Napoleon  and  the  position  he 
had  thereby  attained  than  his  appreciation 
of  the  importance  of  scientific  pursuits.  With 
a  much  sounder  estimate  of  the  value  of 
natural  science  as  a  branch  of  education  than 
was  exhibited  by  the  other  governments  of 


Europe,  he  everywhere  introduced  into  his 
new  colleges  the  study  of  the  natural  history 
sciences,  and  in  Cuvier  he  found  a  man  pro- 
foundly convinced  of  the  importance  of  these 
studies  to  the  advancement  of  mankind. 
Discoverer  as  he  was,  he  did  not  pursue 
science  for  his  own  self-elevation,  but  was 
supported  in  his  labors  by  the  thought  that 
he  was  contributing  to  the  working  out  of 
the  great  designs  of  providence,  and  the 
welfare  of  the  human  race. 

One  of  the  most  brilliant  productions  of 
his  pen  was  a  report  called  for  by  Napoleon 
on  the  history  of  the  progress  of  science  since 
the  year  1789.  This  luminous  composition 
was  presented  to  Napoleon  in  the  council  of 
state.  In  this  remarkable  treatise,  which  was 
published  in  Paris  in  five  volumes  in  1829, 
he  endeavored  to  show  the  connection  between 
the  advancement  of  knowledge  and  human 
happiness.  He  maintained  that  the  object 
of  science  was  "to  lead  the  mind  of  man 
toward  its  noble  destination  —  a  knowledge 
of  truth ;  to  spread  sound  and  healthy  ideas 
among  the  working  classes  of  the  community ; 
to  draw  human  beings  from  the  empire  of 
prejudice  and  passion;  to  make  reason  the 
arbitrator  and  supreme  guide  of  public 
opinion."  From  this  passage  it  will  be  seen 
that  Cuvier's  pursuit  of  science  was  founded 
on  no  mere  self-glorification,  but  that  his 
heart  was  as  large  as  his  mind  was  great,  and 
that  he  considered  the  highest  destination  of 
the  achievements  of  his  genius  to  be  the 
advancement  of  his  race. 

In  1809,  1810,  and  1811  we  find  Cuvier 
still  employed  by  the  imperial  government 
in  reorganizing  the  educational  institutions 
of  the  continent  of  Europe,  The  sword  of 
the  conqueror  everywhere  made  way  for  the 
minister  of  education.  In  1810  he  organized 
the  universities  of  Piedmont,  Genoa,  and 
Tuscany.  In  1811  he  was  in  Holland  and 
the  Hanseatic  towns.  His  labors  extended 
not  alone  to  the  higher  classes  in  the  univer- 
sities, but  to  schools  for  the  mass  of  the 
people.  He  held  that  instruction  led  to 
civilization,  and  civilization  to  morality; 
that  unless  the  education  of  the  working 
classes  was  sound  and  extensive,  they  could 
I  not  appreciate  the  value  of  knowledge  in 
I  those  who  governed  them  and  exercised  pro- 
I  fessions,  and  who  had  received  their  special 
'  education  in  the  imiversities.  Those  only 
who  are  intimately  acquainted  with  the 
I  continent  of  Europe,  at  this  time,  can  fully 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


appreciate  the  intelligent  labors  of  this 
great  man  in  behalf  of  its  intellectual  up- 
building. 

Successful  as  he  had  been  in  the  other  parts 
of  Europe,  he  had  a  more  delicate  mission  to 
perform  when  sent  by  the  emperor  to  Rome 
to  organize  the  university  there.  But  such 
was  his  good  sense  and  benignity  of  manner 
that,  though  a  Protestant,  he  found  no  diffi- 
culty in  acquitting  himself  of  his  diplomatic 
task,  in  a  manner  that  gained  for  him  the 
esteem  and  approbation  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic world,  as  well  as  of  his  sovereign.  On 
his  return  Napoleon  appointed  him  master 
of  requests  in  the  council  of  state,  and  in 
1814,  just  before  his  abdication,  he  named 
him  councilor  of  state,  an  appointment 
which  was  subsequently  confirmed  by  Louis 
XVIII.  The  following  year  he  was  appointed 
chancellor  of  the  university  of  Paris  by  the 
same  monarch,  and  held  that  post  until  his 
death.  In  1818  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  French  academy,  and  in  1819  was 
appointed  president  of  the  committee  of  the 
interior  in  the  council  of  state.  In  the  same 
year  Louis  XVIil.  created  him  a  baron. 

The  last  ten  years  of  Cuvier's  life  were 
equally  crowded  with  honors.  In  1822  he 
became  grand  master  of  the  faculties  of 
Protestant  theology  in  the  university  of 
Paris;  and  under  his  mastership  fifty  new 
Protestant  cures  were  established  in  France. 
Numerous  professorships  of  natural  history 
in  the  minor  schools  of  France  were  estab- 
lished under  his  direction;  and  he  became 
also,  at  this  period,  a  vice-president  of  the 
French  Bible  society.  In  1826  Charles  X. 
bestowed  upon  him  the  decoration  of  grand 
officer  of  the  legion  of  honor,  and  his  former 
sovereign,  the  king  of  Wiirttemberg,  made 
him  a  commander  of  the  order  of  the  crown. 
In  1830  he  began  a  new  course  of  lectures  in 
the  College  de  France  on  the  progress  of 
science  in  all  ages.  He  opened  the  third  part 
of  his  course  with  an  introductory  lecture  on 
May  8,  1832,  After  an  unusually  eloquent 
survey,  describing  the  objects  of  the  course, 
he  concluded :  "  These  will  be  the  objects  of 
our  future  investigations,  if  time,  health,  and 
strength  shall  be  given  me  to  continue  and 
finish  them  with  you."  But  the  health  failed, 
the  strength  departed,  and  the  time  was 
shortened;  for  the  next  day  he  suffered  a 
paralytic  stroke,  and  expired  on  May  13,  at 
the  age  of  sixty-three  years.  In  Cuvier's 
last  year  Louis  Philippe  had  created  him  a 


peer  of  France,  and  contemplated  makii^ 
him  his  minister  of  the  interior. 

Cuvier  married  the  widow  of  M.  Duvauod, 
a  former  farmer-general  of  Fraooe,  in  1808, 
and  subsequently  lived  at  the  Jutlin  det 
Plantes,  in  Paris,  for  nearly  forty  yean. 
Here,  surrounded  with  the  objecta  whidi 
engrossed  so  great  a  portion  of  his  thought*, 
he  received  every  Satunlay  the  men  of 
science  of  Paris,  and  all  others  who  viaiied 
that  capital  from  any  part  of  the  world. 
Professors  and  pupils  met  in  his  rooms  to 
listen  to  his  informal  talks,  for  he  waa  aocaa- 
sible  to  all.  Although  compelled  to  be  a  very 
rigid  economist  of  time,  his  dtspositton  waa 
such  that  if  any  one  who  had  bumneas  to 
transact  called  at  an  unexpected  hour,  he 
was  never  sent  away  unheard.  "One  who 
lived  so  far  off,"  Cuvier  waa  wont  to  say, 
"had  no  right  to  deny  himself." 

Everything  in  his  house  was  so  arranged  as 
to  secure  economy  of  time.  His  library  con- 
sisted of  several  apartments,  and  each  great 
subject  that  claimed  his  attention  had  a 
separate  room  allotted  to  it.  He  usually 
worked,  too,  it  is  said,  in  the  apartment 
belonging  to  the  subject  with  which  he  was 
momentarily  engaged,  so  that  he  might  be 
surrounded  with  his  materials. 

His  ordinary  custom,  when  returning  from 
public  business  in  Paris,  was  to  go  at  once 
to  his  study,  after  passing  a  few  minutes  by 
the  way  in  the  room  with  his  family.  He 
came  back  when  dinner  was  announced, 
usually  with  a  book  in  his  hand,  and  returned 
soon  after  dinner  to  his  study,  where  he 
remained  until  eleven.  He  then  came  to 
Madame  Cuvier's  room,  and  usually  had 
some  of  the  lighter  literature  of  the  day  read 
aloud  to  him.  Sometimes  the  book  selected 
was  of  a  more  classic  character;  and  during 
the  last  year  of  his  life  he  had  the  greater 
part  of  Cicero  read  to  him.  His  manner  at 
all  times  was  courteous,  kind,  and  encourag- 
ing. Any  one  who  manifested  interest  in  the 
subject  with  which  Cuvier  was  familiar 
might  approach  him  without  fear  of  meeting 
with  a  cold  or  formal  reception. 

Cuvier  had  four  children,  none  of  whom 
survived  him.  He  was  a  fond  husband  and 
father,  and  few  men  of  his  eminence  have 
been  more  remarkable  for  the  regularity  and 
simplicity  of  their  social  life.  One  of  hia 
children,  a  daughter,  lived  to  be  old  eoou^ 
to  be  betrothed,  but  died  within  a  few  daya 
of  her  appointed  marriage.    She  was  eminent 


890 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


for  the  beauty  and  piety  of  her  character; 
and  the  affections  of  the  great  philosopher 
were  so  bound  up  with  this  amiable  child 
that  it  is  said  her  death  hastened  his  own  end. 

Cuvier's  most  important  works  are  usually 
conceded  to  be  those  on  comparative  anatomy, 
"Researches  on  Fossil  Bones,"  "Discourse  on 
the  Revolutions  of  the  Globe,"  and  "The 
Animal  Kingdom,"  which  was  first  published 
in  1817,  and  revised  down  to  1830.  In  the 
first,  to  the  facts  gathered  by  Claude  Perrault 
and  Daubenton,  he  added  innumerable  obser- 
vations of  his  own,  and  coordinated  these 
elements  into  the  form  of  a  doctrine.  In  the 
second  work,  he  founded  a  science  entirely 
new,  the  science  of  lost  species  of  fossils  — 
in  short,  palaeontology.  In  the  third,  he 
embraced  the  entire  animal  creation,  and 
established  the  classification  which  serves 
to-day  for  the  basis  of  the  science  of  zoology 
—  a  classification  based  upon  comparative 
anatomy. 

Until  this  time  comparative  anatomy  was 
only  a  collection  of  facts  relative  to  the 
structure  of  animals.  Cuvier  concluded  that 
anatomy  and  physiology  should  form  the 
basis  of  zoology,  and  that  the  most  general 
and  constant  fact  in  the  organization  should 
determine  its  grand  divisions,  and  the  least 
general  and  most  variable  facts  the  secondary 
divisions.  He  thus  established  a  subordina- 
tion of  character,  which  ought  to  be,  and 
alone  can  be,  the  principle  of  a  natural 
method ;  that  is  to  say,  of  such  a  method  of 
arrangement  of  beings  that  the  place  occupied 
by  each  of  them  gives  a  general  idea  of  its 
organization,  and  of  the  relations  which  con- 


nect it  with  all  others  —  a  method  which  he 
regarded  as  science  itself  reduced  to  its  most 
simple  expression.  Thus,  examining  the 
modifications  of  the  organs  of  circulation, 
respiration,  and  sensation  throughout  the 
animal  kingdom,  instead  of  the  six  classes  of 
Linnaeus,  Cuvier  established  four  great  types, 
vertebrates,  moUusks,  articulates,  and  radi- 
ates, which  he  called  embranchments,  and 
divided  into  classes  of  nearly  equal  value 
with  those  long  established  among  the  verte- 
brata.  This  tended  very  much  to  raise  into 
importance  the  inferior  animals. 

Cuvier's  two  laws,  the  law  of  the  subordi- 
nation of  the  organs  and  the  law  of  correla- 
tions, with  some  others,  formed  part  of  that 
science  which  permitted  him  methodically  to 
reconstruct  a  great  number  of  lost  species  by 
means  of  fossil  debris.  "Such  was,"  says  M. 
Flourens,  "the  vigor  and  infallibility  of  this 
method  that  Cuvier  could  recognize  an  animal 
by  a  single  bone,  or  a  single  facette  of  a  bone." 

As  a  naturaUst,  Cuvier  takes  a  permanent 
rank  among  the  few  great  men  who  have 
'  effected  great  revolutions  in  the  sciences 
which  they  have  cultivated,  and  who  have 
left  ineffaceable  traces  of  the  influence  of 
their  discoveries.  The  whole  animal  kingdom 
has  assumed  under  his  hands  a  systematic 
arrangement,  founded  on  a  careful  and  labori- 
ous observation  of  the  analogies  of  internal 
structure.  He  converted  the  science  of 
natural  history  into  a  science  of  strict  and 
severe  induction,  and  conferred  on  it  a  dig- 
nity hitherto  unpossessed  by  it.  He  recon- 
structed, as  it  were,  the  fossil  remains  of  an 
antediluvian  world,  from  imperfect  fragments. 


STEPHENSON 


A.  D.  AQE 

1781  Bom  near  Wylam,  Northumberland, 

England, 

1798  "Engineman"  at  Throckley  Bridge,   .  17 

1802  Married, 21 

1806  Death  of  wife, 25 

1812  Enginewright  at  Killingworth,      ...  31 

1814  Constructed  locomotive  steam  engine,  33 

1815  Patented  locomotive;  invented  safety 

lamp, 34 


A.  D.  Aoa 

1820  Second  marriage, .  39 

1821  Engineer,    Stockton    and    Darlington 

railway, 40 

1826     Engineer,     Liverpool     and     Manches- 
ter,       45 

1845     Visited  Belgium  and  Spain 64 

1848     Died  at  Tapton,  England, 67 


/^EORGE  STEPHENSON,  an  illustrious 
^^  English  engineer  and  chief  improver  of 
the  steam  locomotive,  was  born  of  very  hum- 
ble parentage,  in  a  cottage  on  the  Tyne,  near 
Wylam,  Northumberland,  England,  on  June 
9,  1781.    The  wages  earned  by  his  father. 


who  worked  in  a  colUery,  were  barely  suflS- 
cient,  even  with  the  most  rigid  economy,  for 
the  sustenance  of  the  household,  and  conse- 
quently none  of  the  children  were  sent  to 
school. 
The  early  life  of  Stephenson  presents  a 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


801 


record,  whose  interest  cannot  be  surpassed, 
of  a  contest  between  determined  purpose, 
industry,  and  sagacity  on  the  one  hand, 
against  poverty  on  the  other.  He  began  life 
by  herding  cows  at  twopence  a  day,  but  soon 
exchanged  a  pastoral  for  an  agricultural 
sphere,  doubling  his  wages  by  undertaking  to 
hoe  turnips.  Then  he  was  taken  on  at  the 
colliery  as  a  "corfbitter,"  or  "picker,"  to 
clear  the  coal  of  stones,  bats,  and  dross.  His 
wages  were  advanced  to  sixpence  a  day,  and 
to  eightpence  when  he  was  allowed  to  draw 
the  ginhorse.  Great  was  his  exultation  when, 
at  about  fourteen  years  of  age,  he  was  ap- 
pointed fireman  at  a  shilling  a  day.  From 
this  time  his  fortunes  took  him  from  one  pit  to 
another,  and  procured  him  rising  wages  with 
his  rising  stature.  At  Throckley  Bridge, 
when  advanced  to  twelve  shillings  a  week,  he 
joyfully  exclaimed,  "I  am  now  a  made  man 
for  life!" 

At  seventeen  he  became  engineman  or 
plugman.  He  soon  studied  and  mastered  the 
working  of  his  engine,  and  it  became  a  sort 
of  pet  with  him.  He  learned  that  the  won- 
derful engines  of  Watt  and  Boulton  were  to  be 
found  described  in  books,  and  with  the  object 
of  mastering  these  books,  though  a  grown  man, 
he  went  to  a  night  school,  at  threepence  a 
week,  to  learn  his  letters.  He  then  studied 
the  engine  books  at  night  by  the  light  of  his 
engine  fire.  For  f  ourpence  a  week  he  included 
"figuring,"  while  at  the  pit  he  acquired  the 
art  of  braking  an  engine. 

In  1802,  when,  as  a  brakesman,  he  made 
nearly  one  poimd  a  week,  he  married  Fanny 
Henderson,  a  pretty  farm  servant,  who  made 
him  an  excellent  wife,  and  brought  comfort 
as  her  dowry  to  the  cottage  which  he  took  for 
her  on  Willington  Quay.  At  this  time,  during 
his  leisure  hours,  he  added  to  his  income  by 
making  and  mending  the  shoes  of  his  fellow 
workmen.  Next  he  took  to  making  shoe 
lasts,  in  which  he  was  expert,  and  acquired  a 
good  trade.  From  cleaning  and  repairing  his 
own  clock,  he  ,also  became  one  of  the  most 
famous  clock  doctors  in  the  neighborhood. 
He  was  thus  prospering  and  happy  until 
calamity  overtook  him  and  he  lost  his  wife, 
who  died  in  1806,  leaving  to  his  care  their  only 
son,  who  lived  to  share  the  fame  of  his  father 
as  an  engineer. 

Soon  after  the  death  of  his  wife,  Stephenson 
removed  for  an  interval  near  Montrose, 
Scotland,  where  he  had  charge  of  an  engine  in 
a  large  spinning  mill.     On  his  return  he  found 


his  father  reduced  by  an  accident  to  blindoMt, 
and  consequently  to  poverty,  so  he  paid  hit 
father's  debts  cheerfully,  undertook  to  sup- 
port him  and  his  mother,  and  diachaiged  tUt 
filial  duty  toward  them  until  their  death. 
He  was  again  given  employment  at  Killing- 
worth,  but  his  prospects  in  life  about  that 
time  were  far  from  hopeful.  On  one  ooommd, 
indeed,  so  hard  had  the  tide  gone  against  K'm, 
that  even  he  had  nearly  given  way  to  despair. 
"I  wept  bitterly,"  he  says  in  allusion  to  an 
intention  he  had  formed  of  emigrating  — 
"  for  I  knew  not  where  my  lot  in  life  might  be 
cast." 

In  1812  he  was  appointed  cnginewright  at 
Killingworth,  with  a  salary  of  one  hundred 
poimds  a  year.  Here  he  began  his  experi- 
ments with  the  locomotive.  Wooden  rails, 
it  appears,  were  first  laid  down  for  the  service 
of  coalpits  at  an  early  period.  The  invention 
consisted  of  a  double  parallel  line  of  wooden 
beams  or  trams  fixed  to  the  groimd,  and 
furnished  with  flanges  to  prevent  the  whedt 
of  vehicles  from  slipping  aside.  Along  these 
flanged  beams  wagons  were  drawn  by  hones 
with  such  comparative  ease  that,  instead  of 
a  load  of  seventeen  hundredweight  by  a  com- 
mon road,  a  load  of  forty-two  hundredweight 
could  now  be  drawn  by  a  single  horse. 

These  new  thoroughfares,  called  tramways, 
were  made  across  fields,  the  proprietors  of 
which  received  a  certain  rent  for  the  way-leave 
or  use  made  of  them  —  which  term,  way- 
leave,  is  still  employed  in  England  for  arrange* 
ments  of  this  kind.  To  the  coal  districts  of 
the  north  of  England,  therefore,  is  indisput- 
ably due  the  simple  yet  meritorious  contriv- 
ance which,  from  less  to  more,  led  to  the 
modern  railway  with  all  its  wonderful 
machinery ;  nor  is  it  useless  to  note  that  the 
invention,  in  its  early  stages,  owed  nothing  to 
men  of  education  or  high  scientific  attain- 
ments, but  was  mainly  the  work  of  obscure 
mechanics  and  illiterate  enthusiasts. 

The  date  of  the  invention  of  tramways  is 
uncertain,  but  by  good  authorities  it  is 
referred  to  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  From  the  northern  coal  districts  it 
gradually  came  into  use  in  other  mining  dis- 
tricts in  England,  as  also  in'  the  south  of 
Scotland.  The  seventeenth  century  was  not 
favorable  to  mechanical  improvement.  Not 
until  about  1700  was  there  any  marked 
advance  on  the  original  tramway.  The  first 
step  was  the  clothing  of  the  wooden  beams 
with  long  slips  of  iron,  to  prevent  exoessiva 


802 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


tear  and  wear.  This  also  being  found  defec- 
tive, a  second  and  more  complete  improve- 
ment, about  1740,  was  the  substitution  of 
cast-iron  rails  fixed  in  parallel  lines  on  cross 
wooden  sleepers.  This  species  of  railway 
became  pretty  general  in  mining  districts 
between  1745  and  1775.  In  the  former  of 
these  years,  one  was  in  operation  in  Scotland 
—  namely,  a  short  coal  line  from  Tranent  to 
Cockenzie,  which  General  Cope  selected  as  a 
position  at  the  battle  of  Prestonpans.  Though 
now  considerably  improved,  railways  did  not 
attract  attention  as  being  suitable  for  general 
traffic.  The  success  of  canals  not  only  turned 
the  public  mind  in  that  direction,  but  raised 
up  a  powerful  canal  interest,  which  viewed  the 
progress  of  railways  with  extreme  jealousy 
and  ill  will. 

The  use  of  cast-iron  rails  led  to  an  improved 
method  of  traction.  Instead  of  employing  a 
single  large  wagon,  the  plan  of  linking  together 
a  series  of  smaller  wagons  was  adopted  —  the 
germ  of  the  modern  train.  The  next  improve- 
ment consisted  in  putting  flanges  on  the 
wheels  instead  of  the  rails,  by  which  great 
facility  of  transit  was  afforded.  The  draught 
still  continued  to  be  executed  by  horses ;  but, 
as  the  railway  system  seemed  to  possess 
immense  capabilities  of  expansion,  many 
minds  labored  in  devising  schemes  to  substi- 
tute steam  apparatus. 

The  invention  of  the  locomotive,  like  that 
of  railways,  was  the  work  of  successive 
geniuses.  Watt  had  shown  the  practica- 
bility of  fixed  steam  engines ;  what  was  now 
wanted  was  an  engine  that  would  travel  by 
its  own  internal  impulse.  The  merit  of 
inventing  a  self-acting  steam  carriage  is 
allowed  to  be  due  to  Richard  Trevithick,  a 
clever  but  eccentric  engineer.  In  1802  he 
took  out  a  patent  for  a  steam  carriage,  and 
this  novel  machine  he  exhibited  to  large 
crowds  of  admiring  spectators  on  a  piece  of 
ground  near  London.  Immediately  after- 
ward he  adapted  his  carriage  for  the  drawing 
of  wagons  on  railways,  a  duty  which  it  suc- 
cessfully executed  on  the  Merthyr-Tydvil 
railway  in  1804.  This  was  the  first  locomo- 
tive; but  it  was  far  from  perfect.  It  drew 
only  ten  tons  of  bar  iron  at  the  rate  of  five 
miles  an  hour.  Trevithick  did  not  remain 
in  England  to  improve  on  his  invention,  nor 
did  the  modern  achievements  of  his  ma- 
chine inmaediately  induce  others  to  make 
any  distinct  advance  on  his  ingenious  con- 
trivance. 


For  this  lethargy  there  were  various  causes  j 
but  the  principal  consisted  in  a  universal 
belief  among  engineers  that  the  locomotive 
could  not  be  expected  to  gain  great  speed,  to 
ascend  a  moderate  incline,  or  to  draw  a  heavy 
load,  unless  the  wheels  were  provided  with  a 
cogged  rim  to  work  on  a  corresponding  rack 
along  the  rails.  Numerous  schemes  were 
made  the  subject  of  patents  to  overcome  this 
imaginary  difficulty  —  a  circumstance  which 
gives  one  a  poor  opinion  of  the  state  of  engi- 
neering knowledge  at  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  That  locomotives  run- 
ning with  smooth  wheels  on  smooth  rails,  by 
mere  weight  and  friction,  as  exemplified  by 
Trevithick,  could  draw  heavy  loads  up  a 
moderate  incline  was  at  length,  in  1811, 
established  as  a  fact  by  Blackett,  a  coal 
proprietor,  on  the  W'ylam  railway,  which 
Stephenson  had  often  observed  and  studied. 
The  means  for  imparting  speed  alone  remained 
to  be  given. 

From  an  early  period  Stephenson  was  quite 
sanguine  as  to  the  "traveling  engine."  He 
had  inspected  "  Black  Billy  "  and  Blenkinsop's 
Leeds  engine,  and  at  length  he  brought  the 
subject  before  Lord  Ravensworth,  the  princi- 
pal proprietor  of  the  KillingA^orth  colliery. 
His  lordship  advanced  money,  and  an  engine 
was  made  which  was  accordingly  called  "  My 
Lord,"  and  placed  on  Killingworth  railway, 
July  25,  1814.  It  was  the  most  successful 
working  engine  that  had  yet  been  constructed, 
and  succeeded  in  drawing  thirty  tons  weight 
at  four  miles  an  hour.  Still  its  economy  was 
questionable,  for  it  proved  only  that  steam 
power  and  horse  power  were  on  a  par  in  point 
of  cost,  while  the  speed  of  the  engine  was  not 
beyond  that  of  a  horse's  walk. 

At  this  point,  however,  Stephenson's  genius 
turned  the  decision  of  the  issue.  The  happy 
thought  came  to  him  to  utilize  the  escaping 
steam  by  making  it  blow  his  fire.  This  inven- 
tion of  the  steam  blast  in  the  smokestack 
imparted  velocity  to  the  smoke,  and  so  in- 
creased the  ascending  current  of  air  that  the 
power  of  the  engine  became  more  than 
doubled.  He  determined  to  make  another 
engine  with  an  entire  change  in  the  construc- 
tion and  mechanical  arrangements  of  the 
machine.  For  this  work  Dodds  provided 
the  necessary  fimds,  and,  in  1815,  Stephen- 
son and  Dodds  conjointly  took  out  a  patent 
for  this  improved  engine,  which  combined,  in 
a  remarkable  degree,  the  essential  requisites 
of  an  economical  locomotive.    Although  many 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


improvements  in  detail  were  afterward  intro- 
duced by  George  Stephenson  himself,  as  well 
as  by  his  equally  distinguished  son,  Robert, 
it  is  perhaps  not  too  much  to  say  that  this 
engine,  as  a  mechanical  contrivance,  con- 
tained the  germ  of  all  that  has  since  been 
effected.  It  may,  in  fact,  be  regarded  as  the 
type  of  the  present  locomotive  engine. 

In  1815  the  invention  of  a  colliery  safety 
lamp,  the  "Geordie,"  also  brought  Stephen- 
son's name  before  the  public.  The  fact  of  his 
invention  being  almost  simultaneous  ^ith 
that  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy  gave  rise  to  a 
long  controversy  between  their  respective 
friends  and  supporters.  In  1820  Stephenson 
married  his  second  wife,  Elizabeth  Hindmarsh, 
the  daughter  of  a  farmer  at  Black  Callerton. 

Stephenson  was  now  regarded  as  an  enthu- 
siast, and  men  shook  their  heads  at  his  engine, 
predicting  a  "terrible  blow  up  some  day." 
He  himself  went  so  far  as  to  say  that  it  would 
supersede  every  other  tractive  power.  At 
this  period  he  began  to  direct  his  particular 
attention  to  the  state  of  the  roadbed,  as  he 
perceived  that  the  extended  use  of  the  loco- 
motive must  necessarily  depend  in  a  great 
measure  upon  the  perfect  solidity,  continuity, 
and  smoothness  of  the  way  along  which  the 
engine  traveled.  Even  then  he  was  in  the 
habit  of  regarding  the  road  and  the  locomo- 
tive as  one  machine,  speaking  of  the  rail  and 
the  wheel  as  "man  and  wife." 

Stephenson  had  no  means  of  bringing  his 
important  invention  prominently  under  the 
notice  of  the  public.  At  length  it  attracted 
the  attention  of  William  James  and  Edward 
Pease.  The  former  saw  Stephenson's  loco- 
motive at  Killingworth  in  1821,  and  declared 
that  it  would  effect  a  revolution  in  society. 
He  expressed  his  belief  that  Stephenson  was 
the  greatest  practical  genius  of  the  age,  and 
truly  predicted  that  his  fame  in  the  world 
would  rank  equal  to  that  of  Watt. 

When  the  Stockton  and  Darlington  railway 
was  sanctioned  by  parliament  in  1821, 
Stephenson  was  appointed  constructing  engi- 
neer for  the  company,  at  three  hundred 
pounds  per  annum.  The  line  was  opened  in 
1825,  proved  a  success  financially,  and  was  in 
great  part  supplied  with  Stephenson's  engines. 
When  the  railway  between  Liverpool  and 
Manchester  was  projected,  following  the 
rapid  growth  of  the  trade  of  South  Lancashire, 
together  with  the  unpopular  management  of 
the  Bridgewater  canal,  Stephenson  was  also 
chosen  engineer,  with  a  salary  of  one  thousand 


pounds  a  year.  That  he  propoMd  to  work  the 
line  with  an  engine  which  was  to  go  At  the  rate 
of  twelve  miles  an  hour  wa«  a  fact  held  up  aa 
of  itself  sufficient  to  stamp  the  project  as  a 
bubble.  "Twelve  miles  an  hour!"  exclaimed 
the  Quarterly  Review  —  "as  well  trust  ooe's 
self  to  be  fired  off  on  a  Congreve  rocket." 

Accordingly,  Stephenson  was  called  befof* 
a  parliamentary  committee  and  was  obliged 
to  undergo  an  examination  into  the  project 
which  lasted  three  days.  One  of  the  members 
asked  whether,  if  a  cow  should  stray  od  the 
line  and  get  in  front  of  the  engine,  that  would 
not  be  a  very  awkward  circumstance.  "Yes," 
replied  the  witness,  "  very  awkward  indeed  — 
for  the  coo!"  At  length,  after  many  diffictil- 
ties  had  been  settled,  authorization  was 
obtained,  and  the  line  was  completed  in  1820. 

There  then  ensued  the  memorable  competi- 
tion of  engines,  resulting  in  the  complete 
triumph  of  Stephenson's  "  Rocket,"  which,  to 
the  astonishment  of  every  one  except  himself, 
was  found  capable  of  traveling  at  the  unUl 
then  undreamt-of  rate  of  thirty-five  miles  an 
hour.  "  Now,"  exclaimed  one  of  the  directors, 
"George  Stephenson  has  at  last  delivered 
himself."  The  problem  of  the  locomotive 
engine  was  thus  practically  solved.  The  rail- 
way was  opened  in  1830,  and  the  prosperity  of 
the  company  proved  the  success  of  the  new 
mode  of  traveling. 

The  subsequent  career  of  Stephenson  was 
as  rapid  and  smooth  as  the  railway  locomotion 
he  had  done  so  much  to  realize.  He  took  the 
lead  at  once  in  railway  engineering,  became  an 
extensive  locomotive  manufacturer  at  New- 
castle, and  a  railway  contractor,  a  great 
colliery  and  iron-work  owner,  particularly  at 
Claycross,  and  acquired  great  wealth.  While 
occupied  in  carrying  out  the  vast  83r8tem  of 
railway  which  soon  overspread  the  country, 
Stephenson's  home  was  at  Alton  Grange,  near 
Leicester.  He  saw  but  little  of  it,  however, 
as  he  was  often  traveling  on  bustneas  for 
weeks  at  a  time. 

During  the  three  years  ending  1837,  he  was 
principal  engineer  on  the  NorUi  Midland, 
York  and  North  Midland,  Manchester  and 
Leeds,  Birmingham  and  Derby,  and  Sheffield 
and  Rotherham  railways.  In  1836  alone, 
two  hundred  and  fourteen  miles  of  railway 
were  put  under  his  direction,  involving  a 
capital  of  five  million  pounds.  His  office*  in 
London  were  crowded  every  day  with  men  of 
every  rank  and  condition,  eager  to  strengthen 
their  prospectuses  by  the  weight  of  his  name. 


394 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Where  he  disapproved  —  and  at  this  time  he 
almost  always  did  disapprove  —  he  invariably 
declined,  though  by  acceding  he  might  have 
made  enormous  gain;  but  to  make  money 
without  labor  or  honor  had  no  charm  for 
Stephenson. 

In  the  autumn  of  1845  he  visited  Belgium 
and  Spain  for  professional  purposes.  At 
Brussels  he  was  honored  with  a  magnificent 
banquet,  at  which  the  most  eminent  scientific 
men  of  Belgium  were  present.  A  handsome 
marble  pedestal,  surmounted  with  the  bust  of 
the  "father  of  railways,"  occupied  one  end 
of  the  city  hall  on  that  occasion  and  his 
reception  was  of  the  most  enthusiastic 
description. 

He  paid  a  second  visit  to  Belgium  in  the 
same  year,  and  shortly  afterward  proceeded 
to  Spain  for  the  purpose  of  examining  and 
reporting  upon  a  plan  for  constructing  the 
Royal  North  Spanish  railway,  a  concession 
for  the  construction  of  which  had  shortly 
before  been  made  to  Sir  Joshua  Walmsley. 
He  made  an  adverse  report  on  the  entire 
project,  and  on  his  way  home  he  was  seized 
with  pleurisy,  from  which  attack  he  does  not 
seem  ever  to  have  thoroughly  recovered. 

He  occupied  his  declining  years  with  the 
quiet  pursuits  of  a  country  gentleman,  at 
Tapton,  near  Chesterfield,  where  he  indulged 
the  love  of  nature,  which,  through  all  his  busy 
life,  had  never  left  him.  Even  in  the  midst  of 
his  immense  business,  his  heart  remained  as 
youthful  as  ever.  In  spring  he  would  snatch 
a  day  for  bird-nesting  or  gardening;  in 
autumn,  nutting  was  still  a  favorite  recrea- 
tion. We  find  him  at  this  time  writing  a 
touching  account  to  his  son  of  a  pair  of  robins. 
Strong  as  he  had  shown  himself  when  the 
world  was  all  against  him,  he  was  not  less  so 
in  the  midst  of  his  success.  His  life  at  Tapton 
during  his  later  years  was  occasionally  diversi- 
fied with  a  visit  to  London,  Newcastle,  and 
other  places,  and  by  a  limited  indulgence  in 
social  and  scientific  diversions.  He  was 
created  a  knight  of  Leopold  of  Belgium;  a 
fellow  of  the  royal  society ;  and  he  was  the 
founder  and  first  president  of  the  society  of 
civil  engineers.  Both  he  and  his  son  after 
him  were  offered  knighthood  at  the  hand  of 
the  English  sovereign,  but  both  declined. 

As  late  as  July  26,  1848,  Stephenson  at- 
tended a  meeting  of  the  institute  of  mechani- 
cal engineers  at  Birmingham,  and  read  a 
paper  on  the  "Fallacies  of  the  Rotary 
Engine."    It  was  his  last  appearance  of  a 


public  nature.  Shortly  after  his  return  to 
Tapton  he  had  an  attack  of  intermittent 
fever,  and  a  sudden  effusion  of  blood  from  the 
lungs  carried  him  to  his  death  on  August  12, 
1848,  in  his  sixty-eighth  year.  He  was  buried 
in  Trinity  church,  Chesterfield,  where  a  simple 
tablet  marks  the  great  engineer's  last  resting 
place.  Statues  have  been  erected  to  his 
memory  and  the  honor  of  his  achievements  in 
St.  George's  hall,  Liverpool,  and  Newcaatle- 
on-the-Tyne. 

Stephenson  was  a  man  of  compact  frame, 
well-knit,  and  rather  spare.  His  hair  became 
gray  at  an  early  age,  and  toward  the  close  of 
his  life  it  was  of  a  pure  silky  whiteness.  His 
face  indicated  a  shrewd,  kind,  honest,  manly 
nature.  His  complexion  was  fair  and  ruddy ; 
forehead  large  and  high,  projecting  over  the 
eyes;  and  there  was  that  massive  breadth 
across  the  lower  part  which  is  usually  observed 
in  men  of  eminent  constructive  skill.  The 
mouth  was  firmly  marked,  and  there  were  both 
shrewdness  and  humor  in  his  keen  gray  eyes. 

The  leading  feature  of  his  mind  was  honesty 
of  purpose,  and  determination  in  carrying  it 
out.  "I  have  fought  for  the  locomotive 
single-handed  for  nearly  twenty  years,"  he 
says;  "I  put  up  with  every  rebuff,  deter- 
mined not  to  be  put  down."  Toward 
trickery  and  affectation  he  never  concealed 
his  contempt,  while  honest  merit  never 
appealed  to  his  liberality  in  vain.  He  had 
none  of  the  indoor  habits  of  a  student.  He 
read  very  little.  Books  wearied  him,  and 
sent  him  to  sleep.  He  wrote  very  few  letters, 
and  avoided  them  whenever  he  could.  His 
greatest  pleasure  was  in  conversation ;  hence 
he  was  always  glad  of  the  society  of  intelligent, 
cultivated  persons,  though  the  conventional 
functions  of  society  had  little  charm  for  him. 

It  was  only  after  repeated  invitations  from 
Sir  Robert  Peel,  the  celebrated  English 
statesman,  that  Stephenson  consented  to 
visit  the  former  at  his  house  at  Drayton.  It 
was  without  the  least  hesitation,  however,  that 
he  accepted  an  invitation  to  meet  Emerson 
during  his  visit  to  England  in  1848.  Emerson 
subsequently  said  that  "  it  was  worth  crossing 
the  Atlantic  to  have  seen  Stephenson  alone; 
he  had  such  native  force  of  character  and 
vigor  of  intellect." 

In  manner  he  was  simple,  modest,  frank, 
and  imassuming.  When  he  rose  to  a  place  of 
eminence  and  influence,  he  took  his  place 
among  men  of  the  highest  social  position  with 
perfect  self-possession.    On  one  occasion,  it  is 


SAMUEL  FINLEY  BREESE   MORSE 

From  a  photograph 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERT 


197 


said,  he  incidentally  met  a  gentleman  and  his 
wife  at  an  inn  in  Derbyshire,  whom  he  enter- 
tained for  some  time  with  his  shrewd  observa- 
tions and  playful  sallies.  At  length  the  lady, 
somewhat  testily,  requested  to  know  the  name 
of  the  remarkable  stranger. 

"Why,  madam,"  said  he,  "they  used  once 
to  call  me  Georgie  Stephenson;  I'm  now 
called  George  Stephenson,  Esquire,  of  Tapton 
House,  near  Chesterfield.  And  further  let  me 
say,  that  I've  dined  with  princes,  and  peers, 
and  commoners  —  with  persons  of  all  classes, 
from  the  highest  to  the  humblest ;  I've  made 
my  dinner  off  a  red  herring  in  a  hedge  bottom, 
and  gone  through  the  meanest  drudgery ;  I've 
seen  mankind  in  all  its  phases,  and  the  con- 
clusion I  have  arrived  at  is  —  that  if  we're  all 
stripped,  there's  not  much  difference." 

Though  a  thrifty  and  frugal  man,  he  was 
far  from  sordid.  His  hand  was  open  to  his 
former  fellow  workmen  whom  old  age  had 
left  in  poverty;  and  he  performed  many 
generous  acts  in  a  noble  and  modest  manner. 
Neither  would  he  permit  an  attack  to  be  made 
upon  the  absent  or  the  weak.  The  whole 
secret  of  his  success  in  life,  he  persisted  in 
saying,  was  his  careful  improvement  of  time 


"  which  is  the  rock  out  of  which  fortunai  an 
carved  and  great  characters  foniMd."  He 
believed  in  genius  to  the  extent  that  Buffoo 
did  when  he  said  that  "patience  is  genius"; 
or  as  some  other  thinker  put  it,  when  he 
defined  genius  to  be  the  power  of  !*»*lf!'^ 
efforts.  But  he  would  never  have  it  be  wm  a 
genius,  or  that  he  had  done  anything  which 
other  men,  equally  laborious  and  perseverii^ 
as  himself,  could  not  have  accomplished.  He 
was  a  late  learner ;  but  he  went  on  learning  to 
the  end. 

"As  respects  the  immense  advantages  of 
railways  to  mankind,"  says  Smiles,  "there 
cannot  be  two  opinions.  They  exhibit, 
probably,  the  grandest  organization  of  capital 
and  labor  that  the  world  has  yet  seen.  As 
tending  to  multiply  and  spread  abroad  the 
conveniences  of  life,  opening  up  new  fields  oC 
industry,  bringing  nations  nearer  to  each 
other,  and  thus  promoting  the  great  ends  of 
civilization,  the  founding  of  the  rtulway  sys- 
tem by  George  Stephenson  mxist  be  regarded 
as  one  of  the  most  important  events,  if  not 
the  very  greatest,  in  the  first  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century." 


MORSE 

A.  D.  AGE              A.  D. 

1791         Born  at  Charlestown,  Mass.,     .    .  1837 

1810         Graduated  from  Yale  college,  .    .  19 

1810-15  Studied  painting  and  sculpture,   .  19-24          1838 

1815         Settled  in  Boston, 24 

1818         Married, 27          1843 

1825  Death  of  his  wife, 34          1844 

1826  President  of  national  academy  of 

design, 35          1848 

1829-32  Visited  Europe, 38-41          1858 

1835         Professor  of  designing,  university 

of  New  York ;  constructed  elec-  1872 

trie  telegraph, 44 


Applied  to  congress  for  aid;  filed 

caveat  at  Washington,  ....  46 

Visited  Europe  in  interest  of  hU 

invention, 47 

Received  congressional  aid,  ...  M 

Telegraph  line  established  between 

Washington  and  Baltimore,      .         6S 

Second  marriage, 07 

Received  $80,000  at  Paria  from 

nations  of  Europe, 67 

Died  at  New  York, 81 


CAMUEL  FINLEY  BREESE  MORSE, 
^  artist  and  inventor,  and  foremost  designer 
of  the  electric  telegraph,  was  born  at  Charles- 
town,  Massachusetts,  April  27,  1791.  He  was 
the  son  of  Rev.  Jedediah  Morse,  D.  D.,  well 
known  in  New  England  history  as  a  very 
active  religious  worker  and  geographer,  and 
Elizabeth  Ann  Breese.  To  the  Morse  family 
eleven  children  were  born,  only  three  of 
whom  —  Samuel  and  two  brothers  —  sur- 
vived childhood. 

Samuel,  at  the  age  of  seven,  was  sent  to  the 
school  of  Professor  Foster  at  Andover,  Mass., 
and  passed  from  there  to  Phillips  academy, 


where  he  was  prepared  for  college.  At  four- 
teen he  was  admitted  to  Yale  college,  his 
father's  alma  mater.  His  first  knowledge  of 
electricity  and  natural  philosophy  he  gained 
under  Professor  Jeremiah  Day  and  Benjamin 
Silliman,  and  his  letters  home  gave  abundant 
evidence  of  his  interest  in  his  studies.  While 
at  college,  too,  his  artistic  talent  was  plainly 
manifest,  and,  although  wholly  untaught,  he 
produced  a  number  of  miniature  portraits  of 
his  fellow  students. 

Morse  was  graduated  from  Yale  in  July, 
1810.  Immediately  he  decided  to  become  a 
painter,  and  arrangements  were  made  for  him 


398 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


to  accompany  Washington  Allston,  at  that 
time  one  of  the  most  promising  of  American 
painters,  to  England  in  the  following  year. 
His  first  letter  home  contained  an  ardent 
wish  for  that  which  years  afterward  his  great 
invention  made  possible.  His  words  were: 
"  /  wish  that  in  an  instant  I  could  communicate 
the  injorm/ition,  but  three  thousand  miles  are 
not  passed  over  in  an  instant,  and  we  must 
wait  four  long  weeks  before  we  can  hear  from 
each  other." 

Allston  introduced  Morse  to  Benjamin 
West,  the  famous  American  painter  then 
settled  in  London,  and  president  of  the  royal 
academy.  West  accepted  him  as  a  student, 
and  showed  him  many  favors  because  he  was 
an  American.  Allston  continued,  also,  to 
act  the  part  of  friend  and  critic.  The  young 
student  remained  in  England  four  years, 
within  which  time  the  war  of  1812  took 
place.  The  hostilities,  however,  created  no 
enmity  against  him,  and,  in  1813,  he  won  the 
gold  medal  of  the  society  of  arts  for  a  figure 
representing  the  "Death  of  Hercules."  A 
large  painting  which  he  subsequently  made 
from  the  same  subject  was  admitted  to  the 
exhibition  of  the  royal  academy.  It  was 
highly  praised,  and  one  of  the  British  news- 
papers ranked  it  among  the  nine  best  paint- 
ings in  a  gallery  of  nearly  a  thousand. 

Morse  returned  home  in  the  siunmer  of 
1815,  and  first  opened  a  studio  in  Boston, 
where  he  exhibited  a  large- painting,  "The 
Judgment  of  Jupiter,"  and  waited  for  orders 
for  historical  pictures.  After  a  year  had 
passed  with  very  indifferent  success,  he  started 
out  as  a  traveling  portrait  painter  and 
achieved  much  better  results.  Within  that 
year  of  waiting,  however,  his  genius  for  inven- 
tion began  to  assert  itself.  In  conjunction 
with  his  brother,  Sidney,  he  invented  a 
modification  of  the  common  suction  pump, 
adapted  to  the  use  of  fire  engines,  and  secured 
a  patent  for  it. 

In  his  travels  as  a  portrait  painter  he  met 
Miss  Lucretia  P.  Walker,  daughter  of  Charles 
Walker,  of  Concord,  New  Hampshire,  and 
married  her  October  1,  1818.  The  winter 
before  and  that  following  his  marriage  he 
spent  at  Charlestown,  South  Carolina,  in  the 
pursuit  of  his  profession.  In  the  winter  of 
1819-20  he  painted  a  portrait  of  President 
Monroe  for  the  common  council  of  Charles- 
town.  His  father  having  resigned  his  charge 
and  removed  to  New  Haven,  Morse  spent  the 
following  summer  there  with  his  wife  and  in- 


fant daughter.  The  next  winter  he  executed  a 
large  picture  of  the  house  of  representatives, 
in  which  were  eighty  portraits  of  members. 

Several  years  of  struggle  —  in  Albany,  New 
York,  and  other  places  —  followed.  During 
this  period  his  inventive  faculty  was  not  idle. 
He  devised  a  machine  for  carving  in  marble 
copies  of  any  model,  and  was  revolving  other 
ideas  in  his  mind.  In  February,  1825,  he 
was  in  Washington  painting  a  full-length 
portrait  of  Lafayette  for  the  city  of  New 
York,  when  his  father  wrote  him  that  his 
beloved  wife  had  died  of  heart  disease  on 
the  7th  of  that  month.  She  was  only  twenty- 
five  years  of  age,  and  a  woman  of  great  love- 
liness. 

After  his  wife's  death  Morse  settled  in 
New  York  and  made  gradual  progress  with 
his  brush.  He  was  one  of  the  leading  spirits 
in  establishing,  during  the  winter  of  1825-26, 
the  national  academy  of  design,  the  prime 
object  of  which  was  to  provide  art  students 
with  the  facilities  that  were  then  churlishly 
denied  them  by  the  American  academy  of 
arts.  He  was  its  first  president,  and  was 
continued  in  the  office  until  1845,  when  he 
retired  from  it  to  give  his  attention  to  his 
telegraphic  researches. 

In  the  early  part  of  1827  Morse  attended  a 
course  of  lectures  on  elcctromagnetism,  de- 
livered before  the  New  York  Athenaeum  by 
Professor  James  Freeman  Dana,  with  whom 
he  was  well  acquainted.  At  these  lectures 
experiments  were  shown  to  illustrate  the 
power  of  a  straight  wire  carrying  a  current 
of  electricity  to  induce  magnetism,  and  the 
increased  effect  of  such  a  wire  bent  into  a 
ring,  into  a  scries  of  rings  forming  a  spiral, 
and  into  a  flat  spiral  or  volute.  Professor 
Dana  died  soon  after  giving  these  lectures. 
Morse  sailed  for  Italy  in  1829  to  execute  a 
commission  for  some  pictures,  and  the  subject 
apparently  passed  out  of  his  thoughts  for  a 
time. 

He  was  absent  three  years,  during  which 
he  spent  about  two-thirds  of  his  time  in 
Rome,  and  a  year  in  Paris.  On  the  return 
voyage  from  Havre  to  New  York,  in  1832, 
in  company  with  William  C.  Rives,  American- 
minister  to  France,  Dr.  Charles  T.  Jackson, 
of  Boston,  and  others,  according  to  the  best 
testimony  on  the  subject,  he  first  conceived 
the  idea  of  a  magnetic  telegraph.  The  inci- 
dent which  led  up  to  the  invention  is  thus 
described  by  Morse's  biographer,  Dr.  S. 
Irenaeus  Prime : 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


"  In  the  early  part  of  the  voyage  conversa- 
tion at  the  dinner  table  turned  upon  recent 
discoveries  in  electromagnetism,  and  the 
experiments  of  Ampere  with  the  electro- 
magnet. Dr.  Jackson  spoke  of  the  length 
of  wire  in  the  coil  of  a  magnet,  and  the  ques- 
tion was  asked  by  some  one  of  the  company, 
if  the  velocity  of  electricity  was  retarded  by 
the  length  of  the  wire.  Dr.  Jackson  replied 
that  electricity  passes  instantaneously  over 
any  known  length  of  wire.  He  referred  to 
experiments  made  by  Dr.  Franklin,  with 
several  miles  of  wire  in  circuit,  to  ascertain 
the  velocity  of  electricity;  the  result  being 
that  he  could  observe  no  difference  of  time 
between  the  touch  at  one  extremity  and  the 
spark  at  the  other.  At  this  point  Morse 
interposed  the  remark,  'If  the  presence  of 
electricity  can  be  made  visible  in  any  part  of 
the  circuit,  I  see  no  reason  why  intelligence 
may  not  be  transmitted  instantaneously  by 
electricity.'  The  conversation  went  on.  But 
the  one  new  idea  had  taken  complete  posses- 
sion of  the  mind  of  Morse.  It  was  as  sudden 
and  pervading  as  if  he  had  received  at  that 
moment  an  electric  shock." 

The  invention  was  already  complete  as  to 
its  main  features  —  a  current  of  electricity 
passing  through  a  wire  between  two  places, 
and  signals  to  be  made  at  one  terminus  by 
making  and  breaking  the  circuit  at  various 
intervals  at  the  other.  As  soon  as  oppor- 
tunity offered,  Morse  set  about  sketching  in 
his  notebook  details  of  the  apparatus  and  a 
scheme  of  dot-and-dash  signals  for  numbers 
and  words.  He  showed  his  drawings  to  his 
fellow  passengers  and  to  the  captain  of  the 
ship,  and  told  them  what  he  hoped  to  accom- 
plish. Having  arrived  in  New  York,  Morse 
had  before  him  the  problem  of  devising  an 
apparatus  to  embody  his  ideas.  He  could 
devote  but  little  time  or  money  to  the  task, 
for  he  was  dependent  on  his  painting  and  his 
pupils  for  a  livelihood.  Two  or  three  years 
passed,  during  which  he  experimented  as  he 
had  opportunity.. 

In  1835  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the 
literature  of  the  arts  of  design  in  the  univer- 
sity of  New  York,  and  a  studio  was  assigned 
to  him  on  the  third  floor  in  the  north  wing 
of  the  original  building  in  Washington  square. 
Here  he  prosecuted  his  experiments,  and  here, 
in  order  to  economize  his  scanty  means,  he 
slept  and  took  his  meals,  prepared  by  him- 
self. In  January,  1836,  he  gave  one  of  his 
colleagues  at  the  university.  Professor  Leonard 


D.  Gale,  a  private  view  of  his  firat  pracUoabU 

instrument. 

He  worked  on  through  1836  and  half  of 
1837,  occupied  mainly  with  trying  various 
modifications  of  the  marking  apparatus  and 
in  devising  the  relay  instrument.  In  thflSS 
experiments  he  was  aaristed  by  Professor 
Gale.  Having  set  up  his  telegraph  so  as  to 
operate  through  about  a  third  of  a  mile  of 
wire  stretched  back  and  forth  in  the  cabinet 
of  the  university,  he  showed  it  to  Alfred 
Vail,  among  others,  who  soon  entered  into  a 
partnership  with  Morse  and  received  a  0D»> 
fourth  interest  in  the  patent  to  be  secured^ 
in  return  for  providing  means  and  facilities 
for  developing  the  invention. 

In  1837  Morse  filed  a  caveat  at  the  patent 
office,  and,  together  with  Vail  and  Professor 
Gale,  who  were  admitted  to  the  partner* 
ship,  enthusiastically  renewed  his  exertions. 
Several  valuable  modifications  of  the  inven* 
tion  are  due  to  the  ingenuity  of  Vwl.  He 
then  took  an  improved  instrvunent  to  Wash- 
ington, and  exhibited  the  telegraph  on  a 
ten-mile  circuit  to  President  Van  Buren  and 
his  cabinet,  members  of  congress,  foreign 
ministers,  and  men  of  science.  His  petition 
to  congress  for  an  appropriation  of  thirty 
thousand  dollars  to  defray  the  expense  of  an 
experimental  line  of  fifty  miles  was  not  acted 
upon  when  congress  adjourned  in  March. 
The  Hon.  F.  0.  J.  Smith  of  Maine  was  now 
admitted  to  the  partnership.  He  and  Morse 
drew  the  specifications  for  the  American 
patent  and  then  both  sailed  for  Europe  to 
procure  patents  there  in  1838.  , 

In  England,  Morse  met  with  the  opposition 
of  both  Wheatstone  and  Cooke,  who  had 
recently  patented  a  telegraph  requiring  six 
wires  and  making  signals  by  deflecting  five 
magnetic  needles,  but  producing  no  record 
on  paper.  His  application  was  rejected  by 
the  attorney-general  of  Great  Britain,  on 
the  ground  that  an  account  of  it  had  been 
published  in  England,  although  this  account 
gave  none  of  the  essential  details.  He  was 
further  told  by  that  oflScial  that  "America 
was  a  large  countrj',  and  he  ought  to  be 
satisfied  vrith  a  patent  there  1"  Proceeding 
to  Paris,  he  was  cordially  received  by  Hum- 
boldt, Arago,  Gay-Lussac,  and  other  dis- 
tinguished savants,  and  readily  procured  a 
French  patent. 

Morse  had  met  M.  Daguerre,  the  inventor 
of  the  daguerreotype,  in  Paris,  and  each  had 
shown  the  other  his  invention.    As  an  artist 


400 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Morse  became  very  much  interested  in  the 
daguerreotype  process,  and,  after  it  was  made 
public  in  the  summer  of  1839,  obtained  from 
the  inventor  instructions  which  enabled  him  to 
introduce  it  in  America.  In  connection  with 
Professor  John  W.  Draper,  he  soon  applied 
the  process  to  the  taking  of  portraits  —  for 
which  its  inventor  had  doubted  its  being 
applicable. 

The  year  1839  was  crowded  with  discourage- 
ments. A  provisional  arrangement  to  intro- 
duce the  telegraph  into  Russia,  which  Morse 
had  made  with  an  agent  of  the  Russian 
government  while  he  was  in  Paris,  failed  to 
receive  the  approval  of  the  czar.  Meanwhile 
the  rival  schemes  of  Wheatstone,  in  England, 
and  Steinheil,  in  Bavaria,  were  making 
progress.  The  years  1840  and  1841,  too, 
dragged  through  without  any  improvement 
in  Morse's  prospects.  In  the  spring  of  1840 
he  completed  the  formalities  required  which 
had  been  interrupted  by  his  departure  for 
Europe  in  1838,  and  received  his  patent. 
Wheatstone  had  actually  secured  an  American 
patent  for  some  of  his  devices  at  an  earlier 
date,  and  was  urging  his  scheme  upon  con- 
gress. Morse's  partners  had  suffered  financial 
reverses  and  were  no  longer  able  to  help  him. 
Almost  despairing,  he  worked  on  constructing 
improved  instruments  with  his  own  hands, 
and  obtaining  a  precarious  livehhood  by 
giving  lessons  in  painting. 

The  long  session  of  congress  in  1841-42 
wore  away  without  any  attention  being 
secured  for  the  telegraph.  When  the  short 
session  was  within  a  fortnight  of  its  close, 
in  February,  1843,  the  bill  passed  the  house. 
There  was  a  great  amount  of  business  before 
the  senate,  and  the  telegraph  bill  had  not 
been  reached  when  the  last  day  of  the  session 
opened.  All  that  day  and  in  the  evening 
Morse  sat  in  the  gallery  of  the  senate.  Then, 
assured  by  his  friends  that  there  was  no 
longer  any  hope,  he  left  the  capitol  well-nigh 
broken-hearted.  The  next  morning  he  was 
met  at  breakfast  with  congratulations.  A 
few  minutes  before  midnight  the  bill  had  been 
taken  up  and  passed. 

Morse's  suggestion  that  the  trial  line  nm 
between  Washington  and  Baltimore  was 
accepted,  and  before  the  month  was  out 
preparations  for  its  construction  were  actively 
imder  way.  On  May  24,  1844,  many  of  the 
highest  officers  of  the  government  assembled 
with  the  personal  friends  of  Morse,  in  Wash- 
ington, to  witness  the  first  operation  of  the 


telegraph  over  the  completed  line.  To  the 
daughter  of  Conunissioner  Ellsworth,  who  had 
been  the  first  to  inform  him  of  the  passage 
of  the  appropriation  for  the  telegraph,  Morse 
had  promised  that  she  should  give  the  first 
message  to  be  sent  over  the  finished  hne.  At 
the  suggestion  of  her  mother  she  chose  the 
text,  "What  hath  God  wrought,"  which  was 
transmitted  by  Morse  to  Vail  in  Baltimore, 
and  by  him  instantly  returned.  The  toil 
and  struggles  of  twelve  years  were  now 
crowned  with  success,  and  the  inventor 
received  the  richly  merited  congratulations 
of  the  assembled  company. 

The  public  test  of  the  telegraph,  the  organi- 
zation of  the  Magnetic  telegraph  company 
to  construct  a  line  from  Washington  to  New 
York,  and  the  subsequent  development  of 
American  hues  are  familiar  history.  Many 
violators  of  Morse's  patents  and  the  assump- 
tion of  his  rights  by  rival  companies  followed, 
£ind  involved  him  in  a  long  series  of  lawsuits ; 
but  these  were  eventually  decided  in  his 
favor,  and  he  reaped  the  benefits  to  which 
his  invention  entitled  him. 

Morse  sailed  from  New  York  early  in 
August,  1845,  to  present  his  telegraph  again 
to  European  nations  under  much  more  favor- 
able auspices  than  before.  Accomplishing 
nothing  in  England,  he  visited  Hamburg, 
and  afterward  Paris,  but  returned  to  America 
in  November,  having  received  many  honors, 
but  nothing  more  substantial.  Meanwhile 
numerous  Unes  were  in  construction  at  home, 
and  in  the  next  year  the  telegraph  reached 
from  Washington  through  Philadelphia  and 
New  York  to  Boston,  from  New  York  to 
Buffalo  by  way  of  Albany,  and  there  were 
many  branch  lines  in  operation.  Morse's 
system  had  been  adopted  by  the  Austrian 
government  early  in  the  year. 

In  1847  Morse  bought  a  tract  of  two  hun- 
dred acres  on  the  Hudson  river  just  below 
Poughkeepsie.  He  named  his  place  "Locust 
Grove,"  and  here  he  built  a  tasteful  mansion, 
where  he  gathered  his  children  and  grand- 
children about  him.  He  had  never  been  able 
to  enjoy  a  home  since  he  left  his  father's 
roof  up  to  this  time.  The  next  year  he 
married  Miss  Sarah  E.  Griswold,  a  mute. 
Her  mother  was  a  cousin  of  his,  and  her 
father  was  an  army  officer. 

While  Morse  could  now  enjoy  comfort  and 
happiness  he  was  by  no  means  idle.  The 
constant  attempts  to  displace  or  infringe 
upon  his  invention  entailed  upon  him  a  great 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


«n 


amount  of  labor  in  correspondence,  and  in 
collecting  and  arranging  evidence  to  combat 
them.  Yet  he  was  able  to  enjoy  considerable 
compensation  for  his  many  years  of  toil  and 
privation.  And  his  own  invention  ministered 
to  his  pleasure  and  comfort ;  for,  with  a  tele- 
graphic instrument  on  his  library  table,  he 
would  converse  with  friends  and  correspond- 
ents in  every  important  place  in  his  own  land, 
and  in  later  years  could  exchange  messages 
with  those  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Atlantic. 
Several  years  later  he  bought  for  a  winter 
residence  a  beautiful  house  in  New  York, 
No.  5  West  Twenty-second  street.  The 
building  is  now  marked  with  a  tablet  bearing 
this  inscription:  "In  this  house  S.  F.  B. 
Morse  lived  for  many  years  and  died." 

Morse  was  one  of  the  few  great  inventors 
who  received  an  adequate  pecimiary  reward 
for  their  services  to  the  world,  and  to  whom 
merited  honors  come  while  they  are  alive. 
He  received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws 
from  Yale  college,  and  was  elected  to  member- 
ship in  learned  societies  of  the  United  States, 
France,  Belgium,  Sweden,  and  Switzerland. 
Orders  and  decorations  were  bestowed  upon 
him  between  1848  and  1864  by  the  sovereigns 
of  Turkey,  Prussia,  Wiirttemberg,  Austria, 
France,  Denmark,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy. 
This  list  stands  in  chronological  order.  It 
will  be  observed  that  the  sultan  of  Turkey 
took  precedence  in  honoring  the  inventor  of 
the  telegraph  over  the  rulers  of  many  more 
pretentious  nations,  while  England  does  not 
appear  at  all.  We  may  well  believe  the 
statement  of  his  biographer  that  "Professor 
Morse  received  a  greater  number  of  honorary 
distinctions  than  were  ever  bestowed  upon 
any  other  private  citizen." 

Submarine  telegraphy  also  originated  with 
Morse,  who  laid  the  first  submarine  lines  in 
New  York  harbor  in  1842.  He  was  known 
to  have  considered  it  as  early  as  1837  and 
1838 ;  and  in  a  letter  from  him  to  the  secre- 
tary of  the  treasury,  at  Washington,  dated 
August  10,  1843,  it  is  believed  occurs  the 
first  practical  suggestion  of  the  Atlantic 
telegraph.  In  1856  he  went  to  Europe  to 
superintend  some  of  the  preparations  for 
laying  the  Atlantic  cable,  and  in  connection 
with  this  trip  made  a  tour  through  France, 
Germany,  Denmark,  and  Russia.  Presenta- 
tions at  royal  courts,  and  honors  by  men  of 
science  and  affairs  attended  his  whole  prog- 
ress. Perhaps  the  greatest  triumph  was  a 
public  dinner  given  to  him  in  London,  where 


a  very  cold  shoulder  had  been  hit  portioQ 
eighteen  years  before.  W.  F.  Cooke,  who 
had  been  the  partner  of  hia  chief  Ei^^rii 

rival,  presided  at  the  dinner. 

In  1857,  Morse,  by  the  advice  of  frienda 
holding  high  official  stations,  iaaued  a  mano- 
rial asking  for  compensation  for  the  uaa  of 
his  telegraph  in  the  various  countries  of 
Europe.  He  had  the  best  claim  on  France, 
for  he  had  actually  obtained  a  patent  in  that 
country,  but  the  government,  which  had  a 
monopoly  of  transmitting  intelligence,  had 
declined  to  use  his  invention  for  some  jrean 
and  had  afterward  adopted  it  without  com- 
pensation to  him.  Negotiations  followed 
which  resulted,  in  1858,  in  a  sum  equal  to 
eighty  thousand  dollars  being  awarded  to 
him  by  a  conference  of  representatives  of  ten 
European  governments  —  Austria,  Belgium, 
France,  the  Netherlands,  Piedmont,  Russia, 
Sweden,  Tuscany,  Turkey,  and  the  holy  see. 
Morse's  telegraph  had  now  come  into  use  to 
the  exclusion  of  its  rivals  ever)rwhere  except 
to  a  limited  extent  in  Great  Britain. 

In  1869,  following  his  last  visit  to  Europe, 
a  movement  was  started  by  the  operators  in 
Alleghany  city,  Pennsylvania,  to  bestow  a 
testimonial  upon  the  inventor  of  the  tele- 
graph in  our  own  country.  A  sum  of  money 
was  raised,  mostly  in  one-dollar  subscriptions, 
sufficient  to  erect  the  bronze  statue  of  Morse, 
which  now  stands  in  Central  park.  New  York. 
It  was  unveiled  on  June  10,  1871,  with 
inspiring  and  enthusiastic  exercises. 

Throughout  his  long  life  Morse  had  suffered 
little  from  iUness.  In  his  latter  years  he 
became  subject  to  neuralgia,  which,  in  the 
winter  of  1871-72,  concentrated  its  attacks  in 
his  head.  After  weeks  of  intense  pain  he  fell 
into  a  stupor  from  which  he  partly  aroused 
at  times,  and  finally  passed  away  April  2, 
1872.  At  his  funeral  and  afterward  high 
honors  were  paid  to  his  memory  by  the 
states  of  New  York  and  Maasachuaetta,  the 
congress  of  the  United  States,  the  great 
telegraphic  companies,  by  many  dtiea,  by  the 
societies  of  which  he  was  a  member,  and  by 
assemblages  of  individuals. 

"In  person,"  says  his  biographer,  Dr. 
Prime,  "Professor  Morse  was  tall,  slender, 
graceful,  and  attractive.  Six  feet  in  stature, 
he  stood  erect  and  firm,  even  in  old  age. 
His  blue  eyes  were  expressive  of  genius  and 
affection.  His  nature  was  a  rare  combinatioo 
of  solid  intellect  and  delicate  aenaibility. 
Thoughtful,    sober,    and    quiet,   he   readily 


402 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


entered  into  the  enjoyments  of  domestic  and 
social  life,  indulging  in  sallies  of  humor,  and 
readily  appreciating  and  greatly  enjoying  the 
wit  of  others.  Dignified  in  his  intercourse 
with  men,  courteous  and  affable  with  the 
gentler  sex,  he  was  a  good  husband,  a  judi- 
cious father,  a  generous  and  faithful  friend. 
He  was  as  gentle  as  he  was  great.  Many 
thought  him  weak  because  he  was  simple, 
childlike,  and  unworldly.  Often  he  suffered 
wrong  rather  than  resist,  and  this  disposition 
to  yield  was  frequently  his  loss." 

When  wealth  came  to  him,  Morse  was  not 
backward  in  conferring  benefactions  upon 
worthy  persons  and  institutions.  He  was  a 
man  of  firm  religious  convictions,  and  gave 
many  donations  to  churches,  theological  semi- 


naries, and  missionary  societies.  A  love  for 
his  early  art  clung  to  him  throughout  his 
life.  The  honors  received  for  his  artistic 
talent  were  especially  prized  by  him,  and  in 
his  later  years  he  encouraged  struggling 
artists  of  ability  by  purchasing  their  pictures, 
and  gave  aid  to  art  societies  and  institu- 
tions. 

What  Morse  accomplished  for  the  advance 
of  civilization  was  due  chiefly  to  an  unbounded 
perseverance  which  enabled  him  to  endure 
the  grievous  hardships  and  triumph  over  the 
enormous  obstacles  that  lay  in  his  path.  It 
has  been  well  said  that  "  the  genius  and  labor 
of  such  a  man  reflect  glory  upon  his  country, 
so  that  his  name  becomes  part  of  the  national 
heritage  and  treasure." 


DARWIN 

A.  D.  AQE  A.  D. 

1809        Born  at  Shrewsbury,  England,  . .  1859 

1826-27  Studied  medicine  at  university  of  1862 

Edinburgh 16-18  1868 

1828         Entered  Christ's  college,  Cambridge,      19  1871 

1831         B.  A.,  Cambridge  university,    .    .  22  1872 

1831-36  Naturalist  to  IlT  M.  S.  Beagle,  .    .   22-27  1878 

1839         F.  R.  S. ;  married, 30  1880 

1842        Settled  at  Down,  Kent, 33  1882 


On  the  Oriiftn  ^  Sffeim,    ....  50 

Fertilization  o/Orikidt,      ....  53 

Variation  of  Plants  and  Animals,  59 

The  Deeeeni  of  Man, 62 

Emotion  in  Man  and  Animals,.    .  63 

Foreign  member  French  academy,  69 

Movement  in  Plants 71 

Died  at  Down,  Kent, 73 


/^HARLES  ROBERT  DARWIN,  distin- 
^-^  guished  English  naturalist  and  biologist, 
and  the  chief  expositor  of  the  theory  of  evo- 
lution, was  born  at  Shrewsbury,  England, 
February  12,  1809.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
physician.  Dr.  Robert  Waring  Darwin;  a 
grandson  of  the  naturalist  and  poet,  Erasmus 
Darwin,  on  his  father's  side,  and  of  Josiah 
Wedgwood,  the  famous  English  potter,  on 
his  mother's  side.  The  laws  of  heredity 
would  seem  to  destine  him  for  a  scientific 
career,  but  his  taste  for  this  pursuit  was 
very  slow  of  development. 

In  the  summer  of  1818  Charles  attended  the 
school  at  Shrewsbury,  of  which  Dr.  Butler  — 
afterward  bishop  of  Litchfield  —  was  head 
master,  and  left  a  very  neutral  impression  as 
a  student.  So  little  zeal  did  he  display  both 
in  outdoor  and  laboratory  studies  that,  con- 
trary to  general  expectation,  no  legends  of 
his  early  days  have  been  handed  down  to  his 
biographers. 

It  was  his  father's  wish  that  he  should  adopt 
his  own  profession,  that  of  medicine,  and 
accordingly  he  was  sent,  at  the  age  of  sixteen, 
to  the  university  of  Edinburgh.    The  pros- 


pect of  living  the  hfe  of  a  practitioner  did  not 
please  his  fancy ;  but  while  at  Edinburgh  he 
began  to  evince  considerable  interest  in 
natural  history.  The  records  of  the  Plinian 
society  show  that  in  1826,  and  the  year  fol- 
lowing, he  read  two  papers,  one  on  the  ova 
of  Flustra,  in  which  he  stated  that  he  had 
discovered  organs  of  motion. 

Yielding  to  his  repugnance  toward  the 
practice  of  medicine.  Dr.  Darwin  sent  his  son  to 
Christ's  college,  Cambridge,  in  1828,  with  the 
expectation  that  divinity  would  prove  more 
attractive  to  him  and  that  he  would  enter  the 
ministry ;  but  again  his  father  was  to  be  dis- 
appointed. At  the  university  he  met  a 
strong  and  gentle  man  who  was  destined  to 
exercise  a  controlling  influence  in  forming  his 
mind  and  moulding  his  destiny.  This  was 
Professor  Henslow,  who  filled  the  chair  of 
botany.  Danvnn  says  that  prior  to  meeting 
him  the  only  objects  of  natural  history  for 
which  he  cared  were  foxes  and  partridges; 
but  imder  Henslow's  leadership  the  young 
man  became  an  ardent  collector,  especially  in 
entomology,  the  capture  of  an  insect  in  the 
fens  furnishing  the  first  occasion  on  which  his 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


4M 


name  appeared  in  print.  He  became  so 
absorbed  in  the  fundamental  studies  of 
natural  science  that  he  abandoned,  if  he  ever 
seriously  entertained,  the  intention  of  seeking 
ordination  to  the  ministry ;  and  the  charm  of 
his  intercourse  with  Professor  Henslow  seems 
to  have  acted  profoundly  upon  him  in  settling 
his  dominant  qualities,  mental  and  social, 
and  in  finally  shaping  his  career. 

The  grateful  words  which  Darwin  wrote  of 
his  friend  and  teacher  have  often  been  reiter- 
ated of  Darwin  by  those  who  had  close  per- 
sonal intimacy  with  him.  He  writes  of  Pro- 
fessor Henslow,  "  I  never  once  saw  his  temper 
even  ruffled.  He  never  took  an  ill-natured 
view  of  any  one's  character,  though  very  far 
from  blind  to  the  foibles  of  others.  It  always 
struck  me  that  his  mind  could  not  well  be 
touched  by  any  paltry  feeling  of  envy,  vanity, 
or  jealousy.  With  all  this  equability  of  tem- 
per and  remarkable  benevolence,  there  was 
no  insipidity  of  character.  A  man  must  have 
been  blind  not  to  have  perceived  that  beneath 
this  placid  exterior  there  was  a  vigorous  and 
determined  will.  Wlien  principle  came  into 
play,  no  power  on  earth  could  have  turned  him 
a  hair's  breadth.  In  intellect,  as  far  as  I 
could  judge,  accurate  powers  of  observation, 
sound  sense,  and  cautious  judgment  seemed 
to  predominate.  Nothing  seemed  to  give  him 
so  much  enjoyment  as  drawing  conclusions 
from  minute  observation." 

The  zeal  and  proficiency  which  Darwin 
displayed  in  every  department  of  natural 
science  henceforward  gradually  won  him  such 
distinction  that,  when  a  naturalist  was  wanted 
to  accompany  Captain  Fitzroy  on  the  survey- 
ing voyage  of  the  Beagle,  the  opportunity  was 
offered  Darwin  through  the  friendship  of 
Professor  Henslow.  At  first  his  father  ob- 
jected to  his  availing  himself  of  it,  fearing  that 
so  thorough  a  change  of  life  would  dissuade 
him  from  entering  the  church,  but  he  at  length 
consented  and  Darwin,  after  receiving  his 
B.  A.,  sailed  in  December,  1831,  and  did  not 
return  until  October,  1836.  Meanwhile  he  vis- 
ited Teneriffe,  the  Cape  Verd  islands,  Brazil, 
Montevideo,  Tierra  del  Fuego,  Buenos  Ayres, 
Valparaiso,  Chili,  the  Galapagos,  Tahiti,  New 
Zealand,  Tasmania,  and  the  Keeling  islands, 
in  which  last  he  started  his  famous  theory  of 
coral  reefs.  It  was  during  this  long  expedi- 
tion that  Darwin  obtained  that  intimate 
knowledge  of  the  fauna,  flora,  and  geology  of 
many  climes  which  so  admirably  equipped 
him  for  the  great  task  he  was  to  perform. 


During  the  voyage  he  mffered  lo  mvmif 
from  seasickness  and  encountoed  such  pio> 
longed  hardship  that  his  health  wm  penna- 
nently  injured,  chronic  dyspepsia  holdiof  him 
a  life-long  victim.  In  resisting  its  effeete 
upon  his  temper  it  was  fortunate  that  he  was 
able  to  recall  the  gentle  and  amiable  example 
of  his  university  tutor. 

In  1839  Darwin  married  his  couain,  Pmrnit 
Wedgwood,  and,  subsequently  —  1842  — 
selected  a  home  at  Down,  in  Kent,  where  he 
spent  his  entire  life,  away  from  the  annoyanoea 
and  distractions  of  great  cities  and  surrounded 
by  the  physical  and  moral  cnvironmenta 
which  suited  his  scientific  habits.  In  the 
same  year  he  published  his  Journal  of  R^ 
searches,  and  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the 
royal  society.  The  Journal  was  a  roodeit 
epitome  of  his  obser^'ations  made  during  the 
voyage  of  the  Beagle.  This  voyage,  in  fact, 
laid  the  foundation  of  Darwin's  scienti6c 
career,  and  pointed  out  its  course.  Well  read 
in  the  Uterature  of  all  branches  of  acienoe, 
animated  by  the  "Personal  Narrative"  of 
Humboldt,  and  trained  by  Henslow  to  habits 
of  cautious  and  acute  observation  of  the 
minutest  phenomena  in  the  organic  and  in- 
organic world,  he  was  led  to  seek  for  himself 
a  key  to  the  mystery  which  Lamarck  had  left 
unsolved  when  he  affirmed  that  the  similarity 
of  organic  forms  was  to  be  explained  by  their 
derivation,  and  their  diversity  by  their  adap- 
tation to  the  conditions  of  existence. 

His  contemplation  of  what  herein  is  left 
undefined  —  namely,  the  law  by  which  both 
derivation  and  diversity  may  be  accounted 
for  —  gradually  cr}'stallized  into  a  single 
inquiry,  "How  did  species  originate?"  and  it 
was  as  early  as  the  year  1834,  when  he  was 
twenty-five  years  old,  being  "much  struck 
with  certain  facts  in  the  distribution  of  the 
organic  beings  inhabiting  South  America,  and 
in  the  geological  relations  of  the  present  to 
the  past  inhabitants  of  that  continent,"  he 
conceived  that,  "by  patiently  accumulating 
and  reflecting  on  all  sorts  of  facta  that  could 
possibly  have  any  sort  of  bearing  on  the  mat^ 
ter,  some  light  might  be  thrown  on  the  origin 
of  species."  He  did  not,  however,  at  oooe 
disclose  this  object,  which  became  from  that 
time  until  1859  ahnost  the  sole  burden  of 
his  investigations. 

After  five  years'  unremitting  work  be 
"allowed  himself  to  speculate"  on  the  sub- 
ject, and  drew  up  some  short  reports  which 
were  pubUshed  under  the  auspices  of  the 


404 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


lords  of  the  British  treasury  in  three  succes- 
sive parts:  The  StriuUure  and  Distrihviion  of 
Coral  Reefs,  in  1842;  Geological  Observations 
on  the  Volcanic  Islands  Visited  during  the 
Voyage  of  H.  M.  S.  Beagle,  together  with  some 
Brief  Notices  of  the  Geology  of  AiLstralia  and 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  1844 ;  and  Geological 
Observations  on  South  America,  in  1846. 

Of  all  his  contributions  to  geology,  Pro- 
fessor Geikie  says  that  while  they  have  not 
been  epoch-making,  "Every  one  of  them 
bears  the  stamp  of  his  marvelous  acuteness  in 
observation,  his  sagacity  in  grouping  scat- 
tered facts  and  his  unrivaled  far-reaching 
vision  that  commanded  all  their  mutual 
bearings  as  well  as  their  place  in  the  economy 
of  things."  The  most  important  part  of  his 
geological  work  has  dealt  with  the  forces 
within  and  under  the  earth,  those  that  are 
effective  in  earthquakes  and  volcanoes,  in  the 
elevation  of  mountains  and  the  subsidence  of 
extensive  areas  of  the  earth's  surface.  Out  of 
his  geological  notes  taken  on  the  Beagle,  he 
also  contributed  three  papers  to  the  Transac- 
tions of  the  Geological  Society;  one  On  the 
Connection  of  Volcanic  Phenomena;  a  second 
On  the  Erratic  Boulders  of  South  America; 
and  a  third  On  the  Geology  of  the  Falkland 
Islands. 

Of  the  earliest  of  his  geological  papers,  that 
on  the  Formation  of  Mould  is  especially 
curious  as  showing  his  unhmited  patience  and 
his  painstaking  habit  of  reaching  conclusions 
by  personal  observation.  This  subject  inter- 
ested him  so  much  that,  in  1842,  he  deposited 
a  layer  of  chalk  on  a  patch  of  ground,  watched 
it  constantly  until  1881,  and  then  wrote  the 
results  embodied  in  his  last  published  work. 
Vegetable  Mould.  Indeed,  so  precise  and 
unaffected  were  his  methods  of  investigation 
that  the  passer-by,  seeing  the  grounds  and 
buildings  around  his  home,  would  have  taken 
him  to  be  a  gardener  and  cattle  raiser. 
Occasionally  he  made  short  excursions  for 
study  and  recreation,  and  always  brought 
back  substantial  evidence  of  industry. 

In  1851  and  1854  the  Ray  society  published 
Darwin's  very  important  Monograph  of  the 
Cirripedia,  two  massive  volumes,  finely  illus- 
trated, preserving  the  results  of  several  years 
of  close  inquiry.  All  his  works  up  to  this 
point  embodied  in  embryo  the  principle  of 
natural  selection,  and  he  had  also  been  assidu- 
ously accumvilating  evidence  for  a  period  of 
twenty-five  years  in  its  direct  support.  With 
constitutional  caution,  however,  he  delayed 


publication  of  his  h5T)othesis,  which  was  pre- 
cipitated by  accident. 

In  1858  Alfred  Russel  Wallace  sent  home 
from  the  Malay  archipelago  a  memoir  ad- 
dressed to  Darwin;  and  this,  to  his  surprise, 
Darwin  found  to  contain  in  essence  the 
main  idea  of  his  own  theory  of  natural  selec- 
tion. Lyell  and  Hooker  persuaded  him  to 
read  a  letter  of  his  own  of  the  previous  year 
simultaneously  with  Wallace's  before  the 
Linnaean  society,  which  was  accordingly  done 
on  July  1,  1858.  Hereupon  Darwin  set  to 
work  seriously  at  once  to  condense  his  vast 
amount  of  notes,  and  put  into  shape  his  great 
work  On  the  Origin  of  Species  by  means  of 
Natural  Selection,  published  in  November, 
1859. 

The  work  created  a  profound  sensation 
throughout  the  scientific  and  non-scientific 
world.  The  fact  that  the  theory  of  evolution 
was  an  old  one  was  forgotten;  and  Darwin 
was  assailed  as  the  inventor  of  that  theory, 
while  many  of  those  who  perceived  that  he 
merely  suggested  the  method  by  which  that 
theory  might  be  brought  within  the  page  of 
speculative  debate  carried  it  far  beyond  the 
limits  which  he,  with  undeniable  modesty  and 
candor,  had  himself  prescribed.  That  he 
feared  and  regretted  the  disturbance  it  would 
effect  in  the  domain  of  rehgion  is  shown  by 
the  deprecatory  extracts  from  Whewell, 
Bacon,  and  Butler,  which  precede  the  title- 
page,  and  by  the  delicacy  and  respect  with 
which  he  met  the  attacks  of  those  who  accused 
him  of  promoting  atheism.  The  Origin  of 
Species  was  translated  into  most  of  the 
European  languages;  and  the  controversy  it 
engendered  continued  with  imabated  vigor 
during  the  life  of  the  naturalist,  who  never 
descended  into  the  arena  of  the  conflict  except 
with  a  new  collection  of  facts  which  seemed  to 
sustain  it. 

Upon  the  scientific  doctrine  laid  down  in 
The  Origin  of  Species — particularly  that  of 
"natural  selection,"  or  the  "survival  of  the 
fittest "  —  has  been  founded  what  is  popularly 
known  as  Darwinism.  The  popular  concep- 
tion, however,  that  Darwinism  is  simply  the 
theory  of  evolution  applied  to  the  origin  of 
man,  is  far  from  correct.  Its  novelty  hes 
not  in  the  conception  of  evolution,  but  in  an 
exposition  of  a  probable  cause  of  evolution  so 
clear  and  cogent  as  to  remove  the  theory 
from  the  sphere  of  philosophical  speculation  to 
that  of  practical  Ufe. 

The  chief  contents  of  The  Origin  of  Species 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


40S 


may  be  briefly  summed  up  in  a  few  paragraphs. 
In  this  tour  around  the  world,  Darwin  had 
been  greatly  struck  by  the  many  peculiarities 
in  the  geographical  distribution  of  mammals, 
and  the  difficulty  of  explaining  these  on  the 
hypothesis  of  special  creation.  He  shows 
how  largely  these  difficulties  disappear  if  the 
theory  of  evolution  is  adopted.  Similarly, 
he  shows  how  the  theory  is  supported  by  the 
evidence  of  the  rocks;  by  the  evidence 
derived  from  the  structure  of  animals,  from 
their  life  history,  and  from  the  occurrence  of 
rudimentary  organs  —  a  characteristic  other- 
wise so  inexplicable. 

Subsequently  the  author  collected  a  large 
number  of  facts  showing  the  variability  of 
domesticated  and  of  wild  animals,  and  in  the 
first  case  emphasized  the  fact  that  man,  by 
artificial  selection,  has  produced  new  forms  — 
for  example  among  pigeons  —  which  differ 
from  one  another  so  markedly  that,  if  they 
were  wild  birds,  they  would  undoubtedly  be 
placed  by  ornithologists  in  separate  species  or 
even  genera.  In  other  words,  man  has,  by 
artificial  selection,  produced  new  species. 

Can  wild  species  be  supposed  to  have  arisen 
in  a  fashion  at  all  analogous?  Darwin  an- 
swers this  question  in  the  affirmative  by  show- 
ing that  organisms  usually  increase  faster  than 
their  means  of  subsistence;  that  necessarily 
there  must  ensue  a  struggle  for  existence ;  that 
those  forms  survive  in  which  variations  are  in 
accord  with  the  environment;  that  the  sur- 
vivors transmit  their  characters  to  their  de- 
scendants, and  finally  through  such  survivals 
extending  over  innumerable  generations  the 
characters  of  existing  species  have  arisen.  This 
is  the  Darwinian  theory  of  natural  selection. 

A  point  on  which  Darwin  dwelt  relatively 
Httle,  but  on  which  much  stress  has  been  laid 
in  later  years,  is  the  question  of  the  origin  of 
the  variations  which  form  the  raw  material 
for  the  evolutionary  process.  Darwin,  in  The 
Origin  of  Species,  accepted  the  Lamarckian 
view  of  the  hereditary  nature  of  the  effects  of 
use  and  disuse,  one  of  the  points  about  which 
fierce  controversy  has  raged  in  later  days ;  but 
at  first,  certainly,  he  regarded  these  effects  as 
subservient  to  natural  selection.  Speaking 
generally,  we  may  say  that  Darwin  was  con- 
cerned with  the  existence,  not  with  the  cause, 
of  variation,  and  with  the  endeavor  to  prove 
that  "  the  same  laws  have  acted  in  producing 
the  lesser  differences  between  species  of  the 
same  genius."  In  other  words,  he  strove 
primarily  to  break  down  the  impassable  bar- 


rier which  the  older  lodlogbta  had  built  up 
between  varieties  and  speeifla.  In  apeakioc 
of  the  struggle  for  existence  and  the  aunrival 
of  the  fittest,  Darwin  laid  great  streas  on  the 
organic  environment  of  living  beings,  as  in 
many  cases  the  most  important  clement  in 
deciding  the  result  of  the  conflict  between 
rival  species  of  varieties. 

In  the  early  statements  of  his  theory,  Dar- 
win emphasized  natural  selection  as  the  chief, 
if  not  the  only  effective  cause  of  the  peculiari- 
ties, but  as  maintaining  their  efficiency  in 
each  successive  generation.  Subaequently, 
he  put  forward  the  hypothesis  of  sexual  adeo> 
tion  to  account  for  certain  characteristioa  of 
the  male  sex,  especially  in  birds,  where  the 
cocks  have  often  a  beauty  of  color  and  of  plum- 
age and  a  power  of  song  not  apparently  easy 
of  explanation  by  the  action  of  natural  selec- 
tion alone.  The  hypothesis  of  sexual  selection 
has  been  abandoned  by  a  few  avowed  evolu- 
tionists, but  is  still  maintained  by  others. 

Apart  from  the  chapters  in  The  Origin  of 
Species  bearing  particularly  on  these  biologi- 
cal principles,  there  are  a  nimiber  of  others 
which  deal  more  with  what  may  be  described 
as  the  general  evidences  of  evolution  than 
with  the  theory  of  natural  selection  in  par- 
ticular. In  regard  to  these  chapters,  it  can 
only  be  said  that  the  progress  of  knowledge 
since  Darwin  first  penned  their  contents  has 
immeasurably  strengthened  his  argiiments, 
and  that  much  of  this  progress  has  been 
directly  due  to  the  inspiration  of  The  Origin 
of  Species. 

From  the  day  of  the  publication  of  the 
latter  work,  Darwin  continued  to  work  on 
unremittingly  at  a  great  series  of  supple- 
mental treatises.  The  Fertilization  of  OrcMdt 
appeared  in  1862,  The  Variation  of  PlanU  and 
Animals  under  Domestication,  in  1868,  and 
The  Descent  of  Man,  in  1871 .  The  last-named 
work,  hardly  less  famous  than  The  Origin  of 
Species,  derives  the  human  race  from  a  hairy 
quadrumanous  animal  belonging  to  the  great 
anthropoid  group,  and  related  to  the  progeni- 
tors of  the  orang-outang,  chimpanzee,  and 
gorilla.  In  it  Darwin  also  developed  his 
important  supplementary  theory  of  seztial 
selection. 

In  addition  to  these  volumes,  his  Emotion 
in  Man  and  Animals  was  published  in  1872; 
Insectivorous  Plants,  in  1875;  Fertilization  in 
the  Vegetable  Kingdom,  in  1876;  Forma  of 
Flowers,  in  1877;  Movement  in  PUxnU,  in 
1880;  and  The  Formation  of  Vegetable  Mould, 


406 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


in  1881.  He  wrote  many  papers,  besides,  on 
minor  phases  of  the  great  scientific  issues  of 
the  day. 

The  Uterary  style  of  his  works  is  so  simple 
and  pleasing  that  he  has  been  read  with  as 
lively  interest  by  those  who  could  not  accept 
his  conclusions  as  by  his  disciples;  and  the 
generosity  with  which  he  assisted  all  who 
sought  his  aid,  his  eagerness  to  acknowledge 
the  merit  of  the  work  of  others,  his  silence 
under  personal  attack,  the  universally  ac- 
knowledged sincerity  and  love  of  truth  in  his 
character  and  in  his  writings,  secured  the 
esteem  of  his  contemporaries  of  all  schools 
of  scientific  opinion.  To  the  end  of  his 
life  he  continued  his  painstaking  researches 
and  elaborate  investigations  of  the  facts  of 
nature.  Four  years  before  his  death,  in 
1878,  he  was  accorded  the  honor  of  election 
to  the  French  academy.  He  died  at  Down, 
near  Orpington,  Kent,  April  19,  1882,  and 
was  honored  with  interment  in  Westminster 
abbey,  London. 

Physically,  Darwin  presented  a  striking 
figure.  Over  six  feet  in  height,  with  a  slight 
stoop  of  his  high  shoulders,  with  a  brow  of 
unparalleled  development  overshadowing  his 
merry  blue  eyes,  and  a  long  gray  beard  and 
moustache  —  he  presented  the  ideal  picture 
of  a  natural  philosopher.  His  bearing  was, 
however,  free  from  all  pose  of  superior  wisdom 
or  authority.  The  most  charming  and 
unaffected  gayety,  and  an  eager  innate 
courtesy  and  goodness  of  heart  were  its 
dominant  notes.  His  personality  was  no  less 
fascinating  and  rare  in  quality  than  are  the 
immortal  products  of  his  intellect. 

His  life  at  Down  —  now  a  sacred  shrine  of 
naturahsts  —  was  ideal  from  the  point  of  view 
both  of  science  and  domesticity.  In  a  letter 
to  his  friend.  Captain  Fitzroy  of  the  Beagle, 
written  in  1846,  Darwin  says,  "  My  hfe  goes  on 
Uke  clock-work,  and  I  am  fixed  on  the  spot 
where  I  shall  end  it."  Happily,  he  was  pos- 
sessed of  ample  private  fortune,  and  never 
imdertook  any  teaching  work  nor  gave  any 
strength  to  the  making  of  money.  He  was 
able  to  devote  himself  entirely  to  the  studies 
in  which  he  took  delight ;  and,  though  suffer- 
ing from  impaired  health  due  to  a  form  of 
dyspepsia,  he  presented  the  rare  spectacle  of 
a  man  of  leismre  more  fully  occupied,  more 
absorbed  in  constant  and  exhausting  labors 
than  many  a  lawyer,  doctor,  professor,  or 
man  of  letters.  His  voyage  seems  to  have 
satisfied  once  for  all  his  need  for  traveling,  and 


his  absences  from  Down  were  but  few  and 
brief  during  the  rest  of  his  hfe. 

Here  most  of  his  children  were  bom,  five 
sons  and  three  daughters.  One  Uttle  girl  died 
in  childhood;  the  rest  grew  up  around  him 
and  remained  throughout  his  life  in  the  closest 
terms  of  intimacy  and  affection  with  him  and 
their  mother.  Here  he  carried  on  his  experi- 
ments in  greenhouse,  garden,  and  paddock; 
here  he  collected  his  Ubrary  and  wrote  his 
great  books.  He  became  a  man  of  well- 
considered  habits  and  method,  carefully 
arranging  his  day's  occupation  so  as  to  give 
so  many  hours  to  noting  the  results  of  experi- 
ments, so  many  to  writing  and  reading,  and 
an  hour  or  two  to  exercise  in  his  grounds  or  a 
ride,  and  to  playing  with  his  children.  His 
house  was  large  enough  to  accommodate 
several  guests  at  a  time;  and  it  was  his 
delight  to  receive  here  for  a  week's  end  not 
only  his  old  friends  and  companions,  but 
younger  naturalists,  and  others,  the  com- 
panions of  his  sons  and  daughters. 

Haeckel,  the  noted  German  naturaUst,  who 
visited  him,  has  given  this  brief  and  vivid 
picture  of  his  home  and  its  master:  "In 
Darwin's  own  carriage,  which  he  had  thought- 
fully sent  for  my  convenience  to  the  railway 
station,  I  drove  one  sunny  morning  in  Octo- 
ber, through  the  graceful  hilly  landscape  of 
Kent,  with  the  chequered  foliage  of  its  woods, 
its  stretches  of  purple  heath,  yellow  broom, 
and  evergreen  oaks,  arrayed  in  its  fairest 
autmnnal  dress.  As  the  carriage  drew  up  in 
front  of  Darwin's  pleasant  coimtry-house, 
clad  in  a  vesture  of  ivy  and  embowered  in 
elms,  there  stepped  out  to  meet  me  from  the 
shady  porch,  overgrown  with  creeping  plants, 
the  great  naturaUst  himself,  a  tall  and  vener- 
able figure  with  the  broad  shoulders  of  an 
Atlas  supporting  a  world  of  thoughts,  his 
Jupiter-like  forehead  highly  and  broadly 
arched,  as  in  the  case  of  Goethe,  and  deeply 
furrowed  by  the  plow  of  mental  labor;  his 
kindly  mild  eyes  looking  forth  imder  the 
shadow  of  prominent  brows;  his  amiable 
mouth  surrounded  by  a  copious  silver-white 
beard.  The  cordial,  prepossessing  expression 
of  the  whole  face,  the  gentle,  mild  voice,  the 
slow,  dehberate  utterance,  the  natural  and 
naive  train  of  ideas  which  marked  his  conver- 
sation, captivated  my  whole  heart  in  the  first 
hour  of  our  meeting,  just  as  his  great  work 
had  formerly,  on  my  first  reading  it,  taken  my 
whole  understanding  by  storm.  I  fancied  a 
lofty  world-sage  out  of  Hellenic  antiquity  — 


HELMHOLTZ  IN   HIS  LABORATORY 

From  a  painting 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


409 


a  Socrates  or  Aristotle  —  stood  before  me." 
Others  have  borne  testimony,  equally  explicit, 
to  the  simple  and  engaging  personality  of  the 
man. 

In  later  years  his  health  became  so  precari- 
ous that  he  was  obliged  not  only  to  suspend 
his  work  for  days  and  even  weeks,  but  also  to 
limit  his  conversation  with  visitors,  particu- 
larly if  scientific  topics  were  discussed.  His 
wife,  who,  throughout  their  long  and  happy 
union  devoted  herself  to  the  care  of  her  hus- 
band so  as  to  enable  him  to  do  a  maximum 
amount  of  work  with  least  suffering  in  health, 
would  come  and  call  him  away  after  half  an 
hour's  talk,  that  he  might  lie  down  alone  in  a 
quiet  room.  Then  after  an  hour  or  so  he 
would  return  with  a  smile,  like  a  boy  released 
from  punishment,  and  launch  again  with  a 
merry  laugh  into  talk.  Never  was  there  an 
invalid  who  bore  his  maladies  so  cheerfully,  or 
who  made  so  light  of  a  terrible  burden. 

During  the  hours  passed  in  his  study,  even, 
he  found  it  necessary  to  rest  at  intervals,  and 
adopted  regularly  the  plan  of  writing  for  an 
hour  and  then  lying  down  for  half  an  hour, 
while  his  wife  and  daughter  read  to  him  a 
novel.  After  half  an  hour  he  would  again 
resume  his  work,  and  again  after  an  hour, 
return  to  the  novel.  In  this  way  he  read 
the  greater  part  of  the  circulating  libraries' 
contents.  He  declared  that  he  had  no  taste 
for  literature,  but  liked  a  story,  especially 
about  a  pretty  girl ;  and  he  would  read  only 
those  in  which  all  ended  well.  Authors  of 
stories  ending  in  death  and  failure  ought,  he 
declared,  to  be  hung ! 

He  rarely  went  to  London,  on  accoimt  of  his 


health,  and  consequently  kept  up  a  vttrj 
large  correspondence  with  adentifio  frieodt, 
especiaUy  with  LyeU,  Hooker,  and  Huzlqr. 
He  made  it  a  rule  to  preserve  every  letter  he 
received,  and  his  friends  were  earful  to  pre> 
serve  his;  so  that  in  the  Life  and  Letten, 
published  after  his  death  by  his  son  Francis 
—  who  in  later  years  lived  with  his  father  and 
assisted  him  in  his  work  —  we  have  a  most 
interesting  record  of  the  progress  of  his 
speculations,  as  well  as  a  delightful  reveUtion 
of  his  beautiful  character. 

"  If  the  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man," 
says  Professor  Romanes,  "then  Darwin  has 
done  more  than  any  other  human  being  to 
further  the  most  desirable  kind  of  learning, 
for  it  is  through  him  that  humanity  in  our 
generation  has  first  been  able  to  begin  its 
response  to  the  precept  of  antiquity  —  knew 
thyself."  To  this,  Alfred  Russel  Wallace 
adds:  "The  Darwinian  theory,  even  when 
carried  out  to  its  extreme  logical  conclunon, 
not  only  does  not  oppose,  but  lends  a  decided 
support  to  a  belief  in  the  spiritual  nature  of 
man.  It  shows  us  how  man's  body  may  have 
been  developed  from  that  of  a  lower  animal 
form  under  the  law  of  natural  selection ;  but 
it  also  teaches  us  that  we  possess  intellectual 
and  moral  faculties  which  could  not  have  been 
so  developed,  but  must  have  had  another 
origin;  and  for  this  origin  we  can  only  find 
an  adequate  cause  in  the  unseen  universe  of 
spirit."  Finally,  Archdeacon  Farrar  says: 
"The  glory  of  Charles  Darwin,  of  which  no 
change  of  view  respecting  his  theories  can  rob 
him,  is  that  he  passed  through  the  world  with 
open  eyes." 


1821 
1838 

1843-48 

1847 

1849 

1851 
1855-58 
1858-71 
1861 


HELMHOLTZ 

■AGE  A.  D.  *0* 

Bom  at  Potsdam,  Prussia 1863  "SensatioM  of  Tom,"    .    .    ...  42 

Entered  the  medical  institute  at  1867  "  Physiological  0|jU»    cotnpMcd.  40 

Berlin        17  1871  Professor  of  physics  at  universitjr 

Surgeon'in  the' German  army,  .    .    22-27  of  lierlin,      .    .    .    .    •••••,  f^ 

"Conservation  of  Force,".        .    .         26  1873  "Lecture*  "n&icntific  Subject^  M 

Professor  of  physiology  at  Konigs-  1883  Ennobled  by  the  GcrmMcmneror.  62 

berg-  married      ......         28  1887  Director  of  the  phvmico-technlcai 

Invented  the  ophthalmoscope,.    .         30  ^  ,r.^  j*Vl^  m  ?!!!f^.*!Sr*^  *    '  n 

Professor  at  ui^versity  of  Bonn,  .   34-37  1893  V"!i5«^,  J;'?f  V'^»^K7,!!^1!U,*IW«in  « 

Professor  at  Heidelberg,    ....   37-50  1894  Died  at  Charlottenburg,  near  Berlin,  TO 

Second  marriage, 40 


HERMANN  LUDWIG  FERDINAND 
VON  HELMHOLTZ,  physiologist  and 
physicist,  and  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
scientists  of  the  nineteenth  century,  was  born 


at  Potsdam,  near  Berlin,  Prussia,  August  31, 
182L  His  father  was  professor  of  literature 
in  the  gymnasium  at  Potsdam;  and  his 
mother,  Caroline  Penn,  was  the  daughter  of  a 


410 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Hanoverian  artillery  officer,  and  a  lineal 
descendant  of  William  Penn,  the  Quaker 
founder  of  Pennsylvania.  His  grandmother, 
on  his  mother's  side,  sprang  from  a  family 
of  French  refugees.  So  that  Helmholtz  had 
German,  English,  and  French  blood  in  his 
veins. 

During  the  first  seven  years  of  his  life  he 
was  a  weakly  boy,  and  frequently  confined  to 
his  bed.  When  he  was  able  to  attend  school 
he  passed  through  the  usual  routine  of  the 
normal  school  of  Potsdam,  where  he  began 
the  study  of  geometry  in  his  eighth  year,  and 
astonished  his  teachers  by  his  knowledge  of 
many  fundamental  truths.  A  little  later  he 
acquired  a  great  love  of  nature,  and  was 
especially  attracted  to  physics.  He  confesses 
in  his  memoirs  that  while  the  class  was  read- 
ing Cicero  or  Vergil,  he  was  often  busy  with 
illicit  calculations  under  the  desk.  He  had 
difficulty  in  acquiring  languages,  but,  through 
the  enthusiastic  encouragement  of  his  father, 
he  became  master  not  only  of  Greek,  French, 
and  English,  but  even  of  Arabic. 

But,  though  he  describes  his  interest  in  the 
special  line  of  study  to  which  he  subsequently 
adhered  as  "amounting  even  to  a  passion," 
it  is  evident  that  the  passion  was  controlled 
by  a  strong  vein  of  common  sense.  Neither 
at  that  time,  nor  for  many  years  afterward, 
was  a  living  to  be  made  out  of  physics.  The 
most  influential  member  of  the  family  was  a 
military  surgeon  —  Surgeon-general  Mursinna 
—  who  obtained  for  young  Helmholtz,  in  i 
1838,  admission  to  the  royal  medico-chirur- 
gical  institute  of  Berlin,  an  academy  for  the 
medical  education  of  youths  of  promise,  on 
condition  that  they  afterward  become  sur- 
geons in  the  Prussian  army.  The  students  of 
this  institution  also  attended  the  usual  course 
of  instruction  in  the  medical  department  of 
the  university  of  Berlin,  and  were  afterward 
attached  for  a  time  to  the  Charity  hospital. 

It  was  not  long  before  the  characteristic 
bent  of  his  mind  displayed  itself.  He  was 
the  pupil  of  the  distinguished  physiologist, 
Johannes  Miiller,  from  whose  laboratory  came 
many  of  the  most  distinguished  German 
physiologists  of  the  last  generation;  and  of 
Gustav  Magnus,  the  almost  equally  distin- 
guished physicist.  Professor  Miiller  was  the 
greatest  living  force  in  the  university  of 
Berlin,  at  that  time,  and,  together  with 
Magnus,  represented  a  new  school  of  thought 
which  rebelled  against  the  older  metaphysical 
school.    He  it  was,   indeed,   that   laid  the 


foundations  of  the  modem  school  of  experi- 
mental psychology  through  the  publication 
of  his  great  work  on  physiology.  Under  such 
personal  stimulation,  Helmholtz  laid  the 
foundation  of  his  career.  He  long  afterward 
wrote  words  that  apply  with  striking  force 
both  to  his  great  master  and  to  himself. 
"When  one  comes  into  contact  with  a  man 
of  the  first  rank,  his  spiritual  scale  is  changed 
for  life.  Such  a  contact  is  the  most  inter- 
esting event  that  life  can  offer." 

Helmholtz  was  graduated  in  medicine  in 
1842,  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  and  presented 
a  thesis  entitled  De  Fabrica  Systematis  Nervosi 
Evertebratorum,  in  which  he  already  made  an 
important  contribution  to  the  minute  anatomy 
of  nerve  cells  and  fibers.  From  this  date 
until  1849  he  resided  the  greater  part  of  the 
time  in  Berlin  and  vicinity.  In  1843  he 
took  up  the  active  duties  of  assistant  surgeon 
in  the  regiment  of  the  Red  Hussars,  then 
stationed  at  Potsdam,  but  at  the  instance  of 
Alexander  von  Humboldt  he  was  relieved 
from  military  duties,  and  became  assistant 
to  the  anatomical  museum,  at  Berlin,  lec- 
turer on  anatomy  to  the  academy  of  arts, 
and  professor  extraordinary  of  physiology  at 
Albert  university. 

The  first  of  his  scientific  efforts  which 
attracted  general  attention  was  his  famous 
essay  on  the  "Conservation  of  Force,"  pub- 
lished in  1847,  when  he  was  twenty-six  years 
of  age.  This  essay  was  first  read  to  the 
physical  society  of  Berlin,  in  July  of  that 
year,  and  it  proved  to  be  one  of  the  epoch- 
making  scientific  contributions  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  In  it  he  enunciated  —  in 
brief  —  as  a  fundamental  principle  of  physics, 
the  conservation  of  force,  just  as  Lavoisier, 
seventy  years  before,  had  made  that  of  the 
persistence  of  matter  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  chemistry.  The  line  of  thought 
which  he  had  been  following  has  been  traced 
by  his  own  hand.  The  study  of  medicine  led 
to  the  problem  of  the  nature  of  vital  force. 
He  convinced  himself  that  if  —  as  the  cele- 
brated physiologist,  Stahl,  had  suggested  — 
an  animal  had  the  power  now  of  restraining 
and  now  of  liberating  the  activity  of  mechan- 
ical forces,  it  would  be  endowed  with  the 
power  of  perpetual  motion.  This  led  to  the 
question  whether  perpetual  motion  was  con- 
sistent with  what  was  known  of  natural 
agencies.  The  essay  on  the  "  Consers'^ation 
of  Force"  was,  according  to  Helmholtz  him- 
self, intended  to  be  a  critical  investigation 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


411 


and  arrangement  of  the  facts  which  bear  on 
this  point,  for  the  benefit  of  physiologists. 
In  form,  however,  it  was  addressed  to  the 
physicists. 

It  is  very  evident  that  the  doctrine  of  the 
conservation  of  energy  was  of  the  highest 
importance  in  physiology,  as  it  indicated  the 
road  to  a  thorough  investigation  of  the  nutri- 
tional changes  occurring  in  living  matter. 
These  nutritional  changes,  if  in  the  direction 
of  the  upbuilding  of  tissues,  are  also  concerned 
in  the  storing  up  of  energy,  and  if,  on  the 
contrary,  they  are  associated  with  the  tearing 
down  of  tissue,  or,  in  other  words,  with 
chemical  decompositions,  then  energy  is  set 
free  as  mechanical  motion,  heat,  light,  or 
electricity.  This  was  only  the  third  or  fourth 
paper  which  Helmholtz  had  published,  but 
his  remarkable  abilities  were  now  fully  rec- 
ognized. 

In  1848  the  connection  of  Helmholtz  with 
the  army  was  permanently  severed,  and  in 
the  following  year  he  was  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  physiology  and  general  pathology  in 
the  university  of  Konigsberg.  Here  he  spent 
six  busy  years,  fully  engaged  in  teaching  and 
investigation.  Early  in  this  year,  also,  he 
married  Miss  Olga  von  Velten  of  Potsdam, 
who  died  in  1859,  leaving  two  children,  a  son 
and  a  daughter. 

From  1851  to  1856  his  researches  were 
mainly  confined  to  physiological  optics,  with 
an  occasional  paper  on  electrical  problems. 
These  studies,  which  led  to  a  systematic 
examination  of  the  eye,  resulted  also  in  the 
invention  of  the  myograph,  the  ophthal- 
mometer, and  the  ophthalmoscope ;  and  thus 
made  it  possible  to  investigate  the  inmost 
recesses  of  the  living  eye.  The  latter  inven- 
tion has  been  of  untold  service,  and  its  prin- 
ciple is  something  as  follows : 

If  the  eye  be  illuminated,  a  portion  of  the 
light  returns  from  the  hinder  surface,  is 
brought  to  a  focus  by  the  lenses  of  the  eye 
itself,  and  forms  an  image  of  the  retina  in 
external  space.  To  see  this  was  no  easy 
matter.  If  the'  patient's  eye  were  focused 
on  a  Imninous  object,  the  image  would  coin- 
cide with  the  source  of  light,  and,  even  if 
otherwise  visible,  would  be  lost  in  the  glare. 
If  the  patient  looked  elsewhere,  the  image 
would  move,  but,  inasmuch  as  the  lenses 
cannot  be  adjusted  to  the  clear  vision  of  any 
object  nearer  than  about  ten  inches,  that  is 
the  minimum  distance  from  the  eye  at  which 
it  can  form  the  image  of  its  own  retina.    To 


sec  this  clearly  an  observer  without  appUanoee 
must  place  himself  at  least  ten  inchea  from 
the  image,  that  is,  at  twenty  inchea  from  tlie 
patient.  At  that  distance  the  view  would  be 
so  limited  that  no  result  could  be  obtained. 

Helmholtz,  however,  convinced  himfrif 
that,  if  these  difficulties  could  be  overcome, 
the  image  of  a  brightly  illuminated  letlna 
could  be  seen.  He  made  the  obaervatioot 
through  a  small  hole  in  the  center  of  a  mirror, 
which  reflected  light  into  the  eye  under 
examination.  Then  by  means  of  a  lens  he 
shifted  the  position  of  the  image  backward, 
until  the  relative  positions  of  the  observer 
and  the  patient  were  such  that,  according  to 
calculation,  the  retina  should  be  visible. 

Again  and  again  he  tried  and  failed,  but 
he  was  convinced  of  the  validity  of  the 
theory,  and  at  last  the  experiment  succeeded. 
From  that  time  the  oculist  has  been  able  to 
look  into  the  darkness  of  the  pupil,  and  see 
through  the  gloom  the  point  of  entry  to  the 
optic  nerve,  and  the  delicate  network  of 
blood  vessels  by  which  it  is  surrounded. 

Forced  by  his  persistent  work  to  seek  com- 
parative rest,  Helmholtz  made  his  first  visit 
to  England  in  1854,  including  Scotland,  also, 
in  his  itinerary,  and  was  greatly  benefited 
in  health.  He  confessed  his  disappointment 
in  being  able  to  meet  but  few  scientific  men 
during  this  visit ;  but  he  fretjuently  renewed 
his  visits  in  subsequent  years,  and  formed  a 
large  circle  of  acquaintances.  There  existed 
between  him  and  Lord  Kelvin,  especially, 
the  warmest  friendship,  and  each  had  high 
admiration  for  the  powers  and  achievementa 
of  the  other. 

Helmholtz  was  appointed  professor  of 
physiology  at  the  university  of  Bonn  in 
1855,  at  thirty-five,  and  here  he  remained 
until  1858,  when  he  accepted  a  similar  chair 
at  Heidelberg.  The  three  years  at  Bonn  were 
characterized  by  the  same  intellectual  activi^ 
as  his  previous  years  at  Konigsberg,  but  were 
devoted  in  the  main  to  physiological  acoustics. 
These  investigations  also  extended  into  the 
period  of  his  work  at  Heidelberg,  and,  bemdes 
many  lesser  monographs,  resulted,  in  1863, 
in  his  great  work  on  the  "  Sensations  of  Tone 
as  the  Physiological  Basis  of  Music" — 
Tonempfindungen  ah  physiologiache  Grundlage 
fur  die  Theorie  der  Mutsik. 

It  is  almost  impossible,  within  brief  scope, 
to  give  an  adequate  notion  of  this  oddi>rated 
physiological  study.  The  theories  advanced 
were  novel,  but,  though  some  points  are  still 


412 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


open  to  dispute,  they  have  as  a  whole  been 
generally  accepted.  The  aim  of  the  work  was 
ambitious,  being  nothing  less  than  the  dis- 
covery of  the  physical  basis  of  the  sensations 
which  affect  us  when  listening  to  consonant 
and  dissonant  musical  intervals,  respectively. 
The  general  nature  of  the  solution  arrived  at 
is  now  well  known. 

If  two  notes,  which  differ  but  little  from 
unison,  are  produced  together,  throbbing 
alternations  in  the  intensity  of  the  sound  are 
heard  as  beats.  If  the  interval  is  gradually 
increased,  the  beats  become  quicker,  until  at 
last  they  can  no  longer  be  distinguished 
separately.  According  to  Helmholtz,  how- 
ever, they  produce  the  effect  of  dissonance. 
"The  nerves  of  hearing,"  he  says,  "feel  these 
rapid  beats  as  rough  and  unpleasant,  because 
every  intermittent  excitement  of  any  nervous 
apparatus  affects  it  more  powerfully  than  one 
that  lasts  unaltered.  Consonance  is  a  con- 
tinuous, dissonance  an  intermittent  sensation 
of  tone."  The  disagreeable  effect  depends  in 
part  upon  the  number  of  beats,  in  part  upon 
the  interval  between  the  notes  which  produce 
them,  being  greatest  when  the  rapidity  of  the 
beats  is  neither  very  large  nor  very  small, 
and  when  the  interval  between  the  two  notes 
is  not  great. 

In  applying  this  theory  it  is  necessary  to 
take  into  account  not  only  the  beats  between 
the  two  fundamental  notes,  but  also  those 
due  to  two  series  of  secondary  sounds  by 
which  they  may  be  accompanied.  The  pres- 
ence or  absence  of  one  of  these  —  the  so-called 
upper  harmonic  partials  —  depends  upon  the 
way  in  which  the  note  has  been  obtained. 
They  produce  the  differences  of  quality  which 
distinguish  one  musical  instrument  from 
another.  They  are  also  the  basis  of  our 
appreciation  of  the  closeness  of  the  relation- 
ship between  the  notes  they  accompany.  The 
want  of  perfect  consonance  between  com- 
pound notes  is  attributed  to  beats  between 
those  members  of  the  two  groups  of  sound 
which  are  not  very  far  apart  on  the  scale. 
The  growing  importance  of  these  beats,  as 
the  intervals  become  less  and  less  consonant, 
was  traced  with  wonderful  ingenuity. 

This  theory  alone  would  be  insufficient  to 
account  for  a  perception  of  want  of  conso- 
nance between  two  pure  notes  unaccompanied 
by  partials.  To  explain  this,  recourse  was 
had  to  a  second  series  of  attendant  sounds, 
the  most  important  of  which  had  been  dis- 
covered in  1845,  by  Sorge,  a  German  organist. 


and  was  well  known  as  Tartini's  tone.  Helm- 
holtz proved  that  such  notes  would  arise 
when  the  vibrating  body  was  set  in  somewhat 
violent  motion,  provided  that  the  resistances 
offered  to  equal  displacements  in  opposite 
directions  were  unequal.  Of  course  the  air, 
which  transmits  the  sounds  to  the  ear,  does 
not  possess  this  property.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  drumskin  of  the  ear,  to  which  the  aerial 
vibrations  are  conununicated,  is  not  sym- 
metrical, being  bent  inward  by  the  little 
"hammer"  bone.  Helmholtz,  therefore,  con- 
cluded that  it  is  probable  that  Tartini's  tone 
is  due  to  this  membrane.  From  his  point  of 
view  it  is  subjective,  in  the  sense  that  it  is 
produced  within  the  organism,  though  it 
originates  in  the  auditory  apparatus,  and  not 
in  the  brain.  It  is,  if  one  may  use  the  phrase, 
the  rattling  of  the  machinery  of  the  ear. 

Having  thus  accounted  for  the  production 
of  secondary  sounds  by  tones  which  were 
themselves  unaccompanied  by  partials,  Helm- 
holtz explained  our  sense  of  the  dissonance  of 
imperfect  intervals,  when  produced  by  such 
pure  notes,  by  beats  due  to  the  combinational 
tones.  But  though  he  maintained  that  these 
theories  explained  the  physical  "  reason  of  the 
melodic  relationship  of  two  tones,"  the  author 
of  the  Toncmpfindungcn  was  careful  to  point 
out  that  the  principles  he  enunciated  had  not 
always  determined  the  construction  of  the 
scale,  and  do  not  determine  it  everywhere 
now.  The  selection  of  a  scries  of  notes,  which 
were  from  experience  found  to  obey  certain 
natural  laws,  was  voluntary.  The  scale  itself 
is  not  natural,  in  the  sense  that  it  is  not  a 
necessary  consequence  of  the  construction  of 
the  ear.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  the  product 
of  artistic  invention. 

Music  is  thus  not  a  mere  branch  of  mechan- 
ics, but  an  art.  The  architect  and  the  com- 
poser alike  deal  with  materials  which  are 
subject  to  mechanical  laws,  but  they  are 
alike  free  to  fashion  from  these,  forms  deter- 
mined, not  by  calculation,  but  by  the  sense 
of  beauty. 

Helmholtz  was  at  work  on  optics  while  still 
engaged  in  the  study  of  sound.  The  "  Hand- 
book of  Physiological  Optics " —  Handbuch 
der  Physiologischen  Optik  —  appeared  in  sec- 
tions in  1856,  1860,  and  1867.  It  is,  as  he 
himself  has  said,  a  complete  survey  of  the 
whole  field  of  that  science.  He  also  lectured 
before  the  royal  society  of  Great  Britain 
in  1864,  and  from  1865  to  1871  produced  a 
series  of  "Lectures  on  Scientific  Subjects" 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


41S 


that  represent  the  highest  class  of  that  form 
of  literature  in  any  language.  These  were 
published  in  1873. 

On  the  death  of  Professor  Magnus,  the 
physicist  of  the  university  of  Berlin,  it  was 
felt  that  only  one  of  two  men  could  take  his 
place  —  Kirchhoff,  one  of  the  founders  of  spec- 
trum analysis,  or  Helmholtz,  both  then  at 
Heidelberg.  The  authorities  would  not  allow 
Kirchhoff  to  leave,  so  the  chair  was  offered 
to  Helmholtz,  He  accepted  with  some  reluc- 
tance, in  1871,  for  he  loved  the  wooded  hills 
around  Heidelberg  and  the  old  romantic  town 
as  well,  but  he  yielded  to  the  entreaties  of 
his  friends  with  pride  and  satisfaction. 

He  had  now  raised  himself  to  the  position 
of  being  the  first  physicist  in  Germany,  and 
his  fame  extended  throughout  the  entire 
scientific  world.  During  the  last  twenty- 
three  years  of  his  life,  he  devoted  his  energies 
almost  entirely  to  the  investigation  of  physical 
problems.  His  contributions  to  the  theory  of 
electrodynamics  are  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance, and  he  carried  the  work  begun  by  Clerk 
Maxwell  to  practical  results  equaled  by  no 
other  physicist.  It  was  through  him  that 
Hertz  demonstrated  the  existence  of  the 
electromagnetic  waves  foreshadowed  by  Max- 
well. In  his  discussion  of  "monocycUc" 
systems  and  in  other  papers,  he  endeavored  to 
find  the  real  essence  of  the  principle  of  least 
action,  and  was  the  first  to  work  out  explicitly 
the  notion  of  the  electric  atom  or  electron. 

An  account  of  these  researches  would  far 
exceed  the  limits  of  this  sketch,  and  we  can 
only  say  that  they  may  be  summed  up  under 
the  following  heads:  (1)  On  the  conservation 
of  energy;  (2)  On  hydrodynamics;  (3)  On 
electrodynamics  and  theories  of  electricity; 
(4)  On  meteorological  physics;  (5)  On  optics; 
and  (6)  On  the  principles  of  dynamics.  His 
last  paper  was  given  to  the  world  in  1894,  the 
year  of  his  death,  and  gave  an  accurate  expla- 
nation of  "  Sensory  Impressions."  From  1842 
up  to  this  year  he  published  two  hundred 
seventeen  distinct  papers  and  books,  in  which 
he  demonstrated'  a  triple  mastery  over  anat- 
omy, mathematics,  and  physics,  equaled  by 
few,  and  won  a  place  on  the  borderland  of 
physics,  physiology,  and  psychology  that  is 
all  his  own. 

From  1887  until  the  close  of  his  career, 
Helmholtz  devoted  much  time  and  attention 
to  the  affairs  of  the  Physikalisch-Technische 
Reichanstalt,  or  physico-technical  institute, 
at  Charlottenburg,  near  Berlin.    This  insti- 


tution —  which  baa  since  developed  into  cue 
of  the  most  noted  in  the  world  —  was  pno- 
tically  founded  in  1884  by  his  Ufo-long  friend, 
Werner  von  Siemens,  the  electrician  and 
man-of-affairs,  as  a  research  laboratory^  and 
he  was  chosen  its  first  director  in  the  year 
mentioned.  This  did  not  neoeaaitate  the 
resignation  of  his  chair  at  Ikrlin,  but  added 
measurably  to  his  administrative  work  to 
which  he  attached  great  importance  bocaueo 
it  was  public  work. 

In  1861  Helmholtz  had  entered  upon  a 
second  marriage,  when  he  wedded  Miss  Ann* 
von  Mohl,  the  daughter  of  a  Wiirttembeig 
family  of  high  social  position.  This  nuuTia({e 
resulted  in  a  happy  home  life  for  him,  as  well 
as  in  the  creation  of  a  brilliant  social,  artistic, 
and  intellectual  circle.  Two  children  were 
born  of  this  union,  a  son  and  a  daughter. 
The  latter  knit  together  the  families  of 
Siemens  and  Helmholtz  by  marrying  the  son 
of  Werner  von  Siemens. 

The  technical  institute  having  become  a 
Prussian  state  institution  shortly  after  Helm- 
holtz assumed  its  direction,  he  was  frequently 
brought  into  contact  with  the  emperor,  who 
received  him  in  his  domestic  circle  to  discuss 
the  advances  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  He 
was  also  warmly  received  by  William  I., 
during  the  latter  years  of  his  reign,  by  whom 
he  was  ennobled  in  1883.  Honors  of  all  sorts, 
indeed,  were  showered  upon  him,  and  the 
celebration  of  his  seventieth  birthday  became 
a  national  event.  The  tribute  that  was 
then  paid  to  his  eminence  as  a  man  of  science 
and  as  an  inspiring  teacher  was  only  equaled 
a  few  years  ago  by  the  ceremonies  at  the 
jubilee  of  his  friend,  Lord  Kelvin.  The 
emperor  William  II.  sent  him  an  autograph 
letter  in  acknowledgment  of  his  great  services 
to  science,  and  conferred  special  honors  Ujwn 
him.  The  kings  of  Sweden  and  Italy,  Xhe 
grand  duke  of  Baden,  and  the  presid^t  of 
France  sent  him  the  insignia  of  various  orders. 
Representatives  of  academies,  universitiea, 
and  learned  societies  sent  representativea 
and  addresses.  A  Helmholtz  gold  medal  waa 
struck  in  his  honor,  to  be  awarded  from  time 
to  time  for  distinguished  services  to  science, 
and  was,  at  a  banquet,  handed  to  Helmholti 
himself  as  its  first  recipient,  after  a  brilliant 
speech  by  his  life-long  friend,  Du  Bois  Rcy- 
mond.  At  the  same  time  a  marble  bust  by 
Hildebrand  was  unveiled. 

At  seventy  his  eye  was  imdimmed  and  his 
natural  force  was  unabated,  and  it  waa  hoped 


414 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


that  he  had  yet  many  years  before  him  to 
complete  his  life  work  by  the  publication  of 
his  later  lectures.  He  attended  the  meeting 
of  the  British  association  for  the  advance- 
ment of  science  in  Edinburgh,  in  1892, 
in  1893  visited  the  World's  Columbian 
exposition  at  Chicago,  and  afterward  saw 
something  of  the  grand  scenery  of  North 
America  and  Canada.  He  then  started  on 
his  homeward  journey. 

Shortly  before  his  steamer  reached  Ham- 
burg, Helmholtz  had  an  attack  of  giddiness, 
and  fell  down  the  stair  of  the  cabin.  The 
injury  was  severe,  and  caused  concussion  of 
the  brain,  and  great  loss  of  blood  from  a 
scalp  wound.  He  apparently  recovered  so 
far  as  external  appearances  were  concerned, 
but  those  about  him  saw  that  his  strength 
was  failing.  Now  easily  tired,  work  became 
more  and  more  difl5cult.  At  last  the  brain 
that  had  worked  so  well  gave  way,  and,  in 
July,  1894,  he  had  a  stroke  of  apoplexy.  He 
lingered  for  two  months,  patiently  and  calmly 
looking  forward  to  the  end.  This  came  on 
September  8,  1894,  when  he  had  lived  eight 
days  beyond  his  seventy-third  birthday. 

The  personal  appearance  of  Helmholtz  was 
indicative  of  his  own  inner  strength.  Rather 
above  the  middle  stature,  he  had  a  firm, 
erect  frame.  His  splendid  head  was  well 
thrown  back,  so  that  his  posture  was  always 
sure  to  command  attention.  The  shape  of  the 
head  was  perfect,  broad  between  the  eyes  but 
not  out  of  proportion.  His  eyes  were  full  of 
intelligence,  and  not  so  brilliant  as  deep  and 
reflective.  They  often  had  that  far  away  look 
so  conspicuous  in  thinkers,  as  if  the  soul  were 
away  on  its  own  quest.  His  manner  was 
dignified,  almost  to  coldness,  but  it  was  at 
the  same  time  courteous.  It  is  said  that  he 
had  occasionally  a  peculiar  look  that  caused 
a  shallow  man  to  stop  asking  questions  and  to 
feel  his  own  unworthiness.  With  those  who 
were  truly  in  earnest  he  would  take  infinite 
pains  to  explain,  listen  to  suggestions,  and 
remove  difficulties.  Reserve  was  his  habitual 
attitude.  To  his  favorite  students,  and  in  the 
circle  of  his  own  friends,  there  was  always  the 
charm  of  a  great  personality. 

He  loved  a  quiet  home  life  with  the  pleas- 
ures of  congenial  society  and  music,  to  which 
he  was  devoted.  He  was  an  accomplished 
pianist,  and  he  sang  a  little,  but  his  voice 
was  not  strong.  He  was  also  fond  of  moun- 
taineering and  was  an  excellent  swimmer. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  define  the  position  of 


Helmholtz  among  scientific  thinkers.  His 
works  bear  their  own  evidence.  There  is  a 
general  consensus  of  opinion  that  he  was  one 
of  the  greatest  men  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
To  find  one  like  him  in  mental  power  and 
range  we  must  go  back  to  such  intellectual 
giants  as  Descartes  and  Leibnitz,  and,  even 
when  he  is  compared  with  them,  it  must  not 
be  forgotten  how  enormously  broader  was  the 
field  of  science  in  the  time  of  Helmholtz  than 
in  the  seventeenth  century. 

Of  Helmholtz's  opinions  on  religious  ques- 
tions nothing  can  be  stated  with  any  degree 
of  precision.  Such  topics  were  not  with  him 
subjects  of  conversation.  But  throughout 
his  writings  there  breathes  a  spirit  of  rever- 
ence, while  his  noble  and  pure  life  is  the 
highest  testimony  to  his  true  worth.  For 
such  a  man  a  time  surely  comes  when 

"That  in  ub  which  thinks  and  that  which  feels 
Shall  everlaatingly  be  rt'conciled, 
And   that  which  questioneth   with  that  which 
kneeU." 

The  technical  merits  of  his  work  will,  of 
course,  be  appreciated  chiefly  by  experts. 
Special  knowledge  is  not  necessary  to  under- 
stand its  importance.  He  was  one  of  the 
first  to  grasp  the  principle  of  the  conservation 
of  energy.  He  struck  independently,  and  at  a 
critical  moment,  a  powerful  blow  in  its  defense. 
He  penetrated  further  than  any  before  him 
into  the  mystery  of  the  mechanism  which  con- 
nects us  with  external  nature  through  the  eye 
and  the  ear.  He  discovered  the  fundamental 
properties  of  vortex  motion  in  a  perfect 
liquid,  which  have  since  not  only  been  applied 
in  the  explanation  of  all  sorts  of  physical 
phenomena,  of  ripple  marks  in  the  sand,  and 
of  cirrus  clouds  in  the  air,  but  have  been  the 
bases  of  some  of  the  most  advanced  and  preg- 
nant speculations  as  to  the  constitution  of 
matter  and  of  the  luminiferous  ether  itself. 

These  scientific  achievements  are  not,  per- 
haps, of  the  type  which  most  easily  conunands 
generation  attention.  They  have  not  been 
utilized  in  theological  warfare ;  they  have  not 
revolutionized  the  daily  business  of  the  world. 
It  will,  however,  be  universally  admitted  that 
such  tests  do  not  supply  a  real  measure  of 
the  greatness  of  a  student  of  nature.  That 
must  finally  be  appraised  by  his  power  of 
detecting  beneath  the  complication  of  things 
as  they  seem  something  of  the  order  which 
rules  things  as  they  are.  Judged  by  this 
standard,  few  names  will  take  a  higher  place 
than  that  of  Hermann  von  Helmholtz. 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 

LORD  KELVIN 


iU 


A.  D.  ^O, 

1824         Born  at  Belfast,  Ireland 

1845         B.  A.,  Cambridge  university,    .    .  2i 

1846-99  Professor  of  natural  philosophy, 

university  of  Glasgow,  ....  22-75 
1857-58  Electrical    engineer    of    Atlantic 

cables, 33-34 

1865-66  Electrical    engineer    of     Atlantic 

cables;  knighted, 41-42 

1867         Treatise    on    Natural    Philosophy 

(with  Professor  Tait),     ....  43 


A.   O. 

1882-00  Mathematieal  and  Pk}fneal  Paptn, 
1884         ViaitcdAmcricm;  lectured  at  JohiM 

Uoi)kinB  univeraitv, 00 

Jl^®*  ^opM^^rturMOfulildirMeM,  .  65-70 
}f?X  President  of  the  royal  aoelety, .  .  66 
1802         Raised  to  the  peer^  ae  thitim 

Lord  Kelvin,  ....  68 

1897  and  1902  Revisited  Amcricn,  73;  76 

1907         Died  at  Largs,  Scotland,  8S 


OIR  WILLIAM  THOMSON,  first  Lord 
^  Kelvin,  celebrated  both  as  a  physicist 
and  mathematician,  was  born  at  Belfast, 
Ireland,  June  26,  1824.  His  father,  James 
Thomson,  was  a  descendant  of  a  Scottish 
farmer  who  had  settled  in  County  Down, 
Ulster,  Ireland,  and  for  many  years  was 
professor  of  mathematics  at  the  royal 
academical  institution  in  Belfast. 

William  was  one  of  seven  children  —  four 
sons  and  three  daughters.  In  1832,  when 
eight  years  of  age,  his  father  removed 
to  Glasgow  to  accept  a  professorship  in 
mathematics  at  the  university  there.  He 
received  his  early  education  from  his  father, 
at  the  age  of  ten  was  sent  to  school,  and  a  year 
or  so  later  entered  Glasgow  university.  Here 
he  soon  distinguished  himself  in  mathematics, 
mental  science,  and  the  classics,  and  in  1841 
he  went  to  St.  Peter's  college,  Cambridge. 

At  Cambridge,  as  in  Glasgow,  he  was  noted 
for  his  remarkable  enthusiasm  and  attain- 
ments, not  in  science  alone,  but  in  many 
other  departments  of  scholarship.  He  was 
placed  second  among  the  wranglers,  gained 
the  highest  of  the  mathematical  honors,  and 
received  his  degree  of  B.  A.  in  1845,  at  the 
age  of  twenty-one,  and  was  elected  fellow  of 
his  college.  In  social  and  physical  recreations 
he  participated  enthusiastically,  as  well,  and 
enjoyed  to  the  full  the  many-sided  life  of  the 
old  English  vmiversity.  He  was  president  of 
the  university  musical  society,  won  the 
Colquhoun  sculls,  and  rowed  in  his  college 
boat  when  second  in  the  Cambridge  races. 

From  Cambridge  he  went  to  Paris,  studied 
for  a  time  under  the  famous  Regnault,  and 
continued  the  valuable  original  contributions 
to  science  which  he  had  begim  at  Cambridge. 
His  early  papers  are  remarkable  and  contain 
many  germinal  ideas  developed  in  his  later 
work.  His  first  published  paper,  written  at 
the  age  of  sixteen  and  dated  Frankfort,  July, 
1840,  Glasgow,  April,  1841,  appeared  in  the 
Cambridge  Mathematical  Journal,  May,  1841. 
It  was  a  defense  and  elucidation  of  certain 


fundamental  theorems  in  Fourier's  work  on 
harmonic  analysis,  the  truth  of  which  had 
been  questioned  by  Kelland.  This  he  fol- 
lowed up  in  1842  by  a  paper  On  the  Uniform 
Motion  of  Heat  in  Homogenous  Solid  Bodiu, 
and  its  Connection  with  the  Mathematical 
Theory  of  Electricity. 

In  this  he  displayed  some  of  the  spirit  since 
recognized  as  characteristic  of  his  work. 
Pointing  out  the  analogy  between  the  flow  of 
heat  in  solid  bodies  and  the  theory  of  electric 
and  magnetic  attraction,  he  made  use  of 
known  theorems  in  heat  in  order  to  obtain 
solutions  of  problems  in  electricity  and 
magnetism.  His  results  had,  as  he  after- 
ward heard,  been  anticipated  by  others,  but 
the  method  which  he  adopted  was  entirely 
original,  and  proved  a  fruitful  conception  in 
electric  and  magnetic  problems. 

In  1846  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
natural  philosophy  in  Glasgow  university  in 
succession  to  Dr.  Meikleham.  In  the  years 
which  followed,  during  his  early  occupancy  of 
this  chair.  Lord  Kelvin  was  largely  occupied, 
in  constant  association  with  Joule,  with  the 
development  of  thermodynamics,  to  which 
not  his  least  contribution  was  the  theory  of 
the  dissipation  of  energy.  This  was  followed 
by  investigations  into  electrostatics  and  the 
theory  of  magnetism,  contact  electricity, 
thermoelectricity,  the  mechanical  energies  of 
the  solar  system,  the  calculation  of  the  tidfli, 
the  size  of  atoms,  and  vortex  motion. 

That  which,  however,  directed  popular 
attention  to  his  scientific  attainments  was  not 
so  much  these  deep  investigations  as  his  con- 
nection with  the  more  practical  problems  of 
ocean  telegraphy.  The  possibiUty  of  an 
Atlantic  cable  was,  in  the  early  'fifties  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  a  much-discussed  ques- 
tion ;  and  when  the  actual  work  of  consUuo- 
tion  began  on  the  first  cable,  in  1857-58, 
Kelvin  was  given  the  most  important  post  of 
electrical  engineer  to  the  cable  company. 
His  mathematical  investigation,  in  fact,  of 
the  conditions  governing  the  propagation  of 


416 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


signals  in  long  submarine  cables  proved  to  be 
the  most  important  contribution  t^.  the  practi- 
cal solution  of  that  problem.  He  showed  that 
the  retardation  must  be  proportional  to  the 
square  of  the  length  of  the  cable ;  and,  further, 
he  applied  the  theorems  of  Fourier  to  predict 
the  degree  of  attenuation  of  the  impulses  on 
their  arrival  at  the  distant  end.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  his  invention  of  the  mirror  galva- 
nometer^  and  later  by  the  siphon  recorder, 
which  he  used  to  insure  the  final  success  of  the 
Atlantic  cables  of  1865  and  1866,  laid  under 
his  direction.  These  proved  a  triumph  for 
his  inventive  ingenuity  no  less  than  for  his 
mathematical  skill  and  insight.  During  this 
momentous  enterprise,  his  contact  with 
nautical  matters  led  him,  also,  to  devise 
the  method  of  taking  flying  soundings,  and  to 
publish  a  set  of  tables  for  facilitating  the  use 
of  Sumner's  method  at  sea. 

After  the  Atlantic  cable,  Lord  Kelvin's  most 
popular  achievement  was  the  invention  of  the 
present  mariner's  compass.  In  1874  he 
began  to  contribute  articles  on  the  mariner's 
compass  in  Good  Words,  but  the  second  article 
did  not  appear  until  five  years  later.  In  the 
interval  he  had  been  working  at  an  improved 
compass  of  his  own.  He  has  told  us  how 
when  writing  the  first  paper  he  became  alive 
to  the  faults  of  existing  compasses,  and  set 
himself  to  produce  one  steadier  at  sea  than 
the  others,  and  to  correct  the  error  arising 
from  the  magnetism  of  the  ship.  "When 
there  seemed  a  possibility  of  finding  a  compass 
which  should  fulfill  the  conditions  of  the 
problem,"  he  writes,  in  his  Popular  Lectures 
and  Addresses,  "I  felt  it  impossible  to  com- 
placently describe  compasses  which  perform 
their  duty  ill,  or  less  well  than  might  be, 
through  not  fulfilling  these  conditions." 

He  sent  his  compass,  when  completed,  to 
Sir  George  Airy,  the  noted  British  astronomer, 
at  the  royal  observatory,  for  his  inspection, 
but  Sir  George,  after  examining  it,  shook  his 
head  and  said,  "It  won't  do."  When  Lord 
Kelvin  heard  of  this  he  merely  remarked, 
"So  much  for  the  astronomer-royal's  opin- 
ion." The  admiralty  also  rejected  the  inven- 
tion with  the  usual  rigid  intelligence  of  a 
government  department ;  but  it  was  not  long 
before  his  radical  improvements  established 
the  superiority  of  his  compass  to  all  earlier 
forms. 

As  early  as  1842  Lord  Kelvin  had  published 
the  germ  of  his  theories  about  the  age  of  the 
earth.    This  was  in  a  paper  on  the  linear 


motion  of  heat  which  appeared  in  the  Cam- 
bridge and  Dublin  Mathematical  Journal. 
This  same  subject  he  had  made  the  topic  of 
his  inaugural  lecture  in  1846,  on  taking  up  his 
professorship  at  Glasgow.  He  returned  to  it 
in  1876  as  the  theme  of  his  address  as  presi- 
dent of  the  physical  and  mathematical  section 
of  the  British  association  at  Glasgow.  To 
the  geologists  who  demanded  unhmited  time 
for  the  operation  of  these  formative  actions, 
which,  on  the  abandonment  of  catastrophic 
notions,  they  had  assumed  to  proceed  with 
constant  uniformity,  Lord  Kelvin  announced 
with  the  utmost  confidence  that  they  must 
hurry  up  their  phenomena,  since  the  age 
of  the  earth  as  a  habitable  planet,  so  far 
from  being  unlimited,  could  not  possibly 
exceed  four  hundred  millions  of  years,  and 
was  more  probably  within  twenty  millions  of 
years. 

The  proposition  was  supported  by  several 
converging  lines  of  argument.  The  surface 
temperature  could  not  be  what  it  was,  con- 
sidering the  average  conductivity  of  rocks 
and  the  gradient  of  temperatures  found  under- 
ground, if  the  cooling  process  had  proceeded 
from  an  unlimitetlly  long  anterior  date.  The 
heat  of  the  sun  itself  must  be  constantly  dis- 
sipated, and  its  temperature  drops ;  and  with 
the  cooling  of  the  sun  the  earth  also  cools. 
Its  form,  its  relation  to  centrifugal  forces,  was 
incompatible  with  the  hypothesis  of  an 
unlimited  time  since  it  was  a  fluid  mass.  The 
controversy  which  arose,  as  the  biologists  and 
geologists  endeavored  to  combat  these  argu- 
ments, lasted  for  a  quarter  of  a  century ;  and 
the  end  is  indeed  not  yet. 

In  1851  Lord  Kelvin,  impelled  by  the 
characteristic  precision  of  his  scientific  charac- 
ter, and  urged  by  the  needs  of  exact  measure- 
ment in  telegraphy,  had  already  adopted  the 
absolute  system  of  measurement  initiated  by 
Gauss,  and  extended  by  Weber.  In  Lord 
Kelvin's  hands  the  absolute  system  of  meas- 
urement, and  with  it  the  adoption  of  the 
metric  system  of  standards,  became  almost 
an  article  of  creed.  In  season  and  out  of 
season  he  urged  the  superiority  of  the  decimal 
measures  over  the  ordinary  British  ones ;  and, 
consistently,  he  strove  to  bring  all  scientific 
measurements  into  terms  of  the  fundamental 
metric  units  of  length,  mass  and  time.  More- 
over, toward  the  end  of  the  'fifties,  electric 
measurement,  in  the  hands  of  the  cable 
engineers,  had  become  much  developed,  and 
instrmnents  of  a  precision  exceeding  anything 


IN  SCIENCE  AND  DISCOVERY 


417 


then  known  in  the  physical  laboratory  had 
been  devised  for  practical  use. 

In  1861  he  secured  the  appointment  by  the 
British  association  of  a  committee  on  electri- 
cal standards,  a  committee  of  which  Wheat- 
stone,  Matthiessen,  Fleeming  Jenkin,  and, 
later,  Siemens,  Clerk  Maxwell,  Joule,  and 
Carey  Foster  were  also  members.  Year  after 
year  this  committee,  with  younger  men  added, 
produced  its  reports,  with  little  intermission, 
and  the  system  of  units  which  it  evolved  is 
practically  that  which  is  internationally 
recognized  and  of  legal  force  to-day.  The 
acceptance  and  rapid  development  of  the 
international  system,  based  on  the  centimeter, 
the  gram,  and  the  second,  is  due  to  Lord 
Kelvin  more  than  to  any  other  man. 

After  the  adoption  of  the  new  units  by  the 
international  congress  at  Paris  in  1881,  Lord 
Kelvin  devoted  much  attention  to  the  pro- 
duction of  commercial  instruments  for  the 
measurement  of  current,  potential,  and  elec- 
tric power.  Relying  confidently  on  the  right- 
ness  of  abstract  principles,  he  produced  a 
series  of  ampere  balances  for  currents  of  dif- 
ferent strengths,  thus  putting  into  the  hands 
of  practical  engineers  a  set  of  instruments  of 
remarkably  great  accuracy  and  of  remarkable 
range.  When  occupied  with  the  tides,  in  the 
'seventies,  he  had  devised  a  machine  for 
analyzing  the  harmonic  components  of  the 
periodic  tidal  variations,  the  essential  part  of 
this  harmonic  analyzer  being  a  mechanical 
integrating  device  of  globe,  disc,  and  cylinder, 
first  suggested  by  his  brother.  Professor  James 
Thomson.  It  seemed  a  bold  thing  to  apply 
such  mechanism  to  evaluate  the  integrals  in- 
dicated by  Fourier's  analysis;  but  Kelvin's 
machine  justified  the  hardihood  of  the  con- 
ception. 

When  in  the  'eighties  he  had  before  him  the 
problem  of  constructing  an  electricity  meter 
which  should  continuously  integrate  the 
varying  product  of  current  and  voltage  of  an 
electric  supply,  he  again  had  recourse  to  the 
same  integrating  mechanism.  And  here  it 
may  be  remarked  that  it  is  to  Lord  Kelvin's 
evidence  before  the  British  parliamentary 
committee,  in  1879,  that  we  owe  the  creation 
of  the  unit  of  electric  energy  —  the  value  of 
one  thousand  volt-ampere-hours.  It  was  once 
proposed  to  denominate  this  unit  —  now 
universally  employed  —  by  the  name  of  one 
"kelvin."  Lord  Kelvin's  innate  modesty, 
however,  caused  him  to  reject  the  suggestion. 
But  the  time  has  since  come  when  it  is  not  at  ] 


all  neceasary  to  incorporate  hia  name  in  auch 
fashion  into  the  international  ^yatem.  It  ia 
already  indissolubly  linked  with  ihoae  of 
Volta,  Am|)^re,  Ohm,  (k)ulomb,  Watt,  Fara- 
day, Joule,  Henr>',  Gauss,  and  othen,  aa  the 
creator  of  the  science  of  electricity. 

Of  Lord  Kelvin's  lat«r  work  on  molecular 
physics,  the  "tactics  of  a  crystal,"  the 
problems  of  lEolotropic  elaAticity  in  relation  to 
optical  as  well  as  to  magnetic  and  electric  ph»> 
nomena,  it  is  less  easy  to  speak.  The  lecturea 
which  he  gave  before  the  Johna  Hopkina 
university  at  Baltimore  in  1884  to  "hia 
twenty-one  coefficicnte "  —  the  members  of 
the  group  of  accomplished  physicists  who  then 
sat  at  his  feet  day  after  day  —  while  he  led 
them  through  the  mazes  of  the  elaatic-solid 
theory  and  the  newly  invented  spring-shell 
molecule,  remain  a  witness  to  his  extraordi- 
nary  fertility  of  intellectual  resource.  All  hia 
life  he  had  been  endeavoring  to  discover  a 
rational  mechanical  explanation  for  the  most 
recondite  phenomena  —  the  mysteries  of 
magnetism,  the  marvels  of  electricity,  the 
difficulties  of  crystallography,  the  contradic- 
tory properties  of  ether,  the  anomalies  of 
optics.  And  during  the  preceding  decade  he 
had  been  confronted  with  a  great  generaliza- 
tion which  did  not  fit  in  with  this  method  of 
intellectual  apprehension,  which  had  become 
to  him  instinctive. 

While  Kelvin  had  been  seeking  to  explain 
electricity  and  magnetism  and  light  mechanic- 
ally, or  as  mechanical  properties,  if  not  of 
matter,  at  least  of  ether,  the  celebrated 
physicist.  Clerk  Maxwell,  had  boldly  pro- 
pounded the  electromagnetic  theory  of  light, 
and  had  drawn  all  the  younger  men  after  him 
in  acceptance  of  the  wave  theory.  Lord 
Kelvin  had  never  accepted  Maxwell's  theory; 
and  his  Baltimore  Lectures,  ranging  from  the 
most  recondite  problems  of  optics  to  specular 
tions  on  crystal  rigidity  and  molecular 
dynamics,  were  both  a  criticism  and  a  proteet 
regarding  the  ultimate  dynamics  of  phjnrical 
nature. 

During  the  last  few  years  of  his  Ufe  Lord 
Kelvin  himself  revised  theae  lectures,  enrich- 
ing them  with  a  variety  of  new  materials,  and 
coordinating  the  old.  He  was  intensely 
interested  in  the  new  problems  raised  by  the 
discovery  of  radium;  and  in  its  astonishing 
property  of  continuously  emitting  heat.  He 
combated  strenuously  the  hypotheaia  that 
this  was  to  be  explained  by  a  spontaneous 
decomposition  of  the  atom ;  and  to  the 


418 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


last  he  was  seeking  for  other  explanations.  He 
brought  to  bear  on  these  things  the  same  illumi- 
nating genius,the  same  keen  analytical  instincts, 
that  he  had  shown  throughout  his  long  career. 

The  laboratory  which  the  great  professor 
created  in  Glasgow  university  (begun  in  a 
wine  cellar)  is  described  as  the  finest  of  its 
kind  in  existence  and  certainly  unique.  "  It  is 
a  repository  of  the  most  accurate  and  delicate 
instruments  of  his  own  invention  —  electro- 
meters, compasses,  sounding  machines,  watt- 
meters, and  other  apparatus  embodying  the 
perfection  of  mechanical  and  geometrical 
adjustment."  The  Kelvin  patents  are  said 
to  number  upward  of  fifty ;  and  a  large  work- 
shop in  Glasgow,  with  several  hundred  work- 
men and  a  staff  of  electricians,  is  still  employed 
in  their  manufacture.  From  these,  long 
before  the  end  of  his  long  life,  he  reaped 
an  independent  fortune,  which  enabled  him 
to  surround  himself  with  all  the  luxury  that 
wealth  and  culture,  supplemented  by  extraor- 
dinary art  and  scientific  instincts,  could  devise. 
His  house  adjoining  the  Glasgow  university 
buildings  was  one  of  the  first  to  be  lighted  in 
Great  Britain  with  incandescent  electric  lights, 
if  not  indeed  the  very  first,  and  in  contradis- 
tinction to  his  private  seat,  "Netherhall,"  at 
Largs,  used  to  be  a  verit^able  home  of  scientific 
curiosities. 

During  the  latter  part  of  his  life  Lord 
Kelvin  lived  much  in  London,  where  his 
amiable  personality,  as  well  as  his  scientific 
position,  made  him  a  very  well-known  figure. 
He  was  knighted  in  1866,  after  the  comple- 
tion of  the  Atlantic  cable.  The  peerage  —  an 
unusual  honor  in  the  annals  of  science  —  was 
conferred  on  him  in  1892,  following  his  election 
to  the  presidency  of  the  royal  society  in 
1890;  and  in  1902  he  was  made  a  member  of 
the  British  privy  covmcil.  Previously  he  cele- 
brated the  jubilee  of  his  professorship  at  Glas- 
gow, in  1896,  after  a  magnificent  service  of 
half  a  century,  and  received  from  the  French 
academy  of  sciences  the  Arago  gold  medal. 
This  jubilee  was  perhaps  the  most  memor- 
able tribute  ever  paid  to  the  scientific  achieve- 
ments of  one  man,  and  also  the  most  singular 
testimony  to  the  cohesion  of  men  of  science  all 
over  the  world.  Three  years  later  he  severed 
his  long  connection  with  the  university  and 
retired  to  his  splendid  country  seat,  "  Nether- 
hall," at  Largs,  in  Ayrshire,  on  the  river 
Kelvin,  from  which  he  took  his  title. 


I  Lord  Kelvin  paid  his  first  visit  to  the  United 
States  in  1884.  He  attended  the  meeting  of 
the  British  association  at  Montreal,  Canada, 
in  that  year,  and  subsequently  delivered  a 
course  of  lectures  before  the  Johns  Hopkins 
university,  Baltimore,  which  were  published 
under  the  title  of  the  BaUimore  Lectures.  In 
1897  he  again  visited  both  Canada  and  the 
United  States,  and  several  of  the  leading 
universities  of  both  countries.  His  last  visit 
to  this  country  was  in  1902,  five  years  before 
his  death  at  Largs,  on  December  17,  1907. 
He  was  honored  with  burial  at  Westminster 
abbey,  London. 

In  1852  he  married  Margaret,  daughter  of 
Walter  Crum,  Esquire,  F.  R.  S.  She  died  in 
1870.  Subsequently,  he  married  a  daughter 
of  C.  R.  Blandy  of  Madeira,  who  shared 
the  many  scientific  and  social  honors  which 
his  later  career  brought,  and  survived  him  at 
his  death. 

His  chief  publications  were  a  Treatise  on 
Natural  Philosophy,  which  he  wrote  in 
conjunction  with  Professor  P.  G.  Tait,  and 
issued  in  1867 ;  Mathematical  and  Physical 
Papers,  published  1882-90;  Popular  Lectures 
and  Addresses,  1889-94 ;  Molecular  Tactics  of 
a  Crystal,  1894;  and  the  BaUimore  Lectures, 
delivered  in  1884,  in  the  later  revision  of 
which  he  practically  abandoned  his  famous 
vortex  theory  of  atoms. 

The  judgment  of  the  future  will  probably 
rank  Lord  Kelvin,  with  Helmholtz,  as  one  of 
the  greatest  scientific  intellects  of  the  latter 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Indeed,  to 
two  generations,  if  not  three,  of  scientific  men 
his  work,  his  presence,  his  mathematical 
genius,  his  enthusiastic  faith  in  first  principles, 
and  his  unfailing  gentle  courtesy  were  an 
inspiration  and  a  perpetual  stimulus.  For 
nearly  sixty  years  he  strove  earnestly, 
patiently,  incessantly  and  successfully  to 
extend  our  knowledge  of  nature,  and  to  apply 
it  in  the  service  of  man.  Besides  having  the 
power  to  apply  theory,  he  had  the  instinct  to 
make  the  application  commercially  practi- 
cable. Thus  one  could  always  see  in  his  case 
a  three-fold  process  at  work ;  brilliant  theory, 
application  of  theory,  and  the  business-Hke 
capacity  to  secure  that  the  invention  should 
be  of  some  use  to  "the  man  in  the  street." 
There  was,  possibly,  no  one  in  whom  these 
qualities  were  more  manifestly  mingled  than 
in  Lord  Kelvin. 


ALEXANDER 


B.  C. 

356 
342 
338 
336 

335 

334 
333 


Bom  at  Pella,  Macedonia,     ... 

Placed  under  Aristotle,      ....  14 

In  battle  of  Chseronea, 18 

Succeeded   his   father  as  king  of 

Macedon 20 

Subdued   the   Greek  states;     de- 
stroyed Thebes, 21 

Led  the  Greeks  against  Persia,     .  22 

Defeated  Darius  at  Issus,      ...  23 


THE  GREAT 

B.  C.  ^Q, 

332  Captured  Tyre;  conquered Egrpt; 

foundiHl  Alexandria M 

331  Defeated  Dariua 2S 

330-329  Conquered   Media,   ParthU,   mad 

Bactria, 90-37 

327-324  Invaded  India, »-n 

323  Returned  to  Babylon;    projected 

fresh  conquests, SS 

323  Died  at  Babylon St 


ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT,  or  Alex- 
"**•  ANDER  III.,  of  Macedon,  one  of  the 
greatest  military  commanders  of  history,  was 
born  at  Pella,  the  capital  of  Macedonia,  in 
the  autumn  of  356  B.  C.  He  was  the  son  of 
King  Phihp  of  Macedon,  and  Olympias, 
daughter  of  Neoptolemus  of  Epirus,  who 
claimed  descent  from  Achilles.  Endowed  by 
nature  with  a  happy  genius,  he  early  dis- 
played his  great  character.  Philip's  tri- 
lunphs  saddened  him.  On  one  occasion  he 
exclaimed :  "My  father  will  leave  nothing  for 
me  to  do." 

His  education  was  committed  first  to 
Leonidas,  a  maternal  relation,  then  to  Lysim- 
achus,  and,  about  342  B.  C,  to  Aristotle, 
This  great  philosopher  withdrew  him  to  a 
distance  from  the  court,  and  instructed  him 
in  every  branch  of  human  learning,  especially 
in  what  relates  to  the  art  of  government, 
while  at  the  same  time  he  disciplined  and 
invigorated  his  body  by  g3annastic  exercises. 
As  Macedon  was  surrounded  by  dangerous 
neighbors,  Aristotle  was  anxious  to  inspire 
his  pupil  with  military  ardor,  and  with  this 
in  view  recommended  him  to  study  Homer's 
Iliad,  a  revision  of  which  he  himself  under- 
took for  his  use.  Alexander  was  very  fond 
of  the  Iliad,  and  especially  of  the  good  char- 
acter of  Achilles.  He  always  remained  a 
lover  of  books  and  of  knowledge,  and  in  the 
course  of  his  conquests,  even,  he  is  said  to 
have  made  collections  of  natural  history  for 
the  studies  of  Aristotle. 

Alexander  was  sixteen  years  old  when  his 
father  marched  against  Byzantium,  and  left  I 


the  government  in  his  son's  hands  during  his 
absence.  Two  years  afterward  Alexander 
displayed  singular  courage  at  the  battle  of 
Chaeronea,  338  B.  C,  where  he  overthrew  the 
sacred  band  of  the  Thebans,  and  the  Mace- 
donian supremacy  in  Greece  was  thereby 
established.  "My  son,"  said  Philip,  as  he 
embraced  him  after  the  conflict,  "seek  for 
thyself  another  kingdom,  for  that  which  I 
leave  is  too  small  for  thee."  The  father  and 
son  quarreled,  however,  when  the  former  repu- 
diated GljTnpias.  Alexander  took  part  with 
his  mother,  and  fled,  to  escape  his  father's 
vengeance,  to  Epirus;  but  receiving  his 
pardon  soon  afterward,  he  returned,  and 
accompanied  him  in  an  expedition  against  the 
Triballi,  when  he  saved  his  life  on  the  field. 

The  greatest  design  of  Philip  was  to  conduct 
an  expedition  of  all  the  Greeks,  under  his  own 
leadership,  against  the  luxurious  deqx)tism 
of  Persia,  which  had  thrown  ita  portentout 
shadow  over  Hellas.  His  ambition  was  to 
avenge  the  invasion  of  the  famous  Persua 
leaders,  Darius  and  Xerxes  —  the  victories  of 
Marathon  and  Salamis  and  Mycale  must  be 
followed  by  Greek  victories  in  the  very  heart 
of  the  invaders'  own  empire,  so  that  the 
culture  and  civilization  of  the  Greeks  might 
thus  be  made  safe  from  the  fear  and  repetition 
of  like  perils. 

Accordingly,  Philip  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  all  the  Greek,  or  Hdlenic, 
forces,  and  had  completed  his  preparatioiM 
for  the  Persian  invasion,  when  he  was  anaM- 
nated.  Alexander  ascended  the  throne  in 
336  B.  C,  and   immediately  punished  his 


420 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


father's  murderers.  He  then  went  into  the 
Peloponnesus,  and,  in  a  general  assembly  of 
the  Greeks,  was  appointed  to  succeed  his 
father  in  command  of  the  forces  against 
Persia. 

On  his  return  to  Macedon,  he  found  the 
lUyrians  and  TribaUi  up  in  arms,  whereupon 
he  marched  against  them,  forced  his  way 
through  Thrace,  and  was  everywhere  vic- 
torious. But  now  the  Thebans  had  been 
induced,  by  a  report  of  his  death,  to  take  up 
arms,  and  the  Athenians,  stimulated  by  the 
eloquence  of  Demosthenes,  were  preparing  to 
join  them.  To  prevent  this  coalition,  Alex- 
ander marched  against  Thebes  in  335  B.  C, 
which,  refusing  to  surrender,  was  conquered, 
and  razed  to  the  ground ;  six  thousand  of  the 
inhabitants  were  slain,  and  thirty  thousand 
sold  into  slavery,  the  house  and  family  of 
the  poet,  Pindar,  alone  being  spared.  This; 
severity  struck  terror  into  all  Greece.  The ' 
Athenians  were  treated  with  more  leniency, 
Alexander  only  requiring  of  them  the  banish-  \ 
ment  of  Charidemus,  who  had  been  most 
bitter  in  his  invectives  against  him. 

Alexander,  having  appointed  Antipater  his 
deputy  in  Europe,  now  prepared  to  prosecute 
the  war  with  Persia.  He  crossed  the  Helles- 
pont in  the  spring  of  334  B.  C,  with  thirty 
thousand  foot  and  five  thousand  horse, 
attacked  the  Persian  satraps  at  the  river 
Granicus,  and  gained  a  complete  victory, 
overthrowing  the  son-in-law  of  Darius  with 
his  own  lance.  The  only  real  resistance  the 
Macedonians  met  with  was  from  the  Greek 
auxiliaries  of  the  Persians,  who  were  mar- 
shaled in  phalanxes  under  the  command  of 
Memnon  of  Rhodes,  but  finally  they  were  all 
slain  except  two  thousand,  who  were  taken 
prisoners.  Alexander  celebrated  the  obse- 
quies of  his  fallen  warriors  in  a  splendid 
manner,  and  bestowed  many  privileges  on 
their  relations.  Most  of  the  cities  of  Asia 
Minor,  Sardis  not  excepted,  opened  their 
gates  to  the  conqueror,  nor  did  Miletus  or 
Halicarnassus  offer  longer  resistance. 

Alexander  now  restored  democracy  in  all 
the  Greek  cities,  and  proceeded  to  the  con- 
quest of  Lycia,  Ionia,  Caria,  Pamphylia,  and 
Cappadocia,  cutting  the  Gordian  knot  with 
his  sword  as  he  passed  through  Gordiimi. 
His  career  was  checked  for  a  time  by  a  dan- 
gerous illness,  brought  on  by  bathing  in  the 
Cydnus.  On  this  occasion  he  received  a 
letter  from  Parmenio,  insinuating  that  Philip, 
his  physician,  intended  to  poison  him,  having 


been  bribed  by  Darius.  Alexander  handed 
the  letter  to  Philip,  and  at  the  same  time 
swallowed  the  draught  which  had  been  pre- 
pared for  him. 

As  soon  as  he  recovered  and  had  been 
joined  by  reinforcements  from  Macedon,  he 
advanced  toward  the  defiles  of  Cilicia,  in 
which  Darius  had  stationed  himself  with  an 
army  of  six  hundred  thousand  men.  He 
arrived  in  November,  333  B.  C,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Lssus,  where  a  famous  battle 
took  place  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Persians. 
The  disorderly  masses  of  the  Persians  were 
thrown  into  confusion  by  the  charge  of  the 
Macedonians,  and  fled  in  terror.  On  the  left 
wing,  thirty  thousand  Greeks  in  the  pay  of 
the  Persian  king  held  out  longer,  but  they, 
too,  were  at  length  compelled  to  yield.  All 
the  treasures  as  well  as  the  family  of  Darius 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror,  who 
treated  the  latter  with  the  greatest  mag- 
nanimity. 

The  king,  who  fled  toward  the  Euphrates, 
twice  made  overtures  of  peace,  which  Alex- 
ander haughtily  refused,  saying  that  Darius 
must  regard  him  as  the  ruler  of  Asia,  and  the 
lord  of  all  his  people.  One  of  the  conditions 
of  the  second  overture  was  that  Alexander 
should  possess  all  Asia  west  of  the  Euphrates. 
On  hearing  this  his  general,  Parmenio, 
exclaimed:  "I  would  do  it,  if  I  were  Alex- 
ander." "So  would  I,"  repUed  the  monarch, 
"if  I  were  Parmenio." 

The  victory  at  lssus  opened  the  whole 
country  to  the  Macedonians,  and  decided  the 
fate  of  the  Persian  empire.  Alexander  now 
turned  toward  Syria  and  Phoenicia,  to  cut 
off  Darius'  escape  by  sea.  He  occupied 
Damascus,  where  he  found  princely  treasures, 
and  secured  to  himself  all  the  cities  along 
the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  Tyre,  con- 
fident in  its  strong  position,  resisted  him,  but 
was  conquered  and  destroyed,  after  seven 
months  of  incredible  exertion,  in  332  B.  C. 

Thence  Alexander  marched  victoriously 
through  Palestine,  where  all  the  cities  sub- 
mitted to  him  except  Gaza,  which  shared  the 
same  fate  as  Tyre.  The  story  told  by 
Josephus  that,  on  his  way  to  Egypt,  he 
visited  Jerusalem  is  not  confirmed  by  other 
historians.  Egypt,  weary  of  the  Persian 
yoke,  welcomed  him  as  a  deliverer.  In 
order  to  strengthen  his  dominion  here,  he 
restored  all  the  old  customs  and  religious 
institutions  of  the  country,  and  in  the  5'^ear 
332  B.  C.  founded  Alexandria,  which  became 


IN  POLITICS 


m. 


one  of  the  first  cities  of  ancient  times. 
Thence  he  marched  through  the  Libyan 
desert,  in  order  to  consult  the  oracle  of  Jupiter 
Ammon,  whose  priest  saluted  him  as  a  son  of 
Jove. 

Meanwhile,  Darius  had  assembled  another 
army,  and  at  the  return  of  spring  Alexander 
went  against  him  in  Assyria.  A  battle 
ensued  in  October,  331  B.  C,  on  the  plains 
of  Arbela,  or  rather  Gaugamela,  for  Arbela, 
the  point  to  which  Alexander  pursued  the 
Persians,  is  fifty  miles  from  the  scene  of  the 
fight.  Notwithstanding  the  immense  superi- 
ority of  his  adversary,  who  had  an  army  said 
to  have  amounted  to  more  than  one  million 
men,  Alexander  was  not  for  a  moment  doubt- 
ful of  victory.  Heading  the  cavalry  himself, 
he  rushed  on  the  Persians,  and  put  them  to 
flight;  but,  as  soon  as  he  had  entirely  dis- 
persed them,  he  hastened  to  the  assistance  of 
his  left  wing,  which,  in  the  meantime,  had 
been  sorely  pressed.  He  was  anxious  to 
make  a  prisoner  of  the  Persian  king  himself, 
but  the  latter  escaped  by  flight  on  horseback 
to  Ecbatana  (Hamadan),  in  Media,  leaving 
his  baggage  and  all  his  treasures  a  prey  to  the 
conqueror.  During  the  following  two  years 
Media,  Parthia,  and  Bactria  had  fallen  before 
him. 

Alexander,  as  the  conqueror  of  Asia,  now 
assumed  the  pomp  and  splendor  of  an  Eastern 
despot,  and,  proceeding  to  Babylon,  Susa, 
and  Persepolis,  was  received  by  the  inhabit- 
ants as  their  undoubted  sovereign.  His 
marvelous  successes  began  to  dazzle  his  own 
judgment,  and  to  inflame  his  passions.  He 
became  a  slave  to  debauchery,  and  his 
caprices  were  as  cruel  as  they  were  ungrateful. 
In  a  fit  of  drimkenness,  and  at  the  instigation 
of  Thais,  an  Athenian  courtesan,  he  set  fire 
to  Persepolis,  the  wonder  of  the  world,  and 
reduced  it  to  a  heap  of  ashes ;  then,  ashamed 
of  his  deed,  he  set  out  with  his  cavalry  to 
pursue  Darius.  Learning  that  Bessus,  the 
satrap  of  Bactriana,  held  the  king  a  prisoner, 
he  hastened  his  march  in  the  hope  of  saving 
him,  but  he  foutfd  him  mortally  wounded  on 
the  frontiers  of  that  country,  330  B.  C. 

He  mourned  over  his  unfortunate  enemy, 
and  caused  his  body  to  be  buried  with  all  the 
usual  rites  observed  in  Persia ;  but  he  pursued 
Bessus,  who  himself  aspired  to  the  throne, 
through  Hyrcania,  Iran,  Bactriana,  over  the 
Oxus  to  Sogdiana  (now  Bokhara),  whose 
satrap,  Spitamenes,  surrendered  Bessus  to 
him.    Having    discovered    a    conspiracy    in 


which  the  son  of  Pannenio  wu  implicated, 
he  put  both  father  and  son  to  death,  thm^ 
Pannenio  himself  was  innooeat  of  all  knowl- 
edge   of    the    affair.    This   cruel    injuitiee 

excited  universal  displeasure. 

In  329  B.  C.  he  penetrated  to  the  furtheek 
known  limits  of  northern  Asia,  and  over- 
threw  the  Scythians  on  the  banks  of  the 
Jaxartes.  In  the  following  year  he  subdued 
the  whole  of  Sogdiana,  and  married  Ronon, 
whom  he  had  taken  prisoner.  She  wmm  the 
daughter  of  Oxyartes,  one  of  the  enemy's 
captains,  and  was  said  to  be  the  handsomest 
of  the  virgins  of  Asia.  A  new  conspinejr 
broke  out  against  Alexander,  at  the  head  of 
which  were  Hermolaus  and  Callisthenes,  a 
pupil  of  Aristotle,  which  occasioned  the 
death  of  many  of  the  culprits ;  while  Oallie- 
thenes  himself  was  mutilated,  and  carried 
about  in  an  iron  cage  through  the  army, 
until  some  one  put  an  end  to  his  sufferings 
by  poison. 

In  the  year  327  B.  C.  Alexander  proceeded 
to  the  conquest  of  India,  then  known  only 
by  name.  He  crossed  the  Indus  near  to  the 
modern  Attock,  and  pursued  his  way  under 
the  guidance  of  a  native  prince  to  the  Hydas- 
pes  (modern  Jhelum),  where  he  was  opposed 
by  Porus,  another  native  prince,  whom  he 
overthrew  after  a  bloody  contest.  Thenoe 
he  marched  as  lord  of  the  country  throu^ 
that  part  of  India  which  is  now  called  the 
Punjab,  establishing  Greek  colonies.  He 
then  wished  to  advance  to  the  Ganges  and 
conquer  the  whole  of  India,  but  the  general 
murmuring  of  his  troops  obliged  him,  at  the 
Hyphasis  (modem  Sutlej),  to  commence  hie 
retreat. 

Returning  to  the  Hydaspes,  he  there  built 
a  fleet  and  sailed  down  the  river,  receiving, 
as  he  proceeded,  the  submission  of  the  inhab- 
itants on  either  side.  He  then  marched 
through  the  deserts  of  Gedroeia  into  Persia, 
the  hardships  of  this  march  costing  him 
enormous  losses.  Meanwhile,  his  friend, 
Nearchus,  who  was  made  admiral  of  the 
fleet,  had  successfully  accomplished  the 
hazardous  voyage  from  the  Indus  up  the 
Persian  gulf  to  the  Euphrates. 

They  met  again  at  Susa,  where  rest  was 
to  be  taken,  and  some  important  measures 
to  be  adopted  with  a  view  to  as  complete  a 
union  as  possible  of  the  Greek  and  Asiatic 
races.  One  of  these  measures  was  the  inter- 
marriage of  the  Macedonian  soldiers  with 
Asiatic  women.    A  great  festival  was  held, 


422 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


in  which  Alexander  set  the  example  by 
marrying  Statira,  daughter  of  Darius,  his 
principal  officers  taking  as  their  wives  noble 
Persian  and  Median  ladies.  Ten  thousand 
private  soldiers  followed  these  high  examples. 

Susa  witnessed,  also,  another  astonishing 
spectacle  of  a  very  different  kind  —  the  volun- 
tary death  of  the  Indian  philosopher,  Calanus, 
by  burning  on  a  funeral  pile.  He  was  past 
seventy,  and,  being  seized  with  illness  for  the 
first  time,  chose  to  die  rather  than  prolong 
a  useless  life  by  artificial  means. 

Alexander  had  now  shortly  to  deal  with 
serious  discontents  among  his  troops.  A 
mutiny  broke  out,  which  by  remorseless 
resolution  he  quelled,  and  ten  thousand 
veterans  were  discharged.  After  this  he 
marched  to  Ecbatana,  where  his  special 
friend,  Hephaestion,  died;  and  in  the  spring 
of  323  B.  C.  he  returned  to  Babylon,  which 
was  to  be  the  capital  of  his  vast  empire.  He 
had  now  attained  the  climax  of  his  glory; 
but  there  were  signs  that  he  had  not  passed 
unharmed  through  the  ordeal  of  success. 
His  grief  over  the  death  of  Hephaestion  was 
carried  to  a  wild  excess;  and  the  mourning 
and  funeral  ceremonies  were  on  a  scale  of 
stupendous  extravagance.  For  himself  he 
now  claimed  divine  honors,  and  they  were 
conceded.  But  energy  and  activity  did  not 
fail.  His  imagination  was  busy  with  vast 
new  projects,  and  his  subjects  were  prepar- 
ing to  carry  them  out.  He  was  contem- 
plating, and  would  doubtless  have  effected, 
the  conquest  of  Carthage  and  of  Italy, 
where  Rome  had  just  entered  on  the  Samnite 
war.  He  was  gay  at  banquets  and  drank 
to  excess.  Meanwhile,  there  were  fluttering 
about  him  presages  and  omens  that  gave  him 
pause;  fever  laid  its  hand  upon  him.  On 
the  twentieth  day  of  his  illness  he  ordered 
his  bed  to  be  moved  near  the  great  bath. 
Here  he  talked  to  his  generals  about  vacan- 
cies in  the  armies,  desiring  them  to  be  filled 
with  experienced  officers.  On  the  twenty- 
fourth  day  he  was  much  worse,  but  was 
carried  to  assist  at  the  sacrifice.  On  the 
twenty-eighth,  in  the  year  323  B.  C,  he  died ; 
and  shortly  thereafter  his  body  was  deposited 
in  a  golden  coffin  at  Alexandria,  by  Ptolemaeus. 

The  life  of  Alexander  forms  an  important 
epoch  in  the  history  of  mankind,  and  marks 
the  zenith  of  Macedonian  power.  His  life 
reached  scarcely  thirty-three  years.  His  reign 
was  less  than  thirteen.  Such  achievements 
as  his  in  so  brief  a  space  are  unparalleled. 


Before  the  Macedonian  era,  Greece,  so  far 
from  doing  anything  toward  incorporating 
the  ancient  world,  had  utterly  failed  in  the 
necessary  preliminary  of  unifying  herself. 
Nay,  she  had  become  more  and  more  incap- 
able of  it ;  for  if  it  had  ever  been  possible  it 
was  at  the  moment  of  the  repulse  of  Xerxes. 
After  Epaminondas,  every  Greek  community 
was  stale  and  used  up.  Yet  never  was  Greece 
more  military.  Only,  instead  of  serving  as 
citizen  soldiers,  the  warlike  spirits  were 
mercenaries  roaming  over  Greece  and  Asia, 
and  ready  to  fight  for  any  one  who  would 
pay  them.  It  was  time  that  the  task  of 
incorporation  should  be  taken  up  from 
without. 

The  Macedonians  were  of  the  same  stock 
as  the  Greeks.  Their  language  probably  did 
not  differ  from  Greek  more  than  French  does 
from  Italian.  Their  manners  and  institutions 
were  simply  those  of  the  Homeric  age.  In 
short,  they  were  just  backward  Greeks.  Yet 
in  the  eyes  of  their  vain  and  arrogant  kins- 
men they  were  foreigners  speaking  an  out- 

!  landish  jargon,  and  therefore  to  be  classed 

i  with  Persians  and  Thracians  as  outside  the 
pale  of  civilization.  But  they  only  needed 
access  to  the  sea,  from  which  they  had  been 

j  at  first  cut  off  by  a  coast-fringe  of  Greek 
settlements,  to  make  a  rapid  rise  in  civiliza- 
tion; moreover,  they  had  two  qualifications 
for  empire  which  no  Greek  state  possessed  — 
incontestable  superiority  in  strength  and 
stable  political  institutions. 

If  the  Greeks  could  have  purged  themselves 
of  their  paltry  conceit  and  dropped  their 
petty  conception  of  nationality,  they  might 
have  settled  down  into  a  confederacy  under 
the  leadership  of  Macedon,  perhaps  have 
escaped  the  more  alien  domination  of  Rome 
later,  and  thereby  have  changed  the  entire 
course  of  European  history. 

Alexander,  both  by  arms  and  policy, 
brought  for  the  first  time  the  East  and  the 
West  into  close  contact.  He  acted  on  the 
only  principle  by  which  races  can  be  moulded 
together,  and  in  the  perception  of  harmony 
in  diversity  he  showed  that  he  had  not  sat 

I  at  the  feet  of  Aristotle  in  vain.  Unlike  other 
Asiatic  conquerors,  his  progress  was  marked 
by  much  more  than  devastation  and  ruin; 
at  every  step  of  his  coxirse  the  Greek  language 
and  civilization  took  root  and  flourished. 

His  empire,  it  is  true,  was  broken  up.  It 
was  divided  by  his  generals  into  several 
kingdoms,  the  chief  of  which,  Macedon,  Syria, 


426 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


married  Caius  Marius,  the  celebrated  Roman 
consul. 

At  an  early  age  Caesar  entered  upon  the 
active  duties  of  a  Roman  citizen.  The  two 
circumstances  which  are  said  to  have  brought 
him  early  into  sympathy  with  the  Roman 
democracy,  and  against  a  republican  oli- 
garchy, were,  first,  the  marriage  of  his  aunt 
to  Marius,  and,  second,  his  own  marriage  — 
when  but  seventeen  —  to  Cornelia,  daughter 
of  Lucius  Cinna,  leader  of  the  people. 

This  connection  exposed  him  to  the  greatest 
danger.  His  father-in-law  was  the  deadly 
enemy  of  Sulla,  and  the  latter  wreaked  on  the 
head  of  Caesar  the  vengeance  which  circum- 
stances prevented  him  from  inflicting  upon 
the  heads  of  the  opposing  faction.  When 
ordered  to  put  away  his  wife,  Caesar  refused 
to  obey.  His  wife's  fortune  was  confiscated, 
he  was  deprived  of  the  office  of  priest  in  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Flamens,  and  escaped  death 
only  through  what  Sulla  deemed  the  weak 
intercession  of  his  enemies.  That  relentless 
despot  saw  and  foretold  the  greatness  which 
was  destined  to  overshadow  many  nations, 
and  one  day  to  become  fatal  to  its  possessor. 

The  overthrow  of  the  aristocratic  party 
seems  from  the  first  to  have  been  the  settled 
purpose  of  Caesar.  He  saw  that  no  permanent 
government  was  possible  while  the  rule  of 
Rome  was  in  the  hands  of  alternate  factions, 
whose  equal  atrocities  more  than  compen- 
sated for  the  absence  of  the  foreign  invader. 
The  existing  virtue  was  in  all  cases  sought  to 
be  corrupted  or  destroyed;  the  genius  of 
youth  was  either  won  over  to  the  fidvocacy  of 
party,  or  ruthlessly  trodden  out  of  sight. 
Patriotism  was  unknown,  purity  of  soul 
impossible,  except  in  the  instances  of  lowly 
men.  If  not  beyond  the  province  of  human 
inquiry,  it  is  yet  beyond  its  reach  to  ascer- 
tain how  far  Caesar  was  guided  by  loftier 
motives,  and  what  portion  of  his  conduct  was 
owing  to  the  baser  impulses  of  selfish  ambition. 

The  interference  of  Sulla  w^as  of  much 
advantage  to  Caesar,  as  it  removed  him  from 
the  sphere  of  action  at  a  time  when  his  exer- 
tions would  have  been  fruitless,  and  gave  him 
leisure  for  cultivating  those  powers  of  mind 
which  he  brought  into  effective  play  in  subse- 
quent years.  With  the  exception  of  a  single 
campaign  against  the  king  of  Bithynia  in 
81  B.  C.  —  in  which  he  took  part  —  Caesar  had 
no  opportunity  to  distinguish  himself  in  arms 
during  the  flower  of  his  youth. 

On  his  return  to  Rome  on  the  death  of 


Sulla,  78  B.  C,  he  found  the  popular  party  in 
a  state  of  great  ferment,  and  anxious  to 
regain  what  it  had  lost  under  the  vigorous 
despotism  of  the  aristocratic  dictator.  Caesar, 
however,  took  no  part  in  the  attempts  of 
Lepidus  to  overthrow  the  oligarchy;  but  he 
showed  his  political  leanings  by  prosecuting, 
in  77  B.  C,  Cornelius  Dolabella  —  son-in-law 
of  Cicero,  and  a  great  partisan  of  Sulla  —  for 
extortion  in  his  province  of  Macedonia.  To 
improve  his  eloquence,  he  went  to  Rhodes  to 
study  under  the  rhetorician,  Apollonius  Molo. 

In  74  B.  C.  Caesar  returned  to  Rome,  where 
he  had  been  elected  pontifex,  and  for  the 
first  time  threw  himself  earnestly  into  public 
life.  In  the  year  70  B.  C.  he  first  attached 
himself  to  Pompey,  whose  political  actions  at 
this  time  were  of  a  decidedly  democratic 
character.  In  68  B.  C.  he  obtained  a  quaes- 
torship  in  Spain,  and  during  the  same  year  his 
wife  CorneUa  died.  On  his  return  to  Rome  in 
67  B.  C.  he  married  Pompeia,  a  relative  of 
Pompey,  with  whom  he  was  daily  becoming 
more  intimate.  In  65  B.  C.  he  entered  ujxjn 
the  office  of  curile  aedile,  and  lavished  vast 
sums  of  money  on  games  and  public  build- 
ings, by  which  he  increased  his  already  great 
popularity.  For  the  next  few  years  Ca;sar 
is  found  steadily  skirmishing  on  the  popular 
side.  In  63  B.  C.  he  was  elected  pontifex 
maximus,  and  shortly  after,  praetor.  During 
the  same  year  occurred  the  famous  debate  on 
the  CatiUne  conspiracy,  in  which  the  aristo- 
cratic party  vainly  endeavored  to  persuade 
the  consul,  Cicero,  to  include  Caesar  in  the  list 
of  conspirators.  In  62  B.  C.  Pompey 
returned  from  the  East,  and  disbanded  his 
army.  Next  year  Caesar  obtained  the  prov- 
ince of  Hispania  Ulterior. 

His  career  in  Spain  was  brilliant  and  deci- 
sive, and  on  his  return  he  was  elected  consul, 
along  with  M.  Calpurnius  Bibulus.  Shortly 
before  the  passing  of  the  agrarian  law  —  in 

59  B.  C. —  Caesar,  with  rare  tact  and  sagacity, 
had  reconciled  the  two  most  powerful  men  in 
Rome,  Pompey  and  Crassus,  who  were  then  at 
variance,  and  had  formed  an  alliance  with  them, 
known   in   history  as   the  first  triumvirate, 

60  B.  C.  Both  of  these  distinguished  men 
aided  him  in  carrying  his  agrarian  law;  and 
to  strengthen  still  further  the  imion  which  had 
been  formed,  he  gave  Pompey  his  daughter 
Julia  in  marriage,  though  she  had  been 
promised  to  Marcus  Brutus,  while  he  himself 
married  Calpumia,  daughter  of  L.  Piso,  his 
successor  in  the  consulship. 


IN  POLITICS 


127 


On  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office 
Caesar  then  obtained  for  himself,  by  the  popu- 
lar vote,  the  province  of  Gallia  Cisalpina  and 
lllyricum  for  five  years,  to  which  the  senate 
added  —  to  prevent  the  popular  assembly 
from  doing  so  —  the  province  of  Gallia  Trans- 
alpina.  Nothing  could  have  been  more 
favorable  for  CjEsar's  aims.  He  had  now  an 
opportunity  of  developing  his  extraordinary 
military  genius,  and  of  gathering  round  him 
an  army  of  veterans,  whom  perpetual  victory 
should  inspire  with  thorough  soldierly  fidelity 
and  devotion  to  his  person.  This  was  the 
very  thing  he  wanted  to  give  him  a  reputation 
equal  to  that  of  his  coadjutors,  Pompey  and 
Crassus,  whom,  in  genius,  he  far  surpassed. 
Leaving,  therefore,  the  political  factions  at 
Rome  to  exhaust  themselves  in  petty  strifes, 
in  58  B.  C,  after  the  banishment  of  Cicero,  he 
repaired  to  his  provinces,  and  during  the  next 
nine  years  conducted  those  splendid  cam- 
paigns in  Gaul,  by  which,  had  he  done  nothing 
else,  he  would  have  "built  himself  an  ever- 
lasting name." 

Ceesar's  first  campaign  was  against  the 
Helvetii,  whom  he  totally  defeated  near 
Bibracte.  Out  of  three  hundred  sixty-eight 
thousand  only  one  hundred  ten  thousand 
remained.  These  were  commanded  by  Caesar 
to  return  home  and  cultivate  their  lands. 
The  eyes  of  the  Gauls  were  now  turned  upon 
the  new  conqueror.  His  help  was  solicited, 
and  this  involved  Csesar  in  a  second  war 
with  a  German  prince,  named  Ariovistus, 
who  was  utterly  overthrown.  Having  in  the 
course  of  one  campaign  successfully  concluded 
two  important  wars,  he  led  his  troops  into 
winter  quarters. 

Next  year  —  57  B.  C. —  occurred  the  Belgic 
war,  in  which  Caesar  successively  routed  the 
Suessiones,  Bellovaci,  Ambiani,  and  Nervii, 
who,  alarmed  at  the  progress  of  the  Roman 
arms,  had  entered  into  an  alliance  with  each 
other  against  the  invaders.  When  the  senate 
received  Caesar's  official  despatches,  it  decreed 
a  thanksgiving  qf  fifteen  days  —  an  honor 
never  previously  granted  to  any  other  general. 
During  the  winter  and  the  spring  following, 
Caesar  stayed  at  Lucca ;  and,  after  spending 
large  sums  of  money  in  hospitality,  and  in 
other  less  praiseworthy  purposes,  he  departed 
for  Gaul,  where  the  flames  of  war  had  burst 
out  in  the  northwest.  The  Veneti,  a  mari- 
time people  of  Brittany,  were  the  chief  insti- 
gators of  the  insurrection.  Caesar's  plans 
were  laid  with  consunmiate  skill,  and  were 


crowned  with  the  most  spiendid  succeas. 
The  Veneti  were  totally  defeated,  and  most 
of  the  other  Gallic  tribes  were  either  diecked 
or  sulxlued.  Casar  wintered  in  the  country 
of  the  Aulerci  and  Lexovii  (Normandy),  hav- 
ing, in  the  course  of  three  campaigns,  con- 
quered the  whole  of  Gaul. 

In  the  year  55  B.  C.  Crassus  went  to  Syria, 
and  Pompey  to  Spain,  while  Caisar's  pro- 
vincial government  was  prolonged  for  five 
years.  He  now  imdertook  a  fourth  campaign 
against  two  German  tribes  which  were  about 
to  enter  Gaul.  He  was  again  successful ;  and, 
pursuing  the  fleeing  enemy  across  the  Rhine, 
spent  eighteen  days  in  plundering  the  district. 
He  next  invaded  Britain,  about  the  autumn ; 
but,  after  a  brief  stay  in  the  island,  returned 
to  Gaul.  The  Roman  senate,  astonished  at 
his  hardihood  and  his  successes  in  regions 
where  no  Roman  army  had  ever  been  before, 
accorded  him  a  public  thank^ving  of  twenty 
days.  In  54  B.  C.  Ca»sar  opened  his  fifth 
campaign  by  a  second  invasion  of  Britain. 
On  his  return  to  Gaul,  he  was  compelled  — 
on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  corn,  arising 
from  drought  —  to  winter  his  army  in  divi- 
sions. This  naturally  aroused  the  hopes  of 
the  Gauls,  who  thought  the  time  had  come 
for  recovering  their  independence.  An  insur- 
rection broke  out  in  the  northeast  of  Gaul, 
which  was  at  first  partially  successful,  but 
was  ultimately  crushed.  Caesar  resolved  to 
winter  at  Samarobriva  (Amiens),  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  malcontents. 

In  53  B.  C.  Caesar  commenced  his  sixth 
campaign.  It  was  chiefly  occupied  in  crush- 
ing a  second  insurrection  of  the  Gauls. 
He  now  returned  to  northern  Italy,  that  he 
might  be  able  to  communicate  more  easily 
and  securely  with  his  friends  at  Rome.  That 
city  was  gradually  becoming  more  anarchic, 
the  evils  of  weak  government  more  apparent ; 
the  hour  for  decisive  action  seemed  to  be 
approaching,  and  doubtless  Ca»ar's  heart 
beat  with  expectation  of  the  mighty  future, 
when  all  at  once  the  plot  that  fate  was  weaving 
in  his  favor  appeared  to  be  completely 
marred  by  a  tremendous  rebellion  over  the 
whole  of  Gaul,  headed  by  a  young  warrior 
named  Vercingetorix. 

It  was  in  the  dead  of  winter  when  the  news 
came  to  Caesar,  who  instantly  saw  that  at  all 
hazards  he  must  preserve  his  fame  and  his 
army.  Leaving  Pompey  to  succeed  at  Rome, 
he  hurried,  therefore,  to  meet  the  insur- 
gent hordes.     His  great  diflficulty  was   to 


428 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


collect  his  scattered  legions.  First  crossing, 
with  some  Cisalpine  and  provincial  troops, 
the  mountains  of  Auvergne,  though  they  lay 
six  feet  in  snow,  he  suddenly  appeared  among 
the  Arvemi,  who,  terrified  at  his  unexpected 
approach,  sent  for  their  chief,  Vercingetorix, 
to  come  to  their  assistance.  This  was  what 
Caesar  wished.  After  some  wonderful  exhi- 
bitions of  military  skill,  and  numerous  suc- 
cesses, Vercingetorix  was  shut  up  in  Alesia 
(Alise  in  Burgundy)  with  all  his  infantry. 
Caesar  besieged  him,  and,  though  harassed  by 
nearly  three  hundred  thousand  Gauls  with- 
out, who  attempted,  but  in  vain,  to  break 
through  the  well-defended  Roman  Unes, 
forced  Vercingetorix  to  capitulate.  Many  of 
the  tribes  now  hastened  to  submit  to  Caesar, 
who  prudently  determined  to  winter  among 
the  vanquished.  The  senate  voted  him 
another  public  thanksgiving. 

In  the  year  51  B.  C.  Caesar  proceeded  to 
quell  the  tribes  who  still  held  out.  This  he 
successfully  accomplished,  and,  having  in 
addition  reduced  the  whole  of  Aquitania, 
passed  the  winter  of  his  eighth  campaign  in 
Belgium,  where  he  spent  the  time  both  in  a 
magnanimous  and  politic  manner.  The 
GaUic  princes  were  courteously  and  generously 
treated ;  the  common  people  were  spared  the 
imposition  of  further  taxes,  and  everything 
was  done  to  render  it  possible  for  him  to  visit 
Italy  with  safety  in  the  spring.  On  his  return 
he  took  up  his  residence  at  Ravenna,  where  he 
was  informed  of  everything  that  was  going  on 
by  the  tribune,  C.  Curio.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  at  this  moment  he  was  the  most 
popular  man  in  the  state,  while  his  soldiery 
were  devoted  to  him  with  a  loyalty  as  enthu- 
siastic as  that  which  Bonaparte  inspired  when 
fresh  from  his  Italian  victories. 

Meanwhile,  Pompey,  whose  vanity  could 
not  endure  the  greatness  of  Caesar,  had  been 
gradually  veering  round  again  to  the  aristoc- 
racy, whose  dread  of  the  new  conqueror  was 
hourly  increasing.  After  much  futile  diplo- 
matic finessing  on  all  sides,  the  senate  carried 
a  motion  that  Caesar  disband  his  army  by  a 
certain  day,  and  that  if  he  did  not  do  so,  he 
should  be  regarded  as  an  enemy  of  the  state. 
The  tribunes,  Mark  Antony  and  Q.  Cassius, 
put  their  veto  on  this  motion ;  but  they  were 
violently  driven  out  of  the  senate  chamber, 
and,  fearing  for  their  lives,  they  fled  to  Caesar's 
camp. 

The  senate,  in  the  madness  of  their  terror, 
now  declared  war,  and  intrusted  the  conduct 


of  it  to  Pompey,  whose  pride  in  the  invinci- 
bihty  of  his  military  prowess  hindered  him 
from  taking  the  necessary  measures  for  the 
defense  of  the  state.  He  fancied  that  his 
name  would  bring  thousands  to  his  standard, 
and  he  was  even  led  to  believe  that  Caesar's 
troops  were  willing  to  desert  their  general. 
The  result  of  this  delusion  was,  that  when  hos- 
tilities formally  commenced,  Pompey  had 
hardly  any  soldiers  except  two  legions,  which 
had  recently  been  in  the  service  of  his  rival. 

Caesar,  on  the  other  hand,  perceiving  that 
the  time  for  decisive  action  had  at  length 
come,  harangued  his  victorious  troops,  who 
were  willing  to  follow  him  anywhere,  crossed 
the  Rubicon  (a  small  stream  which  separated 
his  province  from  Italy  proper),  and  moved 
swiftly,  amid  the  acclamations  of  the  people, 
toward  Rome.  Pompey  fled  to  Bnmdisium, 
pursued  by  Caesar,  but  contrived  to  reach 
Greece  in  safety,  March  17,  49  B.  C.  The 
Italian  cities  had  everywhere  gladly  opened 
their  gates  to  the  conqueror  as  a  deliverer. 
In  three  months  Caesar  was  maater  of  all 
Italy. 

Caesar  next  subdued  Pompey's  I^ates  in 
Spain,  who  were  at  the  head  of  considerable 
forces.  On  his  return  he  took  Maasilia, 
where  he  learned  that  he  had  been  appointed 
dictator  of  the  republic  —  an  office  which  at 
this  time  he  retained  for  only  eleven  days,  but 
these  were  honorably  distinguished  by  the 
passing  of  several  humane  enactments. 
Pompey,  now  thoroughly  aUve  to  the  magni- 
tude of  his  danger,  had  gathered  a  powerful 
army  in  Egypt,  Greece,  and  the  East,  while 
his  fleet  swept  the  sea.  Caesar,  however, 
crossing  the  Adriatic  at  an  unexpected  season, 
made  a  rush  for  Dyrrhachium,  where  he  be- 
seiged  Pompey,  who  had  intrenched  his  army 
on  some  high  ground  near  the  city.  The 
first  encounter  was  favorable  to  Pompey, 
who  drove  back  Caesar's  legions  with  much 
loss.  The  latter  now  retreated  to  Thessaly, 
followed  by  his  exulting  enemies.  A  second 
battle  ensued  on  the  plains  of  Pharsalia  on 
August  9,  48  B.  C.  Pompey's  army  was 
utterly  routed,  and  he  himself  fled  to  Egypt, 
where  he  was  murdered. 

No  sooner  had  the  news  reached  Rome  than 
Caesar  was  again  appointed  dictator  for  a  year, 
and  consul  for  five  years.  He  was  invested 
with  the  power  of  a  tribune  for  hfe,  and  with 
the  right  of  holding  all  the  magisterial  assem- 
blies except  those  for  the  election  of  the 
plebeian   tribimes.      He  did  not,  however, 


IN  POLITICS 


420 


return  to  Rome  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia, 
but  went  to  Egypt,  then  in  a  distracted  con- 
dition on  account  of  the  disputes  regarding 
the  succession.  Here,  out  of  love  for  Cleo- 
patra, he  entered  upon  the  Alexandrine 
war,  in  which  he  waa  successful,  and  which 
he  brought  to  a  close  in  March,  47  B.  C. 
Subsequently  he  overthrew  a  son  of  Mith- 
ridates,  near  Zela,  in  Pontus,  August  2d  of 
the  same  year,  and  arrived  in  Rome  in 
September. 

He  was  once  more  appointed  dictator,  and 
the  property  of  Pompey  was  confiscated  and 
sold.  Before  the  close  of  the  year  he  had  set 
out  for  Africa,  where  his  campaign  against  the 
Pompeian  generals,  Scipio  and  Cato,  was 
crowned  with  victory  at  the  battle  of  Thapsus, 
on  April  6,  46  B.  C.  Cato  committed 
suicide  at  Utica.  With  such  irresistible 
celerity  was  the  work  of  subjugation  carried 
on  that  by  the  end  of  the  summer  Csesar  was 
again  in  Rome.  He  was  not  a  man  that 
could  stoop  to  the  vulgar  atrocities  of  Marius 
or  Sulla,  so  he  majestically  declared  that 
henceforth  he  had  no  enemies,  and  that  he 
would  make  no  difference  between  Pom- 
peians  and  Caesarians.  His  victories  in  Gaul, 
Egypt,  Pontus,  and  Africa  were  celebrated 
by  four  great  trimnphs,  during  which 
the  whole  Roman  populace  was  feasted  and 
feted  by  the  magnificent  liberality  of  the 
dictator. 

He  had  now  demolished  the  government  of 
the  nobles,  and  he  proceeded  to  check  by 
wholesome  enactments,  as  far  as  in  him  lay, 
the  social  evils  which  had  long  flourished  in 
the  city.  During  the  year  46  B.  C,  also,  he 
conferred  a  benefit  on  Rome  and  on  the  world 
by  the  reformation  of  the  calendar,  which  had 
been  greatly  abused  by  the  pontifical  college 
for  political  purposes.  After  quelling  an 
insurrection  which  now  broke  out  in  Spain, 
where  Pompey's  sons,  Cneius  and  Sextus,  had 
collected  an  army,  he  received  the  title  of 
"father  of  his  coimtry,"  and  also  of  impera- 
tor,  was  made  dictator  and  prcefectiis  morum  for 
life,  and  consul  for  ten  years ;  his  person  was 
declared  sacred,  and  even  divine ;  he  obtained 
a  bodyguard  of  knights  and  senators;  his 
statue  was  placed  in  the  temples ;  his  portrait 
was  struck  on  coins ;  the  month  Quintilis  was 
called  Julius  in  his  honor;  and  on  all  public 
occasions  he  was  permitted  to  wear  the 
triumphal  robe.  At  the  festival  of  Lupercalia, 
Mark  Antony,  his  devoted  adherent,  even 
publicly  offered  him  a  regal  crown,  but  Csesar, 


noting  that  the  name  of  king  was  odioua  lo 
the  multitude,  refused  it. 

Caesar  now  proposed  to  make  a  digatt  of  Um 
whole  Roman  law  for  public  use,  to  found 
libraries  for  the  same  purpose,  to  drain  tha 
Pontine  marshes,  to  enlan?e  the  harbor  of 
Ostia,  to  dig  a  canal  through  the  isthmus  of 
Corinth,  and  to  quell  the  inroads  of  the  bar> 
barians  on  the  eastern  frontiera;  but  in  the 
midst  of  these  vast  designs  he  was  cut  off  by 
assassination  on  the  Ides  (15th)  of  Maroh.  44 
B.C. 

The  details  of  the  crime  —  the  greatest 
disaster  that  could  have  befallen  the  Roman 
world,  as  subsequent  events  showed  —  are 
too  familiar  to  require  narration.  It  is  suf- 
ficient to  say  that,  of  the  sixty  aristocrats  who 
were  in  the  conspiracy,  many  had  partaken 
of  Caesar's  generosity,  and  all  of  his  clemency. 
A  few,  like  Brutus,  out  of  a  weak  and  formal 
conscientiousness,  based  on  theory  rather 
than  insight,  were  probably  offended  by 
Caesar's  desire  to  change  the  form  of  govern- 
ment into  a  hereditary  monarchy;  but  the 
most,  like  Cassius,  were  inspired  by  a  spleenful 
hatred  of  the  dictator,  and  the  base  ambition 
of  regaining  power  at  all  hazards. 

Caesar,  who  was  about  fifty-six  years  of  age 
when  he  was  murdered,  was  of  noble  and 
kingly  presence,  tall  of  stature,  and  possessed 
a  countenance,  which,  though  pale  and  thin 
with  thought,  was  always  animated  by  the 
light  of  his  black  eyes.  He  was  bald-headed 
(at  least  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life),  wore  do 
beard,  and,  though  of  a  rather  delicate  con- 
stitution naturally,  he  ultimately  attained  to 
the  most  vigorous  health.  His  besetting  sin 
was  sensuality ;  but,  without  detracting  from 
the  criminality  of  his  conduct  in  this  reqwct, 
it  may  be  said  that  it  was  as  much  the  sin  of 
the  times  in  which  he  lived  as  his  own,  and 
that  the  superlative  grandeur  of  his  position 
gave  a  prominence  to  his  irregularities  which 
a  more  humble  lot  would  have  escaped. 

The  military  fame  of  Cosar,  thou^  the 
greatest  of  Roman  generals,  would  hardly 
have  procured  for  his  memory  the  honors 
which  have  been  awarded  to  it  by  posterity, 
had  not  the  skill  of  the  warrior  been  united  in 
his  person  with  the  genius  of  the  writer  and 
the  sagacity  of  the  statesman.  His  intellect 
was  marvelously  versatile.  He  excelled  in 
everything.  He  was  not  only  the  first  general 
and  statesman  of  his  age,  but  he  was  —  eac- 
cepting  Cicero  — its  grei^est  orator.  As  a 
historian,  he  has  never  been  muptmed  nnd 


428 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


collect  his  scattered  legions.  First  crossing, 
with  some  Cisalpine  and  provincial  troops, 
the  mountains  of  Auvergne,  though  they  lay 
six  feet  in  snow,  he  suddenly  appeared  among 
the  Arverni,  who,  terrified  at  his  unexpected 
approach,  sent  for  their  chief,  Vercingetorix, 
to  come  to  their  assistance.  This  was  what 
Csesar  wished.  After  some  wonderful  exhi- 
bitions of  mihtary  skill,  and  numerous  suc- 
cesses, Vercingetorix  was  shut  up  in  Alesia 
(Alise  in  Burgundy)  with  all  his  infantry. 
Csesar  besieged  him,  and,  though  harassed  by 
nearly  three  hundred  thousand  Gauls  with- 
out, who  attempted,  but  in  vain,  to  break 
through  the  well-defended  Roman  Unes, 
forced  Vercingetorix  to  capitulate.  Many  of 
the  tribes  now  hastened  to  submit  to  Caesar, 
who  prudently  determined  to  winter  among 
the  vanquished.  The  senate  voted  him 
another  public  thanksgiving. 

In  the  year  51  B.  C.  Caesar  proceeded  to 
quell  the  tribes  who  still  held  out.  This  he 
successfully  accomplished,  and,  having  in 
addition  reduced  the  whole  of  Aquitania, 
passed  the  winter  of  his  eighth  campaign  in 
Belgium,  where  he  spent  the  time  both  in  a 
magnanimous  and  politic  manner.  The 
Gallic  princes  were  courteously  and  generously 
treated ;  the  common  people  were  spared  the 
imposition  of  further  taxes,  and  everything 
was  done  to  render  it  possible  for  him  to  visit 
Italy  with  safety  in  the  spring.  On  his  return 
he  took  up  his  residence  at  Ravenna,  where  he 
was  informed  of  everything  that  was  going  on 
by  the  tribune,  C.  Curio.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  at  this  moment  he  was  the  most 
popular  man  in  the  state,  while  his  soldiery 
were  devoted  to  him  with  a  loyalty  as  enthu- 
siastic as  that  which  Bonaparte  inspired  when 
fresh  from  his  Italian  victories. 

Meanwhile,  Pompey,  whose  vanity  could 
not  endure  the  greatness  of  Caesar,  had  been 
gradually  veering  round  again  to  the  aristoc- 
racy, whose  dread  of  the  new  conqueror  was 
hourly  increasing.  After  much  futile  diplo- 
matic finessing  on  all  sides,  the  senate  carried 
a  motion  that  Csesar  disband  his  army  by  a 
certain  day,  and  that  if  he  did  not  do  so,  he 
should  be  regarded  as  an  enemy  of  the  state. 
The  tribunes,  Mark  Antony  and  Q.  Cassius, 
put  their  veto  on  this  motion ;  but  they  were 
violently  driven  out  of  the  senate  chamber, 
and,  fearing  for  their  lives,  they  fled  to  Caesar's 
camp. 

The  senate,  in  the  madness  of  their  terror, 
now  declared  war,  and  intrusted  the  conduct 


of  it  to  Pompey,  whose  pride  in  the  invinci- 
bility of  his  military  prowess  hindered  him 
from  taking  the  necessary  measures  for  the 
defense  of  the  state.  He  fancied  that  his 
name  would  bring  thousands  to  his  standard, 
and  he  was  even  led  to  believe  that  Caesar's 
troops  were  willing  to  desert  their  general. 
The  result  of  this  delusion  was,  that  when  hos- 
tilities formally  commenced,  Pompey  had 
hardly  any  soldiers  except  two  legions,  which 
had  recently  been  in  the  service  of  his  rival. 

Caesar,  on  the  other  hand,  perceiving  that 
the  time  for  decisive  action  had  at  length 
come,  harangued  his  victorious  troops,  who 
were  willing  to  follow  him  anywhere,  crossed 
the  Rubicon  (a  small  stream  which  separated 
his  province  from  Italy  proper),  and  moved 
swiftly,  amid  the  acclamations  of  the  people, 
toward  Rome.  Pompey  fled  to  Brundisium, 
pursued  by  Caesar,  but  contrived  to  reach 
Greece  in  safety,  March  17,  49  B.  C.  The 
Italian  cities  had  everywhere  gladly  opened 
their  gates  to  the  conqueror  as  a  deliverer. 
In  three  months  Caesar  was  master  of  all 
Italy. 

Caesar  next  subdued  Pompey's  legates  in 
Spain,  who  were  at  the  head  of  considerable 
forces.  On  his  return  he  took  Massilia, 
where  he  learned  that  he  had  been  appointed 
dictator  of  the  republic  —  an  office  which  at 
this  time  he  retained  for  only  eleven  days,  but 
these  were  honorably  distinguished  by  the 
passing  of  several  humane  enactments. 
Pompey,  now  thoroughly  ahve  to  the  magni- 
tude of  his  danger,  had  gathered  a  powerful 
army  in  Egypt,  Greece,  and  the  East,  while 
his  fleet  swept  the  sea.  Caesar,  however, 
crossing  the  Adriatic  at  an  tmexpected  season, 
made  a  rush  for  Dyrrhachium,  where  he  be- 
seiged  Pompey,  who  had  intrenched  his  army 
on  some  high  ground  near  the  city.  The 
first  encounter  was  favorable  to  Pompey, 
who  drove  back  Caesar's  legions  with  much 
loss.  The  latter  now  retreated  to  Thessaly, 
followed  by  his  exulting  enemies.  A  second 
battle  ensued  on  the  plains  of  Pharsalia  on 
August  9,  48  B.  C.  Pompey's  army  was 
utterly  routed,  and  he  himself  fled  to  Egypt, 
where  he  was  murdered. 

No  sooner  had  the  news  reached  Rome  than 
Csesar  was  again  appointed  dictator  for  a  year, 
and  consul  for  five  years.  He  was  invested 
with  the  power  of  a  tribtme  for  life,  and  vnih 
the  right  of  holding  all  the  magisterial  assem- 
blies except  those  for  the  election  of  the 
plebeian   tribunes.      He  did  not,  however, 


IN  POLITICS 


4» 


return  to  Rome  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia, 
but  went  to  Egypt,  then  in  a  distracted  con- 
dition on  account  of  the  disputes  regarding 
the  succession.  Here,  out  of  love  for  Cleo- 
patra, he  entered  upon  the  Alexandrine 
war,  in  which  he  was  successful,  and  which 
he  brought  to  a  close  in  March,  47  B,  C. 
Subsequently  he  overthrew  a  son  of  Mith- 
ridates,  near  Zela,  in  Pontus,  August  2d  of 
the  same  year,  and  arrived  in  Rome  in 
September. 

He  was  once  more  appointed  dictator,  and 
the  property  of  Pompey  was  confiscated  and 
sold.  Before  the  close  of  the  year  he  had  set 
out  for  Africa,  where  his  campaign  against  the 
Pompeian  generals,  Scipio  and  Cato,  was 
crowned  with  victory  at  the  battle  of  Thapsus, 
on  April  6,  46  B.  C.  Cato  committed 
suicide  at  Utica.  With  such  irresistible 
celerity  was  the  work  of  subjugation  carried 
on  that  by  the  end  of  the  summer  Caesar  was 
again  in  Rome.  He  was  not  a  man  that 
could  stoop  to  the  vulgar  atrocities  of  Marius 
or  Sulla,  so  he  majestically  declared  that 
henceforth  he  had  no  enemies,  and  that  he 
would  make  no  difference  between  Pom- 
peians  and  Csesarians.  His  victories  in  Gaul, 
Egypt,  Pontus,  and  Africa  were  celebrated 
by  four  great  triumphs,  during  which 
the  whole  Roman  populace  was  feasted  and 
feted  by  the  magnificent  liberality  of  the 
dictator. 

He  had  now  demolished  the  government  of 
the  nobles,  and  he  proceeded  to  check  by 
wholesome  enactments,  as  far  as  in  him  lay, 
the  social  evils  which  had  long  flourished  in 
the  city.  During  the  year  46  B.  C,  also,  he 
conferred  a  benefit  on  Rome  and  on  the  world 
by  the  reformation  of  the  calendar,  which  had 
been  greatly  abused  by  the  pontifical  college 
for  pohtical  purposes.  After  quelling  an 
insurrection  which  now  broke  out  in  Spain, 
where  Pompey's  sons,  Cneius  and  Sextus,  had 
collected  an  army,  he  received  the  title  of 
"father  of  his  country,"  and  also  of  impera- 
tor,  was  made  dicjtator  and  prcefedus  morum  for 
life,  and  consul  for  ten  years ;  his  person  was 
declared  sacred,  and  even  divine ;  he  obtained 
a  bodyguard  of  knights  and  senators;  his 
statue  was  placed  in  the  temples ;  his  portrait 
was  struck  on  coins ;  the  month  Quintilis  was 
called  Julius  in  his  honor;  and  on  all  pubhc 
occasions  he  was  permitted  to  wear  the 
triumphal  robe.  At  the  festival  of  Lupercalia, 
Mark  Antony,  his  devoted  adherent,  even 
publicly  o£Fered  him  a  regal  crown,  but  Caesar, 


noting  that  the  name  of  king  was  odious  to 
the  multitude,  refused  it. 

Caesar  now  proposed  to  make  a  digest  of  the 
whole  Roman  law  for  public  use,  to  found 
Ubraries  for  the  same  purpose,  to  drain  the 
Pontine  marshes,  to  enlarge  the  hariwr  of 
Ostia,  to  dig  a  canal  through  the  istlmius  of 
Corinth,  and  to  quell  the  inroads  of  the  bar- 
barians on  the  eastern  frontiers;  but  in  the 
midst  of  these  vast  designs  he  was  cut  off  by 
assassination  on  the  Ides  (15th)  of  March,  44 
B.C. 

The  details  of  the  crime  —  the  greatest 
disaster  that  could  have  befallen  the  R(muui 
world,  as  subsequent  events  showed  —  are 
too  familiar  to  require  narration.  It  is  suf- 
ficient to  say  that,  of  the  sixty  aristocrats  who 
were  in  the  conspiracy,  many  had  partaken 
of  Caesar's  generosity,  and  all  of  his  clemency. 
A  few,  like  Brutus,  out  of  a  weak  and  formal 
conscientiousness,  based  on  theory  rather 
than  insight,  were  probably  offended  by 
Caesar's  desire  to  change  the  form  of  govern- 
ment into  a  hereditary  monarchy;  but  the 
most,  like  Cassius,  were  inspired  by  a  spleenful 
hatred  of  the  dictator,  and  the  base  ambition 
of  regaining  power  at  all  hazards. 

Caesar,  who  was  about  fifty-six  years  of  age 
when  he  was  murdered,  was  of  noble  and 
kingly  presence,  tall  of  stature,  and  possessed 
a  countenance,  which,  though  pale  and  thin 
with  thought,  was  always  animated  by  the 
light  of  his  black  eyes.  He  was  bald-headed 
(at  least  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life),  wore  no 
beard,  and,  though  of  a  rather  delicate  con- 
stitution naturally,  he  ultimately  attained  to 
the  most  vigorous  health.  His  besetting  sin 
was  sensuality ;  but,  without  detracting  from 
the  criminality  of  his  conduct  in  this  respect, 
it  may  be  said  that  it  was  as  much  the  sin  of 
the  times  in  which  he  lived  as  his  own,  and 
that  the  superlative  grandeur  of  his  position 
gave  a  prominence  to  his  irregularities  which 
a  more  humble  lot  would  have  escaped. 

The  military  fame  of  Caesar,  though  the 
greatest  of  Roman  generals,  would  hardly 
have  procured  for  his  memory  the  honors 
which  have  been  awarded  to  it  by  posterity, 
had  not  the  skill  of  the  warrior  been  united  in 
his  person  with  the  genius  of  the  writer  and 
the  sagacity  of  the  statesman.  His  intellect 
was  marvelously  versatile.  He  excelled  in 
everything.  He  was  not  only  the  first  general 
and  statesman  of  his  age,  but  he  was  —  ex- 
cepting Cicero  —  its  greatest  orator.  As  a 
historian,  he  has  never  been  surpassed  and 


430 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


rarely  equaled  in  simplicity  and  vigor  of  style, 
and  in  the  truthfulness  with  which  he  narrates 
events  of  which  he  was  an  eyewitness.  He 
was,  in  addition,  a  mathematician,  philologist, 
jurist,  and  architect,  and  always  took  great 
pleasure  in  literary  society.  Most  of  his 
writings  have  been  lost,  though  their  titles  are 
preserved ;  but  we  still  possess  his  invaluable 
"Commentaries,"  with  which  almost  every 
schoolboy  and  schoolgirl  is  familiar. 

Though  he  did  not  hve  to  accomplish  his 
great  work,  the  stamp  which  his  commanding 
genius  left  upon  it  never  was  obliterated  as 
long  as  Roman  Casars  wore  the  imperial 
purple;  and  even  now  a  breath  of  his  spirit 
pervades  the  world,  and  a  faint  echo  of  his 
name.  Rome  in  him  produced  her  greatest 
man.  Intellect  and  will  were  justly  balanced 
in  his  great  soul.  No  illusion,  no  enthusiasm, 
no  ideals  clouded  his  perception  or  perverted 
his  judgment.  A  cool,  calm,  reflecting, 
prosaic  Roman,  he  saw  things  as  they  were, 
not  as  he  wished  them  to  be.  He  accepted 
the  facts  of  his  position,  and  shaped  his  course 
of  action  accordingly.  He  judged  men  and 
institutions  for  what  they  were  worth,  and,  by 
the  irresistible  force  of  his  will,  pressed  them 
into  his  service.  He  never  wavered  or  hesi- 
tated in  his  whole  hfe,  and  never  lost  sight  of 
his  final  aim.  What  he  had  undertaken  he 
carried  out  —  not  with  the  obstinacy  of  a 
narrow  and  stubborn  mind,  but  without  pas- 
sion, with  caution  and  courage  combined.  In 
war  he  was  bold  and  daring,  relying  more  upon 


rapidity  of  movement  than  upon  numbers, 
and  trusting  much  also  to  that  good  fortune 
which  always  favors  the  brave.  He  relied  not 
upon  rules  and  established  usage,  but  upon 
the  intuition  of  genius.  He  had  no  system, 
and  no  school;  but,  as  if  by  inspiration,  he 
always  adopted  the  means  which  led  to 
success. 

Such  was  the  great  Roman  Cajsar,  by  nature 
fitted  to  accomplish  a  work  which,  in  the 
development  of  human  affairs,  had  become 
imperative.  "Within  the  short  space  of 
fourteen  years,"  says  Miiller,  "he  subdued 
Gaul,  thickly  inhabited  by  warlike  nations; 
twice  conquered  Spain ;  entered  Germany  and 
Britain ;  marched  through  Italy  at  the  head  of 
a  victorious  army;  destroyed  the  power  of 
Pompey  the  Great;  reduced  Egypt  to  obedi- 
ence; saw  and  defeated  Pharnaces;  over- 
powered, in  Africa,  the  great  name  of  Cato 
and  the  arms  of  Juba;  fought  fifty  battles,  in 
which  1,192,000  men  fell;  was  the  greatest 
orator  in  the  world,  next  to  Cicero;  set  a 
pattern  to  all  historians,  which  has  never  been 
excelled;  wrote  learnedly  on  the  sciences  of 
grammar  and  augury ;  and,  falling  by  a  pre- 
mature death,  left  memorials  of  his  great 
plans  for  the  extension  of  the  empire  and  the 
legislation  of  the  world." 

He  perceived  his  duty,  he  undertook  and 
accomplished  it;  and  if  anything  is  wanted 
to  engage  our  sympathies,  not  less  than  our 
admiration,  for  the  greatest  son  of  Rome,  it  is 
that  he  died  a  victim  on  her  altar. 


CHARLEMAGNE 


742 

768 
771 
772 
774 


Bom,  probably  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  or 

Ingelheim,  Germany, 

Joint  ruler  of  the  Franks  with  Carloman,   26 

Sole  king, 29 

Made  war  on  the  Saxons, 30 

Visited  Rome, 32 


A.  D. 

778 
780 
788 
800 

814 


Subdued  northern  Spain, 36 

Defeated  Saxons  under  Wittekind,    .    .  38 

Conquered  Bavaria, 46 

Crowned  emperor  of  the  West  by  Leo 

III., 58 

Died  at  Aix-l&^hapelle, 72 


r^HARLES  THE  GREAT,  now  ahnost  uni- 
^^  versally  called  by  the  French  name 
Charlemagne,  king  of  the  Franks,  and 
Roman  emperor,  was  the  greatest  conqueror 
and  ruler  of  his  age.  He  was  born  in  the 
year  742,  but  the  place  of  his  birth  is  in  dis- 
pute. Salzburg,  in  modern  Aiistria,  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  in  Belgium,  and  Ingelheim,  near 
Mainz,  Germany,  have  all  claimed  the  honor 
of  his  birth.  The  best  evidence  favors  one 
of  the  two  latter. 


He  was  the  son  of  Pepin  the  Short,  first 
Carolingian  king  of  the  Franks,  and  grandson 
of  Charles  Martel,  the  hero  whose  victory  near 
Tours  in  732  saved  Europe  from  subjugation 
by  the  Saracens.  On  the  death  of  Pepin  in 
768,  his  dominions  were  divided  between  his 
sons,  Charles  and  Carloman,  the  former  taking 
Austrasia  and  Neustria.  The  duchy  of 
Aquitaine  which  he  had  recently  conquered 
he  divided  between  them. 

In  770  Charles  married  the  daughter  of 


IN  POLITICS 


«U 


Desiderius,  king  of  the  Lombards,  but  repu- 
diated her  in  the  following  year,  and  married 
Hildegarde,  a  German  princess.  At  the  close 
of  771,  by  the  death  of  Carloman,  Charles 
became  sole  king  of  the  Franks,  his  kingdom, 
Francia,  extending  from  the  English  channel 
to  the  Mediterranean.  Hence  it  is  that  he  has 
been  styled  Charles  I.  in  the  enumeration  both 
of  the  French  kings,  and  of  the  German  or 
Roman  emperors. 

In  772  he  made  war  on  the  Saxons ;  and  this 
was  the  beginning  of  a  conflict  which  was  not 
really  ended  until  more  than  thirty  years 
hence.  Under  the  name  of  Saxons  were 
included  the  non-Christian  German  tribes 
which  inhabited  the  country  between  the 
Rhine  and  the  Elbe  in  modern  Westphalia, 
Hanover,  Brvmswick,  Oldenburg,  Holstein, 
Mecklenburg,  and  north  Saxony.  These 
tribes,  more  or  less  allied  with  the  Northmen, 
remained  attached  to  the  old  religion  of 
Odin;  they  maintained  a  strictly  tribal 
system  in  scattered  centers  of  ill-defined 
extent :  they  were  still  in  the  partly  nomadic 
stage,  and  without  ■  any  regular  political 
organization, 

A  race  of  hardy  soldiers,  in  so  backward  and 
inorganic  a  state,  formed  a  standing  menace 
to  the  settled  Christian  populations  of  the 
Frankish  dominion,  very  much  as  did  the 
Teutonic  and  Gothic  tribes  to  the  Roman 
empire.  The  absence  of  central  authority 
and  of  town  life  made  any  effective  conquest 
of  them  very  tedious,  and  even  a  permanent 
peace  impossible.  The  one  means  of  their 
real  incorporation  with  western  Europe  was 
their  adoption  of  the  civilization  and  religion 
of  the  Franks.  The  security  of  the  Frankish 
dominions  rested  on  the  incorporation  of  their 
barbarian  kinsmen  on  their  northeastern 
frontier. 

It  is  highly  characteristic  of  the  genius  of 
the  young  king  of  the  Franks  that  he  at  once 
recognized  this,  and  from  the  first  set  himself 
to  a  terrible  task,  where  neither  wealth  nor 
glory  could  be  ^on.  Charles's  Saxon  wars, 
the  first  and  most  continuous  effort  of  his 
reign,  like  the  wars  waged  by  every  civilized 
conqueror  against  a  race  of  brave  and  stub- 
bom  nomads,  were  neither  marked  by  great 
victories  nor  by  very  definite  campaigns.  In 
the  long  course  of  them  he  tried  every  policy 
in  turn:  severity,  concihation,  exhortation, 
and  negotiation.  From  time  to  time  his 
measures  are  marked  by  dreadful  bloodshed 
and  destruction ;    and,  throughout,  his  war- 


fare has  much  of  the  character  and  not  a  Uttlo 
of  the  ferocity  of  a  war  of  religion. 

In  the  spring  of  772  Charles  crossed  the 
Rhine  at  Worms  and  opened  the  campaign  in 
Westphalia.  He  destroyed,  at  Eresbuig, 
the  stronghold  of  the  Saxons,  and  the  war  was 
prolonged  in  a  succession  of  risings  and  desul- 
tory victories.  Immediately  at  the  close  of 
his  first  Saxon  campaign,  Charles  turned  his 
arms  against  Lombardy  in  773.  Crossing 
the  Alps  in  two  columns,  one  by  the  Valais, 
and  one  through  Savoy,  in  two  brief  and 
brilliant  campaigns  he  completely  subdued 
northern  Italy  as  far  as  the  Neapolitan  duchy, 
and  was  acknowledged  as  king  of  Lombardy 
in  774.  The  pope,  welcoming  the  Frankidi 
king  as  the  deliverer  of  the  church  from  the 
hated  Lombard,  received  Charles  at  Rome, 
Easter,  774,  conferred  on  him  the  title  of 
"patrician  of  Rome,"  and  entered  into  a  close 
alliance. 

It  was  then  Charles  endowed  the  church 
with  inmaense  possessions  —  the  modem 
states  of  the  church;  and  this  conquest  of 
northern  Italy  was  the  commencement  of  the 
long  dependence  of  Italy  on  the  empire.  It 
was  really  only  a  political  conquest  of  the 
country,  not  a  displacement  or  spoliation  of 
the  native  Lombards.  Charles,  in  this  deci- 
sive and  characteristic  conquest,  was  but  fol- 
lowing the  policy  of  Pepin  and  Charles  Martel, 
and  was  laying  the  foundation  of  the  Frankish 
king  as  the  friend  and  protector  of  the  church. 

Charles's  next  expedition  was  into  Spain, 
whither  he  was  called  by  the  offer  of  an 
alliance  with  a  Saracen  emir,  who  revolted 
from  the  caliph  of  Cordova,  in  778.  Though 
his  campaign  was  without  brilliant  results,  he 
advanced  to  the  Ebro  and  effected  a  aatirfao- 
tory  peace.  It  was  on  the  return  of  his  army 
through  the  valley  of  Roncesvalles,  near  Pam- 
plona, that  the  Gascons  fell  upon  his  rear 
guard,  and  killed  Roland  and  many  of  his 
peers.  The  defeat,  which  afflicted  the  king 
more  than  it  weakened  him,  was  the  basis  of 
the  poetic  legend  known  in  the  middle  ages  as 
the  "  Ballad  of  Roland."  From  778  to  812  the 
Franks  made  six  other  expeditions  into  Spain, 
the  main  result  of  which  was  finally  to  deliver 
France  from  any  further  fear  of  Saracen  inva- 
sion, and  to  establish  as  a  bulwark  two  small 
border  counties — the  marches  of  Gascony 
and  of  Spain  on  the  south  of  the  Pyrenees. 

Further  conquests  awaited  the  king  on  the 
east.  The  incessant  wars  with  the  Saxons 
compelled  Charles  to  foUow  the  turbulent 


432 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


races  lying  east  and  south  of  them.  These 
wars  are  said  to  have  cost  Charles  more  than 
twenty  armies.  Time  after  time  the  Saxons, 
compelled  to  accept  baptism  and  to  submit  to 
the  king,  broke  out  into  rebellion  and  re- 
nounced Christianity.  Their  national  leader 
and  hero  was  Wittekind,  who  was  severely 
defeated  in  780.  In  the  campaign  of  782 
Charles  massacred  in  cold  blood  forty-five 
hundred  Saxon  prisoners ;  and,  by  an  order  in 
784,  he  made  baptism  compulsory  under  pain 
of  death.  He  crossed  the  Elbe  in  788,  and 
advanced  to  the  Oder.  There  he  established 
a  tributary  district  extending  to  the  Eider, 
the  border  of  Denmark.  Southward  he 
carried  his  arms  into  Bohemia,  Bavaria,  and 
Hungary,  as  far  as  the  Theiss,  and  in  a  series 
of  campaigns  subdued  the  main  part  of  the 
modern  empire  of  Austria. 

Thirty  years  of  almost  incessant  war  and 
conquest  under  Charlemagne  had  vastly 
extended  the  kingdom  of  Pepin,  and  had 
converted  the  Prankish  dominion  into  an 
empire  that  comprised  the  main  part  of 
western  Europe.  Taking  it  in  its  greatest 
limits,  it  extended  from  the  bay  of  Biscay  to 
the  river  Theiss,  and  thence  to  the  Adriatic  on 
the  south,  and  the  mouth  of  the  Oder  on  the 
Baltic ;  and  from  the  northern  sea  across  all 
Italy,  down  to  the  duchy  of  Benevento.  It 
thus  comprised  the  whole  of  France ;  Germany 
and  Austria,  except  East  Prussia,  eastern 
Hungary,  and  Croatia;  the  northwest  comer 
of  Spain ;  and  all  Italy,  except  the  kingdom  of 
Naples. 

The  great  position  of  Charles  now  called  for 
formal  consecration.  Acknowledged  as  the 
greatest  ruler  since  the  Roman  emperors, 
manifestly  the  superior  in  power  of  the  Greek 
emperor  at  Byzantium,  supported  by  the 
entire  influence  of  the  church,  he  resolved  to 
revive  in  western  Europe  the  conception  of 
the  empire  under  Catholic  forms. 

On  Christmas  day,  800,  the  king  in  great 
state  attended  mass  in  St.  Peter's  at  Rome, 
where  Pope  Leo  III.,  placing  an  imperial 
crown  on  his  head,  thrice  hailed  him  as 
"Augustus,  crowned  by  God,  great  and 
pacific  emperor  of  the  Romans."  The  pope, 
anointing  his  head  with  the  sacred  oil,  pros- 
trated himself  at  the  feet  of  the  emperor,  and 
the  entire  assembly  of  priests,  soldiers,  and 
people  ratified  the  act  with  their  acclama- 
tions. Thus  began  the  revived  Roman 
empire  of  the  West,  and  with  it  the  formation 
of  the  common  life  of  western  Europe.    The 


barbarian  or  mediaeval  world  was  formally 
linked  to  the  Roman.  The  church,  and  the 
papacy  as  its  organ,  became  the  spiritual 
guide  of  the  empire,  and  the  Frankish  sover- 
eign became  the  right  hand  of  the  church. 

Great  as  a  warrior,  Charles  was  even  greater 
as  administrator  and  civil  ruler.  The  whole 
empire  was  divided  into  counties,  the  count 
residing  in  each  being  charged  with  authority, 
civil,  judicial,  and  military.  Under  each 
count  was  a  vicar,  or,  as  he  was  finally  called, 
a  viscount,  who  held  three  courts  yearly,  the 
more  serious  causes  being  reserved  for  the 
count's  court.  The  imperial  authority  was 
specially  exercised  by  the  missi  dominici,  or 
royal  delegates,  who  heard  appeals,  reported 
to  the  emperor,  and  generally  maintained  the 
unity  of  the  empire.  In  spring  and  autumn 
two  great  assemblies  were  held  for  ratifying 
the  legislation  proposed  by  the  emperor. 
These  assemblies  consisted  entirely  of  the 
principal  officials,  lay  or  clerical,  and  they 
usually  sat  in  two  distinct  bodies,  one  spiritual, 
the  other  temporal.  We  still  possess  upward 
of  eleven  hundred  articles,  in  sixty-five 
capitularies,  or  codes,  and  some  forty  other 
rescripts,  regulating  in  the  minutest  detail  the 
whole  political  and  economical  system  of  the 
empire.  Especially  noteworthy  is  the  capit- 
ulary of  the  year  787,  which  provided  for  a 
higher  standard  of  education,  and  is  called  by 
Ampere  "the  charter  of  modern  thought." 

The  emperor  now  still  more  largely  endowed 
the  church,  insisting  on  the  payment  of  tithes 
in  full;  he  also  founded  numerous  churches, 
schools,  monasteries,  and  bishoprics.  He  was 
passionately  devoted  to  the  revival  of  learning, 
of  music,  and  the  other  arts,  and  built  sumptu- 
ous palaces,  particularly  at  Aix-la-Chapelle 
and  Ingelheim  —  for  he  had  no  fixed  capital. 
He  gathered  round  him  learned  men  from 
every  country,  the  chief  of  whom  were  the 
Saxon,  Alcuin,  the  Lombard,  Paul  the  Deacon, 
Peter  of  Pisa,  and  Clement  of  Ireland,  and 
above  all  his  secretar}%  Einhard,  or  Eginhard, 
who  has  left  us  an  admirable  fife  of  his  chief. 
With  the  aid  of  these  men,  the  best  intellects 
of  their  age,  inspired  by  the  intense  zeal  of 
the  emperor  for  all  forms  of  culture,  a  real  but 
short  renascence  of  learning  took  place  in  the 
Frankish  kingdom.  Architectxire,  music, 
grammar,  the  languages  of  Greece  and  Rome, 
their  literature  and  art,  the  art  of  illumination, 
even  science,  received  a  new  impulse.  From 
this  reign  we  find  the  church  an  independent, 
vast,  and  coordinate  authority  in  government. 


IN  POLITICS 


4SS 


Systematic  education,  eleemosynary  institu- 
tions, regular  taxation,  and  periodical  assizes 
begin  to  be  a  part  of  the  ordinary  civilization 
of  Europe. 

Charlemagne's  scheme  for  the  union  of  the 
newly  revived  western  empire  with  the 
empire  of  the  East,  by  his  marriage  with 
Irene,  the  Byzantine  empress,  failed  by  reason 
of  Irene's  overthrow.  After  this  he  still 
extended  and  confirmed  his  conquests  both 
in  Spain  and  in  Germany.  He  labored  to 
bring  the  Saxons  to  a  general  reception  of 
Christianity,  and  founded  bishoprics  for  this 
purpose.  To  the  end  of  his  reign  he  was 
incessantly  engaged  in  wars,  and  insurrections 
were  always  apt  to  break  out  in  the  frontier 
parts  of  his  dominions,  which  he  endeavored 
to  secure,  however,  not  only  by  military 
power  and  arrangements,  but  by  continued 
improvements  in  political  and  social  institu- 
tions. In  this  period  of  his  active  life  he  pro- 
jected a  canal  to  join  the  North  sea  and  the 
Euxine.  His  power  was  felt  in  the  English 
kingdoms.  Just  before  Offa  of  Mercia  ex- 
tended his  sway  in  all  directions,  Boniface  had 
been  preaching  to  the  pagans  in  Germany,  and 
English  affairs  began  to  interest  the  Franks. 
The  policy  of  Charles  led  him  to  receive  at  his 
court  the  enemies  of  Offa,  and  among  the 
refugees  was  Egbert,  afterward  king  of  the 
English.  It  seemed  likely  that  war  might 
break  out  between  Offa  and  Charles,  but  this 
was  happily  averted  by  the  influence  of 
Alcuin,  who  still  continued  at  the  latter's  court. 

But  the  sun  of  Charlemagne  went  down 
among  clouds.  The  wide  empire  which  he  had 
pieced  together  by  the  labor  of  a  lifetime 
was  threatened  with  ruin.  Already  he  could 
point  out  the  foes  which  would  overthrow  it. 
On  one  occasion  he  was  sojourning  on  the 
southern  coast  of  Gaul.  Looking  out  one 
day  upon  the  blue  waters  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, he  descried  some  long  low  galleys 
crawling  along  the  line  of  the  horizon,  and 
wondered  what  they  were.  "These,"  said  his 
attendants,  "  must  be  ships  from  the  coast  of 
Africa,  Jewish  merchantmen  or  British 
traders."  "No!"  replied  he,  "they  are  not 
the  ships  of  commerce ;  I  know  by  their  light- 
ness of  movement.  They  are  the  galleys  of 
the  Norsemen;  and  though  I  know  such 
miserable  pirates  can  do  me  no  harm,  I  cannot 
help  weeping  when  I  think  of  the  miseries 
they  will  inflict  on  my  descendants,  and  the 
lands  they  shall  rule."  And  it  was  remarked 
that  his  eyes  were  filled  with  tears. 


Another  cauae  of  grief  to  Charlemagne  wm 
the  state  of  his  family.  He  had  divided  his 
empire  among  his  full-grown  sons,  and  had 
trusted  that  they  would  keep  what  he  had 
won.  Death,  however,  cut  off  two  of  them; 
and  it  was  one  of  the  last  acta  of  the  broken- 
hearted father  to  install  the  sole  survivor, 
Louis,  as  his  successor.  Placing  the  imperial 
crown  upon  the  altar,  he  ordered  Loub  to  take 
it  with  his  own  hands,  that  he  might  under- 
stand he  wore  it  in  his  own  right,  under  no 
authority  but  that  of  God.  He  then  tendered 
these  words  of  advice  to  his  son  and  sucoeasor : 
"  Love  your  people  as  your  children,"  said  he, 
"  choose  your  magistrates  and  governors  from 
those  whose  belief  in  God  will  preserve  them 
from  corruption,  and  see  that  your  own  life  be 
blameless." 

The  emperor  died  on  January  28,  814,  after 
a  reign  of  more  than  forty-five  years.  He 
was  buried  with  great  pomp  at  Aix-lft- 
Chapelle  in  a  sarcophagus  which,  it  is  believed, 
may  still  be  seen  there.  His  tomb  and  his 
remains  were  long  the  object  of  veneration 
and  mystical  legend.  In  1000  the  emperor 
Otho  III.  visited  the  tomb  and  opened  the 
vault,  as  did  Frederick  Barbarossa  again  in 
1166,  when  Charlemagne  was  duly  canonized 
as  a  confessor. 

His  faithful  secretary,  Einhard,  has  left  us 
a  splendid  picture  of  Charlemagne  personally, 
which  almost  presents  him  as  the  ideal  hero 
of  mediaeval  legend.  He  was  of  great  stature 
and  noble  mien,  with  immense  strength, 
energy,  and  activity ;  a  powerful  orator,  with 
a  clear  voice ;  simple  in  his  habits,  temperate, 
and  frugal;  affable,  courteous,  delighting  in 
music,  in  conversation,  and  in  books ;  he  was 
just,  patient,  magnanimous,  warm  in  his 
friendships,  incapable  of  jealousy,  and  sincerely 
pious. 

The  one  defect  of  his  character,  one  that  he 
shared  with  nearly  all  the  chieftains  of  his  race, 
was  sexual  lawlessness,  and  even  a  cynical 
indifference  to  the  marriage  contract.  Five 
wives,  of  whom  he  repudiated  two  after  a 
short  cohabitation,  numerous  concubines,  and 
eighteen  children  are  mentioned.  And  he  was 
careless  of  the  profligacy  of  his  daughters, 
whom  he  loved  extravagantly,  and  kept  at  his 
side  immarried. 

In  nature,  as  in  nearly  all  his  great  qualities, 
he  singularly  resembled  Julius  Caesar,  although 
what  was  supreme  culture  in  the  Roman  waa 
the  passion  for  supreme  culture  in  the  Frank. 
The    emperor    himself    studied    astronomy, 


434 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


music  and  physics;  he  read  Greek,  and  was 
an  enthusiastic  promoter  of  architecture, 
engineering,  and  the  arts.  He  used  by  prefer- 
ence his  mother  tongue,  German,  Latin  being 
only  a  written  language.  He  made  many 
efiforts  to  learn  to  write,  but  never  succeeded. 
At  his  court  he  had  fixed  hours  for  study,  in 
which  he  took  care  to  engage  his  courtiers  by 
forming  them  into  an  academy.  He  was 
sober  and  abstemious  in  his  food,  and  simple 
to  an  extreme  in  the  matter  of  raiment. 
"  For  shame ! "  he  exclaimed,  to  one  who  came 
before  him  attired  more  elegantly  than  the 
occasion  demanded,  "Dress  yourself  like  a 
man;  and  if  you  would  be  distinguished,  let 
it  be  by  your  merits,  not  by  your  garments." 

Charlemagne  was  indefatigable  in  all  the 
duties  of  government,  and  was  not  only  by 
title,  but  in  the  most  important  sense,  emperor 
of  the  West  —  the  first  Germanic  king  to 
create  an  empire  on  the  ruins  of  Rome.  His 
whole  reign  was  a  supreme  effort  to  recast  the 
world  shattered  by  successive  invasions  of 
barbarians,  and  to  unite  it  under  one  vast 
imperial  organization. 

The  Romans  had  come  into  hostile  contact 
with  German  tribes  as  far  back  as  Csesar's 
campaigns  in  Gaul  in  55  B.  C.  In  9  A.  D. 
the  German  hero,  Arminius  (Hermann),  at 
the  head  of  his  confederate  countrymen,  had 
encountered  the  Roman  commander,  Varus, 
at  the  head  of  three  legions,  and  in  a  three 
days'  fight  in  a  region  of  wooded  hills 
defeated  and  destroyed  the  whole  army. 
The  centuries  of  imperial  Rome  were  full  of 
the  din  of  conflict  between  the  forces  of  the 
two  peoples,  the  one  declining,  the  other 
waxing  mightier.  Rome  at  length  ceased  to 
be  a  seat  of  empire,  and  for  three  centuries 
was  subject  to  the  emperors  of  the  East. 
A  new  religion  had  superseded  the  old  pagan- 
ism, and  on  the  seven  hills  was  throned  a  new 
power,  claiming  to  be  its  representative  and 
chief.  And  now,  at  length,  in  the  eighth 
century,  under  Charlemagne,  the  new  empire 
of  the  West  was  reestablished  with  a  German 
king  at  its  head. 

At  the  time  of  his  advent  the  Gallo- 
Frankish  nation,  vast  and  without  cohesion, 
brutish  and  ignorant,  was  incapable  of  bring- 
ing forth  with  the  aid  of  its  own  wisdom  and 
virtue  a  stable  government.  Hosts  of  dif- 
ferent forces,  without  enlightenment  and 
without  restraint,  were  everywhere  and 
incessantly  struggling  for  dominion,  or  were 
ever  troubling  and    endangering  the   social 


condition.  In  the  midst  of  this  chaos 
of  unruly  forces  and  selfish  passions,  Charle- 
magne alone  understood  the  essential  needs 
of  the  age;  and  he  seized  and  exercised  the 
personal  power  almost  of  a  despot,  but  a 
beneficent  one.  Such  was  the  empire  of 
Charlemagne. 

Among  annalists  and  historians,  some, 
treating  him  as  a  mere  conqueror  and  despot, 
have  ignored  his  merits  and  his  glory ;  others, 
admiring  him  without  scruple,  have  made  him 
a  founder  of  free  institutions  —  a  constitu- 
tional monarch.  Both  are  equally  mistaken : 
Charlemagne  was  indeed  both  a  conqueror  and 
a  despot;  but  by  his  conquests  and  personal 
power  he  saved  Gallo-Frankish  society  from 
barbaric  invasion  without  and  anarchy 
within.  The  empire  he  created  and  organized 
by  his  genius,  it  is  true,  gradually  fell  to 
pieces  after  his  death.  His  endeavor  to 
resuscitate  an  old  civilization,  to  engraft  the 
Christian  Roman  culture  on  the  vigorous  stem 
of  the  Teutonic  races,  and  to  unite  all  the 
Germanic  tribes  in  one  empire,  before  the  long 
action  of  historic  influences  had  stamped 
upon  them  a  distinct  national  character  — 
this  was  to  a  great  extent  a  failure,  because 
one  lifetime  was  too  short  for  its  accomplish-  • 
ment. 

His  greatness  lies  in  the  nobility  of  his  aim, 
in  the  energy  and  wisdom  with  which  he 
carried  it  out  during  his  life,  and  also  in  the 
enduring  traces  of  valuable  work  which 
remained  notwithstanding  the  general  wreck 
of  his  empire ;  for,  though  the  central  organi- 
zation was  swept  away,  the  provincial  authori- 
ties remained,  to  be  transformed  into  the  new 
feudal  organization  of  western  Europe,  while 
the  idea  of  the  revival  of  the  Christian  Roman 
empire  was  to  be  taken  up  by  other  sections 
of  the  Germanic  race.  Though  the  circum- 
stances of  his  time  prevented  him  from  being 
the  founder  of  a  new  epoch  in  history,  like 
Caesar  or  Alexander,  yet,  in  the  greatness  of  his 
character,  in  his  marvelous  many-sided 
activity,  and  [in  the  magic  influence  of  his 
name  on  subsequent  generations,  he  was  equal 
to  either. 

It  has  been  intimated  that  Charlemagne 
was  personally  almost  the  equal  of  Caesar,  and 
occupied  an  even  superior  position.  The 
enormous  advantage  given  to  a  man  of 
supreme  genius,  who  is  placed  by  birth  on  a 
throne  of  undoubted  legitimacy,  enabled  him 
to  dispense  with  the  struggles  which  cost 
Caesar  forty  years  of  life.    Of  all  the  mighty 


IN  POLITICS 


4U 


chiefs  who  have  formed  the  course  of  human 
civilization,  Charlemagne  yields  only  to 
Caesar  in  greatness,  and  in  moral  elevation  of 
nature  is  surpassed  by  Alfred  the  Great  alone. 
The  instinct  of  mankind  for  one  thousand 
years  has  marked  him  out  as  the  great  hero 
of  the  modern  world,  and  has  indelibly 
stamped  his  supremacy  on  his  very  name. 

No  man  that  ever  hved  combined,  in  so 
high  a  degree,  those  qualities  which  rule  men 
and  direct  events  with  those  which  endear  the 
possessor  and  attach  his  contemporaries.  No 
man  was  ever  more  trusted  and  loved  by  his 
people,  more  respected  and  feared  by  other 
kings,  more  esteemed  in  his  lifetime,  or  more 
regretted  at  his  death.  And  we  end  by  saying 
with  Gibbon:  "The  appellation  of  great  has 
been  often  bestowed,  and  sometimes  deserved ; 
but  Charlemagne  is  the  only  prince  in  whose 


favor  the  title  has  been  indiaeolubly  bleoded 
with  the  name.  That  name,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  saint,  is  inserted  in  the  Roman  calen- 
dar; and  the  saint,  by  a  rare  felicity,  is 
crowned  with  the  praises  of  the  historians  and 
philosophers  of  an  enlightened  age.  His  real 
merit  is  doubtless  enhanced  by  the  barbarism 
of  the  nation  and  the  times  from  which  he 
emerged.  The  dignity  of  his  person,  the 
length  of  his  reign,  the  prosperity  of  his  aims, 
the  vigor  of  his  government,  and  the  revermoe 
of  distant  nations  distinguish  him  from  the 
royal  crowd;  and  Europe  dates  a  new  era 
from  his  restoration  of  the  western  empire. 
That  empire  was  not  unworthy  of  its  title; 
and  some  of  the  fairest  kingdoms  of  Europe 
were  the  patrimony  or  conquest  of  a  prince 
who  reigned  at  the  same  time  in  France,  Spain, 
Italy,  Germany,  and  Hungary." 


ALFRED  THE  GREAT 


849 
868 

871 
875 
878 


Bom  at  Wantage,  England,    .    .    . 

Assisted  in  repelling  the  Danes; 
married, 

Succeeded  to  the  crown, 

Defeated  Danes  at  sea, 

Dispossessed  of  kingdom  by  Danes 
under  Guthrum;  restored  to 
throne  by  peace  of  Wedmore,    . 


19 
22 
26 


29 


886         Sovereign  of  all  England;     began 

to  rebuild  London 37 

888  Began  his  Anglo-Saxon  transla- 
tions,             39 

893-97  Wars    against    Northmen,    under 

Hastings, 44-48 

897         Final  defeat  of  Danw, 48 

901         Died,  and  buried  at  Winchester,    .         62 


A  LFRED  THE  GREAT,  the  most  illustrious 
'^*-  of  all  the  British  rulers,  was  born  in 
Wantage,  Berkshire,  England,  in  the  year 
849.  He  was  the  grandson  of  the  great 
Egbert,  who  had  before  his  death  been  rec- 
ognized as  over-lord  of  all  the  English  king- 
doms, and  the  fourth  and  youngest  son  of 
Ethelwulf  by  his  wife  Osbtu-ga,  of  the  race 
of  Cerdic. 

Alfred  was  the  favorite  son,  and  in  his 
fifth  year  was  sent  to  Rome,  and  there 
presented  as  the  future  king  to  Pope  Leo 
IV.  Two  years  later  he  was  again  at  Rome 
with  his  father  and  remained  there  a  year. 
Egbert,  Alfred's  grandfather  and  predecessor, 
spent  two  years  at  the  court  of  Charles. 
Alfred  was  brought  up  in  part  by  his  step- 
mother, Judith,  daughter  of  Charles  the 
Bald,  grandson  of  Charlemagne.  He  was 
thus  essentially  Europeanized,  with  all  the 
knowledge,  culture,  and  traditions  of  the 
great  Frank  courts..  In  his  twentieth  year 
he  married.  Whatever  may  have  been  his 
father's    intention,    Alfred    saw    his    three 


brothers  successively  crowned  before  him- 
self; but  on  the  death  of  Ethelred,  last  of 
the  three,  he  was  declared  king  in  871. 

It  was  a  rough  and  troublous  time.  The 
events  of  three  centuries  earlier  were  repeat- 
ing themselves.  The  Northmen,  now  called 
the  Danes,  had  for  thirty  or  forty  years  been 
again  making  descents  upon  the  English 
coasts,  and  renewing  all  the  old  horrors  <rf 
piratical  warfare. 

Alfred  had  taken  active  part  with  Ethehed 
in  the  conflict  in  868,  and  now  his  most 
pressing  duty  was  to  continue  it.  In  the 
first  year  of  his  reign  he  fought  nine  battles 
with  the  Danes,  apparently  unvictorious; 
for  he  was  obliged  to  make  peace  with  them, 
and  could  not  prevent  their  overrunning  the 
rest  of  the  country  and  making  their  winter 
quarters  in  London. 

In  875  Alfred  defeated  the  Danes  at  sea, 
and  the  next  year  had  to  again  make  peace 
with  them  at  Wareham.  They  then  took 
Exeter,  and  the  Welsh  joined  them.  The 
city  was  retaken  by  Alfred  in  877 ;  but  soon 


486 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


afterward  the  invaders,  under  Guthrum,  com- 
pletely overran  the  whole  kingdom  of  the 
West  Saxons. 

Alfred,  no  longer  able  to  collect  an  effective 
army,  was  obliged  to  seek  security  in  the 
hills  and  forests,  and  for  some  time  found 
refuge  in  a  cowherd's  hut.  He  still,  however, 
kept  up  some  communication  with  his  friends, 
and  as  soon  as  the  people  began  once  more 
to  arm  against  the  Danes,  he  built  a  strong- 
hold on  an  elevation  or  island  —  still  known 
as  Athelney,  the  "island  of  the  nobles,"  or 
the  "royal  island" — amid  the  marshes  of 
Somersetshire,  to  which  he  summoned  his 
faithful  followers.  From  this  fortress  he 
made  frequent  successful  sallies  against  the 
enemy,  and  after  a  comparatively  short  time 
he  found  himself  at  the  head  of  a  considerable 
army,  with  which  he  totally  routed  them  in 
a  great  victory  at  Ethandun,  near  Edington, 
in  Wiltshire.  After  holding  out  for  some 
time  in  a  stronghold  to  which  they  had 
retreated,  the  invaders  capitulated.  By  the 
peace  of  Wcdmore  in  878,  Alfred  accepted 
hostages  and  their  solemn  oath  to  quit  his 
territory  of  Wessex,  and  receive  baptism. 
Their  king,  Guthrum,  was  baptized  with 
thirty  of  his  followers,  and  ever  after  proved 
faithful  in  his  allegiance  to  Alfred. 

After  this  decisive  victory  the  power  of 
Alfred  steadily  increased,  both  by  land  and 
sea  —  for  already  he  had  built  England's 
first  fleet  —  he  beat  the  Danes  in  nimierous 
battles,  and  gradually  their  possessions  were 
confined  to  the  northern  and  eastern  coasts. 
In  886  Alfred,  without  any  formal  installa- 
tion, became  recognized  as  the  sovereign  of 
all  England,  a  title  to  which  he  had  proved 
his  right  by  the  most  indisputable  arguments. 
During  the  ensuing  years  of  peace  he  rebuilt 
the  cities  that  had  suffered  most  during  the 
war,  particularly  London;  erected  new  for- 
tresses, and  trained  the  people  to  the  use  of 
arms;  at  the  same  time  he  encouraged  hus- 
bandry and  other  useful  arts,  and  founded 
those  wise  laws  and  institutions  which  con- 
tributed so  much  to  the  future  greatness  and 
welfare  of  England. 

He  saw,  also,  as  Charlemagne  saw,  that  the 
sole  guarantee  for  the  incorporation  of  the 
Northmen  with  European  civilization  was 
their  conversion  to  Christianity.  The  whole 
kingdom  was  divided  into  military  districts, 
each  bound  to  supply  its  warriors  to  defend 
the  country.  He  then  began  to  create  a 
navy;    and  he  is  thus  the  founder  of  the 


English  maritime  power.  Having  secured 
the  kingdom  within  and  without,  Alfred 
applied  himself  to  the  strict  enforcement  of 
justice,  and  to  the  formation  of  a  sort  of 
common  law,  founded  on  the  laws  of  Ina  and 
Offa,  the  ten  commandments  and  some  other 
parts  of  the  laws  of  Moses  being  added  to  it. 
The  administration  of  justice  was  reformed, 
and  as  far  as  possible  the  "wild  injustice  of 
revenge  "  was  suppressed. 

Alfred  had  the  insight  into  character  which 
guided  him  well  in  selecting  the  right  men  to 
assist  him.  All  his  desires  and  all  his  energies 
were  concentrated  on  his  task  of  promoting 
the  welfare  of  his  people.  William  of  Malmes- 
bury,  with  enthusiastic  exaggeration,  declared 
that  "a  purse  of  money,  or  a  pair  of  golden 
bracelets,"  might  in  Alfred's  day  be  exposed 
for  weeks  in  complete  safety  on  the  common 
highways.  Alfred  is  also  said  —  though  erro- 
neously, as  is  now  believed  —  to  have  been 
the  author  of  "trial  by  jury." 

But  the  most  distinguishing  feature  in 
Alfred's  career  was  his  zeal  for  learning  —  a 
zeal  which  quite  equaled  that  of  Charlemagne. 
Alfred,  however,  surpassed  Charlemagne  in 
literary  accomplishments.  At  the  age  of 
twelve,  we  are  told,  the  Saxon  prince  learned 
to  read,  and  through  life  carried  a  book  in 
his  bosom  for  daily  study.  He  delighted  in 
the  old  Saxon  poems,  which  he  caused  to  be 
collected  and  recited.  He  established  and 
directed  a  school  for  young  nobles ;  had  other 
schools  founded,  and  summoned  scholarly 
men  from  France  —  among  them  the  learned 
Grimbald  from  St.  Omer  —  to  teach  in  them. 
He  founded  abbeys,  and  strove  to  effect  the 
education  of  his  people. 

But  he  was  not  merely  a  promoter  of 
learning;  he  was  himself  a  scholar  and  a 
teacher.  About  888  he  began  the  translation 
and  adaptation  of  four  most  important  works 
in  Latin  —  the  "Compilation  of  Orosius,"  the 
one  accessible  book  of  universal  history,  the 
"History"  of  Bede,  the  "Consolation"  of 
Boethius,  and  the  "Pastoral "  of  Pope  Gregory. 
With  these  translations  by  Alfred  the  Great, 
English  prose  literature  begins.  And  with 
the  English  Chronicle,  which  took  its  final 
shape  in  his  reign,  possibly  under  his  hand  to 
some  extent,  English  history  begins.  The 
Chronicle,  says  John  Richard  Green,  is  "the 
first  vernacular  history  of  any  Teutonic 
people,  the  earliest  and  most  venerable  monu- 
ment of  Teutonic  prose."  Alfred  is  thus  at 
once  the  creator  of  English  prose  Uterature, 


IN   POLITICS 


487 


as  he  is  the  founder  of  England  as  a  nation  — 
of  its  laws,  its  government,  its  navy,  and  its 
national  consciousness. 

Alfred,  however,  had  more  fighting  to  do 
yet.  In  893  a  large  body  of  Danes  under 
Hastings  landed  in  Kent,  and  fresh  strug- 
gles tasked  his  energies  for  several  years. 
They  were  defeated  by  Alfred  at  Farnham; 
by  Ethelred  at  Bemfleet;  were  besieged  in 
Chester,  and  driven  away;  and,  in  897,  they 
broke  up  their  army  and  the  war  was  virtually 
ended.  The  war  was  accompanied  and  fol- 
lowed by  a  pestilence  which  caused  a  great 
mortality,  disheartening  the  people  more  than 
the  war  had  done. 

During  his  whole  reign  Alfred  exhibited  an 
intense  and  many-sided  activity;  he  prac- 
tically put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  whole 
active  hfe  of  his  people  —  military,  civil, 
judicial,  industrial,  artistic,  intellectual,  and 
religious.  He  sent  a  ship  on  a  voyage  of 
discovery  to  the  North  sea,  and  despatched 
missions  to  Jerusalem  and  to  Rome.  He 
made  Winchester  what  Charlemagne  made 
Aix-la-Chapelle — the  center  of  intelligence, 
art,  and  culture  for  these  northern  islands. 
He  encouraged  foreign  traders,  and  intro- 
duced continental  artificers  and  artists. 

After  a  busy  reign  of  thirty  years  he  died 
October  28,  901,  in  his  fifty-second  year,  and 
was  buried  in  the  Old  Minster  of  Winchester ; 
thence  his  body  was  removed  to  the  New 
Minster,  and  afterward  to  Hyde  abbey,  long 
since  destroyed.  No  man  now  can  point  to  the 
burying  place  of  the  noblest  of  Englishmen. 
His  eldest  surviving  son,  Edward,  succeeded 
him. 

In  1693  a  beautiful  specimen  of  gold 
enameled  work,  bearing  the  inscription, 
"Alfred  had  me  made,"  was  found  near  the 
place  of  his  retreat  at  Athelney.  It  is  known 
as  "Alfred's  jewel,"  and  is  kept  in  the 
Ashmolean  museum  at  Oxford. 

On  September  18,  1901,  the  thousandth 
anniversary  of  Alfred  w^as  celebrated  at 
Winchester,  the  capital  of  his  Anglo-Saxon 
kingdom.  Numerous  distinguished  men 
from  the  English-speaking  countries  of  the 
world  participated  in  the  commemorative 
exercises.  On  the  20th  of  the  same  month 
a  colossal  statue  of  this  noble  king  —  the 
work  of  Thornycroft  —  was  unveiled,  and 
a  memorial  oration  delivered  by  Lord 
Rosebery.  About  the  same  time  various 
exercises  were  held,  also,  throughout  our 
own  coimtry  and  Canada  in  celebration  of 


the  millenary  of  "  the  founder  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  race." 

The  career  of  Alfred  was,  in  many  respects, 
very  similar  to  that  of  Charlemagne.  He 
reproduced  his  work  exactly  on  a  smaller 
scale,  but  in  even  more  jx;rfect  form.  The 
field  of  his  wars  and  his  government  was, 
indeed,  small.  But  his  conduct  in  peace  as 
in  war  displays  the  true  eye  of  genius  and  the 
heroism  of  the  bom  creator  of  nations.  "  So 
long  as  I  have  hved,"  wrote  Alfred  himself, 
"  I  have  striven  to  live  worthily,  in  hopes  to 
leave  to  the  men  that  come  after  a  remem- 
brance of  me  in  good  works."  It  is,  therefore, 
not  siu-prising  that  the  great  ser^'ice8  of  Alfred 
in  peace  and  in  war  should  have  led  posterity 
to  ascribe  every  English  institution,  of  which 
the  beginning  was  obscure,  to  his  contrivance. 

"Alfred's  life,"  says  a  distinguished  histo- 
rian, "was  one  long  battle-day,  his  kingdom 
was  one  wide  battle-field,  and  his  subjects 
were  half-tamed  barbarians.  In  the  midst  of 
all  these  untoward  circumstances,  he  had 
grown  up  a  civilized  king  and  a  Christian.  It 
seemed  as  if  the  light  of  heaven  had  left  the 
rest  of  the  world  in  darkness,  and  had  fallen 
upon  him  alone.  Whenever  there  came  a  lull 
in  the  midst  of  his  lifelong  warfare,  he  strove 
to  enlighten  his  benighted  country.  He 
established  schools;  he  brought  over  learned 
men  from  the  continent  to  be  the  teachers; 
and  he  insisted  that  the  noblemen's  sons 
should  attend  as  pupils.  And  meanwhile 
he  himself  became  an  earnest  student.  We 
can  imagine  him  in  a  room  of  a  rough  wooden 
fort,  poring  over  his  books  and  papers. 
Within  reach  of  his  hand  lie  his  weapons  and 
armor.  That  he  may  be  able  to  note  the 
time,  a  tall  candle  marked  off  into  inches 
bums  before  him.  That  the  candle  may  not 
be  wasted  by  the  draughts  which  come  blowing 
through  the  seams  of  the  wooden  walls,  it  is 
protected  by  a  lantern.  In  course  of  time 
two  or  three  churchmen  with  shaven  crowns 
are  ushered  in ;  and  they  help  him  to  construe 
the  meaning  of  some  useful  Latin  author,  and 
to  write  it  down  in  Saxon  for  the  benefit  of  his 
people." 

He  is  perhaps  the  only  man  of  action 
recorded  in  history  of  whom  no  defect  of 
character  and  no  crime  is  known.  All  the 
anecdotes  represent  him  as  a  perfect  hero,  of 
dauntless  courage,  of  romantic  magnanimity, 
of  intense  piety,  and  entire  simplicity;  with 
exquisite  geniaUty,  grace,  and  imfailing 
sweetness.    He  almost  equals  Ceesar,  Charle- 


438 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


magne,  and  Frederick  in  genius  for  war  and 
for  organization,  and  far  surpasses  them  all 
in  purity  and  moral  beauty.  In  foresight, 
tenacity,  and  practical  sagacity,  he  is  the  peer 
of  Richelieu,  Cromwell,  and  William  the 
Silent,  while  he  stands  alone  in  saintly  sim- 
plicity, serenity,  and  perfection  of  every 
moral  grace  and  charm.    He  was  a  saint 


without  superstition,  imbecility,  or  fanaticism ; 
a  sagacious  ruler  who  never  sacrificed  a 
principle;  an  enthusiastic  student  who  never 
ceased  to  be  a  king. 

What  Aristides  was  to  the  Greeks,  St.  Louis 
to  the  French,  Washington  to  the  Americans, 
that  Alfred  was  to  the  English :  their  saint, 
their  demigod,  their  perfect  model  of  virtue. 


CHARLES  V. 


A.  D. 

1500 
1516 
1519 
1521 
1525 

1527 

1529 
1535 
1538 


Bom  at  Ghent,  Belgium,  .... 

Crowned  king  of  Spain,      ....  16 

Emperor  of  Germany, 19 

Presided  at  the  diet  of  Worms,    .  21 
Contest    with    Francis    I.    began; 

Francis  made  prisoner  at  Pavia,  25 
Storms  Rome  and  imprisons  Pope 

Clement  VII., 27 

Peace  of  Cambrai, 29 

Captured  Tunis, 35 

Armistice  with  France, 38 


A.  D.  AGS 

1640         Visited  Francis  I.  in  Paris,    ...  40 

1542         War  renewed  with  France,    ...  42 

1544         Peace  of  Creapy, 44 

1548         Attempted  to  reconcile  Catholics 

and  Protestants, 48 

1552         Abandoned  siege  of  Metz,      ...  52 

1564-56  Abdicated  his  thrones, 54-50 

1666         Retired  to  the  monastery  of  St. 

Yuste,  Spain, 56 

1558         Died  at  St.  Yuste, 58 


/^HARLES  v.,  emperor  of  Germany,  and 
^-^  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  was  born  at  Ghent,  East 
Flanders  —  now  part  of  Belgium  —  February 
24,  1500.  He  was  the  son  of  Philip,  arch- 
duke of  Austria,  and  of  Joanna,  only  child 
of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  sovereigns  re- 
spectively of  Aragon  and  Castile.  Philip, 
as  the  son  of  Mary  of  Burgundy,  was  ruler 
of  the  Netherlands;  and  on  his  death,  in 
1506,"  Charles  inherited  those  provinces  and 
Franche-Comt6.  Ten  years  later,  in  1516, 
on  the  death  of  his  grandfather,  Ferdinand, 
he  succeeded  to  the  crowns  of  Aragon  and 
Castile,  under  the  title  of  Charles  I.  of 
Spain,  with  all  their  possessions  both  in  the 
old  and  the  new  world,  among  these  the 
kingdoms  of  Naples  and  Sicily.  And,  in 
1519,  on  the  death  of  his  other  grand- 
father, Maximilian,  Charles  was  elected 
German  emperor  from  a  number  of  com- 
petitors, chiefly  through  the  influence  of 
Elector  Frederick  of  Saxony. 

Charles  was  brought  up  and  educated  in  the 
Netherlands,  under  William  de  Croy,  lord  of 
Chi^vres.  His  education  was  very  complete 
and  tended  to  make  him  rather  a  German  in 
spirit  than  a  Spaniard.  In  his  earlier  years 
he  was  frivolous  and  dissolute ;  but  when  he 
fully  realized  the  duties  and  dignities  of  his 
high  position,  he  entered  upon  them  with  rare 
steadfastness  and  energy.  It  was  only  after 
some   delay   and   with   reluctance   that   he 


quitted  the  country  of  his  birth  and  went  to 
Spain  in  1517.  Nor  was  he  very  favorably 
received  by  the  Spanish  nobles  who  were 
doubtful  of  his  right  and  jealous  of  the  fol- 
lowers whom  he  brought  from  the  low 
countries.  All  the  abilities  of  his  famous 
minister,  Ximenes,  were  requisite  to  prevent 
an  open  revolt. 

In  1520  he  returned  from  Spain  to  Ger- 
many ;  on  October  23d  of  that  year  he  was 
formally  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and 
received  from  the  pope  the  title  of  Roman 
emperor.  On  his  way  he  landed  at  Dover, 
England,  and  was  accorded  an  interview  with 
Henry  VIII.,  and  his  celebrated  minister  of 
state,  Wolsey.  It  was  the  year  in  which 
Luther  burned  the  pope's  bull,  and  Solyman 
the  Magnificent  became  sultan  of  the  Otto- 
mans: two  formidable  powers  with  which 
Charles  would  have  to  reckon. 

The  reign  of  Charles  V.  almost  exactly  coin- 
cides with  the  period  of  the  great  religious 
revolution  which  changed  the  relations  of 
many  of  the  states  of  Europe  to  the  see  of 
Rome  and  to  each  other,  and  put  a  new  face 
on  the  western  world.  At  the  time  of  his 
birth  all  western  Europe  was  in  communion 
with  the  Roman  church.  Before  he  died  a 
large  part  of  western  Europe  had  separated 
from  that  communion,  and  the  various 
churches  were  also  widely  separated  from 
each  other.  In  the  long  complicated  series  of 
actions   and   events  which  resulted  in   this 


FRANCIS    I.       CHARLES   V. 

CHARLES  V.  AND   FRANCIS  1.  AT  ST.  DENIS 

From  the  painting  by  A.  J.  Grot 


IN  POLITICS 


441 


change,  Charles  V.  was  one  of  the  five  or  six 
most  prominent  actors. 

The  vast  extent  of  his  dominions,  the  wealth 
at  his  command,  and  the  dignity  of  emperor 
made  his  position  the  most  splendid  in 
Christendom.  His  power  was  greater  than 
that  of  any  other  emperor  since  Charlemagne, 
and  he  was  the  last  great  emperor.  If  we 
take  Luther  as  representative  of  the  forces  of 
the  reformation,  Charles  V.  may  well  stand  as 
representative  of  the  forces  which  opposed  it. 

The  life  of  Charles  V.  naturally  divides  itself 
into  three  distinct  portions.  The  first, 
extending  from  his  birth  to  his  coronation  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  is  the  period  of  growth, 
acquisition,  and  ascent ;  the  second,  from  the 
breaking  out  of  the  war  with  his  rival,  Francis 
I.,  to  his  flight  from  Innsbruck,  or  his  aban- 
donment of  the  siege  of  Metz  a  year  later,  is 
full  of  action,  conflict,  and  endeavor ;  and  the 
third,  including  the  last  five  years  of  his  life, 
with  its  successive  resignations  of  dominion, 
its  last  scenes  in  the  cloister  of  St.  Yuste,  is 
the  period  of  decline  and  disappointment. 

Charles  ascended  the  imperial  throne  at  a 
time  when  Germany  was  in  a  state  of  unprece- 
dented agitation  concerning  the  doctrines 
proclaimed  by  Luther.  To  restore  tranquil- 
lity, a  great  diet  was  held  at  Worms  in  1521, 
at  which  he  presided.  Luther's  declaration  of 
his  principles  before  this  diet  forms  a  well- 
known  and  most  important  passage  in  the 
history  of  the  reformation.  In  1522  he  re- 
duced to  subjection  the  towns  of  Castile, 
which  had  leagued  themselves  together  for  the 
maintenance  of  their  ancient  liberties.  He 
was  likewise  successful  in  his  war  against  the 
Turks  under  Sol5ntnan  the  Magnificent,  and  in 
the  struggle  of  long  duration  with  France,  in 
which,  after  many  alterations  of  fortune,  his 
armies  at  last  drove  the  French  from  the 
greater  part  of  their  conquests  in  Italy. 
Francis  I.  of  France  fell  into  his  hands  as  a 
prisoner,  after  a  battle  by  which  the  siege  of 
Pavia  was  raised  on  February  24,  1525. 

The  pope,  however,  began  to  grow  alarmed 
at  his  victories,  and  therefore  allied  himself 
with  France  and  the  principal  Italian  states, 
and  released  the  king  of  France  from  the 
obligations  under  which  he  had  come  by  his 
treaty  with  Charles.  It  was  the  pope's 
object  to  exclude  Charles  from  all  dominion 
in  Italy;  but  the  emperor's  forces  imder 
Charles  of  Bourbon,  the  former  constable  of 
France,  took  Rome  itself  by  storm  in  1527, 
plundered  it,  and  made  the  pope  prisoner. 


Charles  pretended  great  regret  for  this,  went 
into  mourning  with  all  his  court,  and  cauaad 
prayers  to  be  said  for  the  pope's  libentum, 
while  by  his  own  directions  the  pope  was  kept 
for  seven  months  a  captive.  Peace  was  con- 
cluded at  Cambrai  in  1529  with  the  pope  and 
with  France,  on  terms  most  favorable  for  the 
emperor,  and  in  1530  ho  was  crowned  at 
Bologna  king  of  Lombardy  and  emperor. 

He  now  thought  to  put  an  end  to  the  reli- 
gious diflferences  in  Germany,  and  to  repel  the 
Turks,  who  had  overrun  Hungary  and  laid 
siege  to  Vienna.  But  the  diet  at  Augsburg 
in  1530  proved  how  vain  was  the  hojie  of 
restoring  the  former  state  of  things  in  Ger- 
many ;  and  the  emperor  refusing  to  recognize 
the  confession  of  the  Protestants,  they 
refused  to  help  him  against  the  Turks.  In 
1531  the  Protestant  princes  formed  the 
league  of  Smalcald,  and  allied  themselves 
with  France  and  England  for  their  own  pro- 
tection. This,  and  the  continued  assault^  of 
the  Turks,  compelled  the  emperor  to  jrield  in 
some  measure  to  the  demands  of  the  Protes- 
tants. The  emperor  then  marched  against 
the  Turks ;  but  the  sultan  could  not  face  the 
emperor,  and  retired  within  his  own  domin- 
ions. 

Previous  to  this,  troubles  had  also  sprung 
up  in  Spain,  discontent  possessing  the  nobles, 
the  clergy,  and  the  conunons.  The  last  were 
for  a  time  supported  and  ultimately  aban- 
doned by  the  two  former  classes,  and  Padilla, 
leader  of  the  commons,  was  executed.  In 
1535  Charles  undertook  an  expedition  from 
Spain  against  the  pirate  Barbarossa,  who  had 
established  himself  in  Tunis,  and  whose  ves- 
sels did  prodigious  injury  to  the  commerce  of 
Spain  and  Italy.  In  this  expedition  he  was 
completely  successful,  and  set  free  no  fewer 
than  twenty-two  thousand  Christians,  who 
had  been  held  as  slaves. 

After  his  return  war  was  renewed  with 
France.  A  peace  was  patched  up  in  1538  in 
the  form  of  an  armistice  that  was  to  last  for 
ten  years,  but  it  was  broken  in  1542,  Betwe«i 
these  years  a  revolt  broke  out  in  Ghent,  and 
Charles  hastened  in  person  to  suppress  it. 
He  stripped  the  town  of  all  its  privil^es,  held 
another  diet  in  Germany,  and  even  visited 
Francis  I.  in  person  in  Paris.  In  1541  he 
conducted  against  the  pirates  of  Algiers  a 
fleet  which  was  utterly  wrecked  by  storms. 
The  war  with  Francis  about  Milan  went  on 
again  for  three  years ;  the  Turkish  fleet  win- 
tered at  Toulon,  whereat  Henry  VIII.  was 


442 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


8o  indignant  that  he  concerted  with  Charles 
an  invasion  of  France.  This  forced  Francis 
to  make  the  unfavorable  peace  of  Crespy  in 
1544,  whereby  the  contemplated  invasion  of 
Henry  VIII.  was  suddenly  frustrated. 

At  the  close  of  the  next  year  the  council  of 
Trent  met,  and  two  months  later  Luther  died 
—  February,  1546.    Charles  had  always  been 
hostile  to  the  Lutheran  movement,  both  as 
being  generally  subversive  and  as  tending  to 
make  the  princes  and  cities  of  the  empire  j 
more    independent   of    its    head.     Unity   of  i 
religion  appeared  to  him  —  as  to  every  one ' 
else  at  that  time  —  indispensable.    What  the  ' 
doctrines  should  be  was  in  his  eyes  of  minor  j 
importance.    Accordingly   he   had   procured 
the  convocation  of  the  council  of  Trent  in  the 
hope  that  some  compromise  could  be  effected 
between  the  pope  and  the  Lutherans.    The 
latter  refused  to  take  part  in  it,  however,  and 
rose  in  arms  the  same  year.    Charles  defeated 
them  at  Miihlberg  and  took  prisoners  Fred- 
erick, elector  of  Saxony,  and  Philip,  landgrave 
of  Hesse,  April,  1547.     He  gave  the  electorate 
to  Maurice,   a  kinsman   of   Frederick,   who 
played  him  false  for  some  years,  and,  in  1552, 
put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Protestants  and 
narrowly  missed  capturing  Charles  at  Inns- 
bruck. 

While  the  council  at  Trent  seemingly 
made  Catholic  and  Protestant  union  impos- 
sible, Charles  was  still  aiming  at  it ;  and  at  the 
diet  of  Augsburg  in  1548  he  published  the 
"Interim,"  a  project  of  a  common  platform, 
rejected  by  both  parties.  Freedom  of  wor- 
ship was  at  last  granted  to  the  Protestants  by 
the  treaty  of  Passau,  in  1552,  and  confirmed 
three  years  later  by  the  "peace  of  religion" 
at  Augsburg. 

In  1552  Henry  II.  of  France  had  seized  the 
three  bishoprics  of  the  empire,  Metz,  Toul,  and 
Verdun.  Charles  led  an  army  to  Metz  to 
retake  it ;  but  after  a  siege  of  three  months  he 
failed,  and  withdrew.  This  was  his  last 
appearance  in  the  field.  Metz  remained  in  the 
hands  of  the  French  until  recovered  by  the 
Germans  in  the  war  of  1870-71. 

The  emperor's  task  was  now  well-nigh  done. 
His  main  aim  in  life  had  been  hopelessly 
crossed;  his  health  was  broken  by  care  and 
toil,  and  energy  and  hope  were  gone.  To 
him,  "inheritor  of  church  predilections 
colored  with  a  rehgious  melancholy,"  it  would 
seem  quite  natural  to  end  his  days  in  monastic 
seclusion.  Something  like  a  final  flicker  of 
hope  appeared  in  his  suggestion  in  1554  to 


his  son,  Philip,  of  a  marriage  with  Mary, 
Queen  of  England  —  once  his  own  marriage 
with  her  had  seemed  possible.  The  marriage 
took  place,  but  it  was  childless.  Thenceforth 
the  tale  is  of  honors  one  by  one  stripped  off, 
and  of  burdens  one  by  one  dropped. 

First,  in  1554,  he  gave  up  the  kingdom  of 
Naples  and  the  duchy  of  Milan  to  Philip ;  the 
next  year,  in  a  grand  pathetic  way  in  the  hall 
of  the  estates  at  Brussels,  he  resigned  to  him 
the  Netherlands ;  he  was  ill,  and  leaning  on  the 
young  prince  of  Orange  —  to  be  known  by- 
and-by  as  William  the  Silent  —  made  a  short 
and  touching  speech,  weeping  the  while.  His 
mother  had  died  six  months  before.  In  Janu- 
ary, 1556,  Spain  and  the  Indies  passed  into  the 
same  hands,  and  in  the  following  August  the 
imperial  dignity  was  renounced  and  the 
crown  sent  to  his  brother,  Ferdinand. 

In  September,  Charles,  accompanied  by  his 
two  sisters,  Eleanor  and  Mary,  both  queens, 
quitted  the  Netherlands  and  returned  to 
Spain  a  few  weeks  after  the  death  of  Ignatius 
Loyola.  And  then,  worldly  ambition  and 
aims  all  over,  he  sought  repose  in  the  seques- 
tered monastery  of  St.  Yuste,  near  Plasencia, 
in  Estremadura. 

In  the  cloistered  shades  Charles  took  little 
interest  in  the  world  he  had  quitted;  but  he 
still  remained  hostile  to  the  reformation, 
and  exhorted  his  children  to  resist  it.  In  the 
closing  weeks  of  his  life,  when  mind  and  body 
were  failing  together,  he  fell  into  deeper  and 
deeper  melancholy  and  the  practice  of  njonas- 
tic  austerities.  It  is  said  that  he  had  his  own 
obsequies  performed  in  his  presence  in  the 
chapel.  Here  he  died,  at  the  convent  of  St. 
Yuste,  September  21,  1558. 

Charles  V.  was  undoubtedly  the  greatest 
monarch  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and 
occupied  the  most  prominent  place  in  its 
annals.  He  was  both  a  consummate  politician 
and  a  brave  soldier.  He  was  alike  bold  and 
sagacious  —  cautious  in  the  extreme  in 
forming  his  plans,  and  prompt  as  well  as 
indomitably  firm  and  p)ersevering  in  carrying 
them  into  execution.  He  possessed  great 
skill  in  reading  character,  and  in  selecting 
counsellors  and  generals  whose  abilities  were 
admirably  adapted  for  the  duty  intrusted  to 
them. 

In  spite  of  his  plegmatic  temperament  and 
reserved  disposition,  he  was  good-humored, 
easy,  and  affable  in  his  manners,  and  was 
always  a  favorite  with  the  multitude.  But 
his  ambition  was  insatiable,  and  his  policy 


IN  POLITICS 


MS 


scheming  and  insidious.  This  made  him 
selfish  and  suspicious,  and  he  was  not  infre- 
quently as  ignoble  in  his  rivalries  and  aims  as 
he  was  unscrupulous  in  the  means  which  he 
adopted  to  obtain  success. 

Though  he  labored  zealously  to  uphold  the 
Catholic  faith,  he  showed  no  fanaticism  while 
he  wielded  the  scepter.  By  his  queen,  Isabella, 
daughter  of  Emmanuel  of  Portugal,  a  princess 
of  great  beauty  and  accomplishments,  Charles 
had  one  son,  Phihp  II.,  who  succeeded  him, 
and  two  daughters. 

"Spain,"  says  Lord  Bolingbroke,  "figured 
little  in  Europe  till  the  latter  part  of  the 
fifteenth  century  —  till  Castile  and  Aragon 
were  united  by  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,  till  the  total  expulsion  of  the 
Moors,  and  till  the  discovery  of  the  West 
Indies.  After  this,  not  only  Spain  took  a 
new  form,  and  grew  into  immense  power,  but 
the  heir  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  being  heir 
likewise  of  the  houses  of  Burgundy  and 
Austria,  such  an  extent  of  dominion  accrued 


to  him  by  all  these  Buooeanons,  and  such  an 
addition  of  rank  and  authority  by  his  deo- 
tion  to  the  empire,  as  no  prince  had  been 
master  of  in  Europe  from  the  days  of  Charles 
the  Great." 

To  which  the  distinguished  biographer  of 
Charles  V.— Robertson  —  adds :  "It  was 
during  his  administration  that  the  powers  of 
Europe  were  formed  into  one  great  political 
system,  in  which  each  took  a  station,  wherein 
it  has  since  remained  with  less  variation  than 
could  have  been  expected  after  the  shocks 
occasioned  by  so  many  internal  revolutions 
and  so  many  foreign  wars.  The  great  events 
which  happened  then  have  not  hitherto  spent 
their  force.  The  political  principles  and 
maxims,  then  established,  still  continue  to 
operate.  The  ideas  concerning  the  balance 
of  power,  then  introduced  or  rendered  general, 
still  influence  the  councils  of  nations.  The 
age  of  Charles  V.  may  therefore  be  considered 
as  the  period  at  which  the  political  state  of 
Europe  began  to  assume  a  new  form." 


GROTIUS 


A.  D. 

1583 
1595 
1598 
1599 

1607 
1608 
1613 

1619 


Bom  at  Delft,  Holland,         

Entered  the  university  of  Leyden,  .    .  12 

Doctorate  at  university  of  Paris. ...  15 
Published  his  first  work ;    admitted  as 

an  advocate, 16 

Advocate  general  for  Holland,      ...  24 

Mare  Liberum, 25 

Judicial  pensionary  of  Rotterdam  for 

life, 30 

Condemned  to  life  imprisonment,    .    .  36 


Aoa 
38 


1621  Escaped  from  prison ;   fled  to  Paris,   . 

1622  Pubhshed  his  '^Apology  " ;  naturalized 

by  French  government, 39 

1625     Completed  De  Jure  Belli  et  Pacia,    .    .     42 

1631     Revisited  Holland, 48 

1635     Resident    ambassador    at    court    of 

France, 52 

1645     Returned  to  Stockholm,  Sweden ;  died 

at  Rostock,  Germany, 62 


"LJUGO  DE  GROOT,  or  Hugo  Grotius, 
•*■•*■  as  he  is  more  generally  designated, 
Dutch  jiu-ist  and  statesman,  and  founder  of 
international  law,  was  born  at  Delft,  Holland, 
April  10,  1583.  On  both  sides  his  family  was 
of  ancient  and  noble  extraction.  His  father, 
John  de  Groot,  was  curator  of  the  university 
of  Leyden,  besides  being  a  lawyer  and  poet  of 
considerable  reputation. 

The  mind  of  Grotius  developed  with 
remarkable  rapidity.  In  his  ninth  year  he 
composed  Latin  verses ;  at  twelve  he  entered 
the  university  of  Leyden;  and  at  fifteen  he 
received  his  doctorate  in  law  from  the  uni- 
versity of  Paris.  His  Martianus  Capella,  a 
prodigy  of  juvenile  learning,  exhibiting  criti- 
cal readings  from  the  works  of  Apuleius, 
Albericus,  Cicero,  Aquila,  Porphyry,  Aristotle, 
Strabo,   Ptolemy,   Pliny,   Euclid,  and  many 


other  ancient  and  modern  authors,  in  different 
languages  and  on  various  subjects,  was  pub- 
lished when  he  was  but  sixteen. 

In  the  following  year  Grotius  published  the 
"Phenomena  of  Aratus,"  an  astronomical 
poem,  written  originally  in  Greek,  and  trans- 
lated into  Latin  by  Cicero,  when  a  very  young 
man.  Part  of  Cicero's  translation  had  been 
lost  in  course  of  time ;  and  in  this  publication 
the  deficiencies  were  supplied  by  Grotius  in 
Latin  verse  with  much  elegance  and  success. 

He  had  always  been  intended  for  the  pro- 
fession of  the  law ;  and  lest  the  allurements  of 
general  literature,  and  the  flattery  of  success- 
ful authorship,  which  had  greatly  withdrawn 
him  from  his  legal  studies,  would  lead  him  to 
renounce  the  employment  for  which  he  was 
designed,  his  father  sought  to  turn  his  thoughts 
into  a  new  channel.    It  happened  that  in  the 


444 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


year  1598  the  celebrated  grand  pensionary, 
Barneveldt,  was  sent  on  an  embassy  from  the 
Dutch  states  to  Henry  IV.  of  France,  for  the 
purpose  of  persuading  him  to  conclude  a  new 
treaty  of  perpetual  alliance  with  Holland  and 
England  against  Spain.  John  de  Groot 
readily  obtained  for  his  son  a  situation  in  the 
suite  of  Barneveldt. 

Grotius  remained  in  France  for  something 
like  a  year,  and  during  that  time  was  treated 
with  marked  distinction  and  respect  by  the 
learned  men  of  that  country.  He  was  also 
graciously  noticed  by  the  king  himself,  who 
gave  him  at  his  departure  his  own  portrait  and 
a  chain  of  gold.  For  some  unexplained 
cause,  Grotius  did  not  upon  this  occasion 
become  acquainted  with  the  famous  French 
historian  and  statesman,  De  Thou ;  but  soon 
after  his  return  to  Delft,  he  wrote  him  a  letter 
accompanied  by  a  copy  of  his  "Aratus." 
From  that  time  until  the  death  of  De  Thou  a 
constant  correspondence  was  maintained 
between  them,  and  Grotius  furnished  many 
notes  and  materials  for  that  part  of  De  Thou's 
history  which  related  to  the  Netherlands  and 
Holland. 

Immediately  after  his  return  from  France 
to  Holland  in  April,  1599,  Grotius  published 
a  treatise  for  the  instruction  of  seamen  in 
ascertaining  the  exact  situation  of  a  ship  at 
sea.  This  work  was  merely  a  translation,  and 
has  been  of  course  long  since  superseded  by 
modern  discoveries;  but  it  is  worthy  of 
remark,  as  a  proof  of  the  extraordinary  ac- 
quirements of  a  youth  of  sixteen,  that  he 
should  have  added  to  his  critical  and  scholastic 
knowledge  so  competent  an  acquaintance 
with  magnetism  and  practical  navigation  as 
the  translation  of  such  a  work  implies. 

In  the  com-se  of  the  same  year  he  enrolled 
himself  on  the  list  of  advocates  at  The  Hague, 
and  commenced  the  actual  practice  of  his 
profession.  In  this  occupation  he  was  emi- 
nently successful,  though  he  always  disliked 
it,  and  lamented  the  time  which  it  claimed 
from  more  congenial  pursuits.  His  reputation 
and  practice,  however,  daily  increased,  and 
in  the  year  1607,  by  the  recommendation  of  the 
courts,  he  was  nominated  by  the  states  of 
Holland  to  the  responsible  office  of  advocate 
general  of  the  provinces  of  Holland  and 
Zealand.  Soon  after  this  appointment  he 
married  Mary  Reygersburgh,  the  daughter  of 
a  wealthy  family  in  Zealand,  with  whom  he 
lived  in  the  most  complete  harmony. 

In  the  year  1608,  while  he  held  the  office 


of  advocate  general,  Grotius  composed  his 
Mare  Liberum,  the  general  design  of  which 
was  to  show,  upon  the  principles  of  the  law 
of  nations,  that  the  sea  was  open  to  all  with- 
out distinction,  and  to  assert  the  right  of  the 
Dutch  states  to  trade  to  the  Indian  seas,  not- 
withstanding the  claim  of  the  Portuguese  to 
an  exclusive  title  to  that  commerce.  Soon 
after  its  appearance,  he  published  a  "Disser- 
tation on  the  Antiquity  of  the  Batavian 
Republic,"  for  which  he  received  the  thanks 
of  the  states  of  Holland,  accompanied  by  a 
present. 

In  1613  he  was  advanced  from  his  practice 
as  an  advocate  to  the  judicial  station  of  pen- 
sionary of  Rotterdam,  which  office  was  given 
him  for  life,  the  usual  tenure  having  been  only 
at  will.  Soon  afterward  a  difference  of 
opinion  having  arisen  between  England  and 
the  states  of  Holland,  respecting  the  rights  of 
fishing  for  whales  in  the  northern  seas, 
Grotius  was  sent  to  England  for  the  purpose 
of  effecting  an  amicable  arrangement  of  the 
dispute.  He  there  became  personally  ac- 
quainted with  Isaac  Casaubon,  the  English 
Protestant  theologian,  with  whom  he  had  pre- 
viously corresponded.  He  was  also  favorably 
noticed  by  the  king  during  his  stay  in  England, 
and  formed  an  intimate  connection  with 
several  of  the  eminent  English  divines  of  that 
day,  which  he  maintained  by  letters  for  many 
years  afterward.  In  the  political  object  of 
his  embassy  he  appears  to  have  failed;  the 
subject  in  dispute  was  resumed  at  Rotterdam 
in  1615  before  commissioners  of  both  coun- 
tries, but  with  no  more  favorable  result  to  the 
Dutch  states. 

Soon  after  his  return  from  England,  Grotius 
became  deeply  involved  in  the  religious  ani- 
mosities which  at  that  time  prevailed  in  Hol- 
land. He  had  adopted  the  principles  of 
Arminius  from  Uitenbogard,  the  instructor  of 
his  early  youth,  and  he  now  zealously  main- 
tained the  doctrines  of  the  Arminian  party  in 
opposition  to  the  tenets  held  by  the  followers 
of  Gomar,  the  Calvinistic  controversialist. 
Frequent  riots  ensued,  attended  with  popular 
demonstration  of  an  alarming  kind.  The 
powerful  city  of  Amsterdam  favored  the 
Gomarists;  and  under  these  circumstances 
the  states  sent  a  deputation,  of  which  Grotius 
was  the  chief,  for  the  purpose  of  converting 
the  town  council  of  that  city  to  their  opinion. 
Upon  this  occasion  Grotius  made  a  judicious 
and  temperate  harangue,  which  was  after- 
ward translated  into  Latin,  and  is  published 


IN  POLITICS 


MS 


among  his  works.    It  was,  however,  unsuc- 
cessful in  its  results. 

In  the  meantime  popular  tumults  continued 
and  increased ;  and  in  this  position  of  affairs 
the  grand  pensionary,  Barneveldt,  proposed 
to  the  states  of  Holland  that  the  magistrates 
of  the  several  revolting  cities  should  be 
authorized  to  levy  soldiers  for  the  purpose 
of  securing  the  public  tranquillity.  The 
representatives  of  several  towns  vehemently 
opposed  this  proposition,  but  it  was  adopted 
after  a  stormy  debate;  and  on  August  4, 
1617,  a  proclamation  was  issued  to  carry  it 
into  execution. 

This  decree  directly  induced  a  train  of  cir- 
cumstances, which  eventually  led  to  the 
death  of  Barneveldt,  and  the  ruin  and  banish- 
ment of  Grotius.  Prince  Maurice  of  Nassau, 
who  was  at  that  time  governor  and  captain- 
general  of  the  united  provinces,  denounced 
it  as  an  act  illegal  and  unjustifiable  in  itself, 
and  an  invasion  of  his  authority.  He 
influenced  the  states-general  to  write  to  the 
magistrates  of  those  provinces  and  cities  which 
had  acted  under  the  decree  by  raising  soldiers, 
commanding  them  to  disband  their  levies. 
Upon  the  refusal  of  many  of  them  to  comply 
with  this  requisition,  he  obtained  authority 
to  proceed  to  the  recusant  cities  and  enforce 
their  obedience. 

The  states  of  Holland  had  in  the  meantime 
sent  Grotius  and  Hoogerbeets,  the  pensionary 
of  Leyden,  for  the  purpose  of  opposing  the 
prince's  commission.  They  stimulated  the 
magistrates  of  the  city  to  resist  the  assumed 
authority  of  the  states-general,  to  increase 
their  militia,  and  to  double  the  guards  at  the 
gates.  They  also  brought  letters  from  the 
states  of  Holland  to  the  officers  of  the  ordinary 
garrison,  persuading  them  that  it  was  their 
duty  to  obey  the  states  of  Utrecht,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  states-general  and  the  prince 
of  Orange.  Notwithstanding  these  prepara- 
tions the  prince  entered  the  city  without 
forcible  resistance,  and,  having  disbanded  the 
new  levies,  displaced  several  magistrates,  and 
arrested  some  of  those  who  had  been  most 
active  in  their  opposition,  retiuning  to  The 
Hague.  Grotius  was  now  satisfied  that  all 
further  attempts  at  opposition  would  be  use- 
less, and  prevailed  upon  the  magistrates  of 
Rotterdam  at  once  to  dismiss  the  levies  under 
the  obnoxious  decree. 

The    prince   of    Orange   and    the    states- 
general  were  highly  incensed  at  the  meas- 1 
ures   taken   to   excite  a  forcible  opposition  ] 


at  Utrecht.  Barneveldt,  Grotiiu,  and  Hoof- 
erbeets  were  arrested  August  29,  1618,  upott 
the  charge  of  having  raised  an  insurrection 
at  that  place,  and  committed  to  cloee  custody 
in  the  castle  of  The  Hague. 

In  the  ensuing  year  the  prisoners,  having 
previously  undergone  repeated  exanunations, 
were  separately  tried  before  twenty-six  com- 
missioners, chosen  from  the  principal  nobility 
and  magistracy  of  the  seven  provinces. 
Barneveldt  was  tried  first,  and  was  condemned 
to  be  beheaded  for  various  acts  of  insubordi- 
nation toward  the  states.  The  trial  of  Grotius 
followed  a  few  days  afterward ;  he  was  found 
guilty,  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  life 
in  the  castle  of  Loevestein,  and  his  estate 
confiscated.  At  first  he  was  kept  a  close 
prisoner.  His  father  was  refused  permis- 
sion to  see  him,  and  his  wife  was  admitted  only 
on  condition  of  sharing  his  imprisonment, 
being  told  that  if  she  left  the  castle  she  would 
not  be  allowed  to  retiUTi.  These  restrictions 
were  afterward,  however,  considerably  re- 
laxed. His  wife  obtained  leave  to  quit  the 
castle  twice  a  week.  Grotius  was  per- 
mitted to  borrow  books,  and  to  correspond 
with  his  friends  on  all  subjects  except  politics. 

It  is  not  for  such  minds  as  that  of  Grotius 
that  "stone  walls  can  make  a  prison."  Dur- 
ing nearly  two  years  of  close  imprisonment, 
with  no  society  but  that  of  his  wife,  who  con- 
stantly remained  with  him,  he  employed  him- 
self in  digesting  and  applying  those  stores  of 
learning  which  he  had  previously  acquired, 
and  study  became  at  once  his  business  and 
consolation.  "The  Muses,"  he  says,  in  a 
letter  to  Vossius  during  his  confinement, 
"are  a  great  alleviation  of  my  misfortune. 
You  know  that  when  I  was  most  oppressed  by 
business,  they  furnished  my  most  delightful 
recreation ;  how  much  more  valuable  are  they 
to  me  now,  when  they  constitute  the  only 
enjoyment  which  cannot  be  taken  from  mel " 

During  his  captivity  he  occupied  much  of 
his  time  in  l^al  studies,  of  which  other  pur- 
suits had  for  some  years  caused  an  intermis- 
sion ;  but  his  favorite  employment  appears  to 
have  been  theology,  and  especially  a  laborious 
and  critical  examination  of  the  sermon  on  the 
mount.  He  also  at  this  time  wrote  a  treatise 
in  the  Dutch  language  on  the  "Truth  of  the 
Christian  Religion,"  which  a  few  .years  after- 
ward, while  at  Paris,  he  enlarged  and  trans- 
lated into  Latin.  In  its  improved  state  it 
became  more  generally  known  and  more 
popular  than  any  of  his  previous  works,  and 


446 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


was  translated  during  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury into  the  English,  French,  Flemish,  Ger- 
man, Persian,  Arabic,  and  Greek  languages. 
This  treatise  was  well  worthy  of  the  great 
attention  which  it  excited.  In  point  of  force 
of  argument  and  clearness  of  arrangement  it 
will  not  suffer  in  comparison  with  the  work 
of  Paley,  and  other  popular  modern  writers 
on  the  same  subject,  while  in  temper  and 
candor  it  is  superior  to  most  of  them. 

In  the  early  part  of  1621,  after  nearly  two 
years  had  been  passed  by  Grotius  at  Loeve- 
stein,  the  fertile  invention  of  his  wife  devised 
the  means  of  his  escape.  It  was  his  practice 
to  return  the  books,  which  he  borrowed  from 
his  friends,  in  a  large  chest,  in  which  his  wife 
sent  linen  from  the  castle  to  be  washed  at 
Gorcum.  During  the  first  year  of  his  impris- 
onment the  guards  invariably  examined  this 
chest  before  it  left  the  castle,  but,  as  they 
continually  found  nothing  but  books  and 
soiled  linen,  they  gradually  relaxed  in  their 
search.  Grotius'  wife  resolved  to  turn  their 
negligence  to  her  husband's  advantage. 

During  the  absence  of  the  governor  from  the 
castle,  Grotius  was  placed  in  the  chest,  and, 
holes  having  been  bored  in  it  by  his  wife  in 
order  to  admit  air,  it  was  carried  down  from 
the  castle  by  two  soldiers  on  a  ladder.  One 
of  the  soldiers,  suspecting  something  from  the 
weight,  insisted  upon  taking  it  to  the  gover- 
nor's house  to  be  opened ;  but  the  governor's 
wife,  who  was  probably  in  the  secret,  told  him 
she  was  well  assured  that  the  chest  contained 
nothing  but  books,  and  ordered  him  to  carry 
it  to  the  boat.  In  this  manner  Grotius 
crossed  the  water  and  arrived  safely  at  a 
friend's  house  in  Gorcum.  He  then  passed 
through  the  streets  in  the  disguise  of  a  mason, 
and  stepped  into  a  boat  which  took  him  to 
Brabant,  from  whence  he  afterward  escaped 
to  Antwerp.  Upon  the  first  discovery  of  the 
trick  which  had  been  practiced  upon  him  by 
the  wife  of  Grotius,  the  governor  of  Loevestein 
confined  her  rigorously;  but  she  was  dis- 
charged upon  presenting  a  petition  to  the 
states-general. 

On  the  advice  of  various  powerful  friends 
in  France,  Grotius  determined  to  make  Paris 
his  city  of  refuge.  He  was  well  received  in 
the  French  metropolis,  both  by  learned  men 
and  politicians,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the 
following  year  was  presented  to  the  king, 
who  bestowed  upon  him  a  pension  of  three 
thousand  livres.  In  the  year  1622  he  pub- 
lished his  "Apology,"  in  which  he  vindicated 


his  conduct  from  the  particular  charges  which 
had  formed  the  subject  of  the  proceedings 
against  him,  and  argued  against  the  legality 
of  his  sentence  and  the  competency  of  the 
tribunal  by  which  he  was  tried.  His  work 
excited  much  attention  throughout  Europe, 
and  greatly  irritated  the  states-general,  who 
published  so  violent  an  edict  against  it  that 
the  friends  of  Grotius  entertained  fears  for 
his  personal  safety.  In  order,  therefore,  to 
place  himself  more  fully  under  the  protection 
of  the  French  government,  he  obtained 
letters  of  naturalization  from  Louis  XIII. 

In  1625  he  completed  his  greatest  work, 
De  Jure  Belli  el  Pacts  —  "  The  Law  of  War 
and  Peace  "  —  which  was  published  at  Paris 
in  that  year.  None  of  the  works  of  Grotius 
excited  so  much  attention  as  this  treatise.  It 
was  the  first  attempt  to  reduce  into  a  system 
the  subject  of  international  law;  and  the 
industry  and  extensive  learning  of  the  author 
well  qualified  him  for  the  task.  More  com- 
plete and  useful  works  upon  this  subject  have 
been  written  since  the  time  of  Grotius ;  but,  in 
order  to  estimate  properly  the  magnitude  and 
value  of  his  labors,  it  must  be  considered  that, 
before  he  wrote,  the  ground  was  wholly 
unbroken.  In  his  own  age,  and  in  that  which 
succeeded  it,  this  work  was  held  in  the  highest 
esteem,  and  was  translated  into  the  chief 
European  languages.  In  fact,  it  long  con- 
tinued the  standard  work  on  international 
law. 

Grotius  remained  more  than  nine  years  in 
France,  and  during  that  period  published,  in 
addition  to  the  works  already  noticed,  several 
theological  treatises  of  small  interest  at  the 
present  day.  The  latter  part  of  his  residence 
in  France  was  rendered  uncomfortable  by 
several  disagreeable  circumstances.  By  not 
paying  sufficient  court  to  Richeheu,  Louis's 
minister  of  state,  Grotius  lost  the  king's 
favor,  and,  in  1631,  his  pension  was  with- 
drawn. 

A  friendly  letter  from  Prince  Frederick  of 
Orange  induced  him  to  return  to  his  native 
country ;  but  by  the  intrigues  of  his  enemies 
sentence  of  perpetual  exile  was  passed  upon 
him.  He  now  removed  to  Hamburg,  and 
while  there  he  received  invitations  from  the 
kings  of  Denmark,  Poland,  and  Spain;  but 
the  protection  promised  him  by  the  chan- 
cellor Oxenstiern  and  Queen  Christina's 
taste  for  literature  induced  him  to  enter  the 
Swedish  service  in  1634.  He  was  then 
appointed  resident  ambassador  of  the  infant 


O    I 


IN  POLITICS 


449 


queen  at  the  court  of  France  in  the  following 
year. 

As  ambassador  at  the  French  court  Grotius 
gained  universal  respect.  On  his  return  to 
Sweden  he  passed  through  his  native  country, 
and  was  received  in  Amsterdam  with  the  most 
distinguished  honor.  Equally  flattering  was 
his  reception  by  the  Swedish  queen ;  but  the 
literary  dilettantism  of  Christina's  court  did 
not  suit  so  serious  and  solid  a  scholar,  whose 
thoughts  were  always  of  the  broadest  and 
most  forecasting  nature.  Besides,  the  climate 
of  Sweden  did  not  agree  with  him,  and  he  was 
probably  anxious  to  spend  the  evening  of  his 
life  in  his  native  land.  In  consequence,  he 
sent  in  his  resignation  of  office  to  the  queen, 
who,  when  she  found  that  nothing  could 
induce  him  to  stay,  presented  him  with  a  sum 
of  ten  thousand  crowns,  and  some  costly 
plate,  besides  placing  at  his  disposal  a  vessel 
to  conduct  him  down  the  Baltic  to  Liibeck. 

Grotius  had  scarcely  put  to  sea;  when  a 
violent  storm  arose  and  drove  the  vessel  into 
a  port  near  Dantzic.     From  this  place  he  set 


out  in  an  open  carriage,  in  the  mo«t  inclonent 
weather,  intending  to  return  to  Ltibeck,  and 
arrived  at  Rostock  on  his  way  thither,  August 
28th.  He  there  complained  of  extreme  ill- 
ness, and  desired  a  physician.  It  was  soon 
discovered  that  his  end  was  approaching. 
A  clergyman,  named  Quistorpius,  also  at- 
tended him,  and  has  given  an  interesting 
account  of  his  last  moments.  Grotius  died  in 
the  night  of  August  28,  1645.  His  body  was 
carried  to  Delft,  and  laid  in  the  tomb  of  his 
ancestors.  In  modern  times  a  handsome 
monument  has  been  erected  to  his  memory. 

To  the  talents  of  a  most  able  statesman, 
Grotius  united  deep  and  extensive  learning. 
He  was  a  profound  and  enlightened  theologian 
—  perhaps  the  best  exegete  of  his  day,  a  dis- 
tinguished scholar,  an  acute  philosopher,  a 
judicious  historian,  and  an  able  jurist. 
Altogether,  he  was  what  Mdnage,  the  French 
philologist,  called  him,  "a  monster  of  erudi- 
tion." Personally  he  was  distinguished  for 
sincere  piety,  and  his  character  combined 
mildness  with  remarkable  energy. 


CROMWELL 


A.  D.  AGE 

1699         Bom  at  Huntingdon,  England,    . 

1616         Entered  Cambridge  university,     .  17 

1620         Married, 21 

1628         Member  of  parliament  for  Hunt- 
ingdon,    29 

1640         Member   of   the   long   parliament 

from  Cambridge, 41 

1642         Captain  of  cavalry, 43 

1644-45  At  Marston  Moor  and  Naseby,     .  45—46 


A.  D.  AOB 

1647  Head  of  independents, 48 

1648  Invaded  Scotland, 49 

1649  Charles  I.  executed ;  quelled  insur- 

rection in  Ireland, 50 

1650  Defeated  Scotch  at  Dunbar,     .    .  51 

1651  Defeated  Charles  1 1,  at  Worcester,  52 
1653         Lord  protector  of   the  common- 
wealth,        -54 

1658         Died  at  Whitehall,      5» 


/^LIVER  CROMWELL,  lord  protector  of 
^-^  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland,  and  one 
of  the  most  extraordinary  men  in  English 
history,  was  born  at  Huntingdon,  England, 
April  25,  1599.  He  was  the  eldest  stu-viving 
son  of  Robert  Cromwell,  a  substantial  country 
gentleman,  and  Elizabeth  Steward,  a  daughter 
of  William  Steward  of  Ely.  He  was  first 
cousin  to  John  Hampden,  the  celebrated 
English  statesman. 

Educated  at  Huntingdon  grammar  school 
and  at  Sidney  Sussex  college,  Cambridge  — 
which  he  entered  in  1616  —  Cromwell  seems 
to  have  carried  away  a  modest  share  of 
classical  and  general  culture.  He  then  went 
to  London  to  study  law.  In  1617  his  father 
died,  leaving  him  a  moderate  estate  at  Hunt- 
ingdon;  and  in  1620  he  married  Elizabeth, 


daughter  of  Sir  James  Bourchier,  a  London 
merchant.  He  embraced  Puritanism  in  its 
most  enthusiastic  form,  and  supported  the 
ministry  of  its  proscribed  preachers.  In  1628 
he  sat  for  Huntingdon  in  the  stormy  third 
parliament  of  Charles  I.,  and  raised  his  voice 
against  Romanizing  ecclesiastics.  Then  he 
returned  to  farming  at  Huntingdon,  whence 
he  removed  to  St.  Ives  and  afterward  to 
Ely,  where  property  had  been  left  him  by 
his  uncle.  He  appears  to  have  come  into 
collision  as  a  local  patriot  with  the  king's 
commissioners  for  the  drainage  of  the  fens, 
and  in  the  contest  was  successful. 

In  1640,  when  forty-one,  he  was  sent  to 
parliament  for  the  town  of  Cambridge,  and 
his  political  history  really  began  with  the 
meeting  of  the  long  parliament  in  that  year. 


450 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Ranged  on  the  side  of  his  celebrated  relative, 
Hampden,  he  warmly  supported  all  the 
measures  that  tended  to  disarm  royalty  and 
invest  parliament  with  the  supreme  power. 
No  one  foresaw  the  great  future  in  store  for 
him.  He  appeared  only  an  ordinary  country 
gentleman,  skilled  neither  in  intrigue  nor 
speech,  showing  himself  excessively  zealous 
in  his  opinions,  and  often  carried  to  extremes 
by  them.  He  had  a  burly  figure  and  ruddy 
face;  his  coat  was  rough  and  his  linen  not 
scrupulously  clean;  his  voice  was  sharp  and 
irritating,  his  manner  vehement,  and  he  had 
sometimes  to  be  called  to  order. 

The  causes  which  led  up  to  the  English 
revolution,  in  which  Cromwell  was  so  con- 
spicuous a  figure,  were  chiefly  the  arbitrary 
and  despotic  measures,  and  the  tyranny  and 
maladministration  of  the  weak  and  obstinate 
Charles  I.,  who  did  his  best  to  carry  out  the 
doctrine  of  the  "divine  right  of  kings." 
It  was  this  that  brought  on  the  long  struggles 
between  the  sovereign  and  parliament,  and 
finally  resulted  in  the  execution  of  Charles, 
and  the  establishment,  by  parliament,  of  the 
form  of  government  called  the  "common- 
wealth," which  existed  during  the  protector- 
ate of  Oliver  Cromwell  and  his  son  Richard 
until  the  abdication  of  the  latter  in  1659. 

On  the  royalist  side  were  most  of  the 
nobility,  clergy,  the  gentry  who  adhered  to 
the  established  church,  and  the  Catholics. 
On  the  side  of  parliament  were  the  middle 
classes  of  the  kingdom,  the  country  farmers, 
townspeople,  and  the  dissenters  or  Puritans. 
The  adherents  of  the  king  were  called  cava- 
liers; the  Puritans  wore  the  nickname  of 
roundheads,  from  the  fashion  of  having  their 
hair  cropped. 

The  utmost  that  was  aimed  at  by  parlia- 
ment at  the  time  when  Cromwell  entered 
it  was  to  draw  to  themselves  more  of 
governmental  power,  dreaming  possibly  of 
the  triumph  of  Presbyterianism  over  the 
established  church.  Cromwell,  vehement  and 
zealous  Puritan  as  he  was,  had  higher  hopes, 
and,  though  no  doubt  wishing  liberty  of 
conscience  for  all,  he  desired  the  preponder- 
ance of  his  own  special  opinions.  When  all 
hope  of  reconciliation  between  king  and 
parliament  failed,  through  the  perfidy  of  the 
former,  Cromwell  was  among  the  fia^t  to  offer 
of  his  substance  to  aid  in  defense  of  the  state. 
In  July,  1642,  he  moved  in  parliament  for 
permission  to  raise  two  companies  of  volun- 
teers in  Cambridge,  having  been  careful  to 


supply  the  necessary  arms  beforehand  at  hia 
own  cost. 

He  remarked  the  inferiority  of  the  par- 
liamentary soldiers,  who  were  for  the  most 
part  mercenaries,  serving-men  to  the  gentle- 
men of  the  royal  army,  and  then  he  discov- 
ered to  what  force  he  must  appeal.  The 
chivalrous  spirit  was  wanting,  he  must  appeal 
to  the  religious;  to  fight  against  men  of 
honor  he  must  have  men  of  religion.  On  this 
plan  he  began  to  recruit  his  squadrons  from 
the  ranks  of  the  farmers,  men  hardy  and 
used  to  labor  and  fatigue,  who  went  into  the 
war  with  the  ardor  of  religious  conviction. 

In  the  following  month  Cromwell  seized 
the  magazine  in  Cambridgeshire,  and  pre- 
vented the  royalists  from  carrying  off  the 
plate  —  valued  at  twenty  thousand  pounds 

—  in  the  university  there.  As  captain  of  a 
troop  of  cavalry,  Cromwell  exhibited  aston- 
ishing military  genius;  and  against  the  men 
trained  by  himself — "Cromwell's  Ironsides" 

—  the  battle-shock  of  the  fiery  Rupert,  which 
at  the  beginning  of  the  parliamentary 
struggle  none  else  could  withstand,  spent 
itself  in  vain.  Promoted  to  the  rank  of 
colonel,  then  to  that  of  lieutenant  general, 
Cromwell,  in  the  fight  of  Winceby,  October  11, 

1643,  on  the  bloody  field  of  Marston,  July  2, 

1644,  and  in  the  second  battle  of  Newbury, 
October  27,  1644,  bore  himself  with  distin- 
guished bravery;  but,  owing  to  the  back- 
wardness of  his  superiors,  the  results  of  these 
victories  to  the  parliamentary  cause  were  not 
so  great  as  they  might  reasonably  have  been. 

Parliament  became  uneasy  at  this  position 
of  affairs,  and  tried  to  curtail  Cromwell's 
power,  and  make  terms  with  the  half-con- 
quered king.  But  Cromwell,  secure  in  the 
favor  of  the  army,  proposed  and  caused 
to  be  adopted  the  famous  Self-denying 
Ordinance  which  interdicted  all  members  of 
parliament  from  military  charge.  Yet  the 
army  could  not  do  without  Cromwell,  and 
by  a  special  dispensation  he  was  allowed  to 
keep  his  own.  By  the  Self-denying  Ordinance 
the  army  was  rid  of  its  grandees,  remodeled, 
and  the  war  pushed  forward  with  fresh  vigor. 

Of  the  new  model  army,  Fairfax  was 
appointed  general,  Cromwell  serving  under 
him  as  lieutenant  general  of  the  cavalry. 
In  this  capacity  he  commanded  the  right 
wing  of  the  parliamentary  army  at  Naseby, 
June  14,  1645,  and  acquitted  himself  so  well 
there  that  the  king's  forces  were  utterly 
ruined.    The  royalists  in  the  west  were  now 


IN  POLITICS 


451 


speedily  reduced.  Bristol  was  stormed; 
everywhere  the  royal  cause  was  failing ;  and 
Charles  himself,  reduced  to  the  last  extremity, 
on  April  27,  1646,  escaped  from  Oxford  in  dis- 
guise. He  threw  himself  into  the  arms  of  the 
Scotch  army  at  Newark,  May  5,  1646,  by 
which  he  was  shortly  given  up  to  the  parlia- 
mentary commissioners. 

The  source  of  the  strife  now  fairly  within 
their  grasp,  parliament  and  the  army,  in  the 
former  of  which  the  Presbyterian  and  in 
the  latter  the  independent  element  predomi- 
nated, became  jealous  of  each  other's  power. 
With  his  usual  sagacity,  Cromwell  perceived 
that  the  advantage  would  lie  with  that  party 
who  held  possession  of  the  king's  person,  and 
with  ready  decision  he  had  him  removed  from 
the  hands  of  the  commissioners  into  those  of 
the  army,  June,  1647.  Some  of  the  leading 
Presbyterians  were  now  turned  out  of  par- 
hament  by  the  army,  and  independency, 
with  Cromwell  at  its  head,  was  gradually 
obtaining  the  ascendancy.  The  king  still 
remained  with  the  army,  and  with  his  usual 
duplicity  negotiated  with  both  parties,  not 
without  hope  ttat  out  of  their  mutual  dis- 
sensions might  arise  advantage  to  himself. 
On  November  11,  1647,  the  king  made  his 
escape  from  Hampton  court.  Two  days 
after  he  was  in  custody  of  Colonel  Hammond 
in  the  isle  of  Wight.  At  this  time  the 
coimtry  was  in  a  critical  condition.  The 
Welsh  had  risen  in  insurrection,  a  Scotch 
army  was  bearing  down  from  the  north  with 
hostile  intent,  and  Rupert,  to  whom  seven- 
teen English  ships  had  deserted,  was  threat- 
ening a  descent  from  Holland,  not  to  speak 
of  the  rampant  royalism  of  Ireland.  Prompt 
measures  alone  could  prevent  anarchy  and 
inextricable  confusion,  and  Cromwell  was  not 
afraid  to  employ  them.  Pembroke  had  to 
surrender,  and  at  Preston  Moor  the  Scotch 
were  utterly  defeated. 

The  great  year  1648  showed  England  split 
into  many  parts :  "  a  king  not  to  be  bargained 
with,  a  great  loyalist  party,  a  great  Presby- 
terian party,  at  the  head  of  which  is  London, 
and  lastly,  a  headstrong,  mutinous  republican 
and  leveling  party."  The  army,  menaced 
with  dissolution  by  parliament,  raised  them- 
selves against  it,  and  expelled  over  a  hundred 
of  its  hostile  members.  "They  are  malig- 
nants,"  said  Cromwell,  "and  the  house  must 
be  purged  of  them.  Thou  wilt  go  with  a, 
troop  of  horse  and  a  regiment  of  foot,  and  I 
thou  wilt  take  those  men  away;   they  may' 


sit  no  longer."  Colonel  Pride,  with  his 
soldiers,  surrounded  the  house,  and  when  it 
adjourned  seized  the  obnoxious  membera  <»e 
by  one  as  they  passed  out,  and  marched 
them  off.  The  remainder  passed  the  bill  for 
the  king's  trial. 

Then  came  the  order  for  execution: 
"Whereas,  Charles  Stuart,  king  of  England, 
is  convicted  of  high  treason  and  sentenced  to 
have  his  head  severed  from  his  body,  then 
are  to  will  and  require  you  to  see  the 
said  sentence  executed  in  the  open  straefc 
before  Whitehall.— Signed,  John  Bradshaw, 
Thomas  Grey,  Oliver  Cromwell,  and  fifty-six 
others."  This  deed  was  considered  by  Carlyle 
the  most  daring  action  any  body  of  men  with 
clear  consciences  ever  set  themselves  to  do. 
The  king  was  accordingly  executed,  January 
30,  1649. 

Parliament  now  proclaimed  that  "the 
people  of  England  are  hereby  constituted, 
made,  established,  and  confirmed  to  be  a 
commonwealth,  a  free  state,  and  shall  hence- 
forth be  governed  as  a  commonwealth,  or 
free  state,  by  the  supreme  authority  of  this 
nation,  the  representatives  of  the  people  in 
parliament,  and  that  without  any  king  or 
house  of  lords.  Forasmuch  as  all  power  is 
originally  and  in  reality  vested  in  the  col- 
lective people  of  this  nation,  the  free  choice 
of  their  representatives,  and  their  consent  is 
the  sole  basis  of  a  lawful  government,  while 
the  end  of  government  is  the  common  weal." 
Elections  were  to  be  held  every  two  years; 
the  representatives  were  to  Instate,  admin- 
ister, execute,  yet  only  as  the  servants  of  the 
people.  There  was  to  be  equality  before  the 
law ;  no  one  was  to  serve  in  the  army  against 
his  will ;  government  was  to  have  no  decision 
in  matters  of  religion,  and  so  on. 

The  abolition  of  the  house  of  lords  fol- 
lowed speedily,  and  Cromwell  became  s 
prominent  member  of  the  new  council  of 
state.  In  the  army,  though  still  only  lieu- 
tenant general,  he  had  really  much  more 
influence  than  the  commander-in-chief.  The 
royalists  being  still  strong  and  rebellious  in 
Ireland,  Cromwell  went  thither  in  Augxist, 
1649,  with  the  title  of  lord  lieutenant,  and 
commander-in-chief  of  the  army  there ;  and  be- 
fore nine  months  had  passed,  he  had  subdued 
the  country  so  far  that  it  might  be  mletf 
left  to  the  keeping  of  his  son-in-law,  Iretoo. 
Cromwell's  measures  for  crushing  the  Irish 
rebels  were  indeed  severe,  and  even  sangui- 
nary, but,  nevertheless,  peace  and  prosperity 


452 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


followed  in  a  degree  unknown  before  in  the 
history  of  that  unhappy  country. 

Affairs  in  Scotland  now  claimed  Cromwell's 
attention.  Scotch  commissioners  had  been 
negotiating  with  Charles  II.  at  Breda,  had 
urged  him  to  come  among  them  and  take  the 
covenant,  and  they  would  crown  him  king 
over  them  at  least,  and  do  what  force  of 
arms  could  do  to  make  him  king  of  England 
also.  Charles  arrived  in  the  north  of  Soot- 
land  on  June  23,  1650,  and  after  taking  the 
covenant  was  proclaimed  king.  Three  days 
thereafter  —  Presbyterian  Fairfax  having  re- 
fused to  fight  against  the  Presbyterian  Scotch 
—  Cromwell  was  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  of  all  the  parliamentary  forces.  On 
September  3d  following,  Cromwell  routed  the 
Scotch  army  at  Dunbar.  Charles,  with  what 
force  remained,  and  other  accessions,  after- 
ward marched  southward  in  1651.  He  had 
penetrated  to  Worcester,  when  Cromwell 
came  up  with  him,  and  utterly  overthrew  the 
royalists  on  September  3d  —  the  anniversary 
of  the  battle  of  Dunbar.  This  battle,  which 
ended  the  civil  war,  placed  Cromwell  avowedly 
at  the  head  of  public  afifairs  in  England.  To 
write  his  biography  from  this  time  until  his 
death  would  be  to  write  the  history  of  the 
commonwealth. 

In  April,  1653,  came  the  dissolution  of 
parliament.  That  body  being  highly  offended 
at  the  presumption  of  the  army,  the  lord 
general  was  compelled  to  do  a  thing  which, 
as  he  said,  "made  the  very  hairs  of  his  head 
to  stand  on  end."  Hastening  to  the  house 
of  parliament  with  three  hundred  soldiers, 
and  the  marks  of  violent  indignation  on  his 
countenance,  he  entered.  Stamping  with  his 
foot,  which  was  the  signal  for  the  soldiers  to 
enter,  the  place  was  immediately  filled  with 
armed  men.  Addressing  himself  to  the 
members:  "For  shame,"  said  he,  "get  you 
gone;  give  place  to  honester  men,  to  those 
who  will  faithfully  discharge  their  trust.  You 
are  no  longer  a  parliament;  I  tell  you  you 
are  no  longer  a  parliament;  the  Lord  has 
done  with  you." 

Sir  Harry  Vane  exclaimed  against  this 
conduct.  "Sir  Harry,"  cried  Cromwell,  in  a 
loud  voice,  "Oh,  Sir  Harry  Vane;  the  Lord 
deliver  me  from  Sir  Harry  Vane."  He  then 
in  a  violent  manner  reproached  certain  of  the 
members  by  name  with  their  vices.  "It  is 
you,"  continued  he,  "that  have  forced  me  to 
do  this.  I  have  sought  the  Lord  night  and 
day  that  He  would  rather  slay  me  than  put 


me  upon  this  work."  Then,  pointing  to  the 
mace,  "Take  away  that  bauble!"  cried  he. 
Then,  turning  out  all  the  members  and 
clearing  the  hall,  he  ordered  the  doors  to  be 
locked,  and,  putting  the  key  in  his  pocket, 
returned  to  Whitehall. 

He  now  convened  a  parliament  —  which 
consisted  wholly  of  godly  men  —  numbering 
one  hundred  forty  persons,  one  hundred 
thirty-eight  of  whom  assembled  on  July  4, 
1653;  but  he  found  it  necessary  to  dissolve 
it  on  December  12th,  its  one  great  work 
having  been  the  legal  investiture  of  Cromwell 
with  the  supreme  power  and  the  title  of  lord 
protector,  a  position  upon  which  the  principal 
powers  of  Europe  hastened  to  congratulate 
him. 

His  second  parliament,  from  which  the 
recalcitrants  were  excluded  at  the  outset, 
offered  him  the  title  of  king.  Cromwell 
wavered;  but  the  stubborn  resistance  of  the 
republican  soldiers  decided  him  to  decline 
the  offer.  The  house  of  lords  was,  however, 
restored;  the  protector  was  empowered  to 
name  his  successor ;  fixed  revenue  was  voted 
to  him;  and  he  was  installed  as  protector 
with  a  ceremonial  resembling  a  coronation. 

When  parliament  met  again,  its  two  houses 
fell  into  a  collision  which  compelled  Cromwell 
to  dissolve  it;  and  his  power  thenceforth 
rested  upon  the  army,  though  it  was  his 
constant  desire  to  revert  to  constitutional 
government.  His  protectorate  was  a  per- 
petual conflict  with  republican  resistance  on 
the  one  hand  and  with  royalist  plots  and 
risings  on  the  other,  while  his  life  was  con- 
stantly threatened  by  royalist  assassins.  Yet 
he  was  able  to  inaugurate  a  great  policy, 
home  and  foreign.  He  reorganized  the 
national  church  on  the  principle  of  compre- 
hension, including  all  but  papists,  prelatists, 
and  antitrinitarians,  while  the  ministry  was 
w^eeded  by  commission.  He  upheld  toleration 
as  far  as  he  could,  and  curbed  the  persecuting 
tendencies  of  parliament.  For  law  reform  he 
did  his  best.  He  united  Scotland  and  Ireland 
to  England,  giving  them  both  representation 
in  parliament.  Scotland,  having  free  trade 
with  England,  enjoyed  great  prosperity  under 
his  rule.  Ireland  he  sought  to  make  a  second 
England  in  order  and  industry,  though  his 
measures  were  high-handed.  He  saved  the 
universities  from  the  fanatics,  put  good  men 
at  their  head,  and  encom-aged  letters. 

But  his  foreign  poUcy  brought  him  most 
renown.       Under    him    the    commonwealth 


IN  POLITICS 


46S 


became  the  head  and  protectress  erf  Protestant 
Europe.  He  made  peace  with  Holland,  tried 
to  form  a  league  of  all  the  Protestant  states, 
and  protected  the  Waldenses.  In  the  interest 
of  religious  liberty  and  commerce  he  allied 
himself  with  France  against  Spain.  He  took 
Jamaica,  and  Blake's  naval  victories  over  the 
Spaniards  brought  at  once  glory  and  treasure. 
His  troops,  with  those  of  France,  won  the 
battle  of  the  Dunes,  and  he  obtained  Dun- 
kirk. He  sedulously  fostered  British  com- 
merce, and  by  the  hand  of  Blake  chastised 
the  pirate  states  of  Barbary.  His  boast  that 
he  would  make  the  name  of  Englishman  as 
respected  as  that  of  Roman  had  been  was 
fulfilled. 

The  death  of  his  favorite  daughter,  Eliza- 
beth Claypole,  in  the  summer  of  1658,  had  a 
serious  effect  upon  Cromwell,  worn  as  he 
was  in  both  body  and  mind.  He  was  seized 
with  a  tedious  fever,  and  on  September  3d  — 
the  anniversary  of  Dunbar  and  Worcester  — 
he  expired. 

His  remains  were  buried  in  Westminster 
abbey,  but  after  the  restoration  of  the 
Stuarts,  on  the  anniversary  of  the  death  of 
Charles  I.,  his  grave,  along  with  those  of 
Ireton  and  Bradshaw,  was  broken  open,  the 
coffins  dragged  to  Tyburn,  where  the  moulder- 
ing bodies  were  hanged,  and  then  thrown 
into  a  deep  hole  under  the  gallows,  while  their 
heads  were  set  upon  poles  on  the  top  of 
Westminster  hall.  Such  was  the  sacrilegious 
brutality  of  the  king  and  the  clergy  —  for  the 
deed  was  done  by  their  authority  —  toward 
England's  greatest  reformer. 

In  personal  appearance,  Cromwell  had  a 
manly,  stern  look ;  he  had  a  head  which  any 
one  might  see  was  a  vast  treasury  under 
strong  moral  restraint.  He  was  compas- 
sionate even  to  an  effeminate  measure.  He 
was  of  an  active,  healthful  constitution,  able 
to  endure  the  greatest  toil  and  fatigue.  His 
body  was  compact  and  strong,  about  five 
feet  ten  inches  in  height.  Though  brave  in 
his  person,  he  was  wary  in  his  conduct ;  for, 
from  the  time  he  was  first  declared  protector, 
he  always  wore  a  coat  of  mail  under  his 
clothes.  His  conversation  among  his  friends 
was  very  diverting  and  familiar,  but  in  public 
reserved  and  grave. 

He  was  sparing  in  his  diet,  though  he  would 
sometimes  drink  freely,  yet  never  to  excess. 
He  was  moderate  in  all  other  pleasures ;  and, 
from  what  was  visible,  free  from  immoralities, 
especially  after  he  became  a  figure  of  promi- 


nence in  the  world.  He  was  always  a  moat 
loving  husband  and  father,  and  the  palace  of 
the  protector  was  a  virtuouB  EnglUih  home. 
His  speeches  are  very  rough  and  unmethodical 
as  compositions,  but  they  are  marked  by 
sense,  force,  and  intensity  of  purpose. 

It  must  be  added,  also,  that,  like  all  Puri- 
tans, Cromwell  was  a  friend  to  learning.  He 
supported  the  two  universities  "which  have 
not  given  so  good  an  account  of  themselves 
in  all  categories,  human  and  divine,  before  or 
since."  At  Durham  he  founded  a  college  for 
literature  and  all  the  sciences.  His  soa  he 
directed  to  the  study  of  history,  mathematics, 
and  cosmography.  He  formed  a  library, 
drew  to  him  men  of  learning,  patronized 
painting,  loved  music,  and  favored  entertain- 
ments. He  was  tolerant  in  religion,  regarding 
Catholics  without  ill-will,  yet  earnestly  devis- 
ing the  alliance  of  all  the  Protestant  states. 

He  affected,  for  the  most  part,  a  pUumieas 
in  his  clothes ;  but  in  them,  as  well  as  in  his 
guards  and  attendants,  he  appeared  with 
magnificence  upon  public  occasions.  His 
court  was  simple  and  frugal,  yet  dignified; 
and  though  there  was  a  strain  of  rusticity  in 
his  character  —  as  illustrated  in  occasional 
horseplay  —  his  bearing  in  public  upheld  the 
majesty  of  the  state.  No  man  was  ever 
better  served,  or  took  more  pains  to  be  so. 
As  he  was  severe  to  his  enemies,  so  was  he 
beneficent  to  his  friends;  if  he  came  to  hear 
of  a  man  fit  for  his  purpose,  though  ever 
so  obscure,  he  sent  for  him,  and  employed 
him,  suiting  the  employment  to  the  person 
and  not  the  person  to  the  employment. 
Upon  this  maxim  in  his  government  depended, 
in  a  great  measure,  his  successes. 

It  was  long  a  fashion  with  historians, 
content  to  rely  upon  the  calumnies  and  false- 
hoods of  royalist  writers,  to  represent  Crom- 
well as  a  monster  of  cruelty  and  hypocrisy  — 
a  man  with  a  natural  taste  for  blood,  who 
made  use  of  religious  phraseology  merely  to 
subserve  his  own  ambitious  ends.  However, 
after  the  researches  of  Carlyle  and  Guiaot, 
the  eloquence  of  Macaulay,  and  the  clear 
statement  and  sound  sense  of  Forster,  such  a 
view  can  no  longer  be  upheld.  "The  suc- 
cess by  which  the  English  revolution  was 
crowned,"  writes  Guizot,  "has  not  only  been 
permanent,  but  has  borne  a  double  fruit; 
its  authors  founded  constitutional  monarchy 
in  England,  and  their  descendants  founded 
the  republic  of  the  United  States.  At  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century  France  entered 


454 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


on  the  path  thus  opened  up.  Europe  now 
rushes  headlong  in  the  same  direction.  The 
revolution  that  took  place  in  Germany  in  the 
eighteenth  was  political,  not  religious.  It 
was  the  peculiar  felicity  of  England  in  the 
seventeenth  century  that  the  spirit  of  religious 
faith  and  the  spirit  of  political  liberty  reigned 
together,  and  she  entered  upon  the  two 
revolutions  at  the  same  time." 

Cromwell's  religion  was  no  mere  profession, 
it  was  the  very  essence  of  the  man;  by 
nature  he  was  not  a  bloodshedder,  and 
when  necessity  demanded  the  grim  exercise 
of  the  sword,  he  unsheathed  it  with  reluc- 
tance. Never  was  a  religious  man  less  of  a 
bigot ;  he  would  not,  in  so  far  as  his  iron  will 
could  effect  his  purpose,  permit  any  one  to 
be  persecuted  for  religious  opinions.  He 
delivered  Biddle,  the  founder  of  English 
Unitarianism,  out  of  the  hands  of  the  West- 
minster divines.  He  would  have  given  even 
the  despised  and  persecuted  Jews  the  right 
hand  of  citizenship.  He  grasped  power, 
and  dispensed  with  the  formality  of  parlia- 
ments, only  because  he  sought  to  promote 
in  the  speediest  possible  manner  the  pros- 
perity, happiness,  and  glory  of  his  native 
land. 

Professor  Gardiner,  dwelling  on  Cromwell's 
place    in   the   development   of   the   English 


people,  after  a  careful  review  of  his  career, 
concludes  in  these  words:  "What  may  be 
fairly  demanded  alike  of  Cromwell's  admirers 
and  of  his  critics  is  that  they  shall  fix  their 
eyes  upon  him  as  a  whole.  To  one  of  them 
he  is  the  champion  of  liberty  and  peaceful 
progress,  to  another  the  forcible  crusher  of 
free  institutions,  to  a  third  the  defender  of 
oppressed  people,  to  a  fourth  the  assertor  of 
his  country's  right  to  dominion.  Every  one 
of  the  interpreters  has  something  in  which  to 
base  his  conclusions.  All  the  incongruities 
of  human  nature  are  to  be  traced  somewhere 
or  other  in  Cromwell's  career.  What  is  more 
remarkable  is  that  this  imion  of  apparently 
contradictory  forces  is  precisely  that  which 
is  to  be  found  in  the  English  people,  and  has 
made  England  what  she  is  at  the  present  day. 
With  Cromwell's  memory  it  has  fared  as  with 
ourselves.  Royalists  painted  him  as  a  devil. 
Carlyle  painted  him  as  the  masterful  saint 
who  suited  his  peculiar  Valhalla.  It  is  time 
for  us  to  regard  him  as  he  really  was,  with  all 
his  physical  and  moral  audacity,  with  all  his 
tenderness  and  spiritual  yearnings,  in  the 
world  of  action  what  Shakespeare  was  in  the 
world  of  thought,  the  greatest  because  the 
most  typical  Englishman  of  all  time.  This, 
in  the  most  enduring  sense,  is  Cromwell's 
place  in  history." 


PETER  THE  GREAT 


A.  D. 

1672 
1682 


AOB 


Bom  at  Moscow,  Russia 

Joint  czar   of   Muscovy  with  his 

brother, 10 

1689         First  marriage 17 

1696         Sole    ruler;     besieged    and    took 

Azof, 24 

1697-98  Visited  Holland  and  Eneland,      .    25-26 
1698         Suppressed  rebellion  at  Moscow, .  26 

1700         AlUance   formed   against   Charles 

XII.  of  Sweden, 28 


at 


A.  D. 

1700         Defeated     by    Charles     XII. 

Narva 28 

1703         Founded  St.  Petersburg 31 

1709         Defeated  Charles  XII.  at  Pultowa,  37 

1711  Unsuccessful  war  with  Turkey,    .  39 

1712  Second  marriage, 40 

1713  Subdued  Finland, 41 

1716-17  Visited    Germany,    Holland,    and 

France, 44—45 

1725         Died  at  St.  Petersburg, 63 


pETER  THE  GREAT,  or  Peter  I., 
■^  Alexeyevttch,  czar  and  civilizer  of 
Russia,  was  bom  on  June  9, 1672,  at  Moscow. 
He  was  the  son  of  Czar  Alexis  Mikhailovitch 
by  his  second  wife,  Natalia  Narishkina.  His 
father  died  in  1676,  leaving  the  throne  to  his 
eldest  son,  Feodor,  Peter's  half  brother. 
This  prince,  however,  died  in  1682  without 
issue,  after  naming  Peter  as  his  successor,  to 
the  exclusion  of  his  own  full  brother,  Ivan. 

This  step  immediately  provoked  an  insur- 
rection fomented  by  the  children  of  the  czar 


Alexis'  first  marriage,  the  most  prominent 
among  whom  was  the  grand  duchess  Sophia, 
a  woman  of  great  ability  and  energy,  but  of 
vmbounded  ambition.  Disdaining  the  seclu- 
sion customary  among  the  ladies  of  the  royal 
family,  she  presented  herself  to  the  streUtz, 
who  were  the  established  guard  of  the  czars, 
excited  them  to  fury  by  an  ingenious  story  of 
the  assassination  of  her  brother,  Ivan,  and 
then  let  them  loose  on  the  supporters  of 
Peter's  claims.  After  a  carnage  of  three  da3r8, 
during  which  more  than  sixty  members  of  the 


1-^ 


IN  POLITICS 


m 


most  noble  families  of  Russia  were  massacred, 
she  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  coronation  of 
Ivan  and  Peter  as  joint  rulers,  in  1682,  and 
her  own  appointment  as  regent. 

Up  to  Peter's  coronation  his  education  had 
been  greatly  neglected,  but  after  this  time  he 
became  acquainted  with  Lieutenant  Franz 
Timmermann,  a  native  of  Strassburg,  who 
gave  him  lessons  in  military  art  and  in  mathe- 
matics. Afterward  he  had  the  good  fortune 
to  fall  under  the  guidance  of  Lefort,  a  native 
of  Geneva,  who  initiated  him  into  the  sciences 
and  arts  of  civilization,  and,  by  showing  him 
how  nauch  Muscovy  was  in  these  respects 
behind  the  rest  of  Europe,  influenced  the 
whole  of  his  future  career.  Lefort  also 
formed  a  small  military  company  out  of  the 
young  men  of  noble  family  who  attended 
Peter,  and  caused  Peter  himself  to  pass  by 
regular  steps  from  the  lowest  —  that  of 
drummer  —  to  the  highest  grade  in  it,  render- 
ing him  all  the  while  amenable  to  strict  dis- 
cipline. This  course  of  training,  in  all 
probability,  saved  Peter  from  becoming  the 
mere  savage  despot,  which  his  brutal  and 
passionate  disposition  and  indomitable  energy 
inclined  him  to  be.  It  also  protected  him 
from  the  jealousy  of  his  half  sister,  the  regent 
Sophia,  who,  seeing  him  absorbed  in  military 
exercises  and  other  studies,  imagined  that  he 
had  given  himself  up  wholly  to  amusement. 

She,  however,  soon  discovered  her  error, 
for  Peter,  contrary  to  her  wishes,  married,  in 
February,  1689,  by  his  mother's  advice, 
Eudoxia  Feodorowna  Lopukhin,  and  in  Octo- 
ber of  the  same  year  called  upon  his  sister  to 
resign  the  government.  In  the  ensuing  con- 
test Peter  was  at  first  worsted,  and  compelled 
to  flee  for  his  life ;  but  he  was  speedily  joined 
by  the  foreigners  in  the  Russian  service,  with 
a  Scotchman,  named  Patrick  Gordon,  and  the 
Swiss,  Lefort,  at  their  head.  The  strelitz, 
who  were  his  antagonist's  mainstay,  flocking 
to  his  standard,  Sophia  resigned  the  contest, 
and  was  shut  up  in  a  convent,  whence,  until 
her  death  in  1704,  she  did  not  cease  to  annoy 
him  by  her  intrigues. 

On  October  11,  1689,  however,  Peter  made 
his  public  entry  into  Moscow,  where  he  was 
met  by  Ivan,  to  whom  he  gave  the  nominal 
supremacy  and  precedence,  reserving  the  sole 
exercise  of  power  for  himself. 

In  1688  Peter  discovered  a  small  Dutch 
vessel  in  an  old  building,  where  it  lay  useless. 
It  was  repaired  and  launched.  This  scene 
made  a  wonderful  impression  on-Peter's  mind, 


and  he  conceived  the  idea  of  forming  »  navy 
—  a  design  which  at  that  time  probably 
seemed  next  to  impoesiblo  even  to  himself. 
His  first  care  was  to  procure  Hollanders  to 
build  some  small  vessels  at  Moecow,  and  after> 
ward  four  frigates  of  four  guns  each  on  the 
lake  of  Pereslave.  He  then  brought  them  to 
combat  one  another.  He  passed  two  sum- 
mers successively  on  board  English  or  Dutch 
ships,  which  set  out  from  Archangel,  in  order 
to  instruct  himself  in  naval  affairs. 

In  1696  Czar  Ivan  died,  and  Peter  was  now 
sole  master  of  the  empire.  He  began  his  reign 
with  the  siege  of  Azof,  then  in  the  hands  of  the 
Turks,  but  did  not  take  it  until  the  following 
year.  He  had  already  sent  for  Venetians  to 
build  galleys,  which  might  shut  up  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Don,  and  prevent  the  Turks  from 
rdieving  the  place.  This  gave  him  a  stronger 
idea  than  ever  of  the  importance  and  neces- 
sity of  a  naval  force ;  yet  he  could  have  none 
but  foreign  ships,  none,  at  least,  except  those 
which  he  would  be  obliged  to  employ  for- 
eigners in  building.  He  was  desirous  of  sur- 
moimting  these  disadvantages,  but  the  affairs 
he  projected  were  of  too  new  and  singular  a 
nature  to  be  so  much  as  considered  in  his 
coimcil;  indeed,  they  were  not  proper  to  be 
communicated. 

He  resolved,  therefore,  to  manage  the  bold 
undertaking  himself.  With  this  in  view,  he, 
in  1697,  sent  an  embassy  to  Holland,  and 
went  himself  incognito  in  the  retinue.  Enter- 
ing the  India  admiralty  office  at  Amsterdam, 
he  enrolled  in  the  list  of  ship  carpenters,  and 
worked  in  the  yard  with  greater  assiduity 
than  anybody  there.  His  quality  was  known 
to  all,  and  they  pointed  to  him  with  a  sort  of 
veneration.  King  William,  of  England,  who 
was  then  in  Holland,  paid  him  all  the  respect 
that  was  due  to  his  uncommon  qualities;  and 
the  czar's  disguise  freed  him  from  that  which 
was  merely  ceremonious  and  troublesome. 
He  worked  with  such  success  that  in  a  short 
time  he  passed  for  a  good  carpenter,  and 
afterward    studied    the    proportions    of    a 

ship. 

From  Holland  Peter  went  to  England, 
where,  in  four  months,  he  made  himself  a 
complete  master  in  the  art  of  shipbuilding 
by  studying  the  principles  of  it  mathemati- 
cally, which  he  had  no  opportunity  of  learning 
in  Holland.  In  England  he  was  accorded  a 
second  reception  by  King  William,  who,  to 
make  him  a  gift  agreeable  to  his  taste,  and 
which  might  at  the  same  time  serve  as  a  model 


458 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


of  the  art  he  was  so  very  desirous  to  learn, 
had  previously  given  him  a  magnificent  yacht. 

On  leaving  England  he  took  with  him  a 
number  of  English  shipbuilders  and  artificers, 
among  whom  was  one  Noy,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  ship  craftsmen  of  his  time.  Peter 
took  upon  himself  the  title  of  a  master-builder, 
but  was  pleased  to  submit  to  the  superior 
knowledge  of  others.  Consequently  the  czar 
and  Noy  received  orders  from  the  lord  high 
admiral  of  Russia,  to  build  each  of  them  a 
man-of-war;  and,  in  compliance  with  that 
order,  the  czar  gave  the  first  proof  of  his  art. 
He  never  ceased  to  pursue  it,  but  had  always 
a  ship  upon  the  stocks ;  and  at  his  death  left 
half  built  one  of  the  largest  ships  in  Europe. 

During  the  czar's  absence,  the  princess 
Sophia,  uneasy  under  her  confinement,  was 
devising  means  to  regain  that  liberty  which 
she  had  forfeited  by  former  insurrections. 
She  found  an  opportunity  to  correspond  with 
the  strelitz,  who  were  now  quartered  at  some 
distance  from  Moscow,  and  to  instigate  them 
to  a  third  rebellion  in  her  favor.  The  news 
of  this  disturbance  obliged  Peter  to  hasten 
home,  and,  arriving  at  Moscow  about  the  end 
of  1698,  he  executed  terrible  vengeance  upon 
the  ringleaders,  and  hanged  the  priest,  who 
had  carried  his  sister's  letters,  on  a  gallows 
before  her  window. 

In  the  early  part  of  1700  he  got  together  a 
body  of  standing  forces,  consisting  of  thirty 
thousand  troops.  And  now  the  vast  project 
which  he  had  formed  began  to  display  itself 
in  all  parts.  He  first  sent  the  chief  nobility  of 
his  empire  into  foreign  countries,  to  improve 
themselves  in  knowledge  and  learning;  he 
opened  his  dominions,  which  until  then  had 
been  shut  up;  he  invited  all  strangers  who 
were  capable  of  instructing  his  subjects ;  and 
he  gave  the  kindest  reception  to  all  land  and 
sea  officers,  sailors,  mathematicians,  archi- 
tects, miners,  workers  in  metals,  physicians, 
surgeons,  and,  indeed,  operators  and  artificers 
of  every  kind,  who  would  settle  in  his  domin- 
ions. In  the  meantime  he  had  to  do  with  a 
dull,  heavy,  untoward  people;  hence  it  is 
little  wonder  that  proceedings  so  new  and 
strange  should  cause  many  uprisings  and 
tumults.  Many  such  took  place ;  and  it  was 
sometimes  as  much  as  the  czar  could  do  to 
stifle  and  suppress  them. 

Peter  was  now  desirous  of  gaining  possession 
of  Carelia  and  Ingria,  provinces  of  Sweden, 
which  had  formerly  belonged  to  Russia,  and 
entered  into  an  aJlianoe  with  the  kings  of 


Poland  and  Denmark  to  make  a  combined 
attack  on  Sweden,  taking  advantage  of  the 
tender  age  of  its  monarch,  Charles  XII.  He 
was  shamefully  defeated  at  Narva,  his  raw 
troops  being  wholly  unable  to  cope  with  the 
Swedish  veterans.  But  Peter  was  by  no 
means  disheartened.  Taking  advantage  of 
the  Swedish  troops  being  employed  elsewhere, 
he  quietly  appropriated  a  portion  of  Ingria,  in 
which  he  laid  the  foundation  of  the  new 
capital,  St.  Petersburg,  May  27,  1703.  Great 
inducements  were  then  held  out  to  those  who 
would  reside  in  it,  and  in  a  few  years  it  became 
the  Russian  commercial  depot  for  the  Baltic. 

In  the  long  contest  with  Sweden,  the  Rus- 
sians were  almost  always  defeated ;  but  Peter 
rather  rejoiced  at  this,  as  he  saw  that  these 
reverses  were  administering  to  his  troops  a 
more  lasting  and  effective  discipline  than  he 
could  have  hoped  to  give  them  in  any  other 
way.  He  had  his  revenge  at  last,  in  totally 
routing  the  Swedish  king,  Charles  XII.,  at 
Pultowa  in  July,  1709,  and  in  seizing  the 
whole  of  the  Baltic  provinces  and  a  portion 
of  Finland  in  the  following  year.  His  suc- 
cess against  Sweden  helped  much  to  consoli- 
date his  empire,  and  to  render  his  subjects 
more  favorably  disposed  toward  the  new 
order  of  things. 

After  reorganizing  his  army  he  prepared  for 
strife  with  the  Turks,  who  at  the  instigation 
of  Charles  XII. —  then  residing  at  Bender  — 
had  declared  war  against  him.  In  this  con- 
test Peter  was  reduced  to  such  straits  that 
he  despaired  of  escape,  and,  looking  forward 
to  death  or  captivity,  wrote  a  letter  to  his 
chief  nobles,  cautioning  them  against  obeying 
any  orders  he  might  give  them  while  a  cap>- 
tive,  and  advising  them  regarding  a  successor 
to  the  throne  in  case  of  his  death.  But  the 
finesse  and  ability  of  Catharine  Alexievna, 
afterward  his  wife  and  successor,  extricated 
him  from  his  difficulties;  and  a  treaty  was 
concluded  in  1711,  by  which  Peter  lost  only 
his  previous  conquest  —  the  port  of  Azof  and 
the  territory  belonging  to  it.  Shut  out  from 
the  Black  sea,  the  possession  of  a  good  sea- 
board on  the  Baltic  became  the  more  neces- 
sary to  him,  and  the  war  against  Sweden  in 
Pomerania  was  accordingly  pushed  on  with 
the  utmost  vigor. 

On  March  2,  1712,  his  marriage  with  Catha- 
rine was  celebrated  at  St.  Petersburg;  and 
two  months  afterward  the  offices  of  the 
central  government  were  transferred  to  the 
new  capital.     His  arms  in   Pomerania  and 


IN  POLITICS 


Finland  were  crowned  with  success,  and  in 
1713  the  latter  province  was  completely  sub- 
dued. Neither  did  Peter  neglect  any  oppor- 
tunity to  develop  the  naval  power  of  the 
empire;  and  the  strictness  with  which  he 
enforced  the  discharge  of  their  duties  on  his 
ministers  and  officers  appears  from  the 
refusal  by  the  court  of  admiralty  of  the 
czar's  own  application  for  the  grade  of  vice- 
admiral,  until  by  defeating  the  Swedish  fleet 
at  Hangoudd,  and  taking  the  Aland  isles,  and 
several  coast  forts  in  Finland,  he  had  merited 
the  honor. 

All  this  time  his  pursuits  after  all  kinds  of 
knowledge  were  unceasingly  continued.  He 
caused  his  engineers  to  draw  plans  for  cities, 
and  to  make  designs  of  the  different  machines 
which  he  did  not  have  in  his  own  country. 
He  instructed  himself  in  husbandry,  and  in  all 
sorts  of  trade,  wherever  he  went.  He  paid  a 
visit  with  his  consort  to  the  king  of  Denmark 
at  Copenhagen,  where  he  spent  three  months. 
He  visited  there  every  school  of  the  univer- 
ity,  and  all  the  men  of  letters;  for,  regard- 
less of  ceremony  and  pageantry,  which  he 
hated,  it  was  indifferent  to  him  whether 
they  waited  on  him  or  he  went  to  them.  He 
coasted  the  kingdoms  of  Denmark  and 
Sweden,  attended  by  two  engineers;  sur- 
veyed the  windings,  sounded  the  straits, 
and  afterward  had  the  whole  so  exactly 
described  in  charts  that  not  so  much  as  the 
smallest  shelf  or  bank  of  sand  escaped  his 
observation.  From  Copenhagen  he  went 
to  Hamburg,  Hanover,  Wolfenbiittel,  and 
from  thence  to  Holland.  During  the  years 
1716  and  1717,  in  company  with  the  czarina, 
he  made  another  tour  of  Europe,  this  time 
visiting  the  city  of  Paris,  where  he  was  re- 
ceived with  great  attention.  He  returned  to 
Russia  in  October,  1717,  carrying  with  him 
books,  paintings,  statues,  and  other  evidences 
of  culture  and  art. 

In  1722  Peter  commenced  a  war  with 
Persia,  in  order  to  open  up  the  Caspian  sea  to 
Russian  commerce.  The  internal  troubles 
of  Persia  compelled  the  shah  to  yield  to  the 
demands  of  his  formidable  opponent,  and  to 
give  up  the  three  Caspian  provinces  along 
with  the  towns  of  Derbend  and  Baku.  On 
Peter's  return  to  his  capital,  he  inquired  into 
the  conduct  of  his  finance  ministers,  and 
punished  with  fines,  imprisonment,  and  even 
death  those  whom  he  detected  in  fraudulent 
acts.  To  save  the  empire  which  he  had  estab- 
lished and  constituted  from  being  abandoned 


to  the  weak  government  of  a  minor,  he 
promulgated  in  February,  1722/ his  celebrated 
law  of  succession. 

During  the  latter  years  of  his  life  he  waa 
engaged  chiefly  in  beautifying  and  improving 
his  new  capital,  and  carrying  out  plana. for  the 
more  general  diffusion  of  knowledge  and 
education  among  his  subjects.  In  the  autumn 
of  1724  he  was  seized  with  a  serioua  iUneat; 
and,  when  all  hope  of  recovery  had  fled,  he 
appointed  his  wife,  Catharine,  his  successor, 
and  had  her  crowned  a  few  months  before  his 
death,  which  occurred  on  February  8,  172.S, 
in  the  fifty-third  year  of  his  age. 

It  would  be  a  great  task  to  enumerate  all 
the  various  establishments  for  which  the 
Russians  are  indebted  to  this  great  monarch. 
Fontenelle  has  recorded  some  of  the  principal 
ones,  and  they  must  also  have  a  place  here. 
His  first  accomplishments  were  military.  He 
established  a  body  of  one  hundred  thousand 
troops,  under  as  regular  a  discipline  as  any  in 
Europe ;  and  a  navy  of  forty  ships  of  the  line, 
and  two  hundred  galleys.  He  fortified  all  the 
chief  cities,  which  had  been  as  dangerous  in 
the  night  as  the  most  unfrequented  deserts, 
and  installed  an  effective  government  therein. 
Then  he  built  an  academy  for  naval  affairs 
and  navigation,  where  all  the  nobility  were 
obliged  to  send  some  of  their  children.  He 
also  built  colleges  at  Moscow,  Petersburg,  and 
Kiev,  for  languages,  polite  literature,  and 
mathematics;  schools  in  the  villages,  where 
the  children  of  the  peasants  were  taught  to 
read  and  write ;  a  college  of  physicians,  and  a 
noble  dispensary  at  Moscow,  which  furnished 
medicines  to  the  great  cities,  and  to  the 
armies;  whereas  before,  there  was  no  phyw- 
cian  but  the  czar's,  and  no  apothecary  in  all 
his  dominions. 

Voltaire  relates  that  the  czar  had  studied 
this  branch  of  knowledge  under  the  celebrated 
Ruysch  at  Amsterdam,  and  made  such  prog- 
ress under  this  master  as  to  enable  him 
to  perform  minor  sui^icai  operations  himself. 
He  afterward  purchased  the  cabinet  of 
that  anatomist,  which  contained  an  immense 
collection  of  the  most  curious,  instructive, 
and  uncommon  preparations. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  he  established 
an  observatory,  not  only  for  the  use  of  astrono- 
mers, but  as  a  repository  for  natural  curiosi- 
ties ;  a  botanical  garden  stocked  with  plants, 
not  only  from  all  parts  of  Europe,  but  from 
Asia,  Persia,  and  even  the  distant  parts  of 
China;    printing  houses,  where  the  old  bar- 


460 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


barous  characters  were  abolished,  which, 
through  the  great  number  of  abbreviations, 
were  almost  unintelligible;  interpreters  for 
all  the  languages  of  Europe,  and  likewise  for 
the  Latin,  Greek,  Turkish,  Calmuck,  Mogul, 
and  Chinese;  and  a  royal  library,  composed 
of  three  very  large  subsidiary  ones,  which  the 
czar  purchased  in  England,  Holstein,  and 
Germany. 

These  and  many  more  were  particular 
institutions  and  establishments ;  but  the  caar 
made  many  general  reformations,  to  which, 
indeed,  the  others  were  only  subservient.  He 
changed  the  architecture,  which  was  ugly  and 
deformed;  or,  to  speak  more  properly,  he 
first  introduced  that  science  into  his  dominion. 
He  sent  for  a  great  number  of  pictures  from 
Italy  and  France,  and  by  this  means  instructed 
in  the  art  of  painting  a  people,  who  knew  no 
more  of  it  than  what  they  could  collect  from 
the  wretched  daubing  of  their  painters  of 
saints.  He  sent  ships  laden  with  merchandise 
to  Genoa  and  Leghorn,  which  returned 
freighted  with  marble  and  statues ;  and  Pope 
Clement  XL,  pleased  with  his  taste,  presented 
him  with  a  fine  antique,  which  the  czar,  not 
caring  to  trust  by  sea,  ordered  to  be  brought 
to  St.  Petersburg  by  land. 

Religion  was  not  neglected  in  this  general 
reform ;  ignorance  and  superstition  had  over- 
run it  so  much  that  it  scarcely  merited  the 
name  of  Christian.  The  czar  introduced 
knowledge  where  it  was  urgently  needed, 
and  this  knowledge  enabled  him  to  abolish 
fasts,  miracles,  and  saint- worship,  in  a  good 
degree,  at  least.  But  he  ventured  further 
than  the  mere  correction  of  rites ;  and  by  this 
means  got  rid  of  a  power  which  was  always 
interrupting  and  disconcerting  his  measures. 
He  took  away  part  of  the  revenues  of  those 
churches  and  monasteries  which  he  thought 
too  wealthy;  and,  leaving  only  what  was 
necessary  for  their  subsistence,  added  the  sur- 
plus to  his  own  demesnes.  He  made  many 
judicious  and  useful  ecclesiastical  canons,  and 
ordered  preaching  in  the  Russian  language. 

Lastly,  he  established  a  general  liberty  of 
conscience  throughout  his  dominions;  and  if 
we  had  no  other  proof  of  his  civilized  spirit, 
this  would  be  sufficient.  There  is  one  more 
reformation,  perhaps  as  necessary  and  useful 
as  any  of  the  former,  which  he  made  even 
in  his  last  illness,  though  it  was  exceedingly 
painful.  When  the  senators  and  great 
personages,  then  about  him,  mentioned  the 
various  obligations  which  Russia  lay  under 


to  him,  for  abolishing  ignorance  and  barba- 
rism, and  introducing  arts  and  sciences,  he 
told  them  that  he  had  forgotten  to  reform  one 
of  the  most  important  points  of  all ;  namely, 
the  administration  of  justice,  occasioned  by 
the  tedious  and  litigious  chicanery  of  the 
lawyers;  and  he  signed  an  order  from  his 
bed  Umiting  the  determination  of  all  causes 
to  eleven  days,  which  was  immediately  sent 
to  all  the  courts  of  his  empire. 

He  had  a  son  who  lived  to  be  a  man ;  but 
this  son  engaged  with  his  mother,  whom 
Peter  had  divorced,  and  other  malcontents 
in  a  conspiracy  against  his  father  in  1717, 
and  was  condemned  to  die.  He  saved  the 
executioners  the  trouble,  however,  by  dying 
a  natural  death.  An  account  of  this  unfortu- 
nate prince,  with  original  papers,  was  pub- 
lished by  the  czar  himself,  the  title  of  which, 
as  it  stands  in  the  second  volume  of  the 
"Present  State  of  Russia,"  translated  from 
the  High  Dutch,  runs  thus :  "  A  manifesto  of 
the  Criminal  Process  of  the  Czarwitz  Alexei 
Petrowitz,  judged  and  published  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, the  25th  of  June,  1718,  translated  from 
the  Russian  original,  and  printed  by  the  order 
of  his  czarish  majesty  at  The  Hague,  1718." 

The  czar  also  comp>o8ed  several  works  upon 
naval  affairs ;  and  his  name  must  be  added  to 
the  short  catalogue  of  sovereigns  who  have 
honored  the  public  with  their  writings. 

The  personal  appearance  of  Peter  was 
imposing.  He  was  tall  and  robust,  active, 
nimble  of  foot,  quick  and  impatient  in  his 
gestures,  and  rapid  in  all  his  movements. 
His  face  was  plump  and  round,  his  hair 
brown  and  curly.  His  featur&s  were  regular ; 
but  their  general  expression  was  severe,  and 
at  times  even  ferocious.  He  was  lively  and 
sociable,  however,  in  his  manners,  and  very 
accessible.  He  possessed  a  sound  judgment 
which,  as  Voltaire  has  observed,  may  justly 
be  deemed  the  foundation  of  all  real  abilities ; 
and  to  this  sohdity  was  joined  an  active  dis- 
position, which  instigated  him  to  the  most 
arduous  undertakings.  Whoever  reflects 
upon  the  interruptions,  difficulties,  and  oppo- 
sitions, that  must  unavoidably  occur  in 
civilizing  and  reforming  a  large  and  barbarous 
empire,  must  suppose  the  czar  to  have  been, 
as  indeed  he  really  was,  a  person  of  the  great- 
est firnmess  and  perseverance.  He  was 
undoubtedly  a  man  of  powerful  and  original 
genius,  and  rendered  services  of  inestimable 
value  to  his  ignorant  and  barbarous  subjects. 

But  great  vices  as  well  as  great  virtues  were 


IN  POLITICS 


461 


combined  in  his  character.  At  one  time 
he  exhibited  the  most  marked  benevolence 
and  humanity,  at  another  a  total  disregard  of 
human  life.  He  was  at  once  kind-hearted 
and  cruel,  and  often  gave  way  to  violent  pas- 
sions and  indulged  in  the  grossest  sensualities 
—  the  fruits,  in  part  at  least,  of  the  barbarism 
of  his  country  and  his  own  imperfect  educa- 
tion, which  was  far  from  being  worthy  of  his 
genius;  it  had  been  spoiled  by  the  princess 
Sophia,  whose  interest  it  was  that  he  should 
be  immersed  in  licentious  excesses.  However, 
in  spite  of  bad  example,  and  even  his  own 
strong  propensity  to  pleasure,  his  natural 
desire  of  knowledge  and  magnanimity  of  soul 
broke  through  all  habits,  nay,  they  broke 
through  something  even  greater  than  habits. 
"He  gave  a  polish,"  says  Voltaire,  "to  his 
people,  and  was  himself  a  savage;  he  taught 
them  the  art  of  war,  of  which  he  was  himself 
ignorant;  from  the  sight  of  a  small  boat  on 


the  river  Moskwa,  he  erected  a  powerful  fleet; 
made  himself  an  expert  shipwright,  sailor, 
pilot,  and  commander;  he  changed  Um  man- 
ners, customs,  and  laws  of  the  Ruastans,  and 
lives  in  their  memory  as  the  father  of  his 
country." 

Perhaps  Peter  has  never  been  more  truth- 
fully characterized  than  by  one  of  his  greatest 
biographers,  Waliszewski.  "Peter,"  this 
writer  says,  "  is  Russia  —  her  flesh  and  blood, 
her  temperament  and  genius,  her  virtues  and 
her  vices.  With  his  various  aptitudes,  his 
multiplicity  of  effort,  his  tumultuous  passions, 
he  rises  up  before  us,  a  collective  being. 
This  makes  his  greatness.  This  raises  him 
far  above  the  pale  shadows  which  our  feeble 
historical  evocation  strives  to  snatch  out  of 
oblivion.  There  is  no  need  to  call  his  figure 
up.  He  stands  before  us,  surviving  his  own 
existence,  perpetuating  himself  —  a  continual 
actual  fact." 


FRANKLIN 


A.  D. 

1706  Bom  at  Boston,  Massachusetts, 

1717  Apprentice  in  printing  office,    . 

1723  Settled  in  Philadelphia, .... 

1724  Went  to  England, 

1730  Married  at  Philadelphia,    .    .    . 
1732-57  VnhUshed  Poor  Richard's  Almanac,  26-51 

1743  Proposed  establishing  academy — 

afterward  university  of   Penn- 
sylvania,   

1746         Began  experiments  in  electricity, 
1752         Discovered  identity  of  electricity 
and  lightning, 


"DENJAMIN  FRANKLIN,  celebrated  as 
•*-'  statesman,  diplomatist,  author,  and  phi- 
losopher, was  born  at  Boston,  Massachusetts, 
January  17,  1706,  where  his  father,  an  English 
non-conformist,  had  settled  twenty-five  years 
before.  He  was  the  youngest  son  of  a  family 
of  seventeen  children,  and  at  an  early  age 
showed  such  a  fondness  for  books  that  it  was 
determined  to  educate  him  for  the  ministry. 
After  two  years  ^.t  school,  however,  he  was 
obliged  to  leave  and  assist  his  father,  who 
with  his  trade  of  dyer  combined  that  of  tallow 
chandler  and  soap  boiler.  Benjamin,  though 
disliking  this  kind  of  occupation,  worked  at  it 
two  years,  and  in  his  twelfth  year  thought 
himself  decidedly  fortunate  in  being  appren- 
ticed to  his  brother,  a  printer,  a  business 
which  promised  to  afford  better  opportunities 
to  get  at  books,  his  one  special  desire. 
Still  he  was  more  and  more  puzzled  how 


1753 

11 

1757-62 

17 

1764-75 

18 

1776 

24 

,26-51 

1776-85 

1785 

1787 

37 

40 

1788 

1790 

46 

AQB 

Deputy  postmaater-general,      .    . '       47 
Envoy  to  England, 61-66 


Again  envoy  to  England, 

Signed  declaration  of  independ- 
ence,       

Ambassador  to  France 

Governor  of  Pennsylvania,    .    .    . 

Delegate  to  constitutional  con- 
vention,     

Retired  from  active  public  life,    . 

Died  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,     ... 


68-69 

70 

70-79 

79 

81 

82 
84 


to  gratify  his  love  of  knowledge.  One  day 
he  hit  upon  an  expedient  that  brought  in  a 
little  cash.  By  reading  a  vegetarian  book, 
the  Yankee  lad  had  been  led  to  think  that 
people  could  live  better  without  meat  than 
with  it,  and  that  killing  innocent  animals  for 
food  was  cruel  and  wicked.  So  he  abstained 
from  meat  altogether  for  about  two  years. 
As  this  led  to  some  inconvenience  at  his 
boarding  house,  he  made  this  cunning  propo- 
sition to  his  master:  "Give  me  one-half  the 
money  you  pay  for  my  board,  and  I  will 
board  myself."  The  master  consenting,  the 
apprentice  lived  entirely  upon  such  things  as 
hominy,  bread,  rice,  and  potatoes,  and  found 
that  he  could  actually  live  upon  half  of  the 
half. 

The  money  he  thus  was  able  to  save  he 
expended  in  the  improvement  of  his  mind. 
Among  all  the  books  he  had  read,  voyages 


482 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


and  history  charmed  him  most;  but  he  tells 
us  in  his  autobiography  that  the  two  works 
which  exercised  the  greatest  influence  on  his 
career  were  the  Lives  of  Plutarch  and  the 
Essay  on  Projects  by  Defoe,  the  author  of 
Robinson  Crusoe,  which  he  read  about  this 
time. 

In  the  business  of  printing  he  soon  became 
an  expert,  read  with  avidity  all  the  books 
that  came  within  his  reach,  and  tried  his 
hand  at  verse-making.  But,  falling  in  with 
some  old  volumes  of  the  Spectator,  he  became 
more  interested  in  forming  his  prose  style  on 
the  model  of  its  articles,  and,  as  he  says,  was 
thus  prevented  from  becoming  a  bad  poet. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  had  read  Locke's 
treatise  On  the  Understanding,  the  Port- 
Royal  Art  of  Thinking,  and  Xenophon's 
Memoirs  of  Socrates.  Every  new  faculty 
which  in  turn  developed  itself  in  him  was 
almost  always  worked  to  extremes  as  the 
result  of  having  no  guide  to  direct  its  devel- 
opment. The  study  of  metaphysics  made 
him  sceptical,  and  to  defend  his  new  prin- 
ciples he  adopted  the  Socratic  method  of 
reasoning,  in  which  he  became  an  adept. 

About  this  time  his  relations  with  his 
brother  became  unpleasant.  Franklin  was 
evidently  too  studious  and  ambitious.  Origi- 
nal articles  written  by  him  were  accepted  for 
publication  in  his  brother's  paper,  the  editor 
not  knowing  their  source.  The  brother  be- 
came jealous,  and,  although  his  indentures 
were  not  out,  Franklin  determined  to  leave 
him  and  start  in  the  world  for  himself.  He 
consequently  sold  some  of  his  books  and 
quietly  left  Boston  in  October,  1723.  He 
went  to  New  York,  but  finding  no  work  there 
set  out  for  Philadelphia.  When  at  the  age 
of  seventeen  he  landed  at  Philadelphia,  a 
runaway  apprentice,  he  had  one  silver  dollar 
and  one  shilling  in  copper  coin.  He  asked 
the  boatmen,  upon  whose  boat  he  had  come 
down  the  Delaware,  how  much  he  had  to  pay. 
They  answered  that  it  would  be  nothing, 
because  he  had  helped  them  row.  Franklin, 
however,  insisted  upon  their  taking  his 
shilling's  worth  of  coppers,  and  forced  the 
money  upon  them. 

An  hour  after,  having  bought  three  rolls 
for  his  breakfast,  he  ate  one,  and  gave  the 
other  two  to  a  poor  woman  and  her  child, 
who  had  been  his  fellow  passengers.  These 
were  small  things,  you  may  say ;  but  remem- 
ber, he  was  a  poor,  ragged  rimaway  in  a 
strange   town,   four  hundred   miles  from   a 


friend,  with  three  pence  gone  out  of  the  only 
dollar  he  had  in  the  world. 

Franklin  soon  found  employment  with  a 
printer,  named  Keimer,  a  Jew,  to  whom  he 
rendered  himself  invaluable  by  his  skill, 
energy,  and  fruitful  resources  for  obtaining 
orders.  He  received  flattering  attentions 
from  some  of  the  prominent  citizens  in  Phila- 
delphia, and  attracted  the  notice  of  Sir 
William  Keith,  the  governor  of  the  province, 
who  greatly  patronized  him,  and  proposed  to 
set  him  up  in  business  for  himself. 

Franklin  embarked  for  London  in  1724  to 
buy  the  necessary  type.  On  arriving  there 
he  found  he  had  relied  too  confidently  on 
promises  which  could  not  be  fulfilled,  and 
must  depend  on  his  own  exertions  to  gain 
even  his  daily  bread.  He  found  employment 
at  a  famous  printing  house  —  Palmer's  — 
and  afterward  at  another.  He  made  friends 
among  his  fellow  workmen,  set  them  an 
excellent  example  of  temperance  and  good 
work,  and  astonished  them  by  his  feats  of 
swimming.  He  wrote  at  this  time  some 
essays  —  the  Dissertation  on  Liberty,  Neces- 
sity, Pleasure  and  Pain  —  which  were  printed 
and  circulated. 

After  spending  about  eighteen  months  in 
London,  a  Mr.  Denham,  whom  he  had  met, 
informed  him  that  he  was  going  to  return  to 
Philadelphia  to  open  a  store,  and  offered  him 
a  situation  as  clerk,  at  a  salary  of  fifty  pounds. 
The  money  was  less  than  he  was  now  making 
as  a  compositor,  but  he  longed  to  see  his 
native  country  again,  and  accepted  the 
proposal.  Accordingly  the  two  set  sail 
together,  and  after  a  long  voyage  arrived  in 
Philadelphia  in  October,  1726. 

A  few  months  after  their  arrival,  Denham 
died,  and  Franklin  was  once  more  left  on  the 
world.  He  then  engaged  again  with  his 
master,  Keimer,  the  printer,  with  whom  he 
remained  but  a  short  time.  Shortly  after- 
ward he  joined  one  of  his  fellow  workmen, 
named  Meredith,  and  began  business  with 
him,  type  having  been  procured  from  Eng- 
land. He  now  established  a  newspaper,  the 
Pennsylvania  Gazette,  which  met  with  great 
success,  and  the  observations  which  he  \\Tote 
for  its  columns  on  colonial  subjects  obtained 
for  him  many  friends  in  the  house  of  assem- 
bly, so  that  he  and  his  partner  were  appointed 
printers  to  the  house. 

Meredith's  father  having  subsequently 
failed  to  advance  the  capital  which  had  been 
agreed  upon,  Meredith  proposed  to  Frankhn 


IN  POLITICS 


to  relinquish  the  partnership,  and  leave  the 
whole  in  Franklin's  hands,  if  he  would  take 
upon  him  the  debts  of  the  concern,  return  to 
his  father  what  he  had  advanced  on  their 
commencing  business,  pay  ileredith's  little 
personal  debts,  and  give  him  thirty  pounds 
and  a  new  saddle. 

By  the  kindness  of  two  friends,  who, 
unknown  to  each  other,  came  forward  un- 
asked to  tender  their  assistance,  Franklin 
was  enabled  to  accept  this  proposal;  and 
thus,  about  the  year  1729,  when  he  was  only 
in  his  twenty-fourth  year,  he  found  himself, 
after  all  his  disappointments  and  vicissitudes, 
with  nothing,  indeed,  to  depend  upon  but  his 
skill  and  industry  for  gaining  a  livelihood, 
and  for  extricating  himself  from  debt.  Still 
he  was,  in  one  sense,  fairly  established  in  life, 
and  with  at  least  a  bright  prospect  before 
him.  In  the  following  year  he  married  Miss 
Deborah  Read,  daughter  of  the  man  with 
whom  he  had  lodged  on  his  first  arrival  at 
Philadelphia. 

His  subsequent  efforts  in  pm^uit  of  fortune 
and  independence  were  eminently  successful. 
The  first  circulating  library  in  America  was 
established  by  him.  A  publication,  in  recom- 
mendation of  a  paper  currency,  obtained  for 
him  at  the  time  much  popularity.  In  1732 
he  first  published  his  celebrated  almanac, 
under  the  name  of  Richard  Saunders,  but 
which  was  commonly  known  by  the  name  of 
Poor  Richard's  Almanac.  He  continued  this 
publication  annually  for  twenty-five  years. 
The  proverbs  and  pithy  sentences  scattered 
throughout  its  various  n\unbers  were  after- 
ward thrown  together  in  a  connected  dis- 
course, under  the  title  of  The  Way  to  Wealth. 
This  publication  at  once  became  one  of  wide 
popularity,  and  probably  there  are  but  few 
literally  educated  persons  who  are  not 
familiar  with  it.  It  has  also  been  translated 
into  many  foreign  languages. 

Franklin  says  that  in  1733  he  began  to 
study  languages,  and  soon  became  familiar 
with  Ff-ench,  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Latin, 
In  1736  he  was  chosen  clerk  of  the  general 
assembly  of  Pennsylvania,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  became  postmaster  of  Philadelphia. 
These  preferments  induced  him  to  give  much 
thought  to  statecraft,  and  to  take  a  more 
active  part  in  public  affairs  than  he  had 
hitherto  done. 

He  first  turned  his  attention  to  the  con- 
dition of  the  city  police,  which  was  then  in  a 
shameful  condition,  and  he  soon  effected  a 


reformation  in  the  whole  8>'8tem.  He  after- 
ward suggested  and  promoted  the  establiab- 
ment  of  a  fire  company,  the  first  projected  in 
America;  he  also  organized  a  militia  for  tbe 
defense  of  the  province.  In  1743  he  proposed 
establishing  an  academy  for  the  education  of 
youth,  which  became  the  germ  of  the  great 
university  of  Pennsylvania.  In  short,  every 
department  of  the  civil  government,  as  be 
tells  us,  and  almost  at  the  same  time,  impoeed 
some  duty  upon  him.  "The  governor,"  he 
says,  "put  me  into  the  commission  of  the 
peace;  the  corporation  of  the  city  choee  me 
one  of  the  common  council ;  and  the  dttiena 
at  large  elected  me  a  burgess  to  represent 
them  in  assembly." 

Notwithstanding  the  multipHcity  of  his 
public  duties,  he  found  leisure  to  pursue  his 
familiar  scientific  investigations  in  electricity, 
which  he  began  in  1746.  These  were  attended 
with  such  success  as  to  gain  for  him  a  lasting 
name  in  the  world  of  science.  In  1752  he 
discovered  the  identity  of  electricity  and 
lightning,  and  turned  the  discovery  to  account 
by  publishing  a  plan  for  defending  houses 
from  lightning  by  the  use  of  pointed  con- 
ductors. He  likewise  made  important  dis- 
coveries with  regard  to  the  laws  that  regulate 
the  electric  fluid,  a  subject  hitherto  very 
imperfectly  understood.  His  renown  had 
spread  over  the  whole  civilized  world,  and 
honors  were  heaped  upon  him  by  the  various 
learned  societies  of  Europe.  The  Godfrey 
Copley  gold  medal  was  bestowed  upon  him 
by  the  royal  society  of  London,  which  also 
nominated  him  one  of  its  members.  The 
universities  of  Oxford,  St.  Andrews,  and 
Edinburgh,  respectively,  conferred  upon  him 
the  doctorate  of  laws.  He  was  made  an 
associate  of  the  academy  of  sciences  at  Paris, 
as  Leibnitz  and  Newton  had  been  b^ore 
him. 

In  1753  Franklin  was  made  deputy  post- 
master-general for  the  British  colonies  in 
America,  and  in  the  same  year  he  projected 
and  established  the  academy  of  sciences  in 
Philadelphia,  In  1754  he  was  one  of  the 
colonial  delegates  who  met  in  oongress  at 
Albany  to  devise  means  of  defense  sgatnst 
the  French;  and  there  he  submitted  a  plan 
of  imion,  similar  in  many  respects  to  our 
federal  constitution,  but  it  was  rejected  by 
the  British  government  and  the  colonial 
assemblies  for  widely  different  reasons. 

Three  years  afterward  Franklin  was  sent 
to  England  as  the  agent  for  Pennsylvania,  and 


464 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


was  employed  in  the  same  capacity  by  three 
other  colonies.  There  he  associated  with  the 
greatest  men  of  the  time,  and  the  poor 
journeyman  printer  of  a  few  years  before 
"stood  before  kings,"  and  was  honored  by 
men  of  learning. 

He  returned  to  America  in  1762,  and  took 
his  seat  in  the  colonial  assembly;  but  two 
years  afterward,  the  dispute  between  the 
colonies  and  the  government  having  com- 
menced in  earnest,  he  was  again  sent  as  an 
agent  for  Pennsylvania  to  England.  He 
remained  abroad  until  1775,  during  which 
time  he  visited  the  continent,  and  became 
acquainted  with  the  most  learned  men  in 
Europe.  On  the  day  of  liis  arrival  in  Amer- 
ica, he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  conti- 
nental congress;  and  he  was  one  of  the 
signers  of  the  declaration  of  independence 
the  following  year. 

During  the  whole  period  of  the  revolution 
he  was  continually  active  in  a  civil  capacity 
at  home  or  abroad.  No  man  did  more  for 
the  establishment  of  American  independence 
than  Franklin.  Congress  sent  him  as  a 
commissioner  to  the  French  court  in  1776. 
At  the  time  the  ocean  swarmed  with  British 
cruisers.  General  Washington  had  lost  New 
York,  and  the  prospects  of  the  revolution 
were  gloomy  in  the  extreme. 

Franklin  was  an  old  man  of  seventy,  and 
might  justly  have  asked  to  be  excused  from 
a  service  so  perilous  and  fatiguing.  But  he 
did  not.  He  went.  And,  just  before  he 
sailed,  he  got  together  all  the  money  he  could 
raise  —  about  three  thousand  pounds  —  and 
invested  it  in  the  loan  recently  announced  by 
congress.  This  he  did  at  a  moment  when 
few  men  had  a  hearty  faith  in  the  success  of 
the  revolution.  This  he  did  when  he  was 
going  to  a  foreign  country  that  might  not 
receive  him,  from  which  he  might  be  expelled, 
and  he  have  no  country  to  which  to  return. 
There  never  was  a  more  gallant  and  generous 
act  done  by  au  old  man. 

In  France  he  was  as  much  the  mainstay  of 
the  cause  of  his  country  as  General  Washing- 
ton was  at  home.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
accomplished  and  adroit  diplomats  at  Ver- 
sailles, where  he  was  received  with  extra- 
ordinary enthusiasm  both  as  a  savant  and 
as  a  patriot.  While  in  Paris  he  wrote  much 
for  the  press,  and  "  kept  the  world  constantly 
talking  of  him,  and  wondering  at  the  inex- 
haustible variety  and  unconventional  novelty 
of  his  resources."    His  meeting  with  Voltaire 


at  the  academy  of  sciences,  where  the  two 
illustrious  old  men  publicly  embraced  each 
other,  is  really  a  great  historic  scene;  and 
everj'one  knows  the  epigram  of  Turgot  — 
"  He  wrested  from  heaven  its  thunderbolt  and 
from  tyrants  their  sceptre."  But  it  was  not 
until  1778  that  he  induced  the  French  govern- 
ment to  form  the  alliance  with  the  revolted 
colonies  which  eventually  comi>elled  England 
to  concede  their  independence. 

In  1783  the  definite  treaty  of  peace  was 
signed;  and  in  1785  Franklin  solicited  per- 
mission to  return  home,  which  was  granted. 
His  reception  in  Philadelphia,  where  sixty-two 
years  before  he  had  landed  a  penniless,  run- 
away apprentice  of  seventeen,  almost  ex- 
ceeded the  bounds  of  enthusiasm.  The  appre- 
ciation of  a  grateful  people  was  still  further 
expressed  when  a  month  later  he  was  elected 
governor  of  Pennsylvania  for  three  successive 
years,  at  a  salary  of  two  thousand  pounds  a 
year.  But  by  this  time  he  had  become  con- 
vinced that  offices  of  honor,  such  as  the 
governorship  of  a  state,  ought  not  to  have 
any  salary  attached  to  them.  He  thought 
they  should  be  filled  by  persons  of  inde- 
pendent income,  willing  to  serve  their  fellow 
citizens  from  benevolence,  or  for  the  honor 
of  it.  So  thinking,  at  first,  he  determined  not 
to  receive  any  salary ;  but  this  being  objected 
to,  he  devoted  the  whole  of  the  salary  for 
three  years  —  six  thousand  pounds  —  to  the 
furtherance  of  public  objects.  Part  of  it  he 
gave  to  a  college,  and  part  was  set  aside  for 
the  improvement  of  the  Schuylkill  river. 

In  1787  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  federal 
constitutional  convention,  and  in  1788  he 
retired  from  active  public  life,  using  his  pen, 
however,  as  vigorously  as  ever.  His  last  act 
—  and  it  was  one  in  beautiful  accordance 
with  the  whole  tenor  of  his  Ufe  —  was  putting 
his  signature  as  president  of  the  antislavery 
society  to  a  memorial  presented  to  the 
house  of  representatives,  praying  them  to 
exert  the  full  powers  intrusted  to  them  to 
discourage  the  revolting  traffic  in  human  lives. 

On  April  17,  1790,  in  his  eighty-fifth  year, 
I  he  died  in  Philadelphia.  He  was  interred  in 
the  burial  ground  of  Christ  church,  Phila- 
delphia, and  numerous  statues  have  been 
erected  to  his  memory  throughout  the  country. 
The  following  epitaph  was  written  by  Franklin 
j.many  years  previous  to  his  death,  but  was 
never  inscribed  on  his  tombstone : 

"The  body  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  Printer, 
j  —  Uke  the  cover  of  an  old  book ;  its  contents 


IN  POLITICS 


165 


torn  out,  and  stript  of  its  lettering  and  gild- 
ing —  lies  here  food  for  worms ;  yet  the  work 
itself  shall  not  be  lost;  for  it  will,  as  he 
believed,  appear  once  more  in  a  new  and 
more  beautiful  edition,  corrected  and  amended 
by  the  Author." 

In  person,  Franklin  was  about  five  feet 
nine  or  ten  inches  in  height,  and  well  and 
strongly  made.  He  had  a  fair  complexion 
and  grey  eyes;  his  manners  were  extremely 
winning  and  afTable.  None  of  his  descend- 
ants bear  his  name,  the  last  who  did  so 
being  his  grandson,  William  Temple  Frank- 
lin, who  died  in  1823.  There  are  many  de- 
scendants of  his  daughter,  who  married  a 
Mr.  Bache. 

No  man  of  the  age  stood  on  a  prouder 
eminence  than  this  extraordinary  commoner, 
who  had  originally  been  one  of  the  most 
obscure  of  people,  and  had  raised  himself  to 
all  this  distinction  almost  without  the  aid  of 
any  education  except  such  as  he  had  acquired 
himself.  Who  will  say,  after  reading  his 
story,  that  anything  more  is  necessary  for 
the  attainment  of  knowledge,  than  the  deter- 
mination to  attain  it?  The  secret  of  Frank- 
lin's success  in  the  cultivation  of  his  mental 
powers  was  that  he  was  ever  awake  and 
active;  that  he  suffered  no  opportunity  of 
forwarding  it  to  escape  him  unimproved; 
that,  however  poor,  he  found  at  least  a  few 
pence,  were  it  even  by  diminishing  his  scanty 
meals,  to  pay  for  the  loan  of  the  books  he 
could  not  buy ;  that  however  hard  he  worked, 
he  found  a  few  hours  in  the  week  to  read 
and  study  them.  Others  may  not  have  his 
presence  of  mind;  but  his  industry,  his  per- 
severance, his  self-command,  are  for  the 
imitation  of  all  mankind. 

"America,"  says  Bigelow,  "owes  much  to 
him  for  his  services  in  various  public  capac- 
ities ;  the  world  owes  much  to  the  fruits  of  his 
pen ;  but  his  greatest  contribution  to  the  wel- 
fare of  mankind,  probably,  was  what  he  did  by 
his  example  and  life  to  dignify  manual  labor." 

Never  was  an, eminent  man  more  thoughtful 
of  the  lowly  people  who  were  the  companions 
of  his  poverty.  Franklin,  from  the  midst  of 
the  splendors  of  the  French  court,  and  when 
he  was  the  most  famous  and  admired  person 
in  Europe,  forgot  not  his  poor  old  sister,  Jane, 
who  was,  in  part,  dependent  upon  his  bounty. 
He  gave  her  a  house  in  Boston,  and  sent  her, 
every  September,  the  money  to  lay  in  her 
winter's  fuel  and  provisions.  He  wrote  her 
the    kindest,    wittiest,    pleasantest    letters. 


"  Believe  me,  dear  brother,"  Ae  wtiim,  "your 
writing  to  me  gives  me  so  mudi  plouRire,  that 
the  great,  the  very  great  prenntf  you  hav* 
sent  me  give  me  but  a  secondary  joy." 

"FrankHn  is,  indeed,"  says  Lecky,  "one  of 
the  very  small  class  of  men  who  can  be  said 
to  have  added  something  of  real  value  to  the 
art  of  living." 

Upon  receiving  a  letter  once  from  a  friend, 
who  apologized  for  his  bad  spelling,  Franklin, 
in  replying  to  it,  comforts  him  in  the  following 
humorous  manner : 

"You  need  not  be  concerned  in  writing  to 
me  about  your  bad  spelling;  for  in  my 
opinion,  what  is  called  bad  spelling  is  generally 
the  best,  as  conforming  to  the  sound  of  the 
letters.  To  give  you  an  instance,  a  gentleman 
received  a  letter  in  which  were  these  words: 
'Not  finding  Brown  at  horn  I  delivered  your 
messeg  to  his  yf.'  The  gentleman  called  his 
wife  to  help  him  to  read  it.  Between  them 
they  picked  out  all  but  the  yf,  which  they 
could  not  understand.  The  lady  proposed 
calling  her  chamber-maid,  'because  Betty,' 
says  she,  'has  the  best  knack  of  reading  bad 
spelling  of  any  one  I  know.'  Betty  came,  and 
was  surprised  that  neither  of  them  could  tell 
what  yf  was.  'Why,'  she  replied,  'yf  spells 
wife  —  what  else  can  it  spell? '  And,  indeed, 
it  is  a  much  better,  as  well  as  shorter  method 
than  doubleyou,  i,  f,  e,  which,  in  reality, 
spells  doublewife." 

Franklin  left  an  interesting  and  highly 
instructive  autobiography  of  the  earlier  part 
of  his  life,  a  continuation  of  which  has  been 
added  by  Jared  Sparks,  prefixed  to  an  edition 
of  Franklin's  entire  works,  in  ten  volumes, 
and  more  recently  edited  by  John  Bigelow. 

He  was  never  deliberately  an  author.  All 
his  writing  was  done  with  a  practical  aim,  and 
derives  its  value  largely  from  the  accuracy 
with  which  it  reflects  his  character.  He  was 
quite  deficient  in  poetic  imagination  and  in 
ability  to  appreciate  the  spiritual  side  of 
human  nature.  His  newspaper  and  his  Al- 
manac  were  the  organs  through  which  be 
spread  his  views  on  practical  morality  and  his 
wisdom,  while  his  numerous  letters  reflect  hia 
distinctive  humor.  His  greatest  service  was 
undoubtedly  due  to  his  skill  in  diplomacy. 

The  great  French  orator,  Mirabeau,  once 
said :  "  Antiquity  would  have  raised  altars  to 
this  mighty  genius,  who,  to  the  advantage  of 
mankind,  compassing  in  his  mind  the  heavens 
and  the  earth,  was  able  to  restrain  alike 
thunderbolts  and  tyrants." 


466                                                MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 

FREDERICK  THE  GREAT 

A.  D.                                                                                                              AGE  A.  D.  AQB 

1712         Bom  at  Berlin,  Prussia,     ....          . .  1750         Induces  Voltaire  to  reside  at  Pots- 

1730         Attempted  to  leave  Prussia,.    .    .          18                              dam, 38 

1733         Married, 21  1756         Began  seven  years'  war,    ....  44 

1740         Became  king 28  1763         Signed  peace  of  Hubertsburg,  .    .  51 

1740-42  War    with     Austria;      treaty    of  1772         Participated  in  partition  of  Poland,  60 

Breslau, 28-30  1778          Prevented  partition  of  Bavaria,   .  66 

1744  Invaded  Bohemia, 32  1785         Formed  the  Fiirstenbund,.    ...  73 

1745  Treaty  of  Dresden, 33  1786         Died  at  Sans  Souci,  near  Potsdam,  74 


PREDERICK  THE  GREAT,  otherwise  | 
■■■  Frederick  II.,  of  Prussia,  one  of  the  most  j 
celebrated  of  German  sovereigns,  born  Janu- 
ary 24,  1712,  at  Berlin,  was  the  son  of  Fred- 
erick William  I.  and  the  princess  Sophia 
Dorothea,  daughter  of  George  I.,  of  Great 
Britain.  He  was  very  little  indebted  for  his 
personal  greatness  to  the  virtues  or  example  of 
his  immediate  progenitors. 

His  grandfather,  Frederick  I.,  the  first  of 
the  house  of  Brandenburg  who  assumed  the 
title  of  king,  was  a  weak  and  empty  prince, 
whose  character  was  taken  by  his  own  wife  to 
exemplify  the  idea  of  infinite  littleness.  His 
father,  Frederick  William,  was  a  man  of  a 
violent  and  brutal  disposition,  eccentric  and 
intemperate,  whose  principal  and  almost  sole 
pleasure  and  pursuit  was  the  training  and 
daily  superintendence  of  an  army  dispropor- 
tionately greater  than  the  extent  of  his 
dominions  seemed  to  warrant.  It  is,  however, 
to  the  credit  of  Frederick  William  as  a  ruler, 
that,  notwithstanding  this  expensive  taste, 
his  finances  on  the  whole  were  well  and 
economically  administered;  so  that  on  his 
death  he  left  a  quiet  and  happy,  though  not 
wealthy,  country,  a  treasure  of  nine  millions 
of  crowns,  amounting  to  more  than  a  year's 
revenue,  and  a  well-disciplined  army  of 
seventy-six  thousand  men.  Thus  on  his 
accession,  Frederick  II.  found  ready  pre- 
pared men  and  money,  the  instruments  of 
war;  and  for  this  alone  was  he  indebted  to 
his  father. 

From  Frederick  William  parental  tender- 
ness was  not  to  be  expected.  His  treatment 
of  his  whole  family,  wife  and  children,  was 
brutal ;  but  he  showed  a  particular  antipathy 
to  his  eldest  son,  from  the  age  of  fourteen 
upward,  for  which  no  reason  can  be  assigned 
except  that  the  young  prince  manifested  a 
taste  for  literature,  and  preferred  books  and 
music  to  the  routine  of  military  exercises. 
From  this  age  Frederick's  life  was  embittered 
by  continual  contradiction,  insult,  and  even 
personal  violence.  In  1730  he  endeavored  to 
escape  by  flight  from  his  father's  control ;  but 


this  intention  being  revealed,  he  was  arrested, 
tried  as  a  deserter,  and  condemned  to  death 
by  an  obedient  court-martial.  The  sentence, 
to  all  appearance,  would  have  been  carried 
into  effect,  had  it  not  been  for  the  interference 
of  the  emperor  of  Germany,  Charles  VI.  of 
Austria.  The  king  yielded  to  his  urgent 
entreaties,  but  with  much  reluctance,  saying, 
"Austria  will  some  day  perceive  what  a  ser- 
pent she  warms  in  her  bosom." 

In  1732  Frederick  procured  a  remission  of 
this  ill  treatment  by  contracting,  against  his 
will,  a  marriage  with  Elizabeth  Christina,  of 
Brunswick.  The  marriage  took  place  in 
1733.  Domestic  happiness  he  neither  sought 
nor  found ;  for  it  appears  that  he  never  lived 
with  his  wife.  Her  endowments,  mental  and 
personal,  were  not  such  as  to  win  the  affec- 
tions of  so  fastidious  a  man,  but  her  moral 
qualities  and  conduct  are  highly  commended ; 
and,  except  in  the  resolute  avoidance  of  her 
society,  her  husband  through  life  treated  her 
with  high  esteem.  From  the  time  of  his  mar- 
riage to  his  accession,  Frederick  resided  at 
Rheinsberg,  a  village  some  distance  north- 
east of  Berlin. 

In  1734  Frederick  made  his  first  campaign 
with  Prince  Eugene,  but  without  displaying, 
or  finding  opportunity  to  display,  the  military 
talents  by  which  he  was  distinguished  in 
after  Ufe.  From  1732  to  1740  his  time  was 
principally  devoted  to  literary  amusements 
and  society.  Several  of  his  published  works 
were  written  during  this  period,  among  them 
the  Anti-M achiavel  and  "Considerations  on 
the  Character  of  Charles  XII."  He  also 
devoted  some  portion  of  his  time  to  the 
study  of  military  tactics.  His  favorite  com- 
panions were  chiefly  Frenchmen;  and  for 
French  manners,  language,  cookery,  and 
philosophy,  he  displayed  through  life  a  very 
decided  preference. 

The  early  part  of  Frederick's  life  gave  little 
.promise  of  his  future  energy  as  a  soldier  and 
statesman.  The  flute,  embroidered  clothes, 
and  the  composition  of  indifferent  French 
verses  seemed  to  occupy  the  attention  of  the 


IN  POLITICS 


m 


young  dilettante.  His  accession  to  the  throne, 
on  May  31,  1740,  called  his  dormant  energies 
at  once  into  action.  Fully  conscious  of  his 
immense  dut'ies  and  cares,  he  assumed  the 
entire  direction  of  government,  charging 
himself  with  those  minute  and  daily  duties 
which  princes  generally  commit  to  their 
ministers.  To  discharge  the  multiplicity  of 
business  which  thus  devolved  on  him,  he  laid 
down  strict  rules  for  the  regulation  of  his 
time  and  employments,  to  which,  except 
when  on  active  service,  he  scrupulously 
adhered.  He  always  wore  the  uniform  of 
his  guards ;  he  bestowed  but  a  few  minutes 
on  his  dress,  in  respect  to  which  he  was  care- 
less, even  to  slovenliness. 

Peaceful  employments  did  not  long  satisfy 
his  active  mind.  His  father,  content  with  the 
possession  of  a  powerful  army,  had  never 
used  it  as  an  instrument  of  conquest;  but 
Frederick,  in  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  under- 
took to  wrest  from  Austria  the  province  of 
Silesia.  It  appears  that  he  had  some  heredi- 
tary claim  on  that  country,  which,  from  its 
adjoining  situation,  was  a  most  desirable 
acquisition  to  the  Prussian  dominions,  and 
to  the  assertion  of  this  claim  he  deemed  the 
time  in  question  favorable. 

At  the  death  of  Charles  VI.  in  October, 
1740,  the  hereditary  dominions  of  Austria 
developed  on  a  young  princess,  afterward  the 
celebrated  Maria  Theresa.  Trusting  to  her 
weakness,  Frederick  at  once  marched  an  army 
into  Silesia.  The  people,  being  chiefly  Prot- 
estants, were  not  well  disposed  toward  their 
Austrian  rulers,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
country,  except  the  fortresses,  fell  without  a 
battle  into  the  king  of  Prussia's  possession. 
In  the  following  campaign,  April  10,  1741,  the 
battle  of  MoUwitz  was  fought,  which  requires 
mention,  because  in  this  engagement,  the 
first  in  which  he  commanded,  Frederick  dis- 
played neither  the  skill  nor  the  courage  which 
the  whole  of  his  subsequent  life  proved  him 
really  to  possess.  It  was  said  that  he  took 
shelter  in  a  windmill,  and  this  gave  rise  to  the 
sarcasm  that  at  MoUwitz  the  king  of  Prussia 
had  covered  himself  with  glory  and  with  flour. 

The  Prussians,  however,  remained  masters 
of  the  field.  In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year 
they  advanced  within  two  days'  march  of 
Vienna ;  it  was  in  this  extremity  of  distress 
that  Maria  Theresa  made  her  celebrated  and 
affecting  appeal  to  the  diet  of  Hungary.  A 
train  of  reverses,  summed  up  by  the  decisive 
battle  of  Czaslau,  fought  May  17,  1742,  in 


which  Frederick  displayed  both  fine  courage 
and  good  conduct,  induced  Austria  to  oonaeot 
to  the  treaty  of  Brcslau,  concluded  in  theMme 
summer,  by  which  Silesia,  with  the  exception 
of  a  small  district,  was  ceded  to  Prussia,  of 
which  kingdom  it  has  ever  since  continued 
to  form  a  part. 

But  though  Prussia  for  a  time  enjoyed 
peace,  the  state  of  European  politics  wu  far 
from  settled,  and  Frederick's  time  was  much 
occupied  by  foreign  diplomacy,  as  well  as  by 
the  internal  improvements  which  always 
were  the  favorite  objects  of  his  solicitude. 
The  rapid  rise  of  Prussia  was  not  regarded 
with  indifference  by  other  powers.  The 
Austrian  government  was  inveterately  hostile, 
from  offended  pride,  as  well  as  from  a  sense  of 
injury.  Saxony  took  part  with  Austria. 
Russia,  if  not  an  open  enemy,  was  always  a 
suspicious  and  unfriendly  neighbor;  and 
George  II.  of  England,  the  king  of  Prussia's 
uncle,  both  feared  and  disliked  his  nephew. 
Under  these  circumstances,  upon  the  forma- 
tion of  the  triple  alliance  made  by  Austria, 
England,  and  Sardinia,  Frederick  concluded 
a  treaty  with  France  and  the  elector  of 
Bavaria,  who  had  succeeded  Charles  VI.  as 
emperor  of  Germany.  Frederick  anticipated 
the  designs  of  Austria  upon  Silesia,  by  march- 
ing into  Bohemia  in  August,  1744. 

During  two  campaigns  the  war  was  con- 
tinued to  the  advantage  of  the  Prussians, 
who,  under  the  command  of  Frederick  in  per- 
son, gained  two  signal  victories  with  inferior 
numbers,  at  Hohenfriedberg  and  Soor.  At 
the  end  of  December,  1745,  he  found  himself 
in  possession  of  Dresden,  the  capital  of 
Saxony,  and  in  condition  to  dictate  terms  of 
peace  to  Austria  and  Saxony,  by  which 
Silesia  was  again  recognized  as  part  of  the 
Prussian  dominions. 

Five  years  were  thus  spent  in  acquiring  and 
maintaining  possession  of  this  important 
province.  The  next  ten  years  of  Frederick's 
life  were  passed  in  profound  peace.  Diuing 
this  period  he  applied  himself  diligently  and 
successfully  to  the  recruiting  of  his  army,  and 
to  building  up  the  resources  of  Prussia.  His 
habits  of  life  were  singularly  uniform.  He 
resided  chiefly  at  Potsdam,  apportioning  his 
time  and  his  employment  with  methodical 
exactness;  and,  by  this  strict  attention  to 
method,  he  was  enabled  to  exercise  a  minute 
superintendence  over  every  branch  of  govern- 
ment without  estranging  himself  from  social 
pleasures,  or  abandoning  his  literary  pursuits. 


468 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


After  the  peace  of  Dresden  in  1745,  he  com- 
menced his  Histoire  de  mon  Temps,  which, 
in  addition  to  the  history  of  his  own  wars  in 
Silesia,  contains  a  general  account  of  European 
politics.  About  the  same  period  he  wrote  his 
"Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Brandenburg,"  the 
best  of  his  historical  works.  He  maintained 
an  active  correspondence  with  Voltaire,  and 
others  of  the  most  distinguished  men  of 
Europe.  He  established,  or  rather  restored, 
the  academy  of  sciences  of  Berlin,  and  was 
eager  to  enroll  eminent  foreigners  among  its 
members,  and  to  induce  them  to  resort  to 
his  capital.  The  names  of  Voltaire,  Euler, 
Maupertuis,  La  Grange,  and  others  of  less 
note  testify  to  his  success.  But  his  avowed 
contempt  for  the  German,  and  admiration  of 
the  French  literature  and  language,  in  which 
all  the  transactions  of  the  society  were  carried 
on,  gave  an  exotic  character  to  the  institution, 
and  crippled  the  national  benefits  which 
might  have  been  expected  to  arise  from  it. 

In  1750,  after  a  considerable  expenditure 
of  flattery,  Frederick  induced  Voltaire  to  take 
up  his  residence  at  Potsdam.  From  this  step 
he  anticipated  much  pleasure  and  advantage, 
and  for  a  time  everything  appeared  to  proceed 
according  to  his  wishes.  The  social  suppers 
in  which  he  loved  to  indulge  after  the  labors  of 
the  day  were  enlivened  by  the  poet's  brilliant 
talents ;  and  the  poet's  gratitude  for  the  royal 
friendship  and  condescension  was  manifested 
in  his  assiduous  correction  of  the  royal 
writings.  For  a  time  each  was  delighted  with 
the  other ;  but  the  mutual  regard  which  these 
two  singular  characters  had  conceived  was 
soon  dissipated  upon  closer  acquaintance,  and 
after  many  undignified  quarrels  they  parted 
in  the  spring  of  1753,  in  a  manner  discreditable 
to  both. 

In  1756  Frederick  learned  that  a  new  coali- 
tion, including  Russia  and  his  former  ally 
France,  was  forming  against  him.  The  united 
continental  powers  were  determined  to  crush 
him.  England  was  his  only  ally.  Having 
detected  their  secret  intrigues,  he  resolved  to 
strike  the  first  blow,  and  in  August,  1756,  he 
entered  Saxony  with  seventy  thousand  men, 
and  thus  began  the  seven  years'  war.  The 
Austrian  general,  Browne,  was  defeated  at 
Lobositz,  October  1st.  The  Saxon  army 
under  Rutowski  surrendered  soon  after; 
all  Saxony  was  speedily  reduced,  and  her 
resources  turned  against  the  confederacy. 
At  the  great  battle  of  Prague,  May  6,  1757, 
the  Prussians  were  victorious;  but  after  the 


defeat  at  Kolin  in  June,  the  occupation  of  his 
territory  by  the  French,  Swedes,  and  Rus- 
sians made  Frederick's  affairs  seem  so  desper- 
ate that  he  became  very  despondent.  En- 
couraged by  his  victory  over  the  French  at 
Rossbach  in  November,  and  a  victory  at  Leu- 
then  in  December,  he  soon  regained  Breslau. 
In  August,  1758,  he  defeated  the  Russians 
at  Zorndorf,  the  bloodiest  battle  of  the  war. 
Defeated  by  Daun  at  Hochkirch  in  October, 
he  went  into  winter  quarters  at  Breslau. 

The  year  1759  saw  the  allies  closing  round 
Frederick;    he  was  defeated  at  Kunersdorf, 
and  Berlin  was  saved  only  by  his  mireiculous 
energy.    The  fifth  year  saw  Berlin  in  the 
hands  of  the  Russians,  while  Frederick  won 
!  great  battles  at  Liegnitz   in   August,   1760, 
land  at  Torgau  in  November,  the  one  over 
:  Laudon,    and    the   other   over    Daun.    The 
sixth  year  promised  ill,  but  still  he  fought 
jon.     England  deserted  him  on  the  death  of 
I  George   II. ;    but  Russia,   on   the   death  of 
Elizabeth  in  1762,  withdrew  from  the  coali- 
tion.   France  also  declared  future  neutrality ; 
the    Austrians    and    Prussians    stood    alone 
against  each  other.    The  empress  now  gave 
way,  and  the  peace  of  Hubertsburg,  signed 
Februarj'  15,   1763,  again  left  Frederick  in 
possession  of  Silesia. 

The    brilliant    military    reputation    which 
Frederick  had  acquired  in  this  arduous  con- 
test did  not  tempt  him  to  pursue  the  career 
of  a  conqueror.    He  had  risked  everything 
I  to  maintain  possession  of  Silesia;  but,  if  his 
]  writings  speak  the  real  feelings  of  his  mind, 
I  he  was  deeply  sensible  to  the  sufferings  and 
I  evils  which  attended  upon  war.     "The  state 
'  of  Prussia,"  he  himself  says,  in  the  Histoire 
■  de  mon  Temps,  "  can  only  be  compared  to  that 
I  of  a  man  riddled  with  wounds,  weakened  by 
loss  of  blood,  and  ready  to  sink  under  the 
i  wfeight    of    his    misfortunes.    The    nobility 
I  was  exhausted,  the  commons  ruined,  num- 
!  bers  of  villages  were  burned,  the  towns  ruined. 
Civil  order  was  lost  in  a  total  anarchy :  in  a 
word,  the  desolation  was  universal." 

To  cure  these  evils  Frederick  applied  his 

earnest  attention;    by  grants  of  money  to 

those  towns  which  had  suffered   most,   by 

the    commencement    and    continuation    of 

various  great  works  on  public  utility,   by 

I  attention  to  agriculture,  by  draining  marshes, 

!  and  settling  colonists  in  the  barren,  or  ruined 

portions  of  his  country,  and  by  cherishing 

manufactures  —  though  not  always  with  a 

I  useful  or  judicious  zeal  —  he  succeeded  in 


IN  POLITICS 


vitalizing  the  exhausted  population  and  re- 
sources of  Prussia.  It  was  with  a  wonderful 
rapidity,  because  his  military  establishment 
was  at  the  same  time  recruited  and  main- 
tained at  the  enormous  number,  considering 
the  size  and  wealth  of  the  kingdom,  of  two 
hundred  thousand  men. 

One  of  his  measures  deserves  especial  notice, 
the  emancipation  of  the  peasants  from 
hereditary  servitude.  This  great  undertaking 
he  commenced  at  an  early  period  of  his  reign, 
by  giving  up  his  own  seignorial  rights  over 
the  serfs  on  the  crown  domains.  He  com- 
pleted it  in  the  year  1766  by  an  edict  abolish- 
ing servitude  throughout  his  dominions.  He 
then  commenced  a  gradual  alteration  in  the 
fiscal  system  of  Prussia,  suggested  in  part  by 
the  celebrated  Helvetius. 

In  the  department  of  finance,  though  all 
his  experiments  did  not  succeed,  he  was  very 
successful.  He  is  said,  in  the  course  of  his 
reign,  to  have  raised  the  annual  revenue  to 
nearly  double  what  it  had  been  in  his  father's 
time,  and  that  without  increasing  the  pres- 
sure of  the  people;  from  his  last  biogra- 
pher he  has  obtained  the  praise  of  having 
"arrived,  as  far  as  any  sovereign  ever  did,  at 
perfection  in  that  part  of  finance,  which  con- 
sists in  extracting  as  much  as  possible  from 
the  people,  without  overburdening  or  im- 
poverishing them;  and  receiving  into  the 
royal  coffers  the  sums  so  extracted,  with  the 
least  possible  deductions."  In  such  cares 
and  in  his  literary  pursuits,  among  which  we 
may  especially  mention  his  "History  of  the 
Seven  Years'  War,"  passed  the  time  of  Fred- 
erick for  ten  years. 

In  1772  he  engaged  in  the  nefarious  project 
for  the  first  partition  of  Poland.  Of  the 
iniquity  of  that  project  it  is  not  necessary  to 
speak;  the  universal  voice  of  Europe  has 
condemned  it.  It  does  not  seem,  however, 
that  the  scheme  originated  with  Frederick. 
On  the  contrary,  it  appears  to  have  been  con- 
ceived by  Catherine  II.,  of  Russia,  and 
matured  in  conyersations  with  Prince  Henry, 
the  king  of  Prussia's  brother,  during  a  visit 
to  St.  Petersburg.  By  the  treaty  of  parti- 
tion, which  was  not  finally  arranged  until 
1776,  Prussia  gained  a  territory  of  no  great 
extent,  but  of  importance  from  its  connecting 
Prussia  proper  with  the  electoral  dominions  of 
Brandenburg  and  Silesia,  and  giving  a  com- 
pactness to  the  kingdom,  of  which  it  stood 
greatly  in  need. 

Frederick  made  some  amends  for  his  con- 


duct in  this  matter,  by  the  diligence  with 
which  he  labored  to  improve  hia  Aoquiaition. 
In  this,  as  in  most  circumstances  of  intenud 
administration,  he  was  very  succenful;  and 
the  country,  ruined  by  war,  miigovemment, 
and  the  brutal  sloth  of  its  inhabitants,  soon 
assumed  the  aspect  of  cheerful  industry. 

The  king  of  Prussia  once  more  led  an  army 
into  the  field,  when,  on  the  death  of  the 
elector  of  Bavaria,  childless,  in  1777,  Joseph 
II.  of  Austria  conceived  the  plan  of  reannex- 
ing  to  his  own  crown,  under  the  plea  of  various 
antiquated  feudal  rights,  the  greater  part  of 
the  Bavarian  territories.  Stimulated  quite 
as  much  by  jealousy  of  Austria,  as  by  a  sense 
of  the  injustice  of  this  act,  Frederick  stood  out 
as  the  assertor  of  the  liberties  of  Germany, 
and,  proceeding  with  the  utmost  politeness 
from  explanation  to  explanation,  he  marched 
an  army  into  Bohemia  in  July,  1778.  The 
war,  however,  which  was  terminated  in  the 
following  spring,  was  one  of  maneuvers,  and 
partial  engagements,  in  which  Frederick's 
skill  in  strategy  shone  with  its  usual  luster, 
and  success,  on  the  whole,  rested  with  the 
Prussians.  By  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of 
Teschen,  May,  1779,  the  Bavarian  dominions 
were  secured,  nearly  entire,  to  the  rightful 
collateral  heirs,  whose  several  claims  were 
settled,  while  certain  minor  stipulations  were 
made  in  favor  of  Prussia. 

In  1785  Frederick  again  found  occasion  to 
oppose  Austria,  in  defense  of  the  int^rity  of 
the  Germanic  constitution.  The  emperor 
Joseph,  in  prosecution  of  his  designs  on 
Bavaria,  had  formed  a  contract  with  the 
reigning  elector  to  exchange  the  Austrian 
provinces  in  the  Netherlands  for  the  elector- 
ate. Dissenting  from  this  arrangement,  the 
heir  to  the  succession  intrusted  the  advocacy 
of  his  rights  to  Frederick,  who  lost  no  time  in 
negotiating  a  confederation  among  the  chief 
powers  of  Germany  —  known  as  the  Fiirsten- 
bund,  or  Germanic  league  —  to  support  the 
constitution  of  the  empire,  and  the  rights  of 
its  several  princes.  By  this  timely  step 
Austria  was  compelled  to  forego  the  desired 
acquisition. 

At  this  time  Frederick's  constitution  had 
begun  to  weaken.  He  had  long  been  a  suf- 
ferer from  gout,  the  natural  consequence  of 
indulgence  in  good  eating  and  rich  cookery, 
to  which  throughout  his  life  he  was  addicted. 
Toward  the  end  of  the  year  he  began  to 
experience  great  difficulty  in  breathing.  His 
complaints,  aggravated  by  total  neglect  of 


470 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


medical  advice,  and  an  extravagant  appetite, 
which  he  gratified  by  eating  to  excess  of  the 
most  highly  seasoned  and  unwholesome  food, 
terminated  in  confirmed  dropsy.  During  the 
latter  months  of  his  life  he  suffered  grievously 
from  a  complication  of  disorders;  through 
this  period  he  displayed  remarkable  patience, 
and  considerations  for  the  feelings  of  those 
around  him.  No  expression  of  suffering 
was  allowed  to  pass  his  lips;  up  to  the  last 
day  of  his  life  he  continued  to  discharge 
with  punctuality  those  political  duties  which 
he  had  imposed  upon  himself  in  youth  and 
strength.  Strange  to  say,  while  he  exhibited 
this  extraordinary  self-control  in  some  re- 
spects, he  would  not  abstain  from  the  most 
extravagant  excesses  in  diet,  though  they 
were  almost  always  followed  by  a  severe 
aggravation  of  his  sufferings.  Up  to  August 
15,  1786,  he  continued,  as  usual,  to  receive 
and  answer  all  communications,  and  to 
despatch  the  usual  routine  of  civil  and  mili- 
tary business.  On  the  following  day  he  fell 
into  a  lethargy,  from  which  he  only  partially 
recovered.  He  died  in  the  course  of  the  night 
at  Sans  Souci,  on  August  17,  1786,  in  the 
seventy-fifth  year  of  his  age,  and  the  forty- 
seventh  of  his  reign.  At  his  death  he  be- 
queathed to  his  nephew  and  successor, 
Frederick  William,  about  ten  millions  sterling, 
an  army  of  two  hundred  thousand  men,  and  a 
kingdom  nearly  double  its  former  size. 

Frederick  was  rather  below  the  middle  size, 
in  youth  inclined  to  stoutness,  lean  in  old  age, 
but  of  vigorous  and  active  habits.  An  expres- 
sion of  keen  intelligence  Hghted  up  his  features, 
and  his  large,  sparkling,  grey  eyes  darted  pene- 
trating glances  at  every  one  who  approached 
him.  In  his  later  years  he  is  described 
by  Carlyle  as  a  singular  little  figure  that 
"used  to  be  seen  sauntering  on  the  terraces 
of  Sans  Souci  for  a  short  time  in  the  after- 
noon. His  body  was  worn  and  bent  by  age 
and  toil.  He  wore  a  battered  cocked  hat,  a 
faded  blue  coat  with  red  facings,  a  yellow 
waistcoat  soiled  with  snuff,  and  long  miUtary 
boots  unblackened  and  unbrushed ;  and  in  his 
hand  he  swung  about  a  stick,  rough  from  the 
woods.  Yet,  in  spite  of  all  this,  his  counte- 
nance had  a  right  royal  air.  His  mouth  was 
firm ;  his  nose  was  prominent,  and  rather  flung 
into  the  air  under  its  old  cocked  hat ;  and  his 
grey  eye  had  the  penetrating,  steadfast  look 
of  one  who  had  been  born  to  command." 

His  conversation  was  lively  and  his  manners 
pleasing,  and,  when  he  wished  it,  captivating. 


He  was  fond  of  literature  and  of  literary 
society,  but  his  own  attainments  were  hmited 
to  belles-lettres  and  moral  sciences.  He 
knew  almost  nothing  of  the  classics,  or, 
indeed,  of  any  foreign  language  except  the 
French,  to  which  he  was  so  partial  that  it  was 
constantly  spoken  at  his  table,  and  all  his 
works,  both  in  prose  and  verse,  were  composed 
in  that  tongue.  He  wrote  an  immense  num- 
ber of  poor  verses;  even  the  best  of  his 
poetical  effusions  seldom  rise  above  medioc- 
rity. His  prose  works  are  greatly  superior 
to  his  poetry,  though  probably  few  even 
of  them  would  have  survived  apart  from 
his  character  and  position. 

Frederick  was  never  at  rest.  He  was  an 
active  spirit,  constantly  moving  about  and 
touching  the  springs  of  government  with  his 
own  hand.  Until  an  advanced  period  of  life, 
he  always  rose  at  four  o'clock  in  the  morning. 
A  basket  filled  with  letters,  despatches,  and 
reports  of  every  kind  was  then  placed  before 
him.  Patiently  he  opened  and  read  them  all, 
and  marked  emphatically  on  the  back  of  each 
what  answer  he  wanted  to  be  given.  When 
he  was  done,  it  was  about  eight  o'clock ;  the 
adjutant  general  was  admitted,  and  received 
his  orders  in  a  few  words.  Frederick  then 
went  out  and  reviewed  his  guards,  prying  into 
every  particular  of  their  accouterments  and 
discipline.  By  the  time  he  returned,  his  four 
secretaries  had  written  out  in  an  official  form 
the  answers  to  the  letters  and  despatches. 
Snatching  up  some  of  them  at  random,  he 
ran  his  eye  over  them ;  and  woe  to  the  writer 
if  he  hit  upon  any  blunders ! 

In  this  manner  he  bustled  about  all  day, 
meddling  with  agriculture,  commerce,  educa- 
tion, and  everj'thing  connected  with  the  wel- 
fare of  his  subjects.  When  evening  came,  he 
usually  abandoned  himself  to  liter£iry  plea- 
sures. For  that  purpose  he  had  allured  to 
his  court  a  company  of  authors;  among 
others  came  the  great  Voltaire,  already 
mentioned.  He  entertained  them  at  supper, 
threw  aside  his  dignity,  and  called  upon  them 
to  forget  that  he  was  a  king.  Literature  and 
religion  were  discussed,  compliments  were 
paid  and  jests  were  bandied.  One  of  the 
liveliest  and  the  wittiest  was  the  king  himself. 

Frederick  was  essentially  a  just,  if  some- 
what austere,  man,  and  the  administration  of 
justice  tmder  his  rule  was  pure,  though  he 
himself  had  his  usual  cynical  distrust  of  hia 
judges'  integrity.  The  press  enjoyed  com- 
parative freedom ;  and  freedom  of  conscience 


s  s 


IN  POLITICS 


47t 


was  promoted.  Though  Frederick  was  him- 
self a  voluminous  wTiter  on  political,  historical, 
and  military  subjects,  he  had  no  sympathy 
with  the  nascent  German  hterature,  a  fact 
on  which  the  latter  is  perhaps  to  be  con- 
gratulated. The  spirit  of  the  century  went 
faster  than  Frederick ;  had  he  lived  he  would 


'  not  have  understood  the  logical  outcome  of 

his  philosophic  doctrines  in  the  French 


lution. 

His  subjects  long  remembered  him  m 
"  Father  Fritz,"  and  historians  have  genefalljr 
regarded  him  as  the  founder  of  the  PnioiMi 
monarchy. 


WASHINGTON 


A.  D. 

1732 


1751 
1755 


1759 
1774 


1775 


Bom    in  Westmoreland  county,  Vir- 
ginia,      

Adjutant  general  in  Virginia,    ....      19 
Placed   at   the   head  of   the   Virginia 

forces, 23 

Married, 27 

Delegate  to  the  continental  congress, 

at  Philadelphia, 42 

Appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the 
continental  army, 43 


A.  D. 

1781 


Received  surrender  of  ComwklUa  at 

Yorktown 40 

Resigned  command  of  army,    ....  61 
Elected  first  president  of  the  UDit«d 

States, 67 

Reelected  president 61 

Refused  a  third  term, 64 

1797     Retired  from  public  affairs 66 

1799     Died  at  Mt.  Vernon,  Virginia,  ....  67 


1783 
1789 


1793 
1796 


/^EORGE  WASHINGTON,  first  president 
^^  of  the  United  States,  and  illustrious  as  a 
military  commander,  patriot,  and  statesman, 
was  born  in  Westmoreland  county,  Virginia, 
February  22,  1732.  He  was  the  son  of 
Augustine  Washington,  a  planter,  and  Mary 
Ball,  his  second  wife.  His  ancestors  belonged 
to  an  old  English  family,  and  the  name  of 
Washington  is  traceable  as  far  back  as  the 
thirteenth  century. 

About  1657  two  brothers,  John  and 
Lawrence  Washington,  emigrated  to  Virginia, 
and  settled  near  the  confluence  of  Bridges 
creek  and  the  Potomac  river,  in  the  county 
of  Westmoreland.  The  brothers  bought  lands 
and  became  successful  planters.  Not  long 
after,  John  Washington  was  employed  in  a 
military  command  against  the  Indians;  and 
he  rose  to  the  rank  of  colonel.  He  married 
Anne  Pope,  by  whom  he  had  two  sons, 
Lawrence  and  John,  and  a  daughter.  The 
elder  son,  Lawrence,  married  Mildred  Warner, 
of  Gloucester  county,  by  whom  he  had  three 
children,  John,  Augustine,  and  Mildred. 
Augustine,  the  second,  was  twice  married. 
By  his  first  wife  he  had  four  children,  two  of 
whom  died  in  infancy.  By  his  second  wife, 
Mary  Ball,  he  had  six  children,  George,  Betty, 
Samuel,  John  Augustine,  Charles,  and  Mildred. 

Each  of  the  sons  of  Augustine  Washington 
inherited  from  him  a  separate  plantation. 
To  the  eldest,  Lawrence,  he  bequeathed  an 
estate  near  Hunting  creek,  afterward  called 
Mount  Vernon.  The  second  son  had  for  his 
part  an  estate  in  Westmoreland.    To  George 


were  left  the  lands  and  mansion  in  Stafford 
county,  on  the  Rappahannock  river,  where 
his  father  had  died.  All  the  children  were  left 
in  a  good  condition  of  independence.  Mrs. 
Washington,  a  woman  of  strong  sense,  pru- 
dence, and  industry,  had  control  of  all  the 
estates  until  their  owners  came  of  age.  She 
performed  the  difficult  task  allotted  to  her 
with  entire  success  —  and  the  world  should 
give  her  the  same  tribute  of  respect  and 
veneration  which  has  been  awarded  to  the 
mothers  of  all  truly  great  men. 

The  province  of  Virginia  offered  but  scanty 
opportunities  for  education.  Enough  knowl- 
edge for  a  practical  business  life  was  the  most 
that  could  be  obtained.  Reading,  writing, 
arithmetic,  and  some  other  branches  of 
mathematics  were  alone  within  the  reach  of 
Washington.  It  is  said  that  he  was  a  diligent 
student,  but  that  his  passion  for  active 
sports  and  military  exercise  was  displayed  at 
a  very  early  age.  He  delighted  in  running, 
jumping,  wrestling,  tossing  bars,  and  other 
feats  of  strength  and  agility. 

Another  tradition  is  preserved  which  is 
quite  as  probable,  and  is  important  as  illus- 
trating the  growth  of  two  of  his  greatest 
qualities.  It  is  said  that  while  at  school  lus 
reputation  for  truth  and  judgment  was  so 
well  established  that  his  fellow  pupils  were 
accustomed  to  make  him  the  arbiter  of  their 
disputes,  and  never  failed  to  be  satisfied 
with  his  decision. 

Besides  performing  what  was  required  o( 
him  in  the  usual  routine  of  study,  young 


474 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Washington  compiled  a  system  of  maxims 
and  regulations,  and  arranged  them  under 
the  head  of  Rules  for  Behavior  in  Company 
and  Conversation.  His  temper  was  ardent 
and  his  passion  powerful.  The  great  object 
of  his  little  code  was  to  teach  himself  perfect 
self-control,  which,  according  to  the  passion- 
ate Burns,  is  "wisdom's  root."  In  the  con- 
quest of  himself,  Washington  perfectly  suc- 
ceeded, and  throughout  his  career  he  retained 
absolute  command  of  his  propensities. 

Washington  left  school  in  the  autumn 
preceding  his  sixteenth  birthday.  The  last 
two  years  had  been  devoted  to  the  study  of 
geometry,  trigonometry,  and  surveying.  Dur- 
ing the  last  summer  he  was  at  school,  he 
surveyed  the  fields  and  plantations  around 
the  schoolhouse,  and,  with  great  skill  and 
precision,  entered  the  measurements  and 
calculations  in  his  books.  He  seems  to  have 
possessed  a  natural  bent  for  the  exact  sciences. 

While  he  was  at  school,  his  eldest  brother, 
Lawrence,  seeing  Washington's  military  in- 
clination, procured  a  midshipman's  warrant 
for  him.  Washington  prepared  with  a  buoy- 
ant spirit  to  enter  the  British  navy ;  but  the 
earnest  persuasion  of  his  mother  induced  him 
to  abandon  the  project  and  continue  at  school. 
He  afterward  went  to  reside  with  his  brother, 
LawTence,  at  Mount  Vernon.  There  he  be- 
came acquainted  with  the  Fairfax  family 
from  whom  he  obtained  his  first  regular 
employment  as  a  surveyor. 

The  eccentric  Lord  Fairfax  had  purchased 
immense  tracts  of  wild  lands  in  the  rich 
valley  of  the  Alleghany  mountains.  These 
were  to  be  measured  and  divided  into  lots. 
The  service  was  difficult  and  dangerous. 
The  country  swarmed  with  Indians,  with 
whom  peace  was  always  a  disagreeable  truce, 
and  the  hardships  of  a  wilderness  were  to 
be  endured.  Washington,  accompanied  by 
George  Fairfax,  surmounted  all  obstacles,  and 
performed  the  service  required  with  skill  and 
accuracy.  His  reputation  as  a  surveyor  was 
established.  The  knowledge  of  the  wilderness 
and  its  inhabitants  which  he  acquired  was  of 
great  use  to  him  in  subsequent  surveying  and 
mihtary  expeditions.  Receiving  a  commis- 
sion as  public  surveyor,  he  was  engaged 
almost  uninterruptedly  in  the  business  of  that 
office  during  the  following  three  years. 

In  1751  Washington  entered  the  mili- 
tary service.  The  frontiers  were  then  threat- 
ened by  the  French  and  Indians,  and  as  a 
precautionary  measure  it  was  resolved  to  put 


the  militia  in  a  condition  for  defense.  The 
province  was  divided  into  districts,  in  each 
of  which  was  placed  an  adjutant  general,  with 
the  rank  of  major,  whose  duty  it  was  to 
muster  and  maintain  discipline  among  the 
militia.  Washington  received  charge  of  one 
of  these  districts. 

He  now  studied  tactics,  and  entered  upon 
his  congenial  service  with  zeal  and  alacrity. 
But  the  ill-health  of  his  brother,  Lawrence, 
called  him  away  to  Barbados,  and  it  was 
four  months  before  he  returned  to  Virginia. 
Lawrence  returned  a  few  months  later  and 
died  at  Mount  Vernon.  Washington  was  left 
executor  and  his  time  and  thoughts  were  occu- 
pied for  several  months  with  the  business 
which  thus  devolved  upon  him.  Yet  the 
duties  of  his  military  office  were  not  neglected. 
Governor  Dinwiddie,  in  1752,  divided  Vir- 
ginia into  four  grand  military  departments, 
and  Washington,  much  to  his  gratification, 
received  the  command  in  the  northern  depart- 
ment. This  was  a  post  of  great  responsibility ; 
the  fact  that  it  was  conferred  upon  so 
young  a  man  proves  that  the  governor  had 
confidence  in  his  talents  and  energy. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  French  and  Indian 
war  in  1753,  Washington  was  the  agent  sent 
by  Governor  Dinwiddie  to  warn  the  French 
away  from  their  new  forts  in  western  Penn- 
sylvania. The  command  of  the  Virginia 
troops  who  began  hostilities  fell  to  him,  and 
his  vigorous  defense  of  Fort  Necessity  imme- 
diately made  him  so  prominent  a  figure  th»at 
in  1755,  at  the  age  of  twenty- three,  he  was 
commissioned  commander-in-chief  of  all  the 
Virginia  forces. 

He  now  served  in  Braddock's  campaign, 
and  in  the  final  defeat  showed  for  the  first 
time  that  fiery  energy  which  always  lay 
hidden  beneath  his  calm  and  unruffled  ex- 
terior. He  ranged  the  whole  field  on  horse- 
back, making  himself  the  most  conspicuous 
mark  for  Indian  bullets,  and,  in  spite  of 
what  he  called  the  "dastardly  behavior"  of 
the  regular  troops,  brought  the  little  remnant 
of  his  Virginians  out  of  action  in  fair  order. 
In  spite  of  this  reckless  exposure,  he  was  one 
of  the  few  unwounded  officers.  For  a  year 
or  two  his  task  was  that  of  "defending  a 
frontier  of  more  than  three  hundred  fifty 
miles  with  seven  hundred  men";  but  in 
1758  he  had  the  pleasure  of  commanding 
the  advance  guard  of  the  expedition  which 
captured  Fort  Du  Quesne  and  renamed  it 
Fort  Pitt. 


IN  POLITICS 


476 


The  war  in  Virginia  being  then  at  an  end, 
Washington  resigned  his  post.  In  1759  he 
married  Mrs.  Martha  Custis,  widow  of  Daniel 
Parke  Ciistis,  whose  maiden  name  was  Dand- 
ridge,  and  settled  at  Mount  Vernon.  By  his 
marriage  he  added  about  one  hundred  thou- 
sand dollars  to  his  fortune,  which  was  already 
considerable.  He  then  began  the  purchase  of 
adjacent  plantations  until  the  Mount  Vernon 
estate  amounted  finally  to  eight  thousand  acres. 

Washington's  life  for  the  next  twenty  years 
was  merely  that  of  a  typical  Virginia  planter, 
a  consistent  member  of  the  established 
(Episcopal)  church,  a  large  slaveholder,  a 
strict  but  considerate  master,  and  a  widely 
trusted  man  of  affairs.  His  extraordinary 
escape  in  Braddock's  defeat  had  led  a  colonial 
minister  to  declare  in  a  sermon  his  belief  that 
the  young  man  had  been  preserved  to  be 
"the  savior  of  his  country."  If  there  was 
any  such  impression,  it  soon  died  away,  and 
Washington  gave  none  of  his  associates 
reason  to  consider  him  an  uncommonly 
endowed  man. 

Like  others  of  the  dominant  caste  in  Vir- 
ginia, he  was  repeatedly  elected  to  the  legis- 
lature, but  he  is  not  known  to  have  made 
any  set  speeches  in  that  body,  or  to  have  said 
anything  beyond  a  statement  of  his  opinion 
and  the  reasons  for  it.  That  he  thought  a 
great  deal  and  took  full  advantage  of  his 
legislative  experiences  as  a  political  education 
is  shown  by  his  letter  of  April  5,  1769,  to 
his  neighbor,  George  Mason,  communicating 
the  Philadelphia  non-importation  resolutions, 
which  had  just  reached  him.  Without 
speech-making  he  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  struggles  of  his  legislature  against  Gover- 
nor Dunmore,  and  his  position  was  always  a 
radical  one.  He  even  opposed  petitions  to 
the  king  and  parliament,  on  the  ground  that 
the  question  had  been  put  by  the  ministry 
on  the  basis  of  right,  not  of  expediency,  that 
the  ministry  could  not  abandon  the  right  and 
the  colonists  could  not  admit  it,  and  that 
petitions  must  be,  as  they  had  been,  rejected. 
In  1774  the  Virginia  convention,  appointing 
seven  of  its  members  as  delegates  to  the 
continental  congress,  named  Washington  as 
one  of  them ;  and  with  this  appointment  his 
national  career  began. 

Washington's  letters  during  his  service  in 
congress  show  that  he  was  under  no  delu- 
sions as  to  the  outcome  of  the  taxation 
struggle,  and  that  he  expected  war.  His 
associates  in  congress  recognized  his  military 


ability  at  once,  and  most  of  the  details  of 
work  looking  toward  preparationa  for  armed 
resistance  were  by  common  consent  left  to 
him.  Even  in  the  intervaU  of  his  congres- 
sional service  he  was  occupied  in  urging  on 
the  formation,  equipment,  and  training  of 
Virginia  troops,  and  it  was  generally  under> 
stood  that,  in  case  of  war,  Virginia  would 
expect  him  to  act  as  her  commander-in-chief. 

History  was  not  to  be  cheated  in  that 
fashion.  The  two  most  powerful  colonies 
were  Virginia  and  Massachusetts.  War  began 
in  Massachusetts;  New  England  troops 
poured  in  almost  spontaneously ;  it  was  neces- 
sary to  insure  the  support  of  the  colonies  to 
the  southward ;  and  the  Virginia  colonel  who 
was  at  the  head  of  all  the  military  committees 
was  just  the  man  whom  the  New  England 
delegates  desired.  When  congress,  after  the 
fights  at  Lexington  and  Concord,  resolved  to 
put  the  colonies  into  a  state  of  defense,  the 
first  practical  step  was  the  unanimous  selec- 
tion, on  motion  of  John  Adams  of  Massa- 
chusetts, of  Washington  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  armed  forces  of  the  united 
colonies. 

Refusing  any  salary,  he  accepted  the 
position,  asking  "every  gentleman  in  the 
room,"  however,  to  remember  his  declaration 
that  he  did  not  believe  himself  to  be  equal 
to  the  command,  and  that  he  accepted  it 
only  as  a  duty  made  imperative  by  the 
unanimity  of  the  call.  He  reiterated  this 
belief  in  private  letters,  even  to  his  wife; 
and  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that,  to  the 
day  of  his  death,  he  was  the  most  determined 
skeptic  as  to  his  fitness  for  the  positions  to 
which  he  was  called  in  succession.  He  was 
commissioned  June  15,  1775,  and  reached 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  July  2d,  taking  command 
of  the  levies  there  assembled  for  action 
against  the  British  garrison  of  Boston. 

The  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  however,  had 
taken  place  before  he  could  take  command 
of  the  army,  and  Washington's  work  until 
the  following  spring  was  to  bring  about  some 
semblance  of  military  discipline,  to  obtain 
ammunition  and  military  stores,  to  corre- 
spond with  congress  and  the  colonial  gov- 
ernors, to  guide  militar>'  operations  in  the 
widely  separated  parts  of  a  great  continent, 
to  create  a  military  system  and  organization 
for  a  people  who  were  entirely  unaccustomed 
to  such  a  thing  and  impatient  under  it,  and 
to  bend  the  course  of  events  steadily  toward 
driving  the  British  out  of  Boston. 


476 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


It  is  not  easy  to  see  how  Washington 
survived  the  year  1775 ;  the  colonial  poverty, 
the  exasperating  annoyances,  the  selfishness 
or  stupidity  which  cropped  out  again  and 
again  from  the  most  patriotic  of  his  coad- 
jutors, were  enough  to  have  broken  down 
most  men.  They  completed  his  training. 
If  he  was  not  a  great  man  when  he  went  to 
Cambridge,  he  was  a  general  and  a  statesman 
in  the  best  sense  when  he  drove  the  British 
out  of  Boston  in  March,  1776.  From  that 
time  until  his  death  he  was  the  foremost  man 
of  the  continent. 

The  military  operations  of  the  remainder 
of  the  war  are  too  well  known  to  be  rehearsed 
here.  Washington's  retreat  through  the  Jer- 
seys, the  manner  in  which  he  turned  and 
struck  his  pursuers  at  Trenton  and  Princeton, 
and  then  established  himself  at  Morristown 
so  as  to  make  the  way  to  Philadelphia  im- 
passable, the  vigor  with  which  he  handled 
his  army  at  Chad's  Ford  and  Germantown, 
the  persistence  with  which  he  held  the 
strategic  position  of  Valley  Forge  through  the 
dreadful  winter  of  1777-78,  in  spite  of  the 
misery  of  his  men,  the  clamors  of  the  people, 
and  the  impotence  of  the  fugitive  congress  — 
all  went  to  show  that  the  fiber  of  his  public 
character  had  been  hardened  to  its  perma- 
nent quality.  It  was  a  serious  addition  to  his 
burdens  that  the  spirit  which  culminated  in 
Benedict  Arnold  chose  this  moment  to  make 
its  appearance. 

Many  of  the  American  officers  had  been 
affronted  by  the  close  personal  friendship 
which  had  sprung  up  between  Lafayette  and 
Washington,  and  by  the  diplomatic  deference 
which  the  commander-in-chief  felt  compelled 
to  show  to  other  foreign  officers.  Some  of  the 
latter  showed  no  gratitude.  The  name  of 
one  of  them,  Conway,  an  Irish  soldier  of 
fortune  from  the  French  service,  is  attached 
to  what  is  called  "Conway's  cabal."  He 
formed  a  scheme  for  replacing  Washington  in 
the  coramand  by  Gates,  who  had  just  suc- 
ceeded in  forcing  Burgoyne  to  surrender  at 
Saratoga;  and  a  number  of  officers  and  men 
in  civil  Ufe  were  mixed  up  in  it.  The  treaty 
of  1778  with  France  put  an  end  to  every 
such  plan.  It  was  a  flat  absurdity  to  expect 
foreign  nations  to  deal  with  a  second-rate  man 
as  commander-in-chief  while  Washington  was 
in  existence ;  Washington  seems  to  have  had 
no  more  trouble  of  this  kind. 

The  prompt  and  vigorous  pursuit  of  Clinton 
across  the  Jerseys  toward  New  York,  and  the 


battle  of  Monmouth,  in  which  the  plan  of 
battle  was  thwarted  by  Charles  Lee,  another 
of  the  foreign  officers,  closed  the  direct 
military  record  of  Washington  until  the  end 
of  the  war.  The  enemy  confined  their  move- 
ments to  other  parts  of  the  continent,  and 
Washington  did  little  more  than  watch  their 
headquarters  in  New  York  city.  It  was 
more  than  appropriate,  however,  that  he,  who 
had  been  the  mainspring  of  the  war,  and  had 
borne  far  more  than  his  share  of  its  burdens 
and  discouragements,  should  end  it  with 
his  well-planned  campaign  of  Yorktown, 
and  the  surrender  of  Cornwallis,  in  1781. 
The  war  was  then  really  over,  but  the  com- 
mander-in-chief retained  his  commission  until 
December  23,  1783,  when  he  returned  it  to 
congress,  then  in  session  at  Annapolis,  Md., 
and  again  retired  to  Mount  Vernon. 

By  this  time  the  canonization  of  Washing- 
ton had  fairly  begun.  He  occupied  such  a 
position  in  the  American  political  system  as 
no  man  can  possibly  hold  again.  He  be- 
came a  political  element,  quite  apart  from 
the  Union,  the  states,  or  the  people  of  either. 
In  a  country  where  communication  was  still 
slow  and  difficult,  the  general  knowledge  that 
Washington  favored  anything  superseded 
argument  and  the  necessity  of  information 
with  very  many  men.  The  army  at  the  end 
of  the  war  was  justly  dissatisfied  with  its 
treatment.  The  officers  were  called  to  meet 
at  Newburgh,  New  York,  and  it  was  the 
avowed  purpose  of  the  leaders  of  the  move- 
ment that  the  army  should  march  westward, 
appropriate  vacant  lands,  leave  congress  to 
negotiate  for  peace  without  an  army,  and 
"mock  at  their  calamity  and  laugh  when 
their  fear  cometh."  It  was  the  less  publicly 
avowed  purpose  to  make  their  commander- 
in-chief  king,  if  he  could  be  persuaded  to  aid 
in  estabhshing  a  monarchy. 

Washington  put  a  simamary  stop  to  the 
whole  proceeding.  Their  letter  to  him  de- 
tailed the  weakness  of  a  republican  form  of 
government  as  they  had  experienced  it,  their 
desire  for  a  "mixed  government,"  with  him 
at  its  head,  and  their  belief  that  "the  title 
of  king"  would  be  objectionable  to  few  and 
of  material  advantage  to  the  coimtry.  His 
reply  was  peremptory  and  even  angry.  He 
stated  in  plain  terms  his  abhorrence  of  the 
proposal;  he  was  at  a  loss  to  conceive  what 
part  of  his  conduct  could  have  encouraged 
their  address;  they  could  not  have  found 
"a  person  to  whom  their  schemes  were  more 


IN  POLITICS 


in 


disagreeable  " ;  and  he  threatened  them  with 
exposure  unless  the  affair  was  stopped  at 
once.  His  influence,  and  that  alone,  secured 
the  disbanding  of  the  discontented  army. 
This  influence  still  remained  as  powerful  after 
he  had  retired  to  Mount  Vernon  as  before  his 
resignation. 

When  the  federal  convention  met  at 
Philadelphia  in  May,  1787,  to  frame  the 
present  constitution,  Washington  was  present 
as  a  delegate  from  Virginia,  though  much 
against  his  will ;  a  unanimous  vote  soon  made 
him  its  presiding  officer.  He  took  no  part 
in  the  debates,  however,  beyond  such  sug- 
gestive hints  as  his  proposal  to  amend  a 
restriction  of  the  standing  army  to  five 
thousand  men  by  forbidding  any  enemy  to 
invade  the  United  States  with  more  than 
three  thousand.  He  approved  the  constitu- 
tion which  was  decided  upon,  believing,  as 
he  said,  "that  it  was  the  best  constitution 
which  could  be  obtained  at  that  epoch,  and 
that  this  or  a  dissolution  awaits  our  choice, 
and  is  the  only  alternative."  All  his  great 
prestige  was  given  to  secure  its  ratification, 
and  his  influence  was  probably  decisive. 

When  the  constitution  had  been  ratified 
and  the  time  came  to  elect  a  president,  in  1789, 
there  was  no  more  hesitation  than  if  the  coun- 
try had  been  a  theocracy.  The  office  of  presi- 
dent had  been  "cut  to  fit  the  measure  of 
George  Washington";  no  one  thought  of 
any  other  person  for  it.  The  unanimous 
vote  of  the  electors  made  him  the  first  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States;  their  unanimous 
vote  reelected  him  in  1793;  and,  even  after 
he  had  positively  refused  a  third  term,  two 
electors  obstinately  voted  for  him  in  1797. 

One  can  hardly  follow  the  public  events  of 
his  presidency  without  receiving  the  convic- 
tion that  the  sudden  success  of  the  new 
system  was  due  mainly  to  the  existence  at 
that  time  of  such  a  character  as  Washington. 
He  held  the  two  national  parties  apart,  and 
prevented  party  contest  until  the  new  form 
of  government  had  been  firmly  established. 
It  seems  hardly  possible  that  the  final  result 
should  have  been  balked,  even  if  "  blood  and 
iron"  had  been  necessary  to  bring  it  about. 
It  would  be  unwise  to  attribute  the  quiet 
attainment  of  the  result  to  the  political  sense 
of  the  American  people  alone,  or  to  use  it 
as  a  historical  precedent  for  the  volimtary 
assumption  of  such  a  risk  again,  without  the 
advantage  of  such  a  political  factor  as  Wash- 
ington. 


The  unconscious  drift  of  Waahingtoo'i 
mind  was  toward  the  federal  party;  his 
letters  to  Lafayette  and  Henry  in  Deoember, 
1798,  and  January,  1799,  are  enough  to  make 
that  evident.  W  hen  the  republican  party  was 
formed,  about  1793,  it  could  not  have  been 
expected  that  its  leaders  would  long  submit 
with  patience  to  the  continual  interpoaitiao 
of  Washington's  name  and  influence  betwen 
themselves  and  their  opponents;  but  they 
maintained  a  calm  exterior.  Some  of  their 
followers  were  less  discreet.  The  presideiit's 
proclamation  of  neutrality  between  France 
and  Great  Britain  excited  them  to  anger; 
his  support  of  Jay's  treaty  with  Great  Britain 
roused  them  to  fury.  Forged  letters,  pur- 
porting to  show  his  desire  to  abandon  the 
revolutionary  struggle,  were  published;  he 
was  accused  of  drawing  more  than  his  salary ; 
hints  of  the  propriety  of  a  guillotine  for  his 
benefit  began  to  appear;  some  spoke  of  him 
as  the  "stepfather  of  his  country." 

The  attacks  embittered  the  close  of  his 
term  of  service;  he  declared,  in  a  cabinet 
meeting  in  1793  that  "he  had  never  repented 
but  once  having  slipped  the  moment  of 
resigning  his  office,  and  that  was  every 
moment  since."  Indeed,  the  most  unpleasant 
portions  of  Jefferson's  annals  are  those  in 
which,  with  an  air  of  psychological  dissection, 
he  details  the  storms  of  passion  into  which 
the  president  was  hurried  by  the  newspaper 
attacks  upon  him.  These  attacks,  however, 
came  from  a  very  small  fraction  of  the 
politicians;  the  people  never  wavered  in 
their  devotion  to  the  president,  and  his  elec- 
tion would  have  been  unanimous  in  1797,  as 
in  1789  and  1793,  if  he  had  been  willing  to 


serve. 


Washington  retired  from  the  presidency  in 
1797,  and  resumed  the  plantation  life,  which 
he  most  loved,  the  society  of  his  family,  and 
the  care  of  his  slaves.  He  had  resolved 
some  time  before  never  to  obtain  another 
slave,  and  "wished  from  his  soul"  that  hi« 
state  could  be  persuaded  to  abolish  slavery ; 
"it  might  prevent  much  future  mischief." 
He  was  too  old,  however,  to  attempt  further 
innovations.  In  1798  he  was  made  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  provisional  army 
raised  in  expectation  of  open  war  with  France, 
and  was  fretted  almost  beyond  endurance  by 
the  quarrels  of  federalist  politicians  about 
the  distribution  of  commissions.  In  the 
midst  of  his  military  preparations,  on  Decem- 
ber 12,  1799,  he  was  expoeed  in  the  saddle 


478 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


for  several  hours  to  cold  and  snow  and  was 
attacked  with  acute  laryngitis,  for  which  he 
was  repeatedly  and  largely  bled ;  but  he  sank 
rapidly,  and  died  December  14th.  His  last 
words  were  characteristic.  He  said:  "I  die 
hard ;  but  I  am  not  afraid  to  go.  I  beUeved 
from  my  first  attack  that  I  should  not  sur- 
vive it.  My  breath  cannot  last  long."  A 
little  later  he  said:  "I  feel  myself  going.  I 
thank  you  for  your  attentions;  but  I  pray 
you  to  take  no  more  trouble  about  me.  Let 
me  go  off  quietly.  I  cannot  last  long." 
After  some  instructions  to  his  secretary  about 
his  burial,  he  became  easier,  felt  his  own 
pulse,  and  died  without  a  struggle.  His 
remains  were  laid  in  a  private  vault  at  Mount 
Vernon,  where  his  tomb  has  been  since  con- 
verted into  a  veritable  shrine  for  all  patriotic 
and  liberty-loving  Americans. 

The  third  of  the  series  of  resolutions  intro- 
duced in  the  house  of  representatives  five 
days  after  his  death  by  John  Marshall,  and 
passed  unanimously,  states  exactly,  if  a 
trifle  rhetorically,  the  position  of  Washington 
in  American  history:  "First  in  war,  first  in 
peace,  and  first  in  the  hearts  of  his  country- 
men." 

Washington  was  of  imposing  presence.  He 
was  six  feet  two  inches  in  height,  and  weighed 
about  two  hundred  twenty  pounds.  His 
hair  was  brown,  eyes  blue,  head  large,  and 
arms  strong.  He  was  a  bold  and  graceful 
rider  and  hunter,  attentive  to  his  personal 
appearance  and  dignity,  gracious  and  gentle, 
though  at  times  cold  and  reserved.  Although 
childless,  he  was  very  happy  with  his  wife 
and  his  adopted  children  —  nephews  and 
nieces.  His  best  portraits  are  those  by  Stuart, 
and  the  statue  by  Houdon  at  Richmond. 

Washington's  manners  were  those  of  the 
old  school  of  English  gentlemen.  Although 
mild  and  humane,  he  was  stern  in  the  per- 
formance of  duty,  and  never  upon  such 
occasions  yielded  to  softness  or  compassion. 
His  speeches  and  official  letters  were  simple 
and  earnest,  but  wanting  perhaps  in  that 
conciseness  which  marks  vigor  of  thought. 
On  his  decease  his  worth  was  justly  appre- 
ciated, and  the  sorrow  at  his  loss  was  uni- 
versal and  sincere. 

He  was  distinguished  less  by  the  brilliancy 
of  his  talents  than  by  his  moral  goodness, 
sound  judgment,  and  plain  but  excellent 
understanding.  Of  all  the  great  men  in  his- 
tory he  was  the  most  invariably  judicious  and 
evenly  poised.    His  admirable  use  of  those 


sterling,  though  homely,  qualities  has  gained 
a  rank  for  him  among  the  greatest  and  best 
of  men;  and  his  name  will  be  coexistent,  as 
it  was  coeval,  with  that  of  the  great  republic 
of  which,  no  less  by  his  rare  civil  wisdom 
than  by  his  eminent  military  talents,  he  may 
be  considered  the  founder. 

The  virtues  which  distinguish  him  from  all 
others,  who  have  united  the  fame  of  statesman 
and  captain,  were  twofold,  and  they  are  as 
great  as  they  are  rare.  He  refused  power 
which  his  own  merit  had  placed  within  his 
reach,  constantly  persisting  in  the  preference 
of  a  republican  to  a  monarchical  form  of 
government,  as  the  most  congenial  to  liberty 
when  it  is  not  incompatible  with  the  habits 
of  the  people  and  the  circumstances  of  society ; 
he  even  declined  to  continue  longer  than  his 
years  seemed  to  jjermit  at  the  head  of  the 
commonwealth  which  he  had  founded.  This 
subjugation  of  all  ambitious  feelings  to  the 
paramount  sense  of  duty  is  his  first  excellence ; 
it  is  the  sacrifice  of  his  own  aggrandizement 
to  his  country's  freedom. 

The  next  is  like  unto  it  —  his  constant  love 
of  peace  when  placed  at  the  head  of  affairs. 
This  was  the  sacrifice  of  the  worthless  glory, 
which  ordinary  men  prize  the  most,  to  the 
tranquillity  and  happiness  of  mankind. 
^^'herefore  to  all  ages  and  in  all  chmes,  they 
who  most  love  public  virtue  will  hold  in 
eternal  remembrance  the  name  of  George 
Washington,  never  pronouncing  it  but  with 
gratitude  and  awe,  as  designating  a  mortal 
removed  above  the  ordinary  lot  of  human 
frailty. 

The  words  of  his  last  will  in  bequeathing 
his  sword  to  his  nephews  —  the  sword  which 
he  had  worn  in  the  sacred  war  of  Hberty  — 
ought  to  be  graven  in  letters  of  gold  over 
every  palace  in  the  world:  "This  sword  they 
shall  never  draw  but  in  defense  of  freedom, 
or  of  their  country,  or  of  their  kindred ;  and 
when  thus  drawn,  they  shall  prefer  falling 
with  it  in  their  hands  to  the  reUnquishment 
thereof." 

Gladstone  declared  that  Washington  "is 
the  purest  figure  in  history."  Lecky  found 
in  him  "a  leader  who  could  be  induced  by 
no  earthly  motive  to  tell  a  falsehood,  or  to 
break  an  engagement,  or  to  commit  any 
dishonorable  act."  Lord  Brougham  char- 
acterized him  as  "  the  greatest  man  that  ever 
hved  in  this  world  uninspired  by  divine 
wisdom  and  imsustained  by  supernatural 
virtue." 


IN  POLITICS 


479 


JEFFERSON 


A.  D. 

1743 
1760 
1767 
1769 
1772 
1775 
1776 

1779 

1782 


AOE  A.  D. 

Born  at  Shadwell,  Virginia, 1783 

Entered  William  and  Mary  college,     .      17  1785 

Began  practice  of  law,       24  1790 

Member  Virginia  legislature,     ....     26 

Married 29  1796 

Delegate  to  the  continental  congress,      32  1800 

Drafted  the  declaration  of   independ-  1803 

ence 33  1804 

Elected  governor  of  Virginia,   ....     36  1819 

Plenipotentiary  to  England, 39  1826 


Member  of  congress, 40 

Minister  to  France, 42 

Secretary    of    state    in  Washington's 

cabinet, 47 

Vice-president  of  the  United  States,    .  53 

Elected  president, 67 

Louisiana  purchased  from  France,  .    .  60 

Reelected  president, 61 

Rector  of  the  university  of  Virginia,    .  76 

Died  at  Monticello,  Virginia,    ....  83 


'pHOMAS  JEFFERSON,  one  of  the  most 
*  illustrious  of  American  statesmen,  and 
third  president  of  the  United  States,  was 
born  at  Shadwell,  Albemarle  county,  Vir- 
ginia, on  April  13,  1743.  Peter  Jefferson,  his 
father,  was  a  man  of  some  distinction  in  the 
colony,  and  his  mother,  Jane  Randolph,  was 
descended  from  an  English  family  of  good 
station.  His  father  died  in  1757,  leaving  a 
widow  and  eight  children  —  Thomas  being  the 
eldest  son.  The  children  were  all  left  in  fair 
circumstances  —  Thomas  receiving  the  lands 
which  he  called  Monticello,  and  on  which  he 
afterward  resided,  when  not  engaged  in 
public  duties. 

At  the  age  of  five  he  was  sent  to  an  ele- 
mentary school;  four  years  afterward  he 
commenced  the  study  of  Latin,  Greek,  and 
French.  In  the  spring  of  1760  he  entered 
an  advanced  class  at  William  and  Mary 
college,  at  Williamsburg,  Virginia,  where  he 
prosecuted  his  studies  for  two  years  and  was 
graduated.  He  there  acquired  the  friendship 
of  the  professor  of  mathematics.  Dr.  William 
Small,  who  introduced  him  to  George  Wythe, 
under  whose  instruction  he  commenced  the 
study  of  the  law.  In  1767,  when  twenty-four 
years  old,  Jefferson  was  admitted  to  the  bar. 

He  continued  the  practice  of  law  until  the 
revolution  closed  the  courts  of  justice. 
Several  written  arguments  upon  intricate  law 
questions  have  been  preserved,  which  prove 
that  Jefferson  would  have  attained  a  first 
rank  in  his  profession.  But  he  possessed  no 
talent  for  oratory,  and  never  made  a  con- 
spicuous figure  in  debate. 

While  he  was  a  student  at  law  in  Williams- 
burg, Jefferson  heard  the  famous  speech  of 
Patrick  Henry,  in  the  Virginia  house  of 
delegates,  against  the  stamp  act.  Animated 
by  the  spirit  of  that  great  orator,  he  from 
that  time  stood  forth  as  a  champion  for  his 
country.  In  1769  he  was  chosen  by  the 
people  of  his  county  to  represent  them  in 
the    legislature    of    the    province.    In    that 


capacity,  which  he  maintained  up  to  the 
period  of  the  revolution,  Jefferson  made  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  procure  the  emanci- 
pation of  slaves  in  Virginia.  Thus  his  first 
important  movement  was  in  behalf  of  human 
liberty. 

In  January,  1772,  Jefferson  married  Mrs. 
Martha  Skelton,  daughter  of  John  Wayles,  a 
distinguished  Virginia  lawyer.  She  was  pos- 
sessed of  considerable  property,  and  brought 
him  a  large  dowry  in  lands  and  slaves,  about 
equal  in  value  to  his  own  property.  But  his 
liberality  and  generous  living  left  him  insol- 
vent at  his  death. 

In  the  spring  of  1773  he  was  appointed  by 
the  house  of  burgesses  a  member  of  the 
"committee  of  correspondence  and  inquiry 
for  the  dissemination  of  intelligence  between 
the  colonies,"  the  plan  of  which  he  had  aided 
in  devising.  After  a  second  dissolution  of 
the  house  in  the  spring  of  1774,  the  members 
met  privately,  and  recommended  the  election 
of  deputies  to  a  convention  to  meet  on  August 
1st.  Jefferson  was  chosen  a  member  of  this 
convention,  but  was  prevented  by  illness 
from  attending.  He  had,  however,  drawn 
up  a  paper  to  serve  for  instructions  to  the 
delegates  to  the  general  congress  which  the 
committee  of  correspondence  had  been  di- 
rected to  propose  to  all  the  colonies,  and  this 
he  sent  to  Peyton  Randolph,  president  of  the 
convention.  It  was  a  bold,  elaborate,  and 
eloquent  exposition  of  the  right  of  the  colonies 
to  resist  taxation,  and  contained  the  germ  of 
the  subsequent  declaration  of  independence. 
The  paper  was  offered,  but  not  adopted,  being 
regarded  as  too  much  in  advance  of  public 
sentiment.  It  was  printed  in  England  as  well 
as  in  Virginia,  under  the  title  of  A  Summary 
View  of  the  Rights  of  British  America,  and 
extensively  made  use  of  by  opposition 
speakers  in  parliament. 

Jefferson  attended  the  second  convention, 
which  met  in  March,  1775,  and  was  placed 
upon   the   committee   to   report   a   plan   of 


480 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


defense.  The  convention  then  elected  dele- 
gates to  the  continental  congress,  and  Jeffer- 
son was  chosen  as  the  alternate  of  Peyton 
Randolph.  He  took  his  seat  there  in  June, 
1775,  after  drawing  up  the  reply  of  the  Vir- 
ginia assembly  to  the  "conciliatory  propo- 
sition" of  Lord  North.  He  was  at  once 
placed  upon  the  committee  to  draw  up  the 
declaration  .of  the  cause  of  taking  up  arms, 
and  was  aided  by  John  Dickinson  in  drafting 
the  paper,  of  which  congress  approved.  His 
answer  to  Lord  North's  proposition  was 
adopted  by  congress  with  little  alteration. 
Early  in  June,  1776,  a  committee  to  draw 
up  a  declaration  of  independence  was  ap- 
pointed, with  Jefferson  for  its  chairman. 
The  instrument  was  drafted  by  Jefferson, 
and  with  certain  amendments  was  adopted, 
July  4th;  the  declaration  still  remains  his 
noblest  monument. 

Jefferson  was  rechosen  a  delegate  to  con- 
gress, but  resigned  the  appointment,  his  aim 
now  being  to  carry  out  radical  changes  in  the 
laws  of  his  native  state.  He  had  drawn  up 
a  preamble  and  outline  sketch  of  a  new 
constitution  for  Virginia,  and  sent  it  to 
Edmund  Randolph,  president  of  the  conven- 
tion then  sitting.  His  draft  was  not  proposed, 
but  his  preamble  was  prefixed  to  the  consti- 
tution framed  by  George  Mason.  The  great 
reforms  in  the  organic  laws  were  still  unat- 
tained,  and  to  these  Jefferson  ardently  ad- 
dressed himself.  He  took  his  seat  in  the 
Virginia  house  in  October,  1776,  and  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  a  committee  of  revision, 
the  work  of  which  continued  for  more  than 
two  years.  Jefferson  prepared  bills  for  the 
repeal  of  the  law  of  entail,  for  the  abolition 
of  primogeniture,  and  for  establishing  reli- 
gious freedom. 

The  opposition  to  these  measures  among 
the  aristocratic  classes  was  determined,  and 
the  contest  was  prolonged  for  years.  The 
bills  were  all  finally  passed,  and  the  reor- 
ganization was  complete.  In  addition  to 
these  radical  measures  Jefferson  was  the 
author  of  others  of  importance  for  the 
establishment  of  courts  of  law,  and  for  a 
complete  system  of  elementary  and  collegiate 
education.  He  strongly  opposed  the  alleged 
scheme  for  appointing  Patrick  Henry  dictator, 
and  proposed  and  procured  the  passage  of 
a  bill  forbidding  the  future  importation  of 
slaves. 

In  1779  Jefferson  exercised  a  wise  benevo- 
lence   in    alleviating    the    condition    of    the 


British  prisoners,  who  had  been  captured  at 
Saratoga,  and  sent  to  Charlottesville,  Vir- 
ginia, to  await  the  action  of  the  British 
government.  When  the  time  came  for  their 
leaving  Virginia,  the  officers  addressed  many 
letters  of  thanks  to  him  for  his  kindness  and 
hospitality.  On  June  1st,  in  the  same  year, 
he  was  elected  by  the  legislature  to  succeed 
Patrick  Henry,  as  governor  of  Virginia.  He 
held  that  office  two  years,  and  then  retired  to 
private  Hfe.  Soon  afterward  he  was  nearly 
captured  by  a  party  of  British  cavalry,  sent 
to  surprise  the  members  of  the  assembly  at 
Charlottesville.  When  pursued,  Jefferson  es- 
caped on  his  horse,  through  the  woods  at 
Carter's  Mountain. 

M.  De  Marbois,  the  secretary  of  legation 
from  France  to  the  United  States,  wishing  to 
obtain  a  general  view  of  the  geography, 
productions,  statistics,  government,  history, 
and  laws  of  the  country,  applied  to  Jefferson, 
who,  in  answer,  wrote  his  famous  Notes  on 
Virginia,  which  work  was  soon  after  published 
both  in  French  and  English.  The  veracity 
and  accuracy  of  its  matter,  and  the  simple 
beauty  of  its  style  excited  general  admiration. 
The  work  was  written  in  1781. 

In  1782  Jefferson  was  appointed  plenipo- 
tentiary by  congress  to  join  the  able  Ameri- 
can negotiators  then  in  Europe,  but 
intelligence  having  been  received  that  the 
preliminaries  of  a  treaty  of  peace  had  been 
signed,  his  services  were  dispensed  with.  He 
was  then  elected  a  delegate  to  congress  in 
1783,  and  in  the  next  year  wrote  notes  on 
the  establishment  of  a  coinage  for  the  United 
States.  To  him  we  are  indebted  for  the 
dollar  as  a  unit,  and  for  our  present  system  of 
coins  and  decimals. 

In  May,  1784,  congress  joined  Jefferson 
with  John  Adams  and  Benjamin  Franklin,  as 
ministers  plenipotentiary  to  negotiate  treaties 
of  commerce  with  foreign  nations.  In  1785 
Jefferson  succeeded  Franklin  as  minister 
at  the  French  court.  Here  he  combated  the 
intrigues  of  Vergennes  and  Calonne,  the 
French  ministers,  in  opposition  to  the  desired 
treaties  of  commerce,  and  obtained  the  aboli- 
tion of  a  number  of  monopolies,  and  the 
admission  into  France  of  tobacco,  rice,  whale 
oil,  salted  fish,  and  flour. 

The  society  of  Paris  seemed  admirably 
suited  to  the  taste  of  Jefferson,  and  he  was 
combed  by  the  witty,  learned,  and  scientific. 
His  sociable  disposition,  winning  manners, 
and  brilliant  conversation  found  full  appre- 


IN  POLITICS 


481 


ciation.  He  remained  in  Paris  until  the 
latter  part  of  1789,  when  he  obtained  leave 
of  absence,  and  returned  to  the  United  States. 
Soon  after  his  arrival,  he  received  from 
President  Washington  the  offer  of  a  seat  in  his 
cabinet  as  secretary  of  state,  which  he  ac- 
cepted, though  he  was  inclined  to  return  to 
France.  He  entered  the  cabinet  in  March, 
1790. 

While  in  the  cabinet  under  Washington, 
Jefferson  made  many  able  reports,  and  skill- 
fully conducted  the  correspondence  with 
foreign  governments.  But  his  partiality  for 
France,  and  his  disapproval  of  the  chief 
measures  proposed  by  Hamilton,  caused  con- 
stant bickering  and  contention.  A  strong 
opposition  to  the  government  was  therefore 
formed,  under  the  wing  of  Jefferson;  then 
began  the  struggle  between  the  federalists, 
headed  by  Alexander  Hamilton,  at  that  time 
secretary  of  the  treasury,  and  the  republicans 
under  the  lead  of  Jefferson. 

Jefferson  was  a  democrat  by  nature  and 
training,  strongly  opposed  to  England  and 
the  English  system,  a  friend  to  the  revolu- 
tionary cause  in  France,  and  an  unyielding 
advocate  of  state  sovereignty  and  decentral- 
ization. In  all  the  great  measures  Hamilton 
defeated  his  rival.  In  the  spring  of  1793  the 
paramount  question  of  the  neutral  policy  and 
rights  of  the  United  States  arose,  in  view  of 
the  declaration  of  war  just  made  by  France 
against  Holland  and  Great  Britain.  Upon 
this  question  was  put  forth  the  entire  strength 
of  the  two  great  leaders  of  the  federal  and 
republican  parties  in  the  cabinet.  The 
republican  party  was  enthusiastic  in  its 
sympathy  for  France,  and  a  disposition  was 
shown  to  fit  out  privateers  in  American  ports 
to  cruise  against  English  vessels.  This  was 
energetically  opposed  by  the  federal  leaders. 
Jefferson  advocated  the  propriety  of  receiving 
a  minister  from  the  French  republic,  which 
was  determined  upon. 

This  was  followed  by  the  appearance  of 
Genet  as  minister,  who  authorized  the  fitting 
out  and  arming  of  privateers.  The  president 
©rdered  that  Genet's  privateers  should  leave 
the  ports  immediately,  notwithstanding  which 
he  armed  a  prize  and  ordered  her  to  sail  as  a 
privateer.  A  violent  debate  took  place  in 
the  cabinet  in  Washington's  absence.  Ham- 
ilton advocated  the  erection  of  a  battery  to 
prevent  the  vessel  from  sailing.  Jefferson 
opposed  the  scheme  of  a  battery,  on  the 
ground  that  the  vessel  would  not  sail.    Wash- 


ington arrived  and  addressed  a  heated  note  to 
Jefferson;  but  explanations  were  made.  In 
spite  of  all,  the  vessel  sailed.  Genet  WM 
finally  recalled,  and  this  affair  terminated. 
It  had  aroused  to  the  utmost  extent  all  the 
bitterness  in  the  hearts  of  the  two  greftt 
rivals,  and  the  meetings  of  the  cabinet  were 
stormy.  On  December  31,  1793,  Jefferaon 
resigned  his  place  in  the  cabinet,  and  retired 
to  Monticello. 

In  1796  the  republican  party  supported 
Jefferson  for  the  presidency ;  but  John  Adams 
received  the  highest  number  of  votes,  and 
Jefferson  then  became  vice-president.  Dur- 
ing the  time  he  held  this  office,  he  compoeed 
a  manual  for  the  senate,  which  for  a  long 
time  held  its  place  as  the  guide  for  congress 
and  most  other  political  bodies  in  the  states, 
and  which  is  still  often  appealed  to  in  the 
transaction  of  business. 

In  1800  Jefferson  was  again  nominated  for 
the  presidency.  This  time  he  received  a 
higher  number  of  electoral  votes  than  Adams ; 
but  Colonel  Aaron  Burr  received  the  same 
number,  and,  therefore,  the  election  devolved 
upon  the  house  of  representatives.  Upon 
the  thirty-sixth  ballot,  Jefferson  received  a 
majority,  and  became  president.  Colonel  Burr, 
of  course,  became  vice-president.  Both 
entered  upon  the  duties  of  their  respective 
offices  March  4,  1801. 

The  inaugural  address  of  Jefferson  was  a 
lucid  and  forcible  production,  explaining  his 
ideas  of  good  government,  and  conciliating 
all  parties.  From  its  declarations,  the  fed- 
eralists in  office  inferred  that  they  would  be 
allowed  to  remain  at  their  posts.  But  Jeffer- 
son soon  indicated  his  determination  to 
reward  his  friends  and  remove  his  foes.  This 
policy  caused  a  considerable  outcry  at  first, 
and  the  result  was  that  a  great  many  federal- 
ists, eager  for  oflBce,  joined  the  ranks  of  the 
republican  party. 

On  May  14,  1801,  the  president  wrote  to 
Nathaniel  Macon  of  North  Carolina,  a  mem- 
ber of  congress,  giving  information  in  regard 
to  some  of  his  projects,  as  follows:  "Levees 
are  to  be  done  away  with.  The  first  com- 
munication to  the  next  congress  will  be,  like 
all  subsequent  ones,  by  message,  to  which  no 
answer  will  be  expected.  The  diplomatic 
establishments  in  Europe  will  be  reduced  to 
three  ministers.  The  army  is  imdergoing  a 
chaste  reformation.  The  navy  will  be  re- 
duced to  the  l^al  establishment  by  the  last 
of  this  month.    Agencies  in  every  department 


482 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


will  be  revised.  We  shall  push  you  to  the 
utmost  in  economizing.  A  very  early  recom- 
mendation had  been  given  to  the  postmaster- 
general,  to  employ  no  printer,  foreigner,  or 
revolutionary  tory,  in  any  of  his  oflBces. 
This  department  is  still  untouched." 

Majorities  in  both  houses  of  the  seventh 
congress  enabled  the  president  to  carry 
through  many  measures  not  otherwise  prac- 
ticable. Many  acts  obnoxious  to  the  majority 
of  the  people  were  repealed;  a  uniform 
system  of  naturalization,  which  established 
the  necessary  residence  of  aliens  to  five  years, 
was  adopted  at  the  suggestion  of  the  president. 

The  foreign  relations  of  the  United  States 
were  managed  with  consummate  skill.  Diffi- 
culties occurred  with  Spain  concerning  the 
southern  boundary.  That  monarchy  ceded 
Louisiana  to  France,  the  government  of  which 
refused  to  allow  the  people  of  the  United 
States  to  use  New  Orleans  as  a  place  of 
deposit.  War  was  anticipated.  The  oppo- 
sition in  congress  proposed  hostile  measures. 
But  the  president  resolved  to  pursue  a  pacific 
policy.  On  January  11,  1803,  he  appointed 
James  Monroe  minister  plenipotentiary  to 
France  to  act  with  the  regular  minister, 
Robert  R.  Livingston,  for  the  purchase  of 
Louisiana.  The  commission  was  entirely  suc- 
cessful ;  Napoleon,  the  first  consul,  sold  the 
important  territory  for  fifteen  million  dollars. 

This  great  acquisition  was  a  deep  gratifica- 
tion to  the  friends  of  the  president.  Jefferson 
was  of  the  opinion  that  an  amendment  to  the 
constitution  would  be  necessary  to  legalize 
the  territory  to  the  United  States;  but  as 
congress  and  the  people  appeared  satisfied 
no  amendment  was  made.  The  repeal  of  the 
bankrupt  law,  an  amendment  of  the  constitu- 
tion, changing  the  mode  of  electing  the  presi- 
dent and  vice-president,  and  the  sending  out 
of  the  northwestern  exploring  expedition, 
under  Lewis  and  Clarke,  were  the  chief 
measures  consummated  during  the  remainder 
of  Jefferson's  first  presidential  term. 

At  the  election  in  1804  Jefferson  and 
George  Clinton  were  the  candidates  for  the 
republican  party,  and  Charles  Cotesworth 
Pinckney  and  Rufus  King  were  brought 
forward  by  the  federalists.  The  result  was 
the  triumph  of  Jefferson  and  Clinton,  by  a 
vote  of  one  hundred  sixty-two  to  fourteen. 

In  his  second  inaugural  address,  delivered 
March  4,  1805,  Jefferson  exulted  in  the 
success  which  had  attended  his  reform 
measures.    But  the  gunboat  system,  which 


he  had  reconmiended  instead  of  a  navy,  had 
entirely  failed  when  put  into  practice,  and 
upon  this  his  political  foes  seized  to  found 
their  attacks  upon  his  new  administration. 
Difficulties  with  Spain,  France,  and  Great 
Britain,  concerning  boundaries  and  depreda- 
tions upon  commerce,  furnished  them  with 
material,  and  for  a  long  period  their  orators 
were  active  and  violent  in  assailing  the  policy 
of  the  government. 

In  conformity  with  the  recommendation  of 
the  president,  congress  passed  an  act  pro- 
hibiting the  importation  of  slaves  after 
January  1,  1808.  James  Monroe  and  Charles 
C.  Pinckney  negotiated  a  treaty  with  the 
British  government,  which  they  considered 
highly  favorable  to  the  United  States.  But 
the  president  rejected  it,  and  even  refused  to 
send  it  to  the  senate.  This  course  excited 
much  clamor  among  the  federalists,  and 
alienated  a  few  republicans;  but  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  majority  was  given  to  it.  The 
refusal  to  accept  this  treaty  was  a  primary 
cause  of  the  embargo  and  other  restrictive 
measures,  and  tended  to  produce  that  bitter 
hostile  feeling  which  led  to  the  war  of  1812. 

However,  the  British  government  had,  from 
the  time  of  the  revolution,  pursued  a  policy 
calculated  to  irritate  the  people  of  the  United 
States.  The  gross  outrage  upon  the  frigate 
Chesapeake,  the  continued  impressment  of  the 
American  seamen,  and  the  seizure  of  American 
vessels  were  hostile  movements  not  quietly 
to  be  borne.  The  embargo  act,  which  was 
passed  by  congress  on  December  22,  1807, 
was  the  first  movement  of  the  United  States 
toward  retaliation.  But  it  weighed  heavily 
upon  the  American  commercial  community, 
and  therefore  excited  violent  denunciation. 
The  ranks  of  the  federalists  were  much 
strengthened.  But  a  majority  in  and  out 
of  congress  sustained  the  measures  of  the 
president. 

The  election  of  successors  to  Jefferson  and 
Clinton  terminated  in  the  complete  triumph 
of  the  republican  party.  James  Madison 
was  elected  to  the  presidential  chair,  and 
George  Clinton  was  reelected  to  the  vice- 
presidency.  On  November  8th  Jefferson  sent 
to  both  houses  his  last  annual  message.  The 
foreign  affairs  of  the  country  were  in  a  critical 
state,  and  at  home  the  embargo  pressed 
heavily  upon  the  trading  community.  But 
when  Jefferson  resigned  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment, he  was  assured  that  his  successor  would 
cany  out  his  doctrine  and  policy. 


IN  POLITICS 


488 


After  waiting  to  witness  Madison's  inaugu- 
ration, Jefferson  retired  to  his  favorite  Monti- 
cello  on  March  5,  1S09.  Here  he  lived  a  life 
of  literary,  scientific,  and  agricultural  delight, 
surrounded  by  affectionate  friends,  and  occa- 
sionally visited  by  learned  sojourners  from 
abroad.  The  principal  object  in  which  he 
took  an  interest,  in  his  latter  days,  was  the 
establishment  of  a  system  of  education  in 
Virginia.  The  university  of  Virginia  was 
founded  through  his  instrumentality  in  1818, 
and  chartered  in  the  following  year.  He 
acted  as  rector  from  that  time  until  his  death. 

In  his  old  age  his  pecuniary  circumstances 
became  very  embarrassing.  Congress  pur- 
chased his  library  for  twenty-three  thousand 
nine  hundred  fifty  dollars.  Still  he  remained 
deeply  in  debt.  In  1825  he  asked  the  legisla- 
ture for  permission  to  dispose  of  Monticello 
by  lottery  to  prevent  its  being  sacrificed  to 
his  creditors.  The  request  was  granted. 
But  before  Jefferson  could  take  advantage  of 
it,  death  overtook  him.  After  a  short  illness 
he  died  on  July  4,  1826,  the  fiftieth  anniver- 
sary of  the  declaration  of  independence,  at 
the  age  of  eighty-three  years.  One  daughter 
and  ten  grandchildren  survived  him. 

In  accordance  with  his  own  request,  a 
granite  obelisk  was  erected  over  his  remains, 
bearing  the  inscription : 

Here  was  buried 
THOMAS  JEFFERSON, 
Author  of  the  Declaration  of  American  Inde- 
pendence, of  the  Statute  of  Virginia 
for  Religious  Freedom, 
and  Father  of  the  University  of  Virginia. 

The  inscription  shows  the  pvu-e  and  noble 
character  of  the  fame  which  Jefferson  desired. 

In  1848  his  manuscripts  were  purchased 
by  congress,  and  published  as  The  Writings  of 
Thomas  Jefferson,  in  nine  volumes. 

Jefferson,  in  his  prime,  was  six  feet  two 
and  a  half  inches  in  height,  with  a  sinewy, 
well-developed  frame.  Although  his  face  was 
angular,  his  countenance  was  amiable.  He 
had  deep-set,  light  hazel  eyes,  ruddy  com- 
plexion, and  hair  of  a  reddish  chestnut  color 
in  great  profusion. 

With  manners  eminently  winning,  sprightly, 
graceful,  gay,  he  had  a  readiness  and  a  fund 
of  conversational  talent  rarely  equaled. 
There  was  a  charm  about  it  which  was 
scarcely  possible  to  resist.  He  possessed  in 
an  eminent  degree  that  instinctive  perception 
of  what  is  proper  to  be  said,  and  what  will 


please  the  hearer,  which  is  embodied  in  the 
expressive  word,  tact.  As  a  skillful  and 
quick-sighted  pilot  perceives  at  a  glance  the 
rock  to  be  avoided,  the  current  to  be  availed 
of,  and  the  precise  moment  at  which  to  change 
the  direction  of  his  bark,  and  is  able  by  an 
imperceptible  pressure  on  the  helm  to  evade 
each  new  danger,  and  pass  unharmed  through 
the  narrowest  strait  and  in  the  most  threat- 
ening rapids,  Jefferson  could,  in  an  instant, 
and  with  a  wonderful  ease  and  grace,  turn 
the  course  of  conversation,  even  with  the 
most  wary  and  inveterate  enemy,  so  as  to 
avoid  irritation,  touch  his  weak  points,  and 
all  but  make  a  captive  of  him  against  his  own 
fixed  purpose.  In  this,  the  most  useful  of 
talents  to  a  politician,  he  was  all  French; 
there  was  none  of  the  straightforward, 
blundering  honesty  of  John  Bull  about  him. 
He  knew  exactly  what  to  say,  and  how  m 
say  it ;  and  he  said  it. 

Jefferson's  voice  was  peculiar,  very  pleas- 
ant, seldom  raised  to  a  loud  tone,  and  his 
words  came  "trippingly  off  his  tongue." 
His  step  was  light  and  elastic,  and  very  rapid 
for  a  man  of  his  gaunt  form  and  elongated 
proportions.  He  affected  republican  sim- 
plicity of  dress,  though  he  was  always  neat 
and  gentlemanly.  His  carriage  presented 
the  very  curious  and  unusual  contrast  of  a 
rapid,  graceful  movement  with  a  long,  awk- 
ward, bony  frame. 

He  received  company  as  if  their  visit  was 
a  gratification  to  him,  and  strangers  always 
left  him  with  the  most  grateful  recollections 
of  the  man.  Affecting  popularity,  he  lost  no 
opportunity  of  making  an  impression,  espe- 
cially on  the  common  people.  In  this  he  was 
like  Jackson,  and  the  success  of  both  was 
astonishing.  Jefferson,  it  is  true,  was,  in 
knowledge  and  mental  cultivation,  immeasur- 
ably the  superior;  but  the  means  pursued 
by  both  were  the  same,  and  it  was  the  same 
class  in  society  whose  indomitable  attachment 
made  both  so  mighty  at  the  polls.  His 
mingling  much  with  this  portion  of  the 
community,  especially  with  mechanics,  had, 
however,  a  double  object ;  it  was  not  merely, 
though  mainly,  for  the  sake  of  popularity; 
it  was  in  part  for  the  sake  of  knowledge. 

Few  men  possessed  a  more  inquiring  mind, 
or  a  greater  mass  of  various  information,  and 
Jefferson  sought,  in  all  who  approached  him, 
the  means  of  increasing  it.  He  would  talk 
with  a  sea  captain  about  navigation,  and 
;  would,  by  a  few  words  adroitly  spoken,  set 


484 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


him  ofif  upon  his  hobby  and  learn,  meanwhile, 
some  new  fact  or  facts  which  had  fallen  under 
the  mariner's  observation  in  his  voyages.  He 
would  talk  with  an  astronomer  about  astron- 
omy, and  draw  from  him,  in  a  short  conversa- 
tion, what  it  might  have  taken  long  to  dig 
out  of  books.  He  was  not  profound,  prob- 
ably, in  any  department  of  human  science, 
though  he  had  a  smattering  of  all. 

He  used  often,  while  president,  to  walk 
down  to  the  navy  yard,  early  in  a  summer's 
morning,  and,  sitting  down  upon  an  anchor 
or  a  spar,  enter  into  a  familiar  conversation 
with  the  surprised  and  delighted  shipwrights, 
who  would  take  the  utmost  pains  to  satisfy 
his  inquiries.  "There!  "  would  cry  one  of  his 
political  opponents,  as  he  passed  by  and 
noticed  the  group,  "see  the  demagogue! 
There's  Long  Tom,  sinking  the  dignity  of  his 
station,  to  get  votes,  and  court  the  mob." 

But  this  was  unfair;  Jefferson  was  a  phi- 
losopher of  investigating  mind,  gratifying  its 
leading  prosperity  in  the  acquisition  of  knowl- 
edge. A  man  of  such  a  cast  would  naturally 
be  captivated  by  whatever  was  ingenious  and 
new.  Had  he  been  less  ambitious,  a  berth 
in  the  patent  office  would  have  placed  him 
in  his  element.  You  could  in  no  way  more 
certainly  fix  his  attention  than  by  exhibiting 
and  explaining  a  new  machine,  especially 
if  connected  with  a  scientific  purpose. 

As  the  author  of  the  declaration  of  inde- 
pendence, of  the  statute  of  religious  freedom 
in  the  constitution  of  Virginia,  and  as  the 
founder  of  the  democratic  party,  Jefferson 
has  probably  exerted  a  greater  influence  on 
the  institutions  of  this  country  than  any 
other  American  except  Washington. 

He  was  regarded  as  the  very  embodiment 
of  democracy  —  that  movement  which  dates 
from  the  American  revolution  of  1776,  and 
still  agitates  all  civilized  nations.  By  what- 
ever words  the  character  of  the  struggle  may 
be  expressed  —  whether  under  the  name  of 
popular  rights  against  exclusive  privileges; 
or  self-government,  the  government  of  the 
people,  against  absolute  government,  the 
government  of  a  few ;  or  by  any  other  terms 
more  or  less  appropriate  —  the  contest  is  still 
going  on,  openly  and  actively  in  those  so- 
called  free  governments,  and  silently  and 
languidly  in  those  where  the  sovereign  power 
is  opposed  to  the  extension  or  introduction  of 
new  doctrines.  The  contest  is  between 
progress  —  right  or  wrong  —  and  standing 
still;   between  change,  without  which  there 


can  be  no  improvement,  and  a  desire  to  resist 
all  change,  which  can  hardly  end  in  keeping 
things  stationary,  but  almost  necessarily 
leads  to  a  backward  movement.  The  contest 
is  not  only  for  the  practical  application  of 
principles  in  government,  which  are  vigor- 
ously maintained  by  the  one  party,  and 
either  not  denied  or  faintly  opposed  by  the 
arguments  of  the  other,  but  also  for  the  free 
expression  and  publication  of  all  opinions  on 
all  subjects  affecting  the  moral  and  political 
condition  of  society. 

There  is  no  individual,  either  in  America  or 
in  Europe,  who  by  his  actions  and  opinions 
has  had  a  greater  influence  on  this  contest 
than  Thomas  Jefferson.  During  a  long  and 
laborious  life,  both  in  official  situations  which 
gave  him  opportunities  that  his  activity  never 
let  slip,  and  in  private  life  in  his  extensive 
correspondence  and  intercourse  with  persons 
of  all  countries,  he  constantly,  perse veringly, 
and  honestly  maintained  what  he  conceived 
to  be  the  principle  of  pure  republican  institu- 
tions. In  the  ardor  of  youth,  his  zeal  and 
energy  mainly  contributed  to  animate  his 
countrymen  to  declare  their  independence  of 
a  foreign  power.  In  his  maturer  age,  when  a 
member  of  the  general  administration,  he 
struggled,  and  he  struggled  at  one  time 
almost  alone,  against  a  monarchical  and 
aristocratic  faction,  to  maintain  the  great 
principles  of  the  revolution,  and  develop  the 
doctrines  of  a  pure  unmixed  popular  govern- 
ment. His  influence  gave  to  these  doctrines 
a  consistency,  a  form,  and  a  distinctness 
which  the  mass  of  the  nation  could  easily 
seize  and  retain.  He  thus  became  the  head 
of  a  party  in  the  United  States,  which, 
whether  always  rightly  appealing  to  his  doo- 
trines  or  not  for  the  vindication  of  their  acts, 
still  regards  him  as  the  father  of  their  school 
and  the  expounder  of  their  principles. 

By  his  plain  and  unaffected  manners  and 
the  freedom  with  which  he  expressed  his 
opinions  on  all  subjects,  he  gave  a  practical 
example  of  that  republican  simplicity  which 
he  cultivated,  and  of  that  free  inquiry  which 
he  urged  upon  all.  Such  a  man  must  always 
have  many  friends  and  many  enemies.  From 
his  friends  and  admirers  he  has  received, 
perhaps,  not  more  praise  than  those  who 
believe  in  the  truth  of  his  doctrines  and  the 
purity  of  his  conduct  are  bound  to  bestow ; 
by  his  enemies,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  he 
I  has  been  blackened  by  every  term  of  abuse 
I  that  bigotry,  maUce,  and  falsehood  can  invent. 


IN  POLITICS 


485 


The  life  of  Jefferson,  therefore,  was  a  per- 
petual devotion,  not  to  his  own  purposes, 
but  to  the  pure  and  noble  cause  of  public 
freedom.  From  the  first  dawning  of  his 
youth,  his  undivided  heart  was  given  to  the 
establishment  of  free  principles  —  free  insti- 


tutions—  freedom  in  all  ita  varieties  of 
untrammeled  thought  and  independent  action. 
His  whole  life  was  consecrated  to  the  improve- 
ment and  happiness  of  his  fellow  men ;  and 
his  intense  enthusiasm  for  knowledge  and 
freedom  was  sustained  to  his  dying  hour. 


NAPOLEON  I. 


A.  D. 

1769        Bom  at  Ajaccio,  Corsica,  .    . 
1779-85  Pupil  at  the  military  schools  at 

Brienne  £ind  Paris,  France,   . 
1785         Lieutenant  in  French  army, .    . 

1793         Siege  of  Toulon, 

1796         Commanded  the  army  of    Italy; 

married  Josephine  Beauhamais, 

1798  Turko-Egyptian  campaign,   , 

1799  First  consul  of  France,  .    .    , 

1802         Consul  for  life, 

1804         Emperor  of  the  French,     . 

1806         Victor  at  Austerlitz  over  Austrians 

and  Russians, 


"M"APOLEON  BONAPARTE,  or  Napoleon 
•^^  I.,  emperor  of  the  French,  and  the 
greatest  general  of  modern  times,  was  born 
at  Ajaccio,  in  the  island  of  Corsica,  August 
15,  1769.  He  was  the  son  of  Charles  Marie 
Bonaparte,  an  officer  under  General  Paoli, 
and  Letitia  RamoUno,  a  young  woman  of 
great  beauty  and  courage.  His  family  was 
eminently  respectable  but  not  illustrious, 
and  he  always  disdained  to  take  advantage 
of  the  adventitious  luster  of  events. 

Napoleon  received  the  rudiments  of  his 
education  at  Ajaccio,  where,  by  a  curious 
coincidence.  Count  Pozzo  de  Borgo,  after- 
ward his  persevering  and  bitter  opponent 
through  Ufe,  was  also  instructed.  Having 
early  evinced  a  decided  taste  for  military  life, 
he  was,  at  the  age  of  ten,  sent  to  the  military 
school  at  Brienne,  France,  and  subsequently 
to  Paris,  where  he  remained  until  he  obtained 
his  commission  in  the  artillery  in  1785. 
Pichegru,  afterward  so  famous,  and  whom 
Napoleon  in  the  end  destroyed,  left  the 
academy  soon  after  young  Napoleon.  At 
this  academy,  where  he  remained  several 
years,  his  talents,  especially  for  mathematics 
and  the  exact  sciences,  attracted  the  attention 
of  his  preceptors. 

He  received  his  first  commission  in  the 
artillery  at  the  age  of  sixteen;  but  his  first 
employment  in  real  service  was  at  the  siege  of 
Toulon  in  December,  1793,  when  it  was  ob- 
served "that  a  yoimg  heutenant  of  artillery 
was  very  busy  about  a  gun."    Even  in  that 


AOE 

A.  D. 

1806 

1 

1807 

10-16 

16 

1809 

24 

1810 

27 

1812 

29 

1813 

30 

33 

1814 

35 

1815 

36 

1821 

AOB 

Victor  at  Jena  over  Pniadans,  87 
Victor  over   Runaiana   at    Fried- 
land,  88 

War    with    Austria;      separated 

from  his  wife  Josephine,    ...  40 

Married  Maria  Louisa  of  Austria,  41 

Entered  Moscow, 43 

Defeated  at  Leipzig  by  Prussians 

and  Russians. 44 

Dethroned;  exiled  to  Elba,  ...  45 
Returned  to  France;   defeated  at 

Waterloo ;  exiled  to  St.  Helena,  46 

Died  at  St.  Helena, 62 


subordinate  situation,  however,  his  talents 
made  themselves  felt,  for  it  was  by  his  advice 
that  the  operations  were  directed  against  an 
outwork  on  Mount  Faron,  which,  when  taken, 
by  commanding  the  ships  in  the  harbor,  ren- 
dered the  place  no  longer  tenable. 

When  dictating  a  despatch  there  on  the 
head  of  a  drum  to  an  obscure  sergeant  of 
artillery,  a  cannon  ball  fell  close  to  them  and 
threw  a  quantity  of  dust  on  the  paper. 
"That  is  lucky,"  exclaimed  the  sergeant,  "we 
shall  not  require  sand  for  this  paper."  "What 
can  I  do  for  you,"  said  Napoleon,  "to  evince 
my  regard?  "  "  Everything,"  said  the  sergeant, 
"you  can  convert  my  worsted  shoulder  knot 
into  an  epaulette."  Napoleon  recommended 
him  for  promotion  and  he  got  his  commission. 
His  name  was  Junot,  and  he  afterward  be- 
came duke  of  Abrantes,  and  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  marshals  of  France. 

Napoleon  acquired  no  little  celebrity  among 
the  officers  in  the  army  by  the  energy  and  skill 
he  had  manifested  at  Toulon.  The  following 
report  was  sent  to  Carnot :  "  I  send  you  a  young 
man  who  distinguished  himself  very  much 
during  the  siege,  and  earnestly  recommend 
to  you  to  advance  him  speedily.  If  you  do 
not,  he  will  most  assuredly  advance  himself." 

After  the  fall  of  Toulon,  Napoleon  was 
suspected,  not  without  reason,  of  being  im- 
plicated with  the  government  of  Robespierre, 
and  shared  in  the  disgrace  of  its  fall.  He 
remained  in  consequence  for  some  time  at 
Paris  without  any  occupation,  and  in  a  state 


486 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


of  extreme  poverty.  So  low  indeed  were  the 
fortunes  of  the  future  emperor  fallen  at  this 
period,  that,  as  he  himself  said,  he  never  got 
his  boots  blackened,  and  never  wore  gloves, 
for  they  were  a  useless  expense.  His  imagi- 
nation, however,  abated  nothing  of  its  vigor 
by  the  decline  of  his  fortunes,  and,  despairing 
of  effecting  anything  in  Europe,  he  dreamed 
of  the  East,  and  entertained  serious  thoughts 
of  offering  his  services  to  the  grand  seignior, 
with  a  view  to  pushing  his  fortunes  in  Asia. 
"Asia,"  said  he,  "contains  six  hundred 
millions  of  men;  it  is  there  alone  that  any- 
thing is  to  be  done!  Europe  is  worn  out, 
there  is  nothing  practicable  here." 

He  responded,  however,  to  important 
duties  in  his  own  country.  Though  sus- 
pected and,  therefore,  unemployed  by  the 
government  of  the  directory,  his  abilities 
were  well  known.  When  the  directors  were 
reduced  to  extremities  by  the  insurrection  of 
the  sections  in  October,  1795,  the  first  great 
reaction  against  the  crown  and  the  honor  of 
the  revolution,  they  cast  their  eyes  upon 
Napoleon  as  the  only  man  who  could  resusci- 
tate their  tottering  fortunes.  The  first  day's 
conflict  turned  out  entirely  to  the  advantage 
of  the  insurgents,  who  were  thirty  thousand 
strong,  all  national  guards,  and  comprised  the 
whole  flower  and  educated  classes  of  Paris. 

In  great  agitation  the  directors  sent  for 
Napoleon  in  the  evening,  and  gave  him  the 
command  of  their  forces,  which  were  only  five 
thousand,  shut  up  in  the  squares  of  the 
Carrousel  and  the  Louvre.  Napoleon  in- 
stantly took  his  line.  In  the  night  he  des- 
patched an  officer,  Murat,  destined  for  future 
greatness,  to  Sablons,  a  camp  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Paris,  where  a  park  of  fifty  pieces 
of  artillery  was  placed,  which  the  chiefs  of  the 
national  guard  with  inconceivable  infatuation 
had  neglected  to  seize.  Murat  got  possession 
of  the  guns  and  brought  them  to  the  Tuileries. 
This  decided  the  affair.  Next  day  the  insur- 
gents conmaenced  their  attack  from  the 
church  of  St.  Roche,  in  the  Rue  d'Honor^,  and 
at  the  same  time  from  the  opposite  side  of  the 
river.  But  they  were  received  with  so 
terrible  a  discharge  of  grape  shot  that  after 
standing  several  rounds  they  broke  and  fled, 
leaving  the  victory  to  the  regular  troops  and 
the  government  of  the  directory  firmly 
established.  Napoleon  was  rewarded,  as  well 
he  might  be,  for  this  important  victory,  by  the 
command  of  the  army  of  Italy. 

About  this  time  he  made  the  acquaintance 


of  Josephine  Beauharnais,  whom  he  frequently 
met  at  the  house  of  Madame  Tallien.  Capti- 
vated by  her  elegant  manners  and  amiable 
disposition,  he  proposed  marriage  to  the 
graceful  widow,  and  was  accepted.  The 
ceremony  took  place  March  9,  1796.  But  the 
events  of  a  few  days  before,  and  his  appoint- 
ment to  the  supreme  command  of  the  army 
in  Italy  obliged  him  to  leave  his  bride  almost 
at  the  altar. 

When  young  Napoleon  took  the  command 
of  the  army  in  Italy  he  was  only  twenty- 
seven  years  of  age,  and  wholly  unaccustomed 
to  high  command.  He  found  the  troops  in 
the  most  miserable  condition,  in  want  of 
everything.  They  were  perched  on  the 
shining  summits  of  the  Maritime  Alps, 
whither  they  had  been  driven  by  the  united 
arms  of  the  Austrians  and  the  Piedmontese, 
in  the  preceding  campaign.  From  their  long 
sufferings  he  predicted  a  speedy  change  of 
their  fortunes.  "Famine,  cold,  and  misery," 
said  he,  in  his  first  proclamation,  "are  the 
school  of  good  soldiers.  Here  on  the  plains 
of  Italy  you  will  conquer  them,  and  then  you 
will  find  comfort  and  riches  and  glory." 

He  was  as  good  as  his  word.  Descending 
like  a  torrent  from  the  summit  of  the  Alps,  he 
soon  carried  everything  before  him.  Having 
defeated  the  combined  armies  in  several  bat- 
tles, he  appeared  before  the  walls  of  Turin  and 
forced  the  Piedmontese  government  to  con- 
clude a  separate  peace  with  France,  the  con- 
dition of  which  was  the  cession  of  all  their 
fortresses  to  the  conquering  republic,  which 
at  once  gave  him  a  solid  footing  in  Italy,  and 
a  secure  basis  for  ulterior  operations  against 
the  Austrians. 

Napoleon  was  not  long  in  turning  this  basis 
to  the  best  account.  By  forcing  the  "  terrible 
bridge  of  Lodi,"  as  he  himself  called  it, 
although  it  was  defended  by  twenty-five 
thousand  Austrians,  he  gained  the  confidence 
of  the  entire  French  army.  It  was  then,  as 
he  has  told  us  in  his  memoirs,  that  high 
ambition  took  possession  of  his  soul ;  he  be- 
came impressed  with  the  idea  that  he  was 
destined  to  do  great  things. 

On  May  15,  1796,  he  entered  Milan  where 
he  was  received  by  the  revolutionary  party 
with  a  transport,  which  was  soon  cooled  by 
the  imposition  of  a  contribution  of  eight 
hundred  thousand  pounds  on  its  inhabitants. 
He  then  suppressed,  with  dreadful  severity, 
an  insurrection  in  Pavia.  Following  up  his 
career  of  success,  he  defeated  the  Austrians 


IN  POLITICS 


487 


in  several  encounters  and  compelled  their 
commanders  to  shut  themselves  up  in  Mantua, 
a  strong  fortress  in  the  center  of  the  plain  of 
Lombardy. 

Now  began  that  system  of  enormous  and 
unscrupulous  plunder  in  northern  and  central 
Italy  which  gives  something  of  a  barbaric 
character  to  the  conquests  of  the  French. 
The  directory  gave  orders  that  Napoleon 
should  levy  contributions  from  all  the  states 
which  he  had  gratuitously  freed,  and,  accord- 
ing to  his  own  account,  he  sent  to  France  not 
less  than  fifty  million  francs.  His  officers  and 
commissaries  actually  seized  whatever  they 
wished,  provisions,  horses,  and  ^1  manner  of 
stores ;  and  because  Pa  via  ventured  to  make 
some  slight  resistance  to  the  shameful  extor- 
tions of  the  republicans.  Napoleon  gave  it 
up  to  havoc  for  twenty-four  hours!  A  body 
of  savants — including  Monge,  BerthoUet, 
and  others  —  was  despatched  to  Italy  to 
superintend  the  spoUation  of  its  artistic 
treasures;  both  now  and  in  the  subsequent 
Italian  campaigns,  pictures,  statues,  vases, 
and  MSS.  were  carried  off  in  great  num- 
bers to  gratify  the  vanity  of  the  Parisians. 
In  this  way  Lombardy,  Parma,  Modena, 
Bologna,  and  the  states  of  the  church  were 
savagely  harried  before  the  end  of  June  — 
Pope  Pius  VI.,  in  particular,  being  forced  to 
submit  to  conditions  of  extreme  rigor. 

Meanwhile,  Austria  had  resolved  to  make 
another  effort  for  the  recovery  of  Lombardy. 
That  power  successively  collected  three 
powerful  armies  to  relieve  it,  one  of  which, 
after  a  series  of  desperate  actions,  succeeded 
under  the  veteran.  Marshal  Wurmser,  in 
penetrating  to  the  fortress  and  reinforcing  the 
garrison.  But  this  advantage  was  gained  only 
by  incurring  defeats  in  other  quarters;  for 
Napoleon,  raising  the  siege,  concentrated  his 
forces  and  severely  defeated  the  Austrians, 
who  were  incautiously  advancing  in  two 
columns  separated  from  each  other  by  the  lake 
of  Garda.  The  blockade  of  Mantua,  encum- 
bered with  ten  thousand  additional  troops, 
was  now  resumed,  and  the  Austrians  assem- 
bled a  second  army  for  its  relief,  but  it  was 
defeated  by  Napoleon  with  desperate  loss  on 
the  dikes  of  Areola.  A  third  body  in  the 
Tyrol,  composed  of  the  best  troops  in  the 
monarchy,  shared  the  same  fate  on  the 
plateau  of  Rivoli,  on  the  banks  of  the  Adige, 
between  Verona  and  Trent.  Despairing  now 
of  being  reheved,  and  having  exhausted  all 
his    means    of    subsistence,    Wurmser    was 


obliged  to  capitulate.  Nap>oleon,  respecting 
his  age  and  valor,  granted  him  honorable 
terms,  and  this  campaign  closed  with  the 
French  flag  flying  on  Mantua  and  all  the 
fortresses  of  the  Adige,  the  barrier  of  the 
Austrian  monarchy  in  that  quarter. 

Seriously  alarmed  now  for  the  very  existence 
of  the  monarchy,  the  cabinet  of  Vienna  with- 
drew the  archduke  Charles,  who  in  the  pre- 
ceding campaign  had  gained  successes  nearly 
aa  great  in  Germany  as  Napoleon  had  in  Italy, 
to  oppose  the  redoubtable  conqueror  on  the 
Venetian  plains.  Charles  brought  with  him 
thirty  thousand  of  his  best  troops,  flushed 
with  victory  on  the  Bavarian  plains,  and  the 
two  youthful  conquerors  were  arrayed  against 
each  other  on  the  banks  of  the  Tagliamento. 
But  the  star  of  Napoleon  prevailed.  With 
equal  skill  and  daring  he  forced  the  passage 
of  the  Tagliamento,  and  drove  the  archduke 
out  of  the  Venetian  plains  into  the  passes 
of  the  Alps.  Following  him  up.  Napoleon 
drove  him  from  one  pass  and  one  position  to 
another,  until  he  had  placed  the  French 
standards  on  the  Semmering,  the  last  ridge  of 
the  Alps,  before  they  melt  away  into  the  valley 
of  the  Danube,  and  from  whence  the  steeples 
of  Vienna  are  visible. 

Driven  now  to  their  last  shifts,  the  Aus- 
trians sued  for  peace,  which  Napoleon  willingly 
accorded,  for  in  truth  his  position,  however 
brilliant,  was  full  of  peril  from  being  too  far 
advanced,  with  only  thirty-five  thousand  men, 
into  the  Austrian  dominions.  On  this  occa- 
sion Austria  and  France  adjusted  their  differ- 
ences without  difficulty;  for,  in  return  for 
large  concessions  to  the  conquering  republic, 
the  French  handed  over  to  them  the  whole 
dominions  of  the  republic  of  Venice,  a  state 
which  at  first  had  been  neutral,  and  had,  in 
the  close  of  the  contest,  effected  a  revolution 
in  favor  of  France.  This  is  one  of  the  blackest 
instances  of  national  ingratitude  recorded  in 
history. 

After  this  peace  Napoleon  remained  inac- 
tive for  about  a  year,  an  object  of  the  utmost 
jealousy  and  terror  to  the  French  government, 
to  whom  his  unbending  disposition,  his  ambi- 
tion, and  fame  rendered  him  an  object  of  the 
utmost  apprehension.  To  get  rid  of  so  for- 
midable a  rival,  they  fell  upon  the  experi- 
ment of  offering  him  the  command  of  a  great 
expedition  they  were  preparing  against  Egypt. 
As  this  promised  to  bring  Napoleon  into 
the  theater  of  his  early  and  favorite  dreams 
of  ambition,  and  as  he  conceived  matters  were 


488 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


not  ripe  for  the  revolution  he  meditated  in 
Europe,  he  acceded  to  their  offer.  The  expe- 
dition, the  greatest  that  ever  set  out  in  modern 
times  from  the  shores  of  Europe,  accordingly 
sailed  in  1798,  having  thirty-five  thousand 
soldiers  on  board,  conveyed  by  fourteen  ships 
of  the  line  and  above  three  hundred  transports. 

Though  the  British  admiral,  Nelson,  was 
in  the  Mediterranean  straining  every  nerve  to 
intercept  the  expedition,  it  arrived  in  safety 
before  Malta,  which  at  once  capitulated  to  the 
French  arms,  and  then  steering  for  Alexandria 
disembarked  the  whole  of  the  troops  there  in 
safety  July  1,  1798.  Napoleon,  overjoyed 
with  his  good  fortune  in  having  escaped  the 
English  fleet,  pursued  his  advantage  with  the 
utmost  alacrity.  Advancing  from  Alexandria 
toward  Cairo,  his  army,  after  undergoing 
incredible  hardships  in  the  desert,  arrived  in 
sight  of  the  Pyramids,  where  they  beheld  the 
Turkish  army  thirty  thousand  strong,  of 
which  fifteen  thousand  were  splendid  Mame- 
luke cavalry,  ready  to  receive  them. 

Impressed  but  not  daunted  by  the  noble 
spectacle.  Napoleon  said  to  his  men,  "From 
the  summit  of  these  monuments  forty  centu- 
ries are  gazing  upon  you."  They  were  not 
unworthy  of  their  mission.  Drawn  up  in 
squares,  a  deadly  rolling  fire  as  from  so  many 
flaming  citadels  issued  from  their  ranks,  a 
charge  of  cavalry  completed  the  rout  of  the 
Turks,  Cairo  opened  its  gates,  and  the  French 
dominion  was  established  over  the  whole  of 
Egypt. 

Meanwhile,  a  dreadful  reverse,  apparently 
fatal  to  Napoleon's  prospects  in  Europe,  had 
occurred  at  sea.  Nelson,  having  at  length 
discovered  the  whereabouts  of  the  French 
fleet,  had  sailed  into  the  bay  of  Aboukir,  where 
it  lay  moored  imder  the  protection  of  the 
land  batteries,  and  totally  destroyed  it,  one 
sail  only  having  escaped  to  carry  the  mournful 
tidings  to  France.  This  catastrophe  seemed 
fatal  to  the  French  army,  for  it  cut  them  off 
from  any  commimication  with  their  country. 
Napoleon,  however,  was  not  discouraged. 
"We  must  remain  here,"  said  he,  "or  emerge 
from  it  great  hke  the  ancients";  and  he 
immediately  set  about  preparing  for  an 
expedition  into  Syria. 

His  plan  was  to  rouse  the  Christian  popu- 
lation of  Lebanon  and  Asia  Minor,  and,  rein- 
forcing by  their  aid  his  French  troops,  to 
approach  Constantinople  from  the  Asiatic 
side,  and  place  himself  on  the  throne  of  the 
East.    Surprising  success  in  the  first  instance 


attended  his  efforts.  He  crossed  the  desert 
which  separates  Asia  and  Africa,  stormed 
Jaffa,  and  cruelly  massacred  about  three 
thousand  prisoners  taken  in  cold  blood,  laid 
siege  to  Acre,  pushed  on  to  Nazareth,  and  « 
defeated  forty  thousand  Ottomans  with  great  m 
slaughter,  at  Mount  Tabor. 

But  this  was  the  summit  of  his  succeas. 
Sir  Sidney  Smith  landed  with  a  party  of 
marines  from  the  British  ships  at  Acre, 
placed  himself  with  his  brave  followers  in  the 
breach,  when  the  place  was  on  the  point  of 
falling,  and  infused  such  vigor  into  the  de- 
fenses that  all  the  assaults  of  the  French  were 
repulsed,  and  Napoleon,  abandoning  all  his 
ideas  of  oriental  conquest,  was  obliged  to 
wend  his  way  back  with  disgrace  to  Egypt. 
During  the  retreat  he  is  said  to  have  poisoned 
a  number  of  his  wounded  soldiers,  to  prevent 
them  from  faUing  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks, 
by  whom  they  would  have  been  barbarously 
massacred.  Soon  afterward  he  was  consoled 
for  his  reverses  by  a  victory  over  twenty 
thousand  Janizaries,  whom  the  English 
landed  in  the  bay  of  Aboukir. 

Yet  though  so  great  a  career  awaited  him  in 
Europe,  Napoleon  never  ceased  lamenting  his 
check  at  Acre,  and  repeatedly  said,  when 
revolving  his  eventful  career  in  the  solitude  of 
St.  Helena,  when  speaking  of  Sir  Sidney 
Smith,  "  That  man  made  me  miss  my  destiny." 
But  another  fate  awaited  the  young  general. 
France  speedily  felt  the  want  of  his  tutelary 
arm  when  it  was  withdrawn.  "The  sun  of 
Bonaparte,"  as  Pitt  expressed  it,  "was 
falling  before  the  rising  star  of  Suvaroff." 
That  daring  and  celebrated  general,  at  the 
head  of  a  combined  Austrian  and  Russian 
army,  had  defeated  the  French  in  several 
pitched  battles  on  the  plains  of  Lombard/, 
regained  all  the  fortresses,  surmounted  the 
Maritime  Alps,  and  appeared  on  the  shores  of 
the  Var,  on  the  frontiers  of  Provence.  The 
repubUcans  had  been  entirely  driven  out  of 
Germany,  and  Mass^na,  shut  up  in  France 
with  fifty  thousand  men,  with  difficulty  main- 
tained himself  against  the  superior  army  ol 
the  archduke  Charles. 

In  these  circumstances  all  eyes  were  turned 
to  Napoleon  as  the  only  man  capable  of  saving 
the  country.  He  now  felt,  in  his  own  words, 
that  "the  pear  was  ripe,"  and  he  resolved  to 
return  to  Em-ope.  His  usual  good  fortune 
did  not  desert  him  on  this  occasion.  Setting 
sail  in  a  single  frigate  from  Alexandria,  he 
eluded  the  EngUsh  cruisers  who  were  anxiously 


IN  POLITICS 


4m 


looking  out  to  intercept  his  return,  and  landed 
safe  at  Cannes,  in  southern  France,  in  October, 
1799.  From  thence  he  proceeded  to  Paris, 
where,  finding  the  government  of  the  direc- 
tory utterly  discredited,  and  in  the  last  stage 
of  decrepitude,  he  ventured  a  bold  coup 
d'etat,  expelled  the  legislatives  from  their  halls 
by  means  of  fixed  bayonets,  and  under  the 
name  of  "first  consul"  seated  himself  on 
the  throne  of  France. 

His  first  care  after  this  great  success  was 
to  expel  the  Austrians  from  Italy,  the  scene  of 
his  earliest  triumphs  and  of  such  obstinate 
conflicts  between  them  and  the  French.  His 
plan  for  this  purpose  was  laid  with  equal 
skill  and  secrecy.  Assembling  an  army, 
styled  "the  army  of  reserve,"  at  Dijon,  in  the 
heart  of  France,  he  suddenly  led  them  across 
the  St.  Bernard,  a  pass  eight  thousand  feet 
high,  deemed  impassable  for  artillery  or  car- 
riages, overcame  the  resistance  of  the  fort  of 
Bard,  in  the  southern  declivity  of  the  moun- 
tain, entered  Milan  in  triumph,  defeated  the 
Austrian  advanced  guard,  ten  thousand 
strong,  at  Stradella,  and  encountered  their 
main  body  thirty  thousand  strong  returning 
from  the  Var,  at  Marengo.  After  an  obstinate 
conflict,  on  which  he  was  on  the  point  of  being 
destroyed,  he  defeated  them  with  great 
slaughter. 

The  peculiar  position  of  the  two  armies  ren- 
dered this  victory  decisive,  and  demonstrated 
the  strategical  skill  with  which  Napoleon's 
plan  and  campaign  of  the  march  across  the 
St.  Bernard  had  been  laid.  The  Austrians, 
returning  from  the  Var,  fought  with  their 
faces  toward  Vienna,  and  their  backs 
toward  the  Maritime  Alps  and  the  bay  of 
Genoa.  Defeat  in  such  circumstances  was 
ruin;  and  Melas,  the  Austrian  commander, 
was  too  happy  to  conclude  a  convention,  in 
virtue  of  which  he  was  allowed  to  retire  to 
Mantua,  after  delivering  up  the  whole  of  the 
fortresses  of  Piedmont  to  the  victorious 
French. 

Securely  seated  by  this  great  triumph  on 
the  consular  throne.  Napoleon  shortly  forced 
the  Austrians  to  make  peace  at  Lun^ville, 
and  thereby  pacified  the  whole  continent. 
Soon  after  he  underwent  a  deep  humiliation, 
however,  by  the  successful  result  of  the 
English  expedition,  under  Sir  Ralph  Aber- 
crombie,  to  Egypt,  and  the  wresting  from  his 
grasp  of  his  whole  conquests  on  the  banks  of 
the  Nile.  His  projects  for  the  destruction  of 
Great  Britain,  also  the  great  object  of  his  life, 


were  blasted  about  the  same  time  by  Nelson's 
victory  at  Copenhagen,  which  destroyed  the 
northern  coalition,  and  the  death  of  the 
emperor  Paul,  which  withdrew  Russia  from 
that  formidable  alliance.  England  and 
France  now  had  no  longer  the  means  of  fight- 
ing. They  could  not  reach  each  other,  for 
they  were  both  victorious  in  their  respective 
elements,  and  like  monsters  of  the  land  and 
deep  their  hostility  could  not  be  exerted 
against  each  other.  Sensible  of  this  they 
concluded  peace  in  March,  1802,  which  put 
the  first  period  to  the  dreadful  hostilities  of 
the  revolutionary  war. 

The  peace,  however,  proved  only  an  armed 
truce.  Both  parties  were  only  gaining  breath 
for  a  renewal  of  the  fight.  In  August,  1802, 
Napoleon  was  made  consul  for  life,  and  did 
great  things  at  home  during  its  continuance. 
He  was  busy  superintending  the  drawing  up 
of  a  code  of  civil  laws  for  France.  He 
assembled  the  first  lawyers  in  the  nation,  under 
the  presidency  of  Cambac^r^,  and  frequently 
took  part  in  their  deliberations;  the  results 
of  their  labors  were  the  Code  Civil  des  Fran- 
gais,  Code  de  Procedure,  Code  Pinal,  and 
Code  d' Instruction  Criminelle,  besides  com- 
mercial and  military  codes,  all  of  which  often 
go  loosely  under  the  name  of  the  Code  Napo- 
leon. The  first  of  these  is  an  admirable  pro- 
duction, and  is  in  force  to  the  present  day. 
Considerable  attention  was  also  paid  to 
such  branches  of  education  as  were  likely  to 
promote  efficiency  in  the  public  service. 
Mathematics,  physical  science  in  all  its 
departments,  engineering,  etc.,  were  as  vig- 
orously encouraged  as  philosophy,  ethics,  aiui 
political  speculation  were  discouraged. 

The  best  proof  that  Napoleon  wanted 
not  an  educated  people,  but  only  active  and 
expert  tools  and  agents,  was  the  indifference 
that  he  manifested  to  primary  and  elementary 
education.  In  a  population  of  thirty-two 
million,  the  number  of  pupils  under  ten  years 
is  given  by  Fourcroy  at  only  seventy-five 
thousand  I  The  internal  government  was  the 
acme  of  despotic  centralization.  Napoleon 
appointed  all  prefects  of  departments,  and  all 
mayors  of  cities,  so  that  not  a  vestige  of 
provincial  or  municipal  freedom  remained. 
He  ruled  France  as  he  ruled  the  army  of 
France.  In  May,  1804,  he  was  proclaimed 
hereditary  emperor  of  the  French,  and  the 
year  after  king  of  Italy. 

Peace  between  France  and  England  did  not 
last  long.    Napoleon's  policy  in  Italy  irritated 


490 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


the  British  government,  and,  as  remonstrances 
were  ineffectual,  war  was  declared  against 
France.  First,  Napoleon  formed  a  gigantic 
fleet  for  the  subjugation  of  England,  which 
very  nearly  proved  successful.  Having  suc- 
ceeded in  forcing  Spain  to  his  alliance,  he  had 
a  project  for  assembling  in  the  channel 
seventy  sail  of  the  line,  who  were  to  transport 
one  hundred  thirty  thousand  men  into  Eng- 
land, and  thirty  thousand  into  Ireland,  on 
board  two  thousand  gunboats,  which  he  had 
prepared  at  Boulogne  for  their  conveyance 
across  the  channel. 

Vast  as  the  plan  was,  it  was  on  the  very 
verge  of  proving  successful.  The  Toulon 
fleet  set  sail  from  Cadiz,  and  decoyed  Nelson 
into  the  West  Indies;  speedily  returning  it 
encountered  Sir  R.  Calder  off  Finisterre,  who, 
with  fifteen  sail  of  the  line,  defeated  twenty- 
seven  French  craft  and  took  two  sail  of  the 
line.  This  action  proved  fatal  to  the  whole 
design.  Villeneuve,  who  commanded  the 
combined  squadron,  retreated  to  Ferrol. 
Front  Ferrol,  instead  of  proceeding  to  Brest, 
where  Admiral  Gantheaume  was  ready  with 
twenty-one  sail  of  the  line  to  join  him,  he  went 
to  Cadiz,  where  he  was  soon  blockaded  by 
Nelson,  and  totally  defeated  by  him  with  the 
loss  of  twenty  sail  of  the  line,  October  21, 
1805. 

Thenceforward  the  maritime  war  was  at  an 
end,  and  Napoleon  had  to  trust  solely  to  con- 
tinental victories  for  the  destruction  of  the 
English.  Instantly  taking  his  line,  he  ex- 
tracted out  of  his  maritime  defeat  the  means 
of  achieving  his  greatest  land  triumphs. 
Russia  had  joined  Austria,  and  the  army  of  the 
latter,  eighty  thousand  strong,  had  advanced 
to  Ulm,  in  Bavaria.  Crossing  France  and  the 
north  of  Germany  with  incredible  rapidity. 
Napoleon  defeated  the  Austrians  in  several 
actions,  and  at  length  shut  up  thirty  thousand 
in  Ulm,  where  they  were  forced  to  capitulate 
the  very  day  before  the  battle  of  Trafalgar. 
Advancing  then,  at  the  head  of  one  hundred 
eighty  thousand  men,  down  the  valley  of 
the  Danube,  he  captured  Vienna,  and,  on 
December  2,  1805,  totally  defeated  the  com- 
bined Austrian  and  Russian  armies  at  Aus- 
terlitz,  under  their  respective  emperors.  This 
catastrophe  drove  Austria  to  a  separate  peace, 
that  of  Presburg,  by  which  Austria  ceded  to 
France  all  her  Italian  and  Adriatic  provinces. 
The  Russians,  weakened  by  the  loss  of  thirty 
thousand  men,  in  mourning  wended  their 
way  back  to  their  own  dominions. 


Next  year  the  Prussians  with  infatuated 
hardihood  rushed  into  the  field.  Napoleon 
encountered  them  at  Jena  and  Auerstadt,  and 
defeated  them  with  such  loss  that  in  a  few 
weeks  one  hundred  thousand  men  had  disap- 
peared out  of  one  hundred  twenty  thou- 
sand, with  which  they  had  commenced  the 
conflict.  Prussia  was  speedily  overrun,  Berlin 
taken,  and  the  remnant  of  their  armies  driven 
back  to  the  Vistula,  where  they  were  supported 
by  the  Russians,  who  now  came  up  in  great 
strength.  Several  bloody  actions  took  place 
during  the  depth  of  winter,  in  which  the 
French  discovered  the  sturdy  nature  of  the 
new  antagonists  with  whom  they  had  to  deal, 
and  in  a  pitched  battle  fought  at  Eylau,  on 
February  8,  1807,  the  French  emperor  was 
defeated  with  the  loss  of  thirty  thousand 
men.  But  in  due  time  he  had  his  revenge. 
Having  gathered  up  all  his  reserves,  and 
collected  one  hundred  fifty  thousand  men 
round  his  standard,  he  attacked  the  Russians 
in  June,  and  after  several  bloody  actions 
defeated  them  in  a  pitched  battle  at  Friedland, 
on  June  14th  of  the  same  year.  The  result  of 
this  triimaph  was  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  which, 
virtually  destroying  all  lesser  powers,  in  effect 
divided  the  whole  continent  of  Europe  be- 
tween Napoleon  and  Alexander. 

Insatiable  in  ambition.  Napoleon  had  no 
sooner  achieved  this  great  victory  over  his 
northern  enemies  than  he  turned  his  eyes  to 
the  Spanish  peninsula,  seized  on  Portugal, 
without  a  shadow  of  a  pretext,  and  decoyed 
the  king,  queen,  and  heir  apparent  of  Spain 
to  Bayonne,  where,  with  threats,  treachery, 
and  cajolery,  he  succeeded  in  extracting  from 
them  all  a  renunciation  of  the  throne  of  Spain, 
upon  which  he  immediately  placed  his  own 
brother,  Joseph,  and  at  the  same  time  gave 
the  throne  of  Naples  to  his  brother-in-law, 
Murat.  About  the  same  time  he  put  in  force 
the  famous  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees,  intended 
to  exclude  the  English  permanently  from  the 
whole  trade  of  continental  Europe.  His 
abominable  treachery  to  the  Spanish  royal 
family  incited  a  frightful  war  in  the  penin- 
sula, which  at  first  was  attended  with  sur- 
prising success.  Dupont  surrendered  with 
twenty-five  thousand  men  to  Castanos,  in 
Andalusia.  Portugal  was  recovered  by  Wel- 
lington, and  the  French  were  obliged  to  retire 
behind  the  Ebro. 

But  Napoleon  was  at  hand  to  repair  the 
disaster.  Directing  his  whole  reserves  from 
Germany  to  Spain,  he  entered  Navarre  at  the 


IN  POLITICS 


491 


head  of  two  hundred  thousand  men,  defeated 
the  Spaniards  in  several  battles,  retook 
Madrid,  and  pursued  the  English  under  Sir 
John  Moore  into  Galicia,  where,  though  they 
gained  at  the  eleventh  hour  a  glorious  victory 
at  Corunna  over  Soult  and  Ney,  they  were 
forced  to  embark  and  return  to  England, 
weakened  by  a  third  of  their  numbers,  hav- 
ing lost  the  whole  objects  of  the  campaign. 
Austria  deemed  the  moment  favorable,  when 
the  chief  forces  of  Napoleon  were  immersed 
in  the  peninsula,  to  endeavor  to  regain  some 
of  her  lost  provinces.  She  declared  war 
accordingly  in  April,  1809,  and  advanced  with 
one  hundred  thousand  men  into  Bavaria, 
where  the  archduke  Charles  at  first  gained 
considerable  success.  But  Napoleon  fled  to 
the  spot,  defeated  the  Austrians  in  three 
pitched  battles,  and,  treacherously  gaining 
possession  of  the  bridge  of  Vienna,  made 
himself  master  of  the  capital. 

Napoleon  sustained,  however,  at  the  battle 
of  Aspern,  a  severe  check  from  the  archduke 
Charles,  who  defeated  him  with  the  loss  of 
thirty  thousand  men,  and  brought  him  to 
the  very  verge  of  ruin.  He  recovered  himself, 
however,  and,  having  collected  one  hundred 
fifty  thousand  men  in  Vienna,  threw  six 
bridges  in  one  night  over  the  Danube,  and 
on  the  field  of  Wagram  defeated  the  Aus- 
trians in  a  pitched  battle  which  lasted  two 
days.  This  triumph  for  France  deprived 
Austria  of  a  fourth  of  her  dominions. 

Napoleon  appears  to  have  now  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  he  could  only  put  a  stop  to 
the  hostile  machinations  of  the  old  legitimate 
dynasties  by  intermarrying  with  some  one 
of  them.  Besides,  his  wife  Josephine  had  no 
children  —  and  he  was  ambitious  of  perpetu- 
ating his  power  in  his  family.  With  that 
callousness  to  everything  except  his  own 
interests,  which  was  a  prominent  feature  of  his 
character,  he  immediately  proceeded  to 
divorce  her.  The  act  of  divorcement  was 
solemnly  registered  on  December  16,  1809. 
Less  than  three  months  afterward  he  mar- 
ried Maria  Louisa,  archduchess  and  daughter 
of  the  emperor  of  Austria.  He  was  now  at 
the  zenith  of  his  power,  and  so,  according  to 
the  old  Greek  belief,  Nemesis  was  on  his  track. 

What  caused  his  ruin  was  really  that  out- 
rage on  civilization  —  the  Berlin  decree. 
Russia  found  it  impossible  to  carry  it  out, 
without  permanent  injury  to  her  great  land- 
owners ;  Sweden  and  other  countries  were  in 
a  similar  predicament.    This  led  to  evasions 


of  the  decree,  and  these,  again,  involved 
Russia  particularly  in  further  complications, 
until  finally,  in  May,  1812,  Napoleon  declared 
war  against  that  country.  In  spite  of  the 
advice  of  his  most  prudent  advisers,  he  re- 
solved to  invade  the  countrj' ;  he  accordingly 
crossed  the  Niemen  at  the  head  of  five  hundred 
thousand  men,  the  greatest  military  armament 
of  real  soldiers  ever  seen  since  the  beginning 
of  the  world. 

The  Russians  had  not  half  the  force  to  resist 
this  crusade,  and  the  consequence  was  they 
were  driven  back  into  the  very  heart  of  their 
territories.  Smolensk  was  stormed  by  Napo- 
leon in  person,  and  in  a  desperate  battle 
fought  at  Borodino,  on  September  6th,  when 
thirty  thousand  men  fell  on  both  sides,  the 
Russians  were  so  far  worsted  that  they  were 
obliged  to  abandon  Moscow  to  the  conquerors. 
But  this  was  the  extreme  point  of  the  French 
emperor's  success.  The  Russians  burned 
their  ancient  capital  to  prevent  it  from 
affording  shelter  to  the  enemy. 

The  French,  reduced  now  by  the  sword, 
fatigue,  and  sickness  to  one  hundred  thousand 
men,  were  obliged  to  retreat  on  the  wasted 
line  of  their  former  advance;  and,  the  cold 
having  set  in  with  great  severity,  they  were 
attacked  by  the  Russians  on  several  occa- 
sions with  such  success  that  not  twenty 
thousand  escaped  across  the  Niemen,  nearly 
all  in  the  last  stage  of  exhaustion  and  misery. 
Napoleon  himself  abandoned  his  troops  in  the 
midst  of  their  sufferings,  and  made  his  escape 
to  Paris  on  a  sledge  accompanied  by  a  single 
attendant. 

This  terrible  and  unexampled  reverse, 
coupled  with  the  victorious  career  of  Welling- 
ton in  the  same  year  in  Spain,  who  had 
defeated  the  French  in  a  pitched  battle  at 
Salamanca,  recovered  Madrid,  and  liberated 
all  the  southern  provinces  of  Spain  from 
their  oppressors,  produced  a  general  insurrec- 
tion in  Europe.  Prussia  took  up  arms ;  des- 
perate battles  were  fought  at  Liitzen,  Bautzen, 
Dresden,  and  other  places ;  at  length.  Napo- 
leon having  made  a  last  stand  at  Leipzig, 
the  "battle  of  nations  "  began  on  October  16, 
1813.  Three  hundred  thousand  Germans  and 
Russians  commenced  the  attack,  which  two 
hundred  thousand  French  resisted.  Twenty- 
five  hundred  pieces  of  cannon  spread  destruc- 
tion around,  and  after  a  bloody  conflict  of  two 
days'  duration  Napoleon  was  totally  defeated 
with  the  loss  of  forty  thousand  men  and 
two  hundred  fifty  guns,  and  with  diflSculty 


492 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


brought  back  sixty  thousand  of  his  vast  army 
behind  the  Rhine. 

At  the  same  time  Wellington,  who  had 
totally  defeated  King  Joseph  in  person  at 
Vittoria,  had  crossed  the  Pyrenees  and  was 
threatening  Bayonne.  The  French  empire 
on  all  sides  was  crumbling  into  ruins.  Early 
in  the  following  spring  the  allies  invaded 
France  along  the  whole  course  of  the  Rhine, 
while  Wellington  pursued  his  career  of 
success  in  the  south  of  France.  Driven  to 
extremities,  Napoleon  exerted  himself  to  the 
utmost,  and  exhibited  the  most  splendid 
military  abilities.  But  although  he  gained, 
with  forces  greatly  inferior,  several  important 
victories  over  the  allies,  he  was  at  length 
overpowered.  Paris  was  taken  by  the  em- 
peror of  Russia  and  king  of  Prussia  in  person, 
at  the  head  of  two  hundred  thousand  men. 
The  Bourbons  were  restored  to  the  French 
throne;  Napoleon,  dethroned,  was  banished 
to  the  isle  of  Elba,  where  a  mimic  sovereignty 
was  permitted  him  to  console  his  mind  after 
such  a  dreadful  series  of  reverses. 

But  the  restless  mind  and  ambitious  spirit 
of  Napoleon  could  not  long  rest  in  this  state 
of  forced  seclusion.  Having  ascertained  that 
discontent  was  universal  in  the  French  army, 
the  natural  result  of  their  misfortune,  he  set 
out  from  Elba,  in  1815,  accompanied  by  six 
hundred  of  the  old  guard  who  had  shared  his 
exile,  and  landing  at  Cannes,  marched  to 
Paris  without  opposition,  dethroned  Louis 
XVIII.,  and  reestablished  himself  on  the 
throne  of  France.  He  was  then  immediately 
denounced  by  the  allied  sovereigns,  who  set 
about  collecting  forces  on  his  frontiers. 
Despairing  of  averting  a  war  by  negotiation. 
Napoleon  resolved,  with  his  usual  vigor  and 
decision,  to  anticipate  the  allies  and  strike 
the  first  blow.    He  all  but  succeeded. 

Having  crossed  the  frontier  of  Flanders, 
Napoleon,  on  June  16,  1815,  attacked  and 
defeated  the  Prussians,  eighty  thousand 
strong,  under  Bliicher,  at  Ligny,  and  the  same 
day  sustained  a  bloody  conflict  with  Welling- 
ton's advance  guard,  in  which  the  French 
were  at  length  routed  at  Quatre-Bras.  Two 
days  after  Napoleon  met  the  stroke  of  fate. 
Wellington  retired  to  and  stood  firm  at 
Waterloo,  where  on  the  18th  he  gave  battle 
to  the  French,  with  an  army  nearly  equal 
numerically,  but  greatly  inferior  in  artillery 
and  the  quality  of  his  troops.  A  desperate 
battle  ensued,  in  which  both  parties  displayed 
prodigies  of  valor,  and  victory  long  seemed 


doubtful.  At  length  the  Prussians  came  up 
late  in  the  evening,  and  Napoleon  was  by  the 
united  allied  force  totally  defeated  with  the 
loss  of  forty  thousand  men  and  one  hundred 
fifty  pieces  of  cannon. 

The  victory  was  decisive,  and  Napoleon 
fled  to  Paris.  The  national  assembly 
fiercely  insisted  on  his  abdication.  He  did  so, 
June  22d,  in  favor  of  his  son.  Napoleon  II. 
They  further  demanded  that  he  should 
leave  the  country  forever,  and  he  retired 
to  Rochefort,  with  the  design  of  embarking 
for  the  United  States.  On  July  7th  the 
allies  again  entered  Paris,  and  refused  to 
acknowledge  the  acts  of  the  French  pro- 
visional government.  Napoleon,  who  saw 
that  he  could  not  escape  either  by  sea  or 
land,  voluntarily  surrendered,  July  15th, 
to  Captain  Maitland,  of  the  Bellerophon, 
claiming  the  protection  of  British  laws. 
However,  it  was  resolved  by  the  British  gov- 
ernment to  confine  him  for  life  on  the  isle  of 
St.  Helena,  a  lonely  rock  in  the  southern 
Atlantic,  one  thousand  miles  from  the  coast 
of  Africa.  He  was  therefore  conveyed  thither 
by  Admiral  Cockburn,  and  landed  at  St. 
Helena,  October  16,  1815. 

The  remainder  of  Napoleon's  life  was 
politically  insignificant ;  but  he  wrote  several 
most  able  and  interesting  works,  chiefly  relat- 
ing to  his  eventful  career,  which,  with  his 
long  series  of  victories,  have  contributed  to 
his  colossal  fame.  At  the  same  time  he 
fretted  beyond  measure  at  being  denied  the 
title  of  emperor,  and  at  being  attended  even 
at  a  distance  by  an  English  escort  in  his  rides. 

He  was  magnificently  treated  by  the 
English  government,  who  expended  twelve 
thousand  pounds  a  year  on  his  private  estab- 
lishment, and  four  hundred  thousand  pounds 
yearly  on  the  island;  but  his  ardent  spirit 
could  not  brook  even  supposed  indignity  and 
real  inaction.  His  imaginary  grievances, 
coupled  with  a  hereditary  malady,  cancer  of 
the  stomach,  of  which  his  father  had  died, 
brought  on  a  mortal  disorder,  which  led  to 
his  death,  on  May  5,  1821.  He  quitted  this 
life  during  a  terrible  storm  of  wind  and  rain, 
which  recalled  to  his  mind  the  roar  of  battle. 
His  last  words  were  Tete  d'armee  —  "head  of 
the  army." 

He  was  first  interred  in  Slane's  valley,  in  the 
island  of  St.  Helena,  from  whence  his  remains 
were,  in  December,  1841,  with  the  consent  of 
the  English  government,  transferred  to  Paris, 
where  on  the  15th  of  that  month  they  were 


IN  POLITICS 


4M 


interred  in  a  mausoleum  under  the  dome  of 
the  Hotel  des  Invalides,  and  now  repose 
beside  the  bones  of  Turenne  and  Vauban,  the 
paladins  of  France. 

It  is  upon  a  military  foundation  that  Napo- 
leon's fame  must  rest.  Although  his  stature 
was  small,  his  appearance  was  most  imposing. 
He  had  a  lofty  forehead,  a  quick  and  piercing 
eye,  a  firm  mouth,  and  a  strong  chin.  His 
whole  countenance  was  expressive  of  deep 
thought,  rapid  insight,  an  iron  force  of  will, 
and  a  daring  ambition.  Amid  the  noise  of 
battle  all  these  qualities  came  into  active 
play.  To  scan  the  enemy's  army,  to  detect 
the  weak  point,  and  to  hurl  masses  of  troops 
against  that  point  was  the  work  of  an  instant. 
If  his  soldiers  failed  in  the  attack,  he  was 
irrunediately  among  them,  driving  them  to 
a  fresh  onset.  If  they  were  again  unsuc- 
cessful, he  had  a  battalion  of  picked  men,  who 
charged,  and  rarely  failed  to  throw  the  foe 
into  hopeless  rout. 

There  has  probably  never  been  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  world  any  man  who  has  combined 
like  attributes  of  intellect  and  will  in  so  high 
a  degree  as  Napoleon.  It  has  been  said,  not 
without  reason,  that  as  a  general  Caesar  gave 
proof  of  greater  originality  of  genius,  inas- 
much as  he  never  repeated  the  same  strata- 
gem or  mode  of  warfare,  but  always  had  a 
fresh  invention  for  every  new  emergency. 
But,  even  if  it  be  admitted  that  in  fertility  of 
invention  Napoleon  was  inferior  to  Caesar,  it 
may,  on  the  other  hand,  be  safely  affirmed 
that  not  only  in  his  power  of  combination  — 
of  embracing  in  one  harmonious  plan  a  great 
ntmiber  of  distinct  and  independent  elements 
—  but  also  in  watching  over  and  directing  at 
one  and  the  same  time  the  complicated 
movements  of  mighty  armies,  the  tone  of  the 
public  press,  the  operations  of  foreign  and 
domestic  commerce,  in  addition  to  the  endless 
intricacies  and  details  of  his  system  of  police, 
and  the  great  measiu-e  of  his  government, 
not  merely  in  France,  but  through  the  whole 
extent  of  his  vast  empire  —  he  was  unequaled 
by  any  commaiider  or  sovereign  that  ever 
lived. 

But,  whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  genius 
of  Napoleon  as  compared  with  that  of  other 
great  commanders,  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
in  some  respects  his  career  was  the  most 
extraordinary,  and  his  destiny  the  most  won- 
derful, of  any  recorded  in  the  annals  of  man- 
kind. Other  rulers  may  have  wielded  a 
power  as  extensive  and  even  more  absolute; 


but  they  cannot,  like  Napoleon,  boast  of 
having  been  the  sole  architects  of  their  own 
fortunes  —  of  having  risen,  like  him,  from  an 
absolutely  private  station  to  the  highest 
pinnacle  of  greatness.  Cynis  and  Alexander 
inherited  each,  as  his  birthright,  a  powerful 
kingdom;  Hannibal  and  Csesar  were  respec- 
tively the  recognized  representatives  of  high 
and  influential  families.  Napoleon,  on  the 
contrary,  besides  his  energy  and  his  genius, 
possessed  not  a  single  advantage  that  might 
not  have  fallen  to  the  lot  of  the  humblest 
citizen  of  France. 

No  other  sovereign  of  whom  history  makes 
mention  ever  maintained  himself,  even  for  a 
single  day,  against  such  a  combination  of 
gigantic  powers;  yet  Napoleon  not  only 
maintained  himself,  but  for  twelve  years  was 
constantly  adding  to  his  dominions  in  the  face 
of  an  opposition  such  as  was  never  before  or 
since  arrayed  against  any  single  ruler.  And 
he  fell  at  last,  so  to  speak,  by  his  own  hand. 
He  seems  to  have  possessed  every  intellectual 
endowment  except  wisdom,  and  every  form 
of  power  except  moral  power.  His  ambition, 
and  the  desire  to  exert  his  imperious  will, 
often  led  him  to  embrace  measures  which  his 
cooler  judgment  disapproved. 

His  invasion  of  Spain  was  a  remarkable 
instance  of  this.  No  one  saw  more  clearly 
than  he  the  difficulties  and  dangers  to  be 
encountered  in  such  a  war.  In  a  letter  ad- 
dressed to  Murat,  in  1808,  he  says:  "Do  not 
imagine  that  you  have  only  to  make  a  dis- 
play of  your  troops  in  order  to  conquer  Spain. 
They  may  raise  levies  against  us  en  masse 
which  will  render  the  war  eternal.  I  have  at 
present  partisans,  but  if  I  show  myself  in  the 
character  of  a  conqueror  I  cannot  retain  one 
of  them."  Again,  with  prophetic  forecast, 
he  says :  "  If  war  once  break  out,  all  is  lost." 
Yet,  in  spite  of  what  he  so  clearly  foresaw,  he 
adopted  a  course  which  rendered  war  inevita- 
ble. He  afterward  said,  bitterly,  "That 
wretched  war  was  my  ruin:  it  divided  my 
forces,  multiplied  the  necessity  of  my  efforts, 
and  injured  my  character  for  morality." 

Having  lost  his  reputation  for  morality,  his 
subjects  and  allies  ceased  to  have  any  con- 
fidence in  his  words,  and  his  vast  empire,  no 
longer  cemented  by  "that  faith  which  binds 
the  moral  elements  of  the  world  together," 
was  already  beginning  to  crumble,  when  his 
fatal  campaign  in  Russia  annihilated  his 
grand  army  and  involved  him  in  irretrievable 
ruin.    With  all  his  sagacity,  he  committed 


494 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


the  stupendpus  error  of  supposing  that  he 
could,  in  the  nineteenth  century,  hold  Europe 
in  subjection  by  the  mere  force  of  his  intellect 
and  will,  without  the  exercise  of  any  strictly 
moral  attributes,  and  without  laying  the 
foundation  of  his  power  in  the  affections  of 
the  people. 

"That  Napoleon,"  says  Channing,  "pos- 
sessed greatness  of  action,  we  need  not  prove, 
and  none  will  be  hardy  enough  to  deny. 
A  man  who  raised  himself  from  obscurity  to  a 
throne;  who  changed  the  face  of  the  world; 
who  made  himself  felt  through  powerful  and 
civilized  nations;   who  sent  the  terror  of  his 


name  across  seas  and  oceans ;  whose  will  was 
feared  as  destiny;  whose  donatives  were 
crowns ;  whose  antechamber  was  thronged  by 
submissive  princes;  who  broke  down  the 
barrier  of  the  Alps,  and  made  them  a  highway ; 
and  whose  fame  has  spread  beyond  the  boun- 
daries of  ciulization  to  the  steppes  of  the 
Cossack  and  the  deserts  of  the  Arab  —  a  man 
who  had  left  this  record  of  himself  in  history 
has  taken  out  of  our  hands  the  question 
whether  he  shall  be  called  great.  Ail  must 
concede  to  him  a  sublime  power  of  action  — 
an  energy  equal  to  great  effects." 


WEBSTER 


A.  D. 
1782 
1797 
1805 
1808 
1812 

1816 

1822 
1827 

1830 


AGE      A.  D. 

Born  at  Salisbury,  New  Hampshire,    .  . .  1834 

Entered  Dartmouth  college,     ....  15 

Admitted  to  the  bar,      23  1839 

Married 26 

Elected      to     lower     house    of     con-  1841 

gresa, 30  1844 

Settled     in     Boston     and     practiced  1848 

law, 34 

Member  of  congress  from  Boston,    .    .  40  1850 

United  States  senator  from  Massachu-  1852 

setts, 45 

Celebrated  reply  to  Hayne, 48 


Nominated  for  the  presidency  by  the 

whigs  of  Massachusetts, 52 

Visited     Europe;      reelected     to    tlie 

United  States  senate, 57 

Secretary  of  state 59 

Again  eicotod  United  States  senator,  .      62 
Again     candidate      for      presidential 

nomination, 66 

Secretary  of  state  under  Fillmore,  .    .     68 
Renewed    his    efforts    for    the    presi- 
dential nomination ;  died  at  Marsh- 
field,  Massachusetts, 70 


"PJANIEL  WEBSTER,  distinguished  as 
'*-^  statesman,  lawyer,  orator,  and  pub- 
licist, was  born  at  Salisbury,  New  Hampshire, 
January  18,  1782.  He  was  the  second  son  of 
Ebenezer  Webster,  a  farmer,  and  his  second 
wife,  Abigail  Eastman,  both  persons  of  vig- 
orous intellect  and  uncompromising  morality. 

On  account  of  the  delicacy  of  his  constitu- 
tion, Daniel  was  permitted  to  pass  a  large 
part  of  his  childhood  in  play,  which  he  dearly 
loved.  He  also  loved  books,  among  which 
Addison's  Spectator  was  an  especial  favorite 
with  him.  Having  gained  the  rudiments  of 
education  at  home,  and  in  the  common 
schools  of  the  vicinity,  he  was  sent,  in  May, 
1796,  to  Phillips  Exeter  academy,  of  which 
Benjamin  Abbot  was  then  the  principal. 
Young  Webster  was  at  that  time  so  diffident, 
as  he  himself  tells  us,  that  he  could  not  be 
induced  to  declaim  before  the  school.  "The 
kind  and  excellent  Buckminster,"  he  tells  us 
in  his  autobiography,  "sought  to  persuade 
me  to  perform  the  exercise  of  declamation 
like  other  boys,  but  I  could  not  do  it." 

He  remained  at  Exeter  about  nine  months. 
In  February,  1797,  he  began  his  studies  under 
Rev.  Samuel  Wood,  of  Boscawen.    His  father. 


although  burdened  with  a  large  family  and 
hardly  able  to  defray  the  expense,  had  re- 
solved to  send  Daniel  to  college.  After  he 
had  read  six  books  of  Vergil's  /Eneid,  and 
some  of  Cicero's  orations,  and  had  obtained  a 
little  knowledge  of  the  Greek  grammar,  he 
entered  Dartmouth  college  in  August,  1797. 
According  to  his  own  statement,  he  was 
"miserably  prepared  both  in  Latin  and 
Greek,"  and  he  had  little  taste  or  genius 
for  mathematics.  But  his  habits  at  college 
were  studious  and  regular;  and  "by  the  close 
of  his  first  year,"  says  Edward  Everett, 
"young  Webster  had  shown  himself  decidedly 
the  foremost  man  of  his  class;  and  that 
position  he  held  through  his  whole  college 
course."  He  was  also  the  best  writer  and 
public  speaker  in  the  college. 

By  teaching  school  during  vacations  he 
earned  money,  which  he  gave  to  aid  his 
elder  brother,  Ezekiel,  whom  the  family  also 
sent  to  college,  entailing  great  sacrifices  and 
privations.  Daniel  graduated  in  August, 
1801,  and  began  to  study  law  in  the  office  of 
Thomas  W.  Thompson  of  Salisbury,  who  was 
elected  to  the  senate  of  the  United  States  in 
1814,    In  order  to  further  help  his  brother, 


DANIEL   WEBSTER 
From  a  phtlograph 


IN  POLITICS 


497 


who  was  still  in  college,  he  took  charge  of  an 
academy  at  Fryeburg,  Maine,  at  a  salary  of 
three  hundred  fifty  dollars  per  annum.  Here 
he  remained  about  eight  months,  returning 
to  Thompson's  office  in  the  autumn  of  the 
year  1802. 

To  perfect  his  legal  education  he  went  to 
Boston  in  July,  1804,  and  had  the  good  for- 
tune to  be  received  as  a  clerk  in  the  office  of 
Christopher  Gore,  an  eminent  lawyer  and 
statesman.  Here  he  read  the  classic  legal 
works  of  Vattel  and  Puffendorf,  but  devoted 
himself  chiefly  to  the  study  of  the  common 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  March, 
1805.  He  practiced  nearly  two  years  at 
Boscawen,  and  in  1807  removed  to  Ports- 
mouth, New  Hampshire,  where  in  June,  1808, 
he  married  Grace  Fletcher,  of  Hopkinton, 
New  Hampshire.  He  rose  rapidly  in  his  pro- 
fession and  was  soon  regarded  as  a  fit  antag- 
onist for  Jeremiah  Mason,  who  was  the  great- 
est lawyer  in  the  state,  and  many  years  older 
than  Webster. 

In  November,  1812,  he  was  elected  as  a 
federalist  to  the  national  house  of  repre- 
sentatives, in  which  he  took  his  seat  in  May, 
1813.  He  opposed  the  war  against  Great 
Britain,  took  active  part  in  the  debates 
which  that  war  occasioned,  and  advocated 
an  increase  of  the  navy.  His  speeches  on 
these  subjects  placed  him  in  the  first  rank 
as  a  debater.  He  was  reelected  to  the  four- 
teenth  congress,    which   met    in   December, 

1815,  when  the  violence  of  party  spirit  had 
greatly  abated,  and  the  return  of  peace  had 
directed  the  attention  of  the  national  legis- 
lature to  new  and  important  questions. 
Among  these  was  the  charter  of  the  bank  of 
the  United  States,  to  which  he  moved  an 
amendment  requiring  the  bank  to  pay  de- 
posits in  specie.  He  also  rendered  an  impor- 
tant  service  by   a   resolution   presented   in 

1816,  requiring  that  all  payments  to  the 
public  treasxiry  be  made  in  specie  or  its 
equivalents  —  which  resolution  was  adopted 
and  greatly  improved  the  ciurency  of  the 
country. 

Webster  now  resolved  to  retire  from  public 
life  and  devote  himself  to  his  profession. 
He  therefore  moved  in  1816  from  Ports- 
mouth to  Boston.  In  this  wider  arena  his 
professional  reputation  was  greatly  increased 
and  he  became  in  a  few  years  the  foremost 
lawyer  in  New  England.  His  argument! 
before  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  i 
States  in  the  Dartmouth  college  case,  in  1818,  i 


raised  him  to  the  highest  rank  as  a  constitu- 
tional lawyer.  The  case  was  decided  in  favor 
of  his  clients  and  by  this  decision  the  law  of 
the  land  in  reference  to  collegiate  charters 
was  firmly  established. 

Thenceforth  Webster  was  retained  in  many 
important  cases  that  were  argued  before  the 
supreme  court  at  Washington.  He  exhibited 
great  skill  as  a  criminal  lawyer,  in  cross- 
examining  witnesses,  and  in  baffling  the 
deepest  plans  of  perjury  and  fraud.  The 
effect  of  his  arguments  was  enhanced  by  a 
deep-toned,  musical,  and  powerful  voice,  and 
by  the  magnetism  of  his  imposing  presence 
and  personal  qualities.  "His  influence  over 
juries,"  said  a  contemporary  authority,  "was 
due  chiefly  to  a  combination  of  the  power  of 
lucid  statement  with  his  extraordinary  ora- 
torical force.  His  power  of  setting  forth 
truth  was  magnificent." 

In  1820  Webster  was  a  member  of  the  con- 
vention which  met  to  revise  the  constitution 
of  Massachusetts.  Of  his  services  in  this 
convention,  Judge  Story  expressed  a  high 
opinion  in  a  letter  to  a  friend,  saying,  "The 
whole  force  of  his  great  mind  was  brought 
out,  and  in  several  speeches  he  commanded 
imiversal  admiration."  In  December  of  the 
same  year  he  pronounced  at  Plymouth  his 
celebrated  oration  on  the  anniversary  of  the 
landing  of  the  Pilgrim  fathers.  "This,"  says 
Edward  Everett,  "  was  the  first  of  a  series  of 
performances,  aside  from  the  efforts  of  the 
senate  and  the  bar,  by  which  Mr.  Webster 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  American 
orators."  After  the  delivery  of  the  Plymouth 
oration,  the  whole  of  the  year  1821  was  filled 
with  private  and  professional  pursuits. 

In  1822  he  was  elected  by  the  voters  of 
Boston  a  member  of  the  congress  which  met 
in  December,  1823.  In  this  body,  in  January, 
1824,  he  made  a  famous  speech  on  the  subject 
of  the  Greek  revolution,  in  which  he  denounced 
the  principles  of  the  holy  alliance  with 
powerful  effect.  The  subject  of  the  tariff 
was  discussed  at  this  session,  and  Webster 
opposed  an  extravagant  increase  of  protec- 
tive duties.  As  chairman  of  the  judiciary 
committee  he  reported  a  complete  revision 
of  the  criminal  law  of  the  United  States, 
which  was  approved  by  the  house.  In  the 
autumn  of  1824  he  was  reelected  by  a 
nearly  unanimous  vote,  and  supported  John 
Quincy  Adams  in  the  ensuing  election  for 
president. 

In  Jime,  1825,  Webster  dehvered  an  oration 


498 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


on  laying  the  corner  stone  of  the  Bunker  Hill 
monument.  To  the  same  class  of  orations 
belongs  his  admirable  eulogy  on  Adams  and 
Jefferson,  pronounced  in  Faneuil  hall,  Boston, 
in  August,  1826.  "His  consummate  skill  of 
composition  and  delivery,"  says  George 
Ticknor  Curtis,  "gave  to  a  supposititious 
speech  of  John  Adams  all  the  effect  of  a  real 
utterance  of  that  patriot."  George  Ticknor, 
who  heard  the  eulogy,  says,  "His  bearing,  as 
he  stood  before  the  vast  multitude,  was  that 
of  absolute  dignity  and  power." 

He  continued  to  serve  in  the  house  of 
representatives  until  1827,  when  he  was 
transferred  to  the  senate  of  the  United  States. 
As  a  senator  he  voted  for  the  tariff  bill  of 
1828.  Though  not  deeply  interested  in  the 
presidential  election  of  1828,  he  supported 
John  Quincy  Adams  in  preference  to  General 
Jackson.  Having  lost  his  first  wife  in  Jan- 
uary, 1828,  he  married  Caroline  Le  Roy  of 
New  York  city  in  December,  1829. 

His  most  admirable  parliamentary  effort 
was  his  eloquent  reply  to  Hayne,  of  South 
Carolina,  who  had  affirmed  the  right  of  a 
state  to  nullify  the  acts  of  congress,  had 
assailed  New  England,  and  had  provoked 
Webster  by  caustic  personalities.  It  was  on 
January  26,  1830,  that  Webster  began  this 
great  argument  in  defense  of  the  Union  and 
the  constitution,  which  was  probably  the  most 
remarkable  speech  ever  made  in  the  American 
congress.  His  peroration  ends  with  the  fol- 
lowing magnificent  passage : 

"When  my  eyes  shall  be  turned  to  behold 
for  the  last  time  the  sun  in  heaven,  may  I  not 
see  him  shining  on  the  broken  and  dishonored 
fragments  of  a  once  glorious  Union ;  on  states 
dissevered,  discordant,  belligerent ;  on  a  land 
rent  with  civil  feuds,  or  drenched,  it  may 
be,  in  fraternal  blood!  Let  their  last  feeble 
and  lingering  glance  rather  behold  the  gor- 
geous ensign  of  the  republic,  now  known  and 
honored  throughout  the  earth,  still  full  high 
advanced,  its  arms  and  trophies  streaming  in 
their  original  lustre,  not  a  stripe  erased  or 
polluted,  nor  a  single  star  obscured  —  bearing 
for  its  motto  no  such  miserable  interrogatory 
as,  What  is  all  this  worth?  nor  those  other 
words  of  delusion  and  folly,  Liberty  first,  and 
Union  afterward  —  but  everywhere,  spread 
all  over  in  characters  of  living  light,  blazing 
on  all  its  ample  folds  as  they  float  over  the  sea 
and  over  the  land,  that  other  sentiment,  dear 
to  every  true  American  heart  —  Liberty  and 
Union,  now  and  forever,  one  and  inseparable !" 


"Webster  had,"  says  Curtis,  "but  a  single 
night  in  which  to  make  preparation  to  answer 
the  really  important  parts  of  the  preceding 
speech  of  his  opponent." 

In  May,  1832,  he  made  an  important  speech 
for  the  renewal  of  the  charter  of  the  bank  of 
the  United  States.  This  bill  passed  both 
houses  of  congress,  but  was  vetoed  by  Presi- 
dent Jackson.  About  this  date  he  purchased 
an  estate  at  Marshfield,  Massachusetts,  on  the 
seashore,  which  was  his  usual  summer  resi- 
dence. He  supported  Clay  for  president 
in  the  election  of  1832,  but  in  the  great  crisis 
of  the  nullification  question,  in  1833,  he 
opposed  Clay's  compromise  tariff  bill,  and 
voted  for  the  "force  bill"  of  the  adminis- 
tration. On  these  subjects  Webster  and 
Calhoun  were  adversaries  in  debate.  Webster 
became  one  of  the  most  popular  leaders  of 
the  whig  party,  which  was  organized  about 
1834,  and  he  was  nominated  for  the  presidency 
by  the  whigs  of  Massachusetts. 

In  September,  1837,  as  a  member  of  the 
senate,  he  opposed  the  subtreasury  bill  in 
an  elaborate  speech,  said  to  have  been  the 
most  effective  of  all  his  arguments  on  the 
subjects  of  currency  and  finance.  He  visited 
England,  Scotland,  and  France  in  1839,  and 
particularly  attracted  the  admiration  of  Car- 
lyle,  who  met  him  at  a  dinner,  and  afterward 
wrote  this  estimate  of  him:  "He  is  a  mag- 
nificent specimen.  As  a  logic-fencer,  advo- 
cate, or  parliamentary  Hercules,  one  would 
incline  to  back  him,  at  first  sight,  against  all 
the  extant  world." 

Webster  was  reelected  to  the  senate  in  Jan- 
uary, 1839,  and  actively  promoted  the  election 
of  General  Harrison  to  the  presidency  in  1840, 
by  public  speeches  in  various  states.  In 
March,  1841,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of 
state  by  President  Harrison,  after  whose 
death  he  was  retained  in  that  office  by  Presi- 
dent Tyler.  In  that  capacity  he  negotiated 
with  the  English  ambassador.  Lord  Ashburton, 
a  treaty  which  settled  the  long  and  serious 
dispute  about  the  northeastern  boundary  of 
the  United  States.  This  important  treaty 
was  signed  August  9,  1842. 

In  compliance  with  the  general  desire  of  the 
whigs,  whose  interests  President  Tyler  had  be- 
trayed, Webster  resigned  office  in  May,  1843. 
He  was  now  xirged  to  return  to  the  United 
States  senate;  but  he  hesitated  on  account 
of  his  private  interest  and  duties.  In  a  letter 
dated  February  5,  1844,  he  says,  "I  am  now 
earning  and  receiving  fifteen  thousand  dollars 


IN  POLITICS 


4M 


a  year  from  my  profession,  which  must  be 
almost  entirely  sacrificed  by  a  return  to  the 

senate." 

In  the  campaign  of  1844  he  earnestly 
advocated  the  election  of  Henry  Clay,  who 
was  his  chief  rival  in  the  favor  and  leadership 
of  the  whig  party.  He  opposed  the  annexa- 
tion of  Texas,  for  the  reason  that  it  would 
involve  the  extension  of  slavery.  And  largely 
upon  this  issue  he  was  again  elected  a  senator 
of  the  United  States  in  the  winter  of  1844-45, 
as  the  successor  of  Choate.  In  December, 
1845,  he  made  a  speech  in  the  senate  against 
the  admission  of  Texas  as  a  slave  state,  and 
in  February,  1847,  he  declared  that  he  was 
opposed  to  the  prosecution  of  the  Mexican 
war  for  the  conquest  of  territory  to  form 
new  states  of  our  Union. 

Although  Webster  and  his  friends  were 
disappointed  by  the  nomination  of  General 
Taylor,  in  1848,  Webster  voted  for  him  in 
preference  to  General  Cass.  In  consequence 
of  the  acquisition  of  Mexican  territory  by  con- 
quest, the  sectional  conflict  relative  to  slavery 
became  more  and  more  violent  and  irre- 
pressible, with  an  alarming  proclivity  toward 
disunion.  The  houses  of  congress  became,  in 
1850,  the  scene  of  intense  excitement  about 
the  admission  of  California  and  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  new  territories.  The  imminent 
danger  of  this  crisis  was  averted  or  postponed 
by  Clay's  "compromise  measures,"  which 
Webster  supported  in  an  elaborate  speech  on 
March  7,  1850,  with  the  result  of  bringing 
about  some  very  caustic  criticism. 

This  compromise  consisted  of  a  mmaber  of 
resolutions,  one  of  which  declared  that  the 
new  territories  should  be  organized  without 
the  adoption  of  any  restriction  or  condition 
on  the  subject  of  slavery;  and  another,  that 
more  effectual  provision  ought  to  be  made 
by  law  for  the  restitution  of  fugitive  slaves. 
On  the  first  of  these  points  he  argued  that  he 
would  not  reenact  by  human  law  what  was 
already  settled  by  a  law  of  God ;  that  slavery 
could  not  be  introduced  into  those  territories, 
because  of  their  natural  unfitness  for  slave 
labor.  His  support  of  these  measures  gave 
great  offense  to  many  of  his  admirers,  and  to 
the  opponents  of  slavery,  who  accused  him  of 
sacrificing  an  important  principle  to  a  sup- 
posed political  expediency.  Even  Seward 
spoke  of  Webster  as  "  a  great  statesman,  who 
for  a  large  portion  of  his  life  led  the  vanguard 
of  the  army  of  freedom,  and  who,  when  the 
test  came,  surrendered  that  great  cause,  and 


derided  the  proviso  of  freedom,  the  principle 
of  the  ordinance  of  1787." 

In  July,  1850,  before  the  final  vote  on  the 
compromise  bill.  President  Taylor  died  and 
was  succeeded  by  Vice-president  Fillmore, 
who  appointed  Webster  secretary  of  state.  On 
July  17  Webster  addressed  the  senate  on  the 
subjects  connected  with  the  compromise  bill 
and  the  Wilmot  proviso.  This  was  his  laat 
speech  in  the  senate.  He  delivered  an 
eloquent  address  on  July  4,  1851,  at  the 
laying  of  the  corner  stone  of  the  extension 
of  the  capitol  at  Washington.  His  last 
important  forensic  argument  was  on  the 
india  rubber  patent  cause,  at  Trenton, 
N.  J.,  in  January,  1852.  Among  his  later 
official  acts  was  a  celebrated  despatch  to 
Hiilsemann,  the  Austrian  charge  d'affaires, 
occasioned  by  the  revolt  of  the  Hungarian 
patriots.    Thds  docvmient  was  dated  1851. 

In  May,  1852,  he  was  thrown  from  his 
carriage,  and  seriously  injured,  near  Ply- 
mouth, Massachusetts,  but  he  was  afterward 
able  to  revisit  Washington.  After  all  his 
sacrifices  and  concessions  to  the  proslavery 
party,  he  received  in  the  national  whig 
convention  of  1852  only  thirty-two  votes, 
and  those  from  northern  men,  although  it 
was  known  that  he  wished  to  be  nominated 
for  the  presidency.  He  died  at  Marshfield, 
Massachusetts,  October  24,  1852,  leaving  one 
son,  Fletcher.  His  other  sons  and  daughters 
died  before  their  father. 

In  stature  Webster  was  tall,  his  head  and 
brain  were  of  great  size,  his  eyes  large,  black, 
and  lustrous.  He  was  greatly  distinguished 
for  his  conversational  powers  and  genial 
temper  in  society.  "To  those,"  says  Curtis, 
"who  have  known  Mr.  Webster  only  in 
public,  it  is  difficult  to  give  an  idea  of  the 
genial  affections  which  at  every  period  of  his 
life  flowed  out  from  him  in  the  domestic 
circle,  and  still  more  difficult  to  paunt  the 
abounding  gayety  and  humor  and  fascination 
of  his  early  days."  "He  was,"  says  another 
contemporary,  in  1870,  "the  greatest  orator 
that  has  ever  lived  in  the  western  hemisphere. 
Less  vehement  than  Calhoun,  less  persuasive 
than  Clay,  he  was  yet  more  grand  and  power- 
ful than  either." 

"Mr.  Webster,"  says  Hallam,  the  great 
historian,  "  approaches  as  nearly  to  the  beau- 
ideal  of  a  republican  senator  as  any  man 
that  I  have  ever  seen  in  the  course  of  my 
life ;  worthy  of  Rome  or  Venice,  rather  than 
of  our  noisy  and  wrangling  generation." 


500 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


LINCOLN 


A.'D.  AGE 

1809         Bom  in  Hardin  county,  Kentuclcy, 

1830  Removed  with  father's  family  near 

Decatur,  Illinois, 21 

1831  Boatman  on  the  Mississippi,     .    .  22 
1882         Enlisted    in    Black     Hawk   war; 

made  captain;    began  studying 

law, 23 

1833-36  Postmaster  at  New  Salem,  Illinois,  24-27 
1834-40  Member  of  Illinois  legislature,   as 

a  whig,      25-31 

1837         Admitted  to  the  bar, 28 

1842         Married, 33 


AOX 


con- 


A.  D. 

1846         Elected    to    lower    house   of 

gress, 37 

1849         Introduced  a  bill  to  abolish  slavery,        40 
1858         Joint  debate  with  Douglas,  ...  49 

1860         Elected  president  of   the  United 

States, 51 

1861-65  Civil  war, 62-66 

1863  Emancipation  proclamation;  Get- 

tysburg speech, 54 

1864  Reelected  president, 56 

1865  Assassinated  at    Ford's  theater, 

Washington, 66 


ABRAHAM  LINCOLN,  American  states- 
■^^  man,  and  sixteenth  president  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  a  log  cabin,  in 
Hardin  county,  Kentucky,  February  12, 
1809.  His  father,  Thomas  Lincoln,  was  a 
Virginian,  and  married  Nancy  Hanks.  While 
Abraham  was  yet  an  infant,  the  family 
removed  to  another  log  cabin  not  far  distant, 
and  in  these  two  he  spent  the  first  seven 
years  of  his  life. 

Lincoln's  mother  was  a  woman  of  great 
force  of  character,  and  passionately  fond  of 
reading.  President  Lincoln  often  said  that 
his  earliest  recollections  of  his  mother  were 
of  sitting  at  her  feet,  and  listening  to  the 
tales  and  legends  that  she  read.  She  was 
also  a  skillful  hunter ;  with  her  rifle  more  than 
once  she  brought  down  the  bear  and  the 
deer;  with  her  hands  she  dressed  the  flesh 
and  prepared  it  for  the  family  table,  and 
made  garments  for  the  family  with  the  skins. 

When  Abraham  Lincoln  was  in  his  seventh 
year,  Zachariah  Riney  moved  into  the  neigh- 
borhood and  the  lad  was  sent  to  school  to 
him.  Riney  was  a  Catholic,  however,  and 
the  Protestant  children  attending  his  humble 
school  were  withdrawn  whenever  any  religious 
exercises  were  held.  A  little  later  he  had  the 
opportunity  of  being  taught  by  Caleb  Hazel 
for  three  months.  Lincoln  was  a  full-grown 
lad  when  he  first  saw  a  church ;  and  his  first 
notion  of  public  speaking  was  taken  from  the 
itinerant  preacher,  Parson  Elkin,  who  now 
and  then  passed  their  way. 

Thomas  Lincoln  was  of  a  somewhat  un- 
settled nature, 'and,  like  many  another  pioneer, 
thought  he  saw  better  advantages  further 
west.  He  listened  to  the  wonderful  tales  of 
rich  soil,  abundant  game,  fine  timber,  and 
good  pasturage,  in  Indiana,  and  he  resolved 
to  remove  there.  He  foimd  a  newcomer  who 
was  wiUing  to  take  his  partly  improved  farm 
and  log  cabin  in  Kentucky  for  ten  barrels 
of    whiskey    and    twenty    dollars    in    cash. 


Aided  by  some  boys  he  built  a  flatboat  and 
launched  it  upon  Rolling  Fork,  which  empties 
into  the  Ohio,  loaded  his  ten  barrels  of 
whiskey,  and  heavier  articles  of  furniture 
upon  it,  and  floated  off  down  the  Ohio.  But 
the  frail  craft  upset,  and  with  what  little 
could  be  saved  from  the  wreck  Thomas 
Lincoln  landed  at  Thompson's  Ferry,  and 
there  found  an  oxcart  to  transport  him  with 
his  slender  stock  of  valuables  to  Spencer 
county,  Indiana,  about  eighteen  miles  from 
the  river. 

The  children,  left  at  home  with  their 
mother,  attended  school  and  snared  game  for 
the  family  table.  One  bedticking  filled  with 
dried  forest  leaves  sufficed  for  their  rest  at 
night,  and  early  in  the  morning  the  future 
president  was  out  chopping  wood  for  the 
day's  fire. 

At  last  the  father  returned,  and  the  long 
journey  to  Indiana  was  undertaken.  At  night 
they  slept  on  the  fragrant  pine  twigs,  and  by 
day  they  plodded  on  their  way  toward  the 
Ohio  river.  By  all  sorts  of  expedients  the 
little  family  contrived  to  get  from  one  home 
to  the  other,  where  on  a  grassy  knoll,  in  the 
heart  of  the  untrodden  forest,  they  fixed 
upon  the  site  of  their  future  dwelling.  A 
hunter's  camp  was  all  that  could  be  built  to 
shelter  them  during  their  first  winter.  One 
side  was  entirely  open  except  as  it  was 
screened  with  the  half-dressed  skins  of  wild 
animals.  Thorns  were  used  for  pins  in  his 
home;  bits  of  bone  with  cloth  did  duty  for 
buttons;  crusts  of  rye  bread,  well  burned, 
were  substituted  for  coffee;  the  dried  leaves 
of  sundry  native  herbs  took  the  place  of  tea. 
Corn  whiskey  tempered  with  water  was  a 
common  drink  of  the  country,  and  one  of  the 
readiest  forms  of  business  currency.  There 
were  no  neighbors  to  drop  in  with  friendly 
gossip,  no  boats  to  vex  the  waters  of  the 
western  rivers.  Even  when  one  of  the  settlers 
of  that  region  knew  how  to  write,  it  would 


ABRAHAM   LINCOLN 

From  a  fainting 


IN  POLITICS 


require  months,  sometimes,  for  his  letter  to 
reach  the  eastern  world ;  and  only  as  a  faint 
echo  now  and  then  came  a  whisper  of  politics 
and  national  affairs. 

James  Madison  was  at  this  time  president 
of  the  United  States,  and  the  country  was 
greatly  disturbed  over  the  admission  of  Mis- 
souri, the  extension  of  slavery,  and  other  mat- 
ters of  great  moment;  but  little  or  none  of 
the  excitement  ever  reached  the  log  cabin. 
Through  the  winter  Abraham  Lincoln  aided 
his  father  in  felling  logs  for  a  more  substantial 
cabin;  and  in  the  spring  all  the  available 
neighbors  were  convened,  the  logs  were 
rolled  out  of  the  woods,  and  one  by  one 
fitted  into  their  places  in  the  shape  of  four 
walls.  Gables  were  fixed  in  position  with 
wooden  pins,  and  the  log  cabin  was  completed. 
The  floor  was  the  solid  ground  and  the  cracks 
between  the  logs  were  "chinked"  with  thin 
strips  of  wood.  Little  wonder  that  young 
"Abe"  mastered  the  art  of  splitting  rails, 
and  imbibed  a  knowledge  of  woodcraft  which 
clung  to  him  forever! 

During  their  first  year  in  Indiana  his 
mother  was  stricken  down  by  hard  work, 
exposure,  and  continual  anxiety,  and  died 
on  October  5,  1818.  There  were  no  funeral 
ceremonies,  for  there  was  no  one  to  conduct 
them;  but  long  afterward,  when  the  spot 
where  she  lay  was  covered  with  the  wreck 
of  the  forest,  and  almost  hidden,  her  son  was 
wont  to  say,  "All  that  I  am  or  hope  to  be, 
I  owe  to  my  mother." 

Boys  of  the  present  age,  turning  languidly 
over  the  piles  of  books  at  their  command, 
would  wonder  at  the  little  stock  that  made 
Abraham  Lincoln's  heart  glad  in  those  times. 
His  hbrary  consisted  of  the  Bible,  jEsop's 
Fables,  and  Pilgrim's  Progress.  On  these 
three  his  literary  tastes  were  formed.  He 
read  the  books  until  he  could  repeat  from 
memory  many  chapters  of  the  Bible,  the 
most  striking  passages  of  Bunyan's  story, 
and  every  one  of  iEsop's  fables.  Then  he 
secured  a  copy  of  the  lives  and  characters  of 
eminent  men,  and  from  the  day  when  he  first 
read  the  biography  of  the  great  Kentuckian, 
Lincoln  dated  his  undying  admiration  for 
Henry  Clay.  Then  he  obtained  Ramsay's 
Life  of  Washington,  and  hearing  of  another 
Life  of  Washington,  written  by  Weems,  he 
made  a  long  journey  to  borrow  it,  and  joyfully 
carried  it  home  in  the  bosom  of  his  hunting 
shirt.  A  storm  at  night  washed  through  the 
chinks  of  the  logs  in  the  cabin,  and  damaged 


the  book.  With  a  heavy  heart  Lincoln 
carried  the  book  back  to  Mr.  Crawford,  who 
had  loaned  it  to  him.  He  offered  to  do 
anything  in  settlement  which  Crawford  might 
think  fair  and  just,  and  it  was  finally  agreed 
that  "Abe"  should  "pull  fodder"  for  three 
days. 

"Does  that  pay  for  the  book,  or  for  the 
damage  done  to  it?"  asked  the  boy,  taking 
his  first  lesson  in  worldly  wisdom.  Crawford 
"  allowed  "  that  he  had  considered  the  book 
practically  worthless,  and  that  the  work 
paid  for  it,  so  that  it  became  the  first  book 
that  Abraham  Lincoln  purchased;  and  dis- 
colored and  blistered  though  it  was,  it  was  to 
him  of  incalculable  value. 

In  the  autumn  of  1819  Thomas  Lincofai 
went  off  into  Kentucky,  leaving  the  children 
to  take  care  of  themselves ;  but  in  December 
he  retiu-ned,  bringing  a  new  mother  for  them, 
and  a  store  of  what  to  the  children  of  the 
wilderness  seemed  a  gorgeous  array  of  house- 
keeping utensils:  a  table,  a  bureau,  chairs, 
crockery,  knives,  forks,  and  other  incidentals 
which  to-day  are  considered  the  necessaries 
of  life,  but  which,  until  then,  the  Lincoln 
family  lived  without.  The  new  mother  and 
her  stepson  became  fast  friends  from  the 
start,  and  she  said  of  him  afterward,  "He 
never  gave  me  a  cross  word  or  look,  and 
never  refused  in  act  or  appearance  to  do 
anything  that  I  requested  of  him."  From 
this  time  matters  began  to  look  brighter  for 
the  Lincoln  family.  Neighbors  became  more 
abundant,  and  the  school,  with  its  coveted 
facilities  for  obtaining  knowledge,  was  within 
reach. 

At  the  age  of  seventeen  an  accident  led 
Lincoln  into  the  vicinity  of  Booneville. 
There,  hearing  that  one  of  the  famous  Breck- 
enridges  of  Kentucky  was  to  speak  for  the 
defense  in  a  murder  trial,  he  went  to  Boone- 
ville, and  in  dumb  wonder  listened  to  the 
first  important  speech  which  he  had  ever 
heard.  Lincoln  could  not  restrain  himself; 
and  as  the  eminent  lawyer  passed  out  of  the 
courthouse,  he  found  himself  interrupted  by 
a  tall,  ovej^rown  youth,  awkward,  homy- 
handed,  and  evidently  of  the  poorer  class, 
who  timidly  held  out  his  hand  to  him.  But 
the  aristocratic  Breckenridge  stared  in  sur- 
prise at  the  intrusive  stranger,  and  hastily 
passed  without  further  notice  the  futiire 
president  of  the  United  States. 

The  boy  had  learned  a  grand  lesson  in 
oratory,  however,  and  he  was  as  grateful  to 


504 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Breckenridge  for  it  as  he  would  have  been 
had  the  great  man  been  as  gracious  to  him 
then  as  he  was  years  afterward,  when  he  was 
reminded  by  the  president  in  Washington  of 
the  httle  incident  in  Booneville.  From  that 
moment  Lincoln's  enthusiasm  for  speech- 
making  knew  no  bounds.  His  father  was  at 
last  obliged  to  interfere,  and  forbid  his  making 
speeches  during  work  hours.  The  old  man 
grumbled,  "When  Abe  begins  to  speak,  all 
hands  stop  work  to  hear  him."  In  every 
sense  of  the  word,  at  twenty  years  of  age, 
Abraham  Lincoln  was  a  self-made  man. 
What  he  had  learned  he  had  learned  by 
himself;  what  he  knew  he  knew  with  abso- 
lute accuracy.  He  was  self-taught,  self- 
dependent,  self-reliant. 

In  the  spring  of  1830  the  entire  family 
made  another  move  west,  across  the  prairies 
to  Illinois,  near  to  the  village  of  Decatur. 
The  entire  outfit  consisted  of  one  wagon 
drawn  by  four  oxen  and  driven  by  Abraham 
Lincoln.  When  at  last  the  family  were  well 
settled  down  upon  the  new  ground,  young 
Lincoln  determined  that  it  was  time  for  him 
to  strike  out  for  himself.  He  was  twenty-one 
years  old  and  able  and  anxious  to  earn  his 
own  living.  He  therefore,  about  1831, 
engaged  himself  with  a  party  that  was  taking 
a  flatboat  loaded  with  produce  down  the 
river  to  New  Orleans.  Thus  he  visited  the 
land  of  slavery,  and  saw  its  peculiar  institu- 
tions, and  thus  he  formed  his  first  opinions 
of  slavery.  He  succeeded  so  well  with  the 
cargo  that  the  owner  employed  him  to  take 
charge  of  a  country  store  at  New  Salem, 
Illinois,  where  he  at  once  established  himself 
as  a  great  favorite. 

Up  to  this  time  Lincoln  had  never  held  any 
office  except  that  of  an  occasional  clerk  at  an 
election ;  but  in  the  spring  of  1832  he  found 
himself  out  of  business,  the  store  at  New 
Salem  having  been  closed,  and  he  resolved  to 
become  a  candidate  for  representative  to  the 
legislature.  He  was  then  a  pronounced 
whig,  following  in  the  footsteps  of  his  idol, 
Henry  Clay.  Before  the  election,  however, 
there  was  a  call  for  volunteers  to  repel  the 
hostile  Indians,  during  the  Black  Hawk  war, 
and  Lincoln  was  among  the  first  to  volunteer. 
At  the  head  of  a  party  of  Sangamon  county 
men,  he  made  his  way  to  General  Atkinson's 
headquarters,  where  he  was  appointed  captain 
of  a  company. 

The  campaign  was  short  and  decisive. 
Lincoln  reached  his  home  again  with  only 


ten  days  remaining  in  which  to  make  hia 
canvass  for  the  seat  in  the  legislature  to 
which  he  aspired.  He  received  a  majority 
of  the  votes  in  his  own  precinct,  but  he  lost 
the  election.  Having  now  no  occupation,  he 
borrowed  every  book  on  law  that  he  could 
find,  and  began  the  study  of  law.  He  also 
amused  himself  and  his  neighbors  by  drawing 
up  imaginary  deeds,  wills,  and  conveyances; 
and  the  neighbors  soon  began  applying  to 
him  for  advice  and  assistance  in  selling  and 
mortgaging  real  estate.  His  fees  were  usually 
the  necessities  of  life,  turned  over  to  the 
family  with  whom  he  boarded.  Soon  he  was 
undertaking  small  cases  for  trial  before  the 
justices  of  the  peace.  An  old  judge  said  of 
him,  that  "When  Lincoln  argued,  he  inevi- 
tably gave  the  impression  that  he  sincerely 
believed  every  word  that  he  said."  Survey- 
ing, too,  occupied  his  leisure  moments,  and 
maps  of  land  surveyed  by  Lincoln  still  show 
a  neatness  and  semblance  of  accuracy  that 
testified  to  the  rigid  care  he  exercised  in  all 
his  work. 

In  1833  Lincoln  was  appointed  postmaster 
at  New  Salem.  The  revenues  were  small; 
and,  as  the  popular  saying  ran,  "Lincoln 
carried  the  post  office  in  his  hat."  He  said 
himself  that  he  took  the  office  on  account  of 
the  weekly  papers  coming  through  the  mail, 
which  he  scrupulously  read  before  they  were 
called  for. 

In  1834  he  again  became  a  candidate  for 
the  legislature.  This  time  he  was  elected. 
He  was  now  twenty-five  years  old.  The 
capital  was  then  at  Vandalia.  Clad  in  a  suit 
of  not  especially  elegant  blue  jeans,  Lincoln, 
with  his  commanding  height,  was  a  marked 
figure  in  the  legislature.  During  the  first 
session  he  introduced  few  bills,  but  he  nar- 
rowly observed  what  other  men  were  doing 
in  this  direction ;  while  he  said  little,  he  took 
in  everything  and  thought  a  great  deal. 

In  1836  he  was  reelected.  In  his  appeal 
to  his  constituents  he  said,  "I  go  for  all 
sharing  the  privileges  of  the  government 
who  assist  in  bearing  its  burdens.  I  go  for 
admitting  all  whites  to  the  right  of  suffrage 
who  pay  taxes  or  bear  arms,  by  no  means 
excluding  females."  At  this  second  session 
of  the  legislature  he  put  himself  on  record 
for  the  first  time  as  opposed  to  the  further 
extension  of  the  system  of  American  slavery. 

In  1837  Lincoln  went  to  Springfield,  the 
new  capital  of  the  state,  where  he  established 
himself  in  the  practice  of  law,  and  there  he 


IN  POLITICS 


008 


remained  until  his  election  to  the  presidency. 
He  rode  into  town  on  a  borrowed  horse,  all 
his  earthly  possessions  packed  in  a  pair  of 
saddlebags  fastened  to  the  crupper  of  his 
saddle.  He  wanted  to  hire  a  room,  and 
furnish  it  with  the  barest  necessities,  but 
found  that  the  aggregate  cost  of  these  was 
seventeen  dollars.  To  the  storekeeper  Lincoln 
sadly  said,  "  It  is  cheap  enough,  but  cheap  as 
it  is,  I  have  not  the  money  to  pay  for  it. 
If  you  will  give  me  credit  until  Christmas, 
and  my  experiment  here  is  a  success,  I  will 
pay  you  then.  If  I  fail,  I  shall  probably 
never  be  able  to  pay  you."  The  storekeeper, 
somewhat  impressed,  replied  that  he  had  a 
large  double  bed  in  his  own  room,  which 
Lincoln  was  welcome  to  share  with  him  if  he 
chose ;  and  thus  he  settled  in  his  new  quarters 
at  the  capital  of  Illinois. 

In  April,  1837,  Lincoln  formed  a  partnership 
with  John  T.  Stuart,  of  Springfield,  which 
continued  until  1841,  when  he  associated 
himself  with  Stephen  T.  Logan.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1842,  he  married  Miss  Mary  Todd, 
daughter  of  Robert  S.  Todd,  Esq.,  of  Lexing- 
ton, Kentucky.  In  184.3  the  law  firm  of 
Abraham  Lincoln  and  William  H.  Herndon 
was  formed,  and  the  copartnership  was  not 
dissolved  until  the  death  of  Lincoln  in  1865. 

As  a  lawyer,  Lincoln  proved  the  value  of 
those  qualities  which  had  won  for  him  the 
title  of  "  Honest  Abe  "  when  he  was  a  store- 
keeper. In  1839  there  was  a  remarkable 
debate  in  the  Illinois  legislature  in  which 
Stephen  A.  Douglas,  John  Calhoun,  Josiah 
Lamborn,  and  Jesse  B.  Thomas  were  upon 
one  side,  and  Stephen  T.  Logan,  Edward  D. 
Barker,  Orville  H.  Browning,  and  Abraham 
Lincoln  upon  the  other  side.  During  the 
debate  one  of  the  speakers  taunted  the  other 
side  upon  the  hopelessness  of  its  case  and  the 
fewness  of  its  numbers.  In  replying  Lincoln 
said,  "  Address  that  argument  to  cowards  and 
knaves.  It  may  be  true;  if  it  is,  let  it  be. 
Many  free  countries  have  lost  their  liberties, 
and  ours  may  lose  hers.  But  if  she  shall, 
let  it  be  my  proudest  plume  not  that  I  was 
the  last  to  desert  her,  but  that  I  never  de- 
serted her." 

Lincoln  had  long  desired  to  go  to  congress ; 
but  it  so  happened  that  all  his  best  friends  | 
were  equally  anxious  to  go,  and  from  the  j 
same  district.     On  one  occasion,  having  him- 
self been  a  candidate  for  nomination,  Lincoln  | 
was  elected  as  a  delegate  to  the  nominating 
convention,  and  was  instructed  to  vote  for  I 


Baker.  Of  the  predicament  he  good-natur- 
edly said,  "I  am  fi.xed  like  the  fellow  who 
was  made  groomsman  to  the  man  who  cut 
him  out  and  was  marrying  the  girl."  The 
greatest  political  disappointment  of  his  life, 
however,  was  when  his  idol,  Henry  Clay,  waa 
defeated,  and  James  K.  Polk  was  elected  in 
1844.  For  once,  Lincoln's  political  expecta- 
tions were  overwhelmed. 

In  1846  Lincoln  was  at  last  nominated  for 
congress,  and  carried  the  election  by  a  most 
unusual  majority.  He  took  his  seat  Decem- 
ber 6,  1847.  One  of  his  first  acts  in  congrees 
was  a  masterly  speech  reviewing  the  causes 
of  the  Mexican  war,  and  severely  arraigning 
the  administration  for  its  persistence  in  the 
matter  of  annexing  Texas,  and  thus  involving 
the  country.  On  January  16,  1849,  he  intro- 
duced a  bill  for  abolishing  slavery  in  the 
District  of  Columbia  and  compensating  the 
slave  owners,  provided  a  majority  of  the 
citizens  should  vote  in  favor  of  it.  He 
declined  to  be  a  candidate  for  reelection. 

The  repeal  of  the  Missouri  compromise 
brought  him  again  into  the  political  arena, 
and  he  became  the  acknowledged  leader  of 
his  party  in  Illinois.  In  1854  he  several 
times  met  Douglas  in  debate,  and  on  one 
of  these  occasions  —  Springfield,  October  4th 
—  he  made  one  of  the  most  successful  speeches 
of  his  whole  life;  the  fallacy  of  Douglas's 
"great  principle"  was  effectually  exp)osed  in 
a  single  sentence :  "  I  admit  that  the  emigrant 
to  Kansas  and  Nebraska  is  competent  to 
govern  himself,  but  I  deny  his  right  to  govern 
any  other  person  without  that  person's 
consent." 

In  June,  1858,  the  republican  convention 
at  Springfield  nominated  Lincoln  for  United 
States  senator  in  place  of  Stephen  A.  Douglas, 
who  was  a  candidate  for  reelection.  In 
accepting  the  nomination  he  delivered  a 
carefully  prepared  speech,  in  which  he  said: 
" '  A  house  divided  against  itself  cannot 
stand.'  I  believe  this  government  cannot 
endure  permanently  half  slave  and  half  free. 
I  do  not  expect  the  Union  to  be  dissolved, 
I  do  not  expect  the  house  to  fall,  but  I  do 
expect  it  will  cease  to  be  di\ided."  This 
became  famous  as  the  "  house-di vided-against- 
itself  speech." 

He  and  Douglas  canvassed  the  state 
together,  speaking  in  joint  debate  seven 
times.  The  main  question  under  discussion 
was  whether  Kansas  should  be  admitted  to 
the  Union  as  a  free  state  or  as  a  slave  state ; 


606 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


the  struggle  was  at  its  height,  the  Dred  Scott 
decision  had  intensified  pubhc  interest,  and 
the  debate  drew  the  attention  of  the  whole 
country.  Douglas's  continual  assumptions 
of  superiority  and  sneers  at  his  antagonist's 
early  poverty  and  occupations  were  met  with 
humorous  retorts  and  sharp  exposures  of  soph- 
istry; and  Lincoln  finally  drove  him  to  the 
necessity  of  taking  ground  against  the  Dred 
Scott  decision,  which  ultimately  prevented 
his  harmonious  nomination  by  the  democratic 
party,  and  consequently  his  elevation  to  the 
presidency. 

On  the  popular  vote  Lincoln  had  a  plu- 
rality of  more  than  four  thousand  over 
Douglas ;  but  the  legislative  districts  were  so 
arranged  that  the  democrats  returned  a 
majority  of  eight  members,  and  Douglas  was 
reelected.  The  republican  national  conven- 
tion met  in  Chicago  on  May  16,  1860,  how- 
ever, adopted  a  platform  on  the  17th,  which 
denied  "the  authority  of  congress,  of  a 
territorial  legislature,  or  of  any  individuals  to 
give  legal  existence  to  slavery  in  any  terri- 
tory of  the  United  States,"  and  on  the  18th, 
on  the  third  ballot,  nominated  Lincoln  for 
president.  His  chief  competitor  in  the  con- 
vention was  William  H.  Seward.  Hannibal 
Hamhn  was  nominated  for  vice-president. 
The  election  resulted  in  the  success  of  Lincoln 
and  Hamlin. 

Before  Lincoln's  inauguration  seven  states 
formally  seceded  from  the  Union,  and  there 
was  danger  that  seven  others  would  follow 
them,  four  of  which  ultimately  did.  He  was 
inaugurated  on  March  4,  1861,  and  delivered  a 
long  address,  in  which  he  said :  • "  I  hold  that, 
in  contemplation  of  universal  law  and  of  the 
constitution,  the  union  of  these  states  is 
perpetual.  *  *  *  The  power  confided  to 
me  will  be  used  to  hold,  occupy,  and  possess 
the  property  and  places  belonging  to  the 
government,  and  to  collect  the  duties  and 
imposts ;  but  beyond  what  may  be  necessary 
for  these  objects  there  will  be  no  invasion. 
*  *  *  In  your  hands,  my  dissatisfied 
fellow  countrymen,  and  not  in  mine,  is  the 
momentous  issue  of  civil  war." 

During  the  preceding  administration  large 
quantities  of  arms  and  ammunition  had  been 
removed  from  the  national  arsenals  in  the 
north  to  those  in  the  south;  the  army,  only 
sixteen  thousand  strong,  had  been  sent  to 
remote  parts  of  the  country;  the  navy  had 
been  scattered  in  distant  seas;  the  treasury 
was  empty;   and  the  border  states,  heartily 


s)Tnpathizing  with  the  southern,  but  unwilling 
to  stand  between  two  hostile  powers,  consti- 
tuted the  most  uncertain  element  in  the  novel 
problem.  On  March  13th  Messrs.  Forsyth 
and  Crawford,  as  "  conunissioners  from  a 
government  composed  of  seven  states  which 
had  withdrawn  from  the  American  Union," 
signified  their  desire  to  enter  upon  negotia^ 
tions  for  the  adjustment  of  questions  growing 
out  of  the  separation;  but  the  secretary  of 
state,  Seward,  by  direction  of  the  president, 
declined  to  receive  them,  as  "it  could  not  be 
admitted  that  the  states  referred  to  had,  in 
law  or  fact,  withdrawn  from  the  federal 
Union,  or  that  they  could  do  so  in  any  other 
manner  than  with  the  consent  and  concert 
of  the  people  of  the  United  States,  to  be 
given  through  a  national  convention." 

The  deUvery  of  this  communication  was 
withheld,  by  consent  of  the  commissioners, 
until  April  8th,  when  it  was  speedily  followed 
by  the  bombardment  of  Fort  Sumter,  which 
precipitated  the  civil  war.  On  April  15th  Presi- 
dent Lincoln  called  out  the  militia  of  the  sev- 
eral states  to  the  number  of  seventy-five  thou- 
sand ;  on  the  19th  he  proclaimed  a  blockade  of 
the  ports  in  all  the  seceded  states ;  on  May  3d 
he  called  for  forty-two  thousand  three-years' 
volunteers.  An  extra  session  of  congress 
was  called  to  meet  on  July  4th.  On  account 
of  the  withdrawal  of  the  southern  members, 
the  republicans  had  a  large  majority  in  each 
house.  Congress  promptly  passed  bills  rati- 
fying the  acts  of  the  president,  authorizing 
him  to  accept  five  hundred  thousand  volun- 
teers, placing  five  hundred  milhon  dollars 
at  the  disposal  of  the  administration,  and 
confiscating  all  slaves  used  in  mihtary  opera- 
tions against  the  government. 

The  president  had  suspended  the  writ  of  ha^ 
beas  corpus  on  May  3,  1861,  in  an  order  ad- 
dressed to  the  commander  of  the  forces  on  the 
Florida   coast.    On   the  27th  of   the   same 
month.  General  Cadwalader,  being  authorized 
by  the  president,   refused  to  obey  a  writ 
issued  by  Chief  Justice  Taney  for  the  release 
of  a  Maryland  secessionist  imprisoned  in  Fort 
McHenry.    The  chief  justice  then  read  an 
I  opinion  that  the  president  could  not  suspend 
;  the  writ,  and  most  of  the  journals  opposed 
I  to  the  administration  violently  assailed  its 
j  action ;    whereupon  some  of  them  were  re- 
fused transmission  in  the  mails,  and  at  the 
same  time  restrictions  were  placed  upon  the 
j  use  of  the  telegraph.    Congress  passed  an  act 
I  —  December,    1861  —  approving   the   action 


IN  POLITICS 


607 


of  the  president,  and  authorizing  the  suspen- 
sion of  the  writ  so  long  as  he  should  deem  it 
necessary. 

To  prevent  the  border  states  from  joining 
tJie  confederacy  was  still  the  most  difficult 
portion  of  the  president's  task,  and  in  pur- 
suance of  this  object  he  steadily  resisted 
appeals  for  a  general  emancipation.  On 
August  22,  1862,  in  reply  to  an  open  letter 
addressed  to  him  by  Horace  Greeley,  Lincoln 
wrote :  "  My  paramount  object  is  to  save  the 
Union,  and  not  either  to  save  or  destroy 
slavery.  If  I  could  save  the  Union  without 
freeing  any  slave,  I  would  do  it;  if  I  could 
save  it  by  freeing  all  the  slaves,  I  would  do  it ; 
and  if  I  could  do  it  by  freeing  some  and  leaving 
others  alone,  I  would  also  do  that."  Mean- 
while he  prepared  a  declaration  that  on 
January  1,  1863,  the  slaves  in  all  states  or 
parts  of  states  which  should  then  be  in 
rebellion  would  be  proclaimed  free.  This  was 
put  forth  September  22,  1862,  five  days  after 
the  battle  of  Antietam,  and  the  promised 
proclamation  was  published  on  January  1, 
1863. 

After  General  McClellan  assumed  command 
of  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  six  months  passed 
and  no  active  operations  had  been  set  on 
foot.  The  president  then  -—  January,  1862 
—  ordered  a  general  movement  of  the  land 
and  naval  forces  against  the  enemy,  to  begin 
on  February  22d,  and  specifically  ordered 
General  McClellan  to  organize  an  expedition 
for  seizing  a  point  on  the  railroad  southwest 
of  Manassas  Junction.  The  general  protested, 
had  several  conferences  with  the  president, 
and  urged  his  own  plan  of  a  movement 
against  Richmond  up  the  peninsula,  to  which 
Lincoln  finally  assented  after  a  council  of 
twelve  general  officers  had  decided,  eight  to 
four,  in  favor  of  it;  and  during  the  months 
of  delay  which  followed  he  constantly  urged 
a  rapid  forward  movement.  This  did  not 
take  place,  and  the  campaign  failed. 

After  the  battle  of  Antietam  —  September 
16-17,  1862  —  Lincoln  again  urged  McClellan 
to  follow  the  retreating  confederates  across  the 
Potomac  and  advance  upon  Richmond.  A 
most  extraordinary  correspondence  ensued, 
in  which  the  president  set  forth  with  great 
clearness  the  conditions  of  the  military  prob- 
lem and  the  advantages  that  would  attend  a 
prompt  movement  by  interior  lines  toward 
the  confederate  capital.  Tired  at  length  of 
McClellan's  varied  excuses  for  delay,  he 
removed  him  from  command  on  November 


7,  1862,  and  appointed  General  Burnsido  in 
his  place.  The  military  operations  of  1862 
elsewhere  than  in  Virginia  were  nearly  all 
successfxil. 

Charies  Francis  Adams,  United  States  min- 
ister at  London,  found  it  impossible  to  induce 
the  British  government  to  stop  the  fitting  out 
of  confederate  prh-ateers  in  English  i>ort8. 
When  the  No.  290,  afterward  famous  as 
the  Alabama,  escaped  from  the  yard  of  the 
Messrs.  Laird  at  Birkenhead  —  July,  1862  — 
the  British  government  was  notified  that  the 
United  States  would  hold  it  responsible  for 
whatever  damage  the  vessel  might  inflict  on 
American  commerce. 

The  battle  of  Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863, 
was  the  turning  point  of  the  war.  At  the 
dedication  of  the  cemetery  in  which  the  slain 
of  this  battle  were  buried  —  November  19, 
1863  —  President  Lincoln  made  the  brief 
address  which  has  become  famous.  In  the 
autumn  elections  of  1862,  many  states  had 
given  majorities  for  the  party  opposed  tc  the 
administration ;  in  those  of  1863,  every  state 
except  New  Jersey  was  carried  by  its  friends. 
The  request  of  the  French  government  that 
the  United  States  would  recognize  the  gov- 
ernment of  Maximilian  in  Mexico  was  steadily 
refused.  On  October  16,  1863,  the  president 
had  called  for  three  hundred  thousand  volun- 
teers, to  take  the  place  of  those  whose  term 
was  about  to  expire ;  on  March  15,  1864,  he 
called  for  two  hundred  thousand  more,  to 
supply  the  navy  and  provide  a  reserve  for 
contingencies.  In  April  the  governors  of 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Wisconsin 
offered  the  government  a  force  of  one  hundred 
thousand  men  for  one  hundred  days'  service ; 
this  offer  was  accepted. 

The  national  republican  convention,  June 

8,  1864,  renominated  Lincoln,  with  Andrew 
Johnson  for  vice-president.  The  democratic 
convention,  August  29,  nominated  General 
McClellan  for  president  and  George  H. 
Pendleton  for  vice-president.  The  essential 
portion  of  the  platform  was  the  following 
resolution : 

"That  this  convention  does  explicitly 
declare,  as  the  sense  of  the  American  people, 
that,  after  four  years  of  failure  to  restore  the 
Union  by  the  experiment  of  war,  during 
which,  under  the  pretense  of  a  military 
necessity,  of  a  war  power  higher  than  the 
constitution,  the  constitution  itself  has  been 
disregarded  in  every  part,  and  public  liberty 
and  private  rights  alike  trodden  down,  and 


508 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


the  material  prosperity  of  the  country  essen- 
tially impaired,  justice,  humanity,  liberty, 
and  the  public  welfare  demand  that  im- 
mediate efforts  be  made  for  a  cessation 
of  hostilities,  with  a  view  to  an  ultimate 
convention  of  all  the  states,  or  other  peace- 
able means  to  the  end  that  at  the  earliest 
practicable  moment  peace  may  be  restored 
on  the  basis  of  the  federal  union  of  the 
states." 

The  issue  thus  squarely  presented  was 
maintained  throughout  the  canvass,  and  the 
election  was  looked  to  for  a  popular  verdict 
whether  the  war  should  be  continued.  Sher- 
man captured  Atlanta  on  September  1st. 
During  September  and  October  General 
Sheridan,  by  several  brilliant  victories,  swept 
the  Shenandoah  valley  clean  of  the  confed- 
erate forces  that  had  occupied  it  under  Early. 
Hood  was  defeated  in  all  his  operations 
against  Sherman's  communications,  and 
finally  dashed  himself  to  pieces  against  the 
defenses  of  Nashville.  The  early  state  elec- 
tions in  Maine,  Vermont,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio, 
and  Indiana  were  carried  by  the  republicans, 
and  Maryland,  by  a  close  vote,  adopted  a 
new  constitution  forbidding  slavery.  The 
presidential  election  was  the  quietest  ever 
known.  The  total  number  of  electoral  votes 
counted  was  two  hundred  thirty-three,  of 
which  Lincoln  and  Johnson  received  two 
hundred  twelve,  McClellan  and  Pendleton 
twenty-one. 

As  the  call  of  July  18th  had  been  largely 
filled  by  the  application  of  credits  for  men 
previously  enlisted,  the  president  on  Decem- 
ber 19th  called  for  two  hundred  thousand 
more.  Sherman  completed  his  grand  march 
through  Georgia  in  time  to  present  the  gov- 
ernment with  the  city  of  Savannah  "as  a 
Christmas  gift " ;  Grant's  lines  were  extended 
further  around  Petersburg,  cutting  off  the 
Weldon  railroad ;  and  in  January,  1865,  Fort 
Fisher,  conamanding  the  harbor  of  Wilming- 
ton, where  blockade-running  had  been  most 
successful,  was  captured.  On  February  3d, 
President  Lincoln  and  Secretary  Seward  held 
an  informal  conference  with  Alexander  H. 
Stephens,  R.  M.  T.  Hunter,  and  J.  A.  Camp- 
bell, on  a  gunboat  in  Hampton  Roads;  but 
no  result  was  reached,  as  the  president 
insisted  upon  three  things:  (1)  restoration  of 
the  national  authority  throughout  all  the 
states;  (2)  no  receding  from  the  position  of 
the  national  executive  on  the  subject  of 
slavery;    (3)  no  cessation  of  hostilities  short 


of  an  end  of  the  war  and  the  disbanding  of 
the  forces  hostile  to  the  government. 

Lincoln's  second  inaugural  address  closed 
with  this  now  famous  passage :  "  With  maUce 
toward  none,  with  charity  for  all,  with  firm- 
ness in  the  right  as  God  gives  us  to  see  the 
right,  let  us  finish  the  work  we  are  in,  to 
bind  up  the  nation's  wounds,  to  care  for  him 
who  shall  have  borne  the  battle,  and  for  his 
widow  and  his  orphans,  to  do  all  which  may 
achieve  and  cherish  a  just  and  a  lasting 
peace  among  ourselves  and  with  all  nations." 
The  confederates  having  attempted  on  March 
3d  to  open  peace  negotiations  with  General 
Grant,  the  president  instructed  him  to  have 
no  conference  with  General  Lee  unless  it 
should  be  for  the  capitulation  of  Lee's 
army,  forbidding  him  to  decide,  discuss,  or 
confer  upon  any  political  question.  On  the 
day  after  the  evacuation  of  Richmond  the 
president  entered  it,  accompanied  only  by  hia 
son  and  Admiral  Porter  and  a  few  sailors. 

On  the  evening  of  Good  Friday,  April  14, 
1865,  he  visited  Ford's  theater,  accompanied 
by  Mrs.  Lincoln  and  two  or  three  personal 
friends.  A  few  minutes  past  ten  o'clock  an 
obscure  actor,  John  Wilkes  Booth,  entered 
the  box,  having  first  barred  the  passage 
leading  to  it,  approached  the  president  from 
behind,  placed  a  pistol  close  to  his  head,  and 
fired.  He  then  leaped  from  the  front  of  the 
box  upon  the  stage,  brandishing  a  dagger, 
and  shouted,  "sic  semper  t>Tannis!  The 
South  is  avenged!"  He  then  disappeared 
behind  the  scenes,  passed  out  at  the  stage 
door,  and  escaped.  The  president  was  re- 
moved to  a  private  house  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  street,  where  he  died  at  twenty- 
two  minutes  past  seven  o'clock  the  next 
morning. 

At  the  same  hour  when  the  president  was 
shot.  Secretary  Seward  was  attacked  in  his 
house;  and  it  became  known  that  an  elabo- 
rate plot  had  been  formed  for  murdering 
simultaneously  nearly  all  the  chief  civil 
officers  of  the  government.  For  this  con- 
spiracy eight  persons  were  tried  by  a  mihtary 
commission,  and  four  of  them  —  including  a 
woman  —  were  executed,  while  three  were 
sentenced  to  hard  labor  on  the  Dry  Tortugas 
for  life,  and  one  for  six  years ;  one  died  there, 
and  the  other  three  were  pardoned  by  Presi- 
dent Johnson.  Lincoln's  remains  were  buried 
at  Oak  Ridge  cemetery,  near  Springfield, 
Illinois,  on  May  4th.  On  October  15,  1874, 
they  were  removed    to    an  elaborate  tomb 


IN  POLITICS 


611 


stirmounted  by  a  statue  of  Lincoln,  an  obelisk, 
and  four  symbolical  figures.  A  colossal 
bronze  statue,  erected  by  contributions  of 
colored  people,  waa  unveiled  in  Lincoln  park, 
Washington,  in  1876. 

At  the  funeral  services  held  in  honor  of 
Lincoln  at  Concord,  Massachusetts,  Emerson 
spoke  of  him  as  follows : 

"A  plain  man  of  the  people,  an  extra- 
ordinary fortune  attended  him.  Lord  Bacon 
says,  'Manifest  virtues  procure  reputation; 
occult  ones,  fortune.'  He  offered  no  shining 
qualities  at  the  first  encounter;  he  did  not 
offend  by  superiority.  He  had  a  face  and 
manner  which  disarmed  suspicion,  which 
inspired  confidence,  which  confirmed  good 
will.  He  was  a  man  without  vices.  He  had 
a  strong  sense  of  duty,  which  it  was  very  easy 
for  him  to  obey.  Then  he  had  what  farmers 
call  a  '  long  head ' ;  was  excellent  in  working 
out  the  sum  for  himself  —  in  arguing  his  case 
and  convincing  you  fairly  and  firmly.  *  *  * 
He  had  a  vast  good  nature,  which  made  him 
tolerant  and  accessible  to  all.  *  *  *  Then 
his  broad  good  humor,  running  easily  into 
jocular  talk,  in  which  he  delighted  and  in 
which  he  excelled,  was  a  rich  gift  to  this 
wise  man.  It  enabled  him  to  keep  his  secret, 
to  meet  every  kind  of  man,  and  every  rank 
in  society,  *  *  *  to  mask  his  own  pur- 
pose and  sound  his  companion,  and  to  catch 
with  true  instinct  the  temper  of  every  com- 


pany he  addressed.  Hit  occupying  the  chair 
of  state  was  a  triumph  of  the  good  »ense  of 
mankind  and  of  the  public  corucience.  This 
middle-claas  country  had  a  middle-claai 
president  at  last.  Yes,  in  manners  and  sym- 
pathies, but  not  in  powers;  for  his  powers 
were  superior.  This  man  grew  according  to 
the  need;  his  mind  mastered  the  problem 
of  the  day ;  and  as  the  problem  grew,  so  did 
his  comprehension  of  it.  llarely  was  a  man 
so  fitted  to  the  event.  ♦  ♦  ♦  It  cannot 
be  said  that  there  is  any  exaggeration  of  his 
worth.  If  ever  a  man  was  fairly  tested,  he 
was.  There  was  no  lack  of  resistance,  nor 
of  slander,  nor  of  ridicule.  ♦  ♦  ♦  Then 
what  an  occasion  was  the  whirlwind  of  the 
war!  Here  was  place  for  no  holiday  magis- 
trate, no  fair-weather  sailor;  the  new  pilot 
was  hurried  to  the  helm  in  a  tornado.  In 
four  years  —  four  years  of  battle-days  — 
his  endurance,  his  fertility  of  resources,  his 
magnanimity,  were  sorely  tried  and  never 
found  wanting.  There,  by  his  courage,  his 
justice,  his  even  temper,  his  fertile  counsel, 
his  humanity,  he  stood  a  heroic  figure  in  the 
center  of  a  heroic  epoch.  He  is  the  true 
history  of  the  American  people  in  his  time  — 
the  true  representative  of  this  continent  — 
father  of  his  country,  the  pulse  of  twenty 
millions  throbbing  in  his  heart,  the  thought 
of  their  minds  articulated  by  his  tongue." 


BISMARCK 


A.  D. 

1815 
1832- 

1835 
1836 
1847 

1849 

1851 


Bom  at  Schonhausen,  Prussia,    . 
35  Studied  at  university  of  Gottingen 

and  Berlin, 17-20 

Admitted  to  the  bar,       20 

Entered  the  army, 21 

Married;       member      of      Prussian 

diet,       32 

Elected     to   second    chamber    of 

Prussian  diet,       •  34 

Prussian  ambassador  to  Germanic 

diet  at  Frankfort, 36 


A.  D.  AO" 

1859         Minister  to  St.  Petersburg,    ...  44 
1862         Ambassador  to  Paris;     Pruaslan 

premier, 47 

1866  War  with  Austria, 51 

1867  Chancellor  of  North  German  con- 

federation,      S2 

1870-71  Franco-German  war,      66-66 

1871         First   chancellor  of    German  em- 
pire,    ^ 

1890         Resigned  the  chancellorship,     .    .  76 

1898         Died  at  Friedrichsruh, 83 


OTTO  EDUARD  LEOPOLD  VON  BIS- 
MARCK-SCHONHAUSEN,  familiarly 
known  as  Prince  Bismarck,  famous  Prussian 
statesman,  and  the  creator  of  German  unity, 
was  born  at  Schonhausen,  Prussia,  April  1, 
1815.  He  was  descended  from  a  noble 
Brandenburg  family,  whose  members  had 
aided  the  fortunes  of  the  house  of  Hohenzollern 
as  soldiers  and  diplomatists.  His  own  father 
lived  quietly  on  the    hereditary  estates   at 


Schonhausen  and  in  Pomerania;  the  force 
and  genius  of  the  son  seemed  to  come  from 
his  mother,  Luise  von  Menken,  an  earnestly 
religious  and  highly  educated  daughter  of  a 
statesman. 

Otto  was  placed  at  the  age  of  six  in  a 
private  school  in  Berlin,  and  at  twelve 
entered  the  Friedrich  WilheUn  gymnasium 
there.  His  mother  looked  after  his  early 
education,  and  had  him  learn  French  and 


512 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


English  well,  having  already  marked  him  for 
a  diplomatist.  His  father  inured  him  to 
hardy  field  sports  and  stimulated  a  vigorous 
and  healthy  physical  development  and  a  love 
of  nature.  As  a  schoolboy. he  was  dutiful 
and  studious.  The  hardest  lessons  cost  him 
no  great  effort,  and  in  no  degree  damped  his 
redundant  vitality. 

From  the  Berlin  gymnasium  he  went  to  the 
university  of  Gottingen  in  1832,  where  his 
exuberant  animal  spirits  flourished  in  the 
congenial  nidus  of  the  aristocratic  student 
corps.  Tall  and  powerfully  built,  with  a  con- 
stitution of  iron,  he  plunged  gayly  and  reck- 
lessly into  the  excesses  of  student  life,  and 
became  the  deepest  drinker,  the  readiest 
swordsman,  so  wild  in  his  behavior,  the  author 
of  such  extravagant  pranks,  that  he  earned 
for  himself  the  sobriquet  of  "mad  Bismarck." 

This  rollicking,  carousing,  fighting  manner 
of  living  did  not,  however,  half  fill  up  the 
measure  of  his  academic  existence  at  Gottin- 
gen and  afterward  at  Berlin.  He  was  a  com- 
panion of  the  serious  and  intellectual  students 
as  well  as  of  the  careless  spendthrifts  of  the 
nobility.  With  John  Lothrop  Motley,  then  a 
student  at  Gottingen  and  afterward  the 
famous  American  historian  of  the  Dutch 
republic,  for  instance,  he  formed  a  lifelong 
friendship.  He  attended  lectures  and  applied 
himself  to  the  routine  studies  well  enough  to 
pass  a  creditable  examination;  he  delved 
deep  in  the  study  of  history  and  developed 
into  a  political  thinker  of  independent  views 
strongly  held. 

At  the  age  of  twenty  he  obtained  his  degree 
in  jurisprudence  and  was  sworn  in  as  auscul- 
tator,  or  examiner,  in  the  Berlin  law  courts. 
The  next  year  he  entered  the  army.  The 
future  German  emperor,  then  Prince  Wilhelm, 
remarked  his  stalwart  form,  the  picture  of  a 
guardsman,  when  he  was  presented  at  the 
palace.  An  example  of  his  audacious  wit 
was  relished  by  other  young  subordinates  of 
the  judicial  hierarchy.  When  the  trial  judge 
rebuked  him  for  infringing  on  his  own  author- 
ity by  threatening  to  pitch  out  a  recalcitrant 
witness,  he  retorted  a  few  minutes  later  by 
telling  the  same  witness  that  if  he  did  not 
answer  properly  he  would  have  the  judge 
pitch  him  out. 

The  wearisome  drudgery  and  routine,  the 
rigid  formalities  and  humble  subservience  of 
Prussian  officialism,  could  not  fetter  long  his 
restless  spirit.     He  learned  to  detest  the  town-j- 
and  all  the  conditions  of  official  hfe.    In  the 


barracks  of  the  Jager  guards,  with  whom  he 
performed  his  military  duties,  he  was  more  at 
home,  and  most  of  all  among  the  hunting, 
fighting,  drinking  nobility  of  the  Alt  Mark 
and  Pomerania,  who  at  least  led  a  fresh, 
untranMneled  existence.  In  sportsmanship 
and  daring  and  in  dissipation  and  wild  esca- 
pades he  outlived  them  all,  and  he  was  glad 
enough  to  quit  his  petty  office  in  1839  and 
take  up  the  free  and  unsophisticated  life  of  a 
country  nobleman  and  agriculturist.  His 
help  was  needed  at  home,  as  his  father  had 
been  a  careless  financier  and  a  poor  farmer, 
and  was  in  sadly  embarrassed  circumstances. 

Young  Bismarck,  applying  himself  faithfully 
to  the  task  before  him,  developed  the  shrewd 
business  tact  and  knowledge  of  men  that 
worked  his  success  later  as  a  diplomatist,  the 
provident  calculation  and  discriminating 
enterprise  that  enabled  him  to  control  the 
finances  of  a  nation,  the  habit  of  organizing, 
schooling,  and  commanding  others  that  gave 
him  his  unquestioned  and  self-reliant  author- 
ity as  the  chief  of  a  government.  Withal,  he 
acquired  a  practical  knowledge  of  farming,  of 
soils  and  crops,  planting,  fertilizing,  draining, 
which  in  time,  after  the  Schonhausen  property 
had  fallen  to  his  share  by  inheritance,  in  1845, 
freed  the  estate  from  debt  and  gave  him  a 
comfortable  income. 

When  his  cares  were  lifted  and  the  people 
whom  he  had  trained  could  manage  without 
his  watchful  supervision,  his  restless  spirit 
once  more  preyed  upon  itself,  and  to  escape 
weariness  he  plunged  into  dissipation,  sought 
an  anodyne  in  deep  potations  of  brown  beer 
and  champagne,  tried  violent  athletic  exer- 
cises as  a  relief  from  ennui,  and  indulged  to 
the  full  in  the  pleasures  and  society  of  the 
roistering  young  nobles  of  the  Mark,  galloping 
from  castle  to  castle  in  tumult  of  mind  like 
the  "Wild  Huntsman." 

His  torrential  passions  suddenly  turned 
into  their  right  channel  again,  and  his  impetu- 
ous yearnings  found  a  rightful  object  when  he 
fell  in  love  with  the  accomplished  and  pious 
Johanna  von  Puttkamer.  Her  parents  had  no 
intention  or  desire  to  bestow  her  on  the  "  mad 
Bismarck,"  but  when  he  had  wrung  from  her 
a  confession  of  love  he  went  to  them  with 
dauntless  assurance,  and,  clasping  his  beloved 
in  his  arms,  announced  solemnly  that  whom 
God  had  joined  no  man  should  put  asun- 
der. 

'  Journeying  through  Switzerland  and  Italy 
on  the  wedding  trip,  in  the  autumn  of  1847, 


IN  POLITICS 


S18 


the  young  Brandenburger  happened  in  Venice 
at  the  same  time  as  his  hereditary  Hege, 
Friedrich  Wilhelm  IV.,  who  asked  him  to  din- 
ner, and  was  much  impressed  with  the  poUti- 
cal  views  and  theories  that  Bismarck  boldly 
and  wittily  expounded.  The  young  officers 
and  squires,  his  former  boon  companions, 
had  been  dreadfully  bored  by  such  political 
monologues  over  the  bottle,  but  the  king  of 
Prussia  formed  a  high  opinion  of  the  talents 
revealed  in  Bismarck's  conversation,  and 
thus  by  haphazard  he  was  a  man  marked  out 
for  his  sovereign's  favor  before  he  had  set  his 
foot  on  the  political  ladder. 

Before  1847  Bismarck  was  little  heard  of 
politically;  but  about  that  time  be  began  to 
attract  attention  in  the  new  Prussian  diet,  to 
which  he  had  been  elected,  as  an  ultra-royalist, 
and  a  fierce  but  unsuccessful  opponent  of 
the  constitutional  demands  resulting  from  the 
March  revolution  of  1848.  In  1849  he  was 
elected  to  the  second  chamber  of  the  diet. 
He  opposed  the  scheme  of  a  German  empire 
as  proposed  by  the  Frankfort  parliament  of 
that  year,  for  the  reason  that  the  title  to  the 
imperial  dignity  offered  to  the  king  of  Prus- 
sia was  based  merely  on  the  popular  will  and 
not  on  the  concurrent  assent  of  the  German 
sovereigns  as  well.  His  diplomatic  career 
commenced  in  1851,  when  he  was  appointed 
Prussian  member  of  the  resuscitated  Germanic 
diet  at  Frankfort. 

Here  he  began  to  manifest  that  zeal  for  the 
interests  and  aggrandizement  of  Prussia, 
which  undeviatingly  guided  him  afterward, 
often  regardless  of  means.  In  the  diet  he 
gave  open  expression  to  the  long-felt  discon- 
tent with  the  predominance  of  Austria,  and 
demanded  equal  rights  for  Prussia.  At 
Frankfort  he  remained  until  1859,  when  he 
beheld  in  the  approach  of  the  Italian  war  an 
opportunity  of  freeing  Prussia  and  Germany 
from  the  injurious  dominance  of  Austria. 
His  views  of  energetic  action,  however,  were 
not  yet  shared  by  the  cautious  and  pacific 
prince  regent,  and  Bismarck  was  recalled  in 
that  year  from  the  diet  and  sent  as  minister 
to  St.  Petersburg. 

In  the  spring  of  1862  King  William,  on  the 
urgent  advice  of  the  prince  of  HohenzoUern, 
transferred  Bismarck  as  ambassador  to  Paris, 
in  order  to  give  him  an  insight  into  the  poli- 
tics of  the  Tuileries  before  intrusting  him 
with  the  direction  of  affairs  at  home.  During 
his  short  stay  at  Paris,  Bismarck  visited 
London,   and   had  interviews  with  the  lead- 


ing politicians  of  the  time,  including  Lord 
Palmerston  and  Disraeli. 

In  autumn,  when  the  king's  government 
could  not  obtain  the  consent  of  the  lower 
house  to  the  new  military  organization,  Bis- 
marck was  recalled  to  take  the  portfolio  of 
the  ministry  for  foreign  affairs,  and  the  presi- 
dency of  the  cabinet.  Not  being  able  to  paas 
the  reorganization  bill  and  the  budget,  he 
closed  the  chambers  in  October,  1862,  and 
announced  to  the  deputies  that  the  king's 
government  would  be  obliged  to  do  without 
their  sanction.  Accordingly,  the  army  reor- 
ganization went  on;  and  the  next  four  ses- 
sions of  the  diet  were  closed  or  dissolved  in  the 
same  way,  without  the  government  obtaining, 
or  even  caring  to  obtain,  the  sanction  of  the 
house. 

When  the  "conflict  era,"  as  it  was  called, 
approached  a  crisis,  the  death  of  the  king  of 
Denmark  reopened  the  Schleswig-Holstein 
question,  and  excited  a  fever  of  national  Ger- 
man feeling,  which  Bismarck  was  adroit 
enough  to  work  so  as  to  aggrandize  Prussia 
by  the  acquisition  of  the  Elba  duchies,  and 
reconcile  his  opponents  to  his  high-handed 
policy  by  pointing  to  the  success  of  the  newly- 
modeled  army.  Throughout  the  events  which 
ended  in  the  humiliation  of  Austria  at  the 
battle  of  Koniggratz  in  1866,  and  the  reor- 
ganization of  Germany  under  the  leadership 
of  Prussia  —  under  the  name  of  the  North 
German  confederation  —  Bismarck  was  the 
guiding  spirit  and  logically  became  chancellor 
in  1867.  Such  was  the  magic  of  his  success, 
that,  from  being  universally  disliked,  he  now 
became  the  most  popular  man  in  Germany. 
It  was  Bismarck,  indeed,  who  negotiated  the 
neutralization  of  the  Luxemburg  territory  in 
1867. 

The  action  of  France  in  regard  to  the  can- 
didature of  Prince  Leopold  of  HohenzoUern 
for  the  throne  of  Spain  gave  Bismarck  the 
opportunity  of  carrying  into  action  the 
intensified  feeling  of  unity  among  the  Ger- 
mans. During  the  Franco-German  war  of 
1870-71,  Bismarck  was  the  spokesman  of 
Germany ;  he  it  was  that  in  February,  1871, 
dictated  the  terms  of  peace  to  France.  Hav- 
ing been  made  a  count  in  1866,  he  was  now 
created  a  prince. 

Following  the  peace  of  Frankfort,  May  10, 
1871,  Bismarck  became  the  first  chancellor  of 
the  imited  German  empire.  The  sole  aim  of 
his  poUcy,  domestic  and  foreign,  was  to  con- 
solidate the  young  empire  of  his  own  creating, 


514 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


by  rendering  its  institutions  more  beneficent, 
authoritative,  homogeneous,  and  stable,  and 
again  by  securing  it,  through  alliances  and 
political  combinations,  against  attack  from 
without.  Thus,  conceiving  the  unity  of  the 
nation  and  the  authority  of  its  government 
to  be  endangered  by  the  church  of  Rome,  and 
its  doctrines  of  papal  infallibility,  he  em- 
barked on  a  long  and  bitter  struggle  with  the 
Vatican,  in  the  course  of  which  the  imperial 
and  Prussian  parliaments  passed  a  series  of 
most  stringent  measures  —  known  as  the 
Falk  or  May  laws  —  against  the  Catholic 
hierarchy. 

But  Bismarck  had  underrated  the  resisting 
power  of  the  Roman  church,  and  motives  of 
political  expediency  gradually  led  him  to 
modify  or  repeal  the  most  oppressive  of  the 
antipapal  edicts,  leaving  the  Catholics  virtual 
masters  of  the  field.  Otherwise  his  domestic 
policy  was  marked,  among  other  things,  by  a 
reformed  coinage,  a  codification  of  law,  a 
nationalization  of  the  Prussian  railways  — 
as  a  preliminary  step  to  imperial  state  lines  — 
fiscal  reform  in  the  direction  of  making  the 
empire  self-supporting,  repeated  increase  of 
the  army  and  the  regular  voting  of  its  esti- 
mates for  seven  years  at  a  time,  or  the 
military  septennate,  the  introduction  of  a 
protective  tariff,  in  1879,  and  the  attempt  to 
combat  social  democracy  and  its  attendant 
evils  by  means  at  once  repressive  and  reme- 
dial —  among  the  latter  being  a  lightening 
of  the  burden  of  direct  taxation,  the  insurance 
of  working  men  against  suffering  from  acci- 
dents, indigence,  and  old  age,  with  other 
economic  experiments,  which  have  caused 
Bismarck  to  be  called  the  greatest  state 
socialist  of  his  age.  With  a  view  to  improve 
the  finances  of  the  empire,  Bismarck  repeat- 
edly tried  to  establish  various  government 
monopolies,  but  without  success. 

Bismarck  also  inaugurated  the  career  of 
Germany  as  a  colonizing  power,  a  new  depar- 
ture which  brought  him  into  sharp  but  tem- 
porary conflict  with  the  English  of  Glad- 
stone. For  the  rest,  his  foreign  policy  mainly 
aimed  at  isolating  France  and  rendering  her 
incapable  of  forming  anti-German  alliances. 
On  the  other  hand,  he  gradually  combined  the 
central  powers  of  Europe  into  a  peace-league 
—  known  as  the  triple  alliance  —  whose 
purpose  was  to  counteract  the  aggressiveness 
of  Russia  and  France,  separately  or  com- 
bined, on  the  Danube  or  the  Rhine.  The 
nucleus  of  this  peace  league  was  formed  in 


1879  by  the  Austro-German  treaty  of  alliance 
—  published  February,  1888  —  which  Italy 
formally  called  the  "peace-maker,"  and  the 
"peace-keeper"  of  Europe,  a  character  Bis- 
marck first  publicly  acquired  when,  as 
"  honest  broker  "  between  Austria  and  Russia, 
he  presided  over  the  Berlin  congress  in  1878. 
The  phrase,  "man  of  blood  and  iron,"  is 
based  on  "the  iron  chancellor's"  own  use 
of  the  words  in  a  speech  in  1862. 

Bismarck's  life  was  often  threatened,  and 
twice  actually  attempted  —  once  in  Berlin  in 
1866,  just  before  the  Bohemian  campaign,  by 
Ferdinand  Cohen  (or  Blind),  a  crazy  youth 
who  aimed  at  making  himself  the  instrument 
of  popular  dissatisfaction  with  Bismarck,  as 
the  champion  of  absolutism  and  the  fancied 
apostle  of  a  fratricidal  war;  and  again  in 
1874,  at  Kissingen,  by  a  tinsmith  named 
KuUmann,  who  was  unquestionably  a  product 
of  ultramontane  fury  engendered  by  the  May 
laws.  When  in  1885  Bismarck's  seventieth 
birthday  was  celebrated  as  a  great  national 
event,  he  was  still  a  marvel  of  mental  vigor 
and  bodily  strength  —  the  recipient  of  all  the 
honors  which  his  sovereign  could  bestow. 

As  a  statesman  he  was  imperious  yet  pru- 
dent, jealous,  vindictive,  and  even  unscru- 
pulous —  faults  that  sprang  from  his  fervid 
patriotism;  but  in  private  life  he  could  be 
genial,  witty,  and  entertaining.  In  his  public 
speeches  he  wielded  the  mother  tongue  with 
trenchant  vigor. 

Disapproving,  in  some  respects,  the  policy 
adopted  by  Emperor  Wilhelm  II.,  Bismarck 
resigned  the  chancellorship  in  March,  1890. 
When  his  resignation  was  announced,  many 
persons  hastily  assimied  that  it  was  the  out- 
come of  a  serious  misunderstanding  with  his 
sovereign  on  economic  and  socialist  questions. 
Those  who  came  to  that  conclusion  had  not 
followed  with  any  care  his  attitude  to  the 
pressing  problem  of  the  hour.  Had  he  been 
seriously  opposed  to  the  action  of  the  em- 
peror in  calling  together  the  labor  conference, 
he  would,  of  course,  have  resigned  when  his 
imperial  master  decided  to  summon  it. 

The  truth  is  that  very  soon  after  the  acces- 
sion of  W'ilhelm  II.,  differences  arose  between 
the  young  monarch  and  the  chancellor.  The 
leading  idea  of  Bismarck  always  was  to  main- 
tain thoroughly  good  relations  with  Russia. 
This  was  one  of  his  chief  differences  with  the 
emperor  Frederick  and  also  with  the  most 
powerful  members  of  the  Prussian  staff.  The 
present  emperor  was  a  warm  partisan  of  the 


IN  POLITICS 


fflfi 


triple  alliance,  but  Bismarck,  while  equally 
anxious  to  preserve  that  .combination,  at- 
tached more  importance  than  his  sovereign 
to  the  necessity  of  bringing  about  an  arrange- 
ment between  Austria  and  Russia  on  such  a 
basis  as  would  secure  the  interests  of  each 
power  in  the  Balkan  peninsula.  Moreover, 
the  chancellor  always  looked  with  cold  sus- 
picion on  the  colonial  policy  which  had  the 
sympathy  of  the  emperor. 

Although  Wilhelm  I.  did  not  always  take 
the  same  view  of  things  as  his  great  minister,  he 
never  took  any  important  step  without  telling 
Prince  Bismarck  beforehand.  Wilhelm  II. 
did  not  observe  this  rule  so  punctiliously. 
Prince  Bismarck  thought  he  had  some  right 
to  complain  of  the  action  of  his  sovereign  in 
this  respect.  Considering  the  services,  expe- 
rience, and  fame  of  the  great  minister,  it  was 
not  to  be  expected  that  he  would  consent 
to  be  responsible  for  acts  about  which  he  had 
not  been  previously  consulted,  and  the  conse- 
quences of  which  might  be  most  momentous. 
So  the  rupture  came. 

Subsequently,  Bismarck  spent  the  remain- 
ing years  of  his  life  at  Friedrichsruh  and 
Varzin,  not  in  dignified  quiet,  but  in  a  state 
of  anger  toward  the  emperor  and  his  new 
chancellor.  He  endeavored  to  inflame  the 
country,  which  was  indignant  at  his  siunmary 
dismissal.  He  denounced  the  policy  of  the 
government  to  the  thousands  who  flocked  to 
pay  him  homage  wherever  he  went.  In  his 
organ,  the  Hamburger  Nachrichten,  and  in 
other  newspapers  inspired  by  him,  he  criti- 
cised and  belittled  the  new  government  and 
the  men  who  composed  it,  and  published 
the  secret  treaty  with  Russia  at  the  risk  of 
being  prosecuted  for  revealing  state  secrets. 
He  constantly  dwelt  on  the  necessity  of  a  good 
understanding  with  Russia  for  the  future 
security  of  Germany.  He  lent  his  name  and 
influence  to  agrarian  agitators  and  other 
malcontents.  When  he  went  to  Vienna  in 
1892  to  attend  his  son's  wedding,  the  emperor 
Franz  Josef  denied  him  an  audience,  and  the 
German  ambassador  ignored  him.  However, 
in  1894  a  formal  reconciliation  took  place 
between  him  and  Wilhelm  II.  His  death 
occurred  at  Friedrichsruh,  July  30,  1898. 
After  his  death  Dr.  Moritz  Busch  published  a 
volume  of  his  table  talk  containing  many 
frank  disclosures.  Bismarck  also  left  manu- 
script memoirs  of  his  life. 

In  stature  Bismarck  was  tall  and  of  an 
imposing  presence.    He  had  a  piercing  eye. 


and  his  countenance  was  expressive  of  great 
energy.  He  was  always  a  lover  of  nature, 
delighting  in  agriculture,  and,  until  prevented 
by  failing  health  in  his  latter  years,  he  was 
a  bold  rider  and  huntsman.  The  letters 
which  were  written  at  various  times  to  mem- 
bers of  his  family  reveal  a  nature  of  the  most 
extraordinary  richness.  His  marvelous  de- 
scriptions of  landscapes  in  Sweden,  in  Hun- 
gary, in  France,  in  Spain,  show  him  to  be  a 
nature  enthusiast  and  he  speaks  of  the  sea  in 
language  which  recalls  some  of  the  finest 
passages  in  Victor  Hugo. 

But  the  strongest  of  all  Bismarck's  personal 
characteristics  was  his  firm,  unshaken,  and 
deep  sense  of  his  duty  to  the  Almighty.  At 
the  height  of  the  Franco-German  war  he  said : 
"Did  I  not  believe  in  a  divine  ordinance 
which  has  destined  this  German  nation  for 
good  and  great  things,  I  would  have  never 
taken  up  my  calling.  To  my  steadfast  fsuth 
alone  I  owe  the  power  of  resisting  all  manner 
of  absurdities  which  I  have  shown  during  the 
past  ten  years.  Rob  me  of  my  faith  and  you 
rob  me  of  my  country.  Find  me  a  successor 
animated  by  similar  principles  and  I  will 
resign  on  the  spot." 

Bismarck's  greatness  lies  not  only  in  his 
diplomatic  genius  and  his  energy,  but  in  his 
moderation.  He  created  the  new  Germany; 
he  knew  how  to  preserve  it,  and  how  to  secure 
its  future  by  antagonizing  that  domestic 
enemy,  destructive  liberalism.  He  had  many 
admirers,  but  possessed  very  few  intimate 
friends,  though  he  could  be  very  amiable. 
Like  other  great  men,  of  similar  temperament, 
he  stood  alone. 

"To  the  posterity  of  a  hundred  years 
hence,"  says  Charles  Lowe,  "Martin  Luther 
and  Prince  Bismarck  will  undoubtedly  be 
regarded  as  the  Castor  and  Pollux  of  German 
history;  and  it  is  a  remarkable  coincidence 
that  each  of  these  greatest  heroes  of  the  Ger- 
man nation  made  his  d^but,  so  to  speak,  as 
European  actors  on  the  very  same  obscure 
provincial  stage.  It  was  in  the  imiversity 
library  of  Erfurt  that  Luther  first  discovered 
the  Bible,  while  it  was  in  the  church  of  the 
Augustines  that  he  was  consecrated  and  read 
his  first  mass;  and  it  was  in  this  identical 
church  of  the  Augiistines  that  Herr  von 
Bismarck,  as  a  member  of  the  futile  union 
parliament  of  1850,  first  gave  indication  to 
his  countrymen  of  how  national  unity  could, 
or  rather  could  not,  be  attained." 


INDEX 

TO  ONE  HUNDRED  GREAT  MASTERS 


^schylus,  (ia'-kUiia), 12 

Alexander  the  Great,  (Ol'-ig-zdn'-dir),    .    .  419 

Alfred  the  Great,  (a/ V^'i), 435 

Aristotle,  (dr'-ia-tdt-'l), 266 

Ark  Wright,  (ark'-ru), 372 

Bach,  {bdK), 159 

Bacon,  (ba'-k'n), 278 

Balzac,  {bdi'-zdk'), 98 

Beethoven,  (b&'-to-ven), 175 

Bismarck,  (bu'-m&rk), 511 

Browning,  (broun'-lng), 118 

Buddha,  {bd6d'-d), 201 

Caesar,  (ae'-zdr), 425 

Calvin,  (kdl'-vin), 241 

Carlyle,  {kar4U'), 103 

Cervantes,  (sir-van' -tez), 43 

Charlemagne,  (shar'-le-nuin), 430 

Charies  V.,  (ch&rU),      438 

Cicero,  (sis'sr-d), 22 

Columbus,  (kd-liim'-bus), 329 

Confucius,  (kdn-fu'-shl-iis), 198 

Copernicus,  (ko-plr'-ni-kiis), 337 

Cromwell,  (krdm'-wil), 449 

Cuvier,  (,ku'-vya'), 386 

B&nte,  (d&n'-U;   It&l,  dan' -ta), 32 

Darwin,  (dar'-win), 402 

Demosthenes,  (de-mds'-the-nez), 19 

Descartes,  {da'-k&rt'), 285 

Emerson,  (im'-er-sun), 112 

Franklin,  (fr&ngk'4in), 461 

Frederick  the  Great,  (JrM'-er-ik),  ....  466 

Galileo,  {gdl'-l-U'-o;    Ital.,  g<i'4e4a'-d),     .    .  347 

Gibbon,  (grib'-un), 74 

Goethe,  (gi^'-te), 79 

Gregory  VII.,  (grSg'-6-ri), 223 

Grotius,  (gro'-shl-us), 443 

Gutenberg,  (g(5i>-ten-birK), 324 

Handel,  (h&n'-dsi), 164 

Harvey,  (har'-vl), 354 

Hegel,  {hd'-gd), 313 

Helmholtz,  {hUm'-hMts), 409 

Herodotus,  (he-rdd'-d-tua), 16 

Homer,  (hd'-msr), 9 

Hugo,  (hii'-go) 108 

Hume,  (hum), 302 

Jefferson,  (jif'-ir-sun), 479 

K&nt,  (k&nt;  Angl.,kant), 306 

Kelvin,  (kH'-vin), 415 

Kepler,  (iap'4sr), 351 

Lavoisier,  (Id'-vwd'-zya'), 380 

Leibnitz,  (lij/-nit«), 298 


Leonardo  da  Vinci,  (Za'-s-ndr'-dd  da  vin'-ehe) ,  1 24 

Lessing,  (lis'-ing), 71 

Lincoln,  (llng'-kun), 500 

Linnaeus,  (li-ne'-ua), 367 

Locke,  (Idk), 295 

Loyola,  (l6-y6'4a), 237 

Luther,  (Uf^'-thsr), 230 

Michaelangelo,  imi'-k&-an'-]e46;   Ital.,  mi'- 

kd-an'-id4o), 128 

Milton,  {mU'4un), 53 

Mohammed,  (md-ham'-fd), 218 

Moli6re,  {md'4y&r'), 57 

Montaigne,  {man4an';  F.,  mdN'4dn'-y'),  .    .  39 
Montesquieu,    (m6n'4l8-ku';    F.,    mdN'-at'- 

ki'-<L'), 61 

Morse,  {mArs), 397 

Moses,  {md'-at), 189 

Mozart,  (m6'-*art;  Ger.,  md'-tsdrt),    ....  169 

Napoleon  I.,  ind-pd'4i-un), 485 

Newton,  (nu'-tun), 360 

Palissy,  {pd'4i'-»i'), 342 

Peter  the  Great,  (pf-or), 454 

Phidias,  (fld'-Uu), 121 

Plato,  ipla'-to), 261 

Plutarch,  {pUsb'-tark) 30 

Raphael,  (r&f-a-H;  ra'-fa-H), 134 

Rembrandt,  (rhn'-brdnt;  D.,  rim'-brdni),      .  154 

Rubens,  (rds'-Wn*), 144 

St.  Augustine,  {6-giu^4ln;  6'-gua4ln),  .     .     .  212 

St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  (dssi'-ze), 227 

St,  Paul,  (p<5/), 206 

St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  {d-kvA'^nda), ....  274 

Schiller,  {ahW-^), 84 

Scott,  {sk6t), 88 

Shakespeare,  {ahaJ^-apir), 46 

Socrates,  {s6k'-rd4ez), 254 

Sophocles,  {abf'-o-klez), 14 

Spencer,  {spin'-str), 318 

Spinoza,  {spi-no'-zd), 289 

Stephenson,  {ste'-ven-sun), 390 

Titian,  {tlsh'-an), 141 

Veldsquez,  ivd4da'-kalh), 150 

Vergil,  (vHr'-jU), 28 

Voltaire,  (vol'-tdr'), 67 

Wagner,  (vag'-nSr), 180 

Washington,  (w5sh'-lng4un), 473 

Watt,  (wdt), 375 

Webster,  (wSb'-atir), 494 

Wesley,  (w^'4i), 246 

Wordsworth,  (toUrd^^-wurth), 94 

Zoroaster,  (zd'-rd-da'-Ur), 194 


FROM  THE  EARLIEST  TIMES  DOWN  TO 
THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY 


THROUGHOUT  THE 
WORLD 


Abbas  I.  i&b-baa'  or  iib'-b&s),  the  Great,  shah  or 
kiDg  of  Persia,  bom  in  1657 ;  obtained  the  throne 
in  1586,  at  a  time  when  the  Turks  and  hordes  of 
Usbek  Tartars  had  made  great  encroachments 
on  the  country.  He  defeated  the  Usbeks. 
recovered  the  provinces  overrun  by  them,  ana 
reduced  a  great  part  of  Afghanistan.  He  then 
made  war  against  the  Turks,  and  in  1605  defeated 
them  near  Bussorah,  thus  getting  back  all  the 
lost  provinces.  He  extended  his  rule  beyond 
Persia  proper,  and  at  his  death  in  1628  his 
dominions  stretched  from  the  Tigris  to  the 
Indus.  He  is  regarded  by  the  Persians  as  their 
greatest  sovereign. 

Abbe  (&b'-e),  Cleveland,  meteorologist,  was  bom  in 
New  York  in  1838.  He  was  gra!duated  from 
college  of  city  of  New  York  in  1857 ;  Ph.  D.,  1891 ; 
LL.D.,  university  of  Michigan,  1888;  university 
of  Glasgow,  Scotland,  1896;  B.  S.,  Harvard 
1864;  assistant  professor  Michigan  agricultural 
college,  1859;  tutor  university  of  Michigan, 
1859-60;  aide  in  U.  8.  coast  and  geodetic  sur- 
vey, 1860-64:  studied  at  Nicholas  Central 
observatory,  Poulkova,  near  St.  Petersburg, 
Russia,  1864-66;  aide  U.  S.  naval  observatory, 
1867-68;  director  Cincinnati  observatory, 
1868-73;  since  1891  meteorologist  U.  S.  weather 
bureau.  Editor  Monthly  Weather  Review,  1873 
and  1892-1909.  Professor  meteorology,  Colum- 
bian (now  George  Washington)  university,  since 
1886.  Lecturer  on  meteorology,  Johns  Hopkins 
university,  since  1896.  Member  national  academy 
of  sciences  and  many  other  scientific  societies,  do- 
mestic and  foreign.  Author :  Preliminary  Studies 
in  Storm  and  Weather  Prediction;  The  Mechanics  of 
the  Earth's  Atmosphere;  The  Altitude  of  the  Aurora, 
and  Physical  Basis  of  Long  Range  Forecasting. 

Abbey,  Edwin  Austin,  artist,  was  bom  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.  in  1852,  and  began  his  art  studies 
at  the  academy  of  the  fine  arts  in  Philadelphia. 
He  stands  in  the  foremost  rank  of  painters  of 
historical  and  subject  pictures.  His  works  are 
remarkable  for  the  correctness  of  detail.  He 
acquired  great  fame  as  an  illustrator  of  Shakes- 
peare, whose  plays  also  supplied  him  with 
the  subjects  for  some  of  his  most  successful  pic- 
tures. Principal  works:  "Richard  III.  and 
Lady  Anne,"  Kin^  Lear's  Daughters,"  "Ham- 
let, "Crusaders  Sighting  Jerusalem,"  "Fiam- 
metta's  Song,"  the  decorative  panels  illustrating 
the  "Quest  of  the  Holy  Grail,"  in  the  Boston 
public  library,  "Coronation  of  King  Edward 
Vll.,"  and  "Columbus  in  the  New  World."  He 
died  in  1911. 

Abbot,  £Era,  American  critic,  was  bom  at  Jackson, 
Maine,  in  1819.  He  was  very  precocious  as  a 
child,  graduated  at  Bowdoin  college,  and  settled 
at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  where  he  gained  consider- 
able reputation  as  a  biblical  critic.  He  con- 
tributed to  periodicals,  wrote  several  critical 
works,  and  also  wrote  in  support  of  Unitarianism ; 
his  best  known  work  is  entitled  The  Authorship 
of  the  Fourth  Gospel.^    Died,  1884. 

Abbott,  Jacob,  author,  was  bom  at  Hallowell, 
Maine,  in  1803,  and  was  graduated  from  Bowdoin 


college  in  1820.  He  studied  theology  at  Andover, 
Mass.,  was  for  several  years  a  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  Amherst  college,  then  taught  a  girls' 
school  in  Boston,  and  afterward  was  a  Congrega- 
tional minister  in  Roxbury,  Mass.  In  1838  be 
gave  up  his  church  there,  and  settled  in  Farm- 
ington,  Maine,  where  he  died  in  1879.  He  wrote 
there  most  of  bis  books,  which  number  in  all 
more  than  two  hundred.  Among  them  are  the 
"Rollo  Books,"  "Lucy  Books,"  "Jonas  Books," 
"Franconia  Stories,"  "Harper's  Story  Books," 
"Marco  Paul"  series,  "Gay  Family"  series,  and 
"Juno  Books." 

Abbott,  John  Stevens  Cabot,  a  younger  brother  of 
Jacob  Abbott,  and  author  of  many  historical 
works,  was  bom  in  Brunswick,  Maine,  in  1805, 
and  was  graduated  from  Bowdoin  college  in 
1826.  He  studied  at  Andover,  became  a  Con- 
gregational minister,  and  was  settled  at  different 
times  at  Worcester,  Roxbury,  and  Nantucket, 
Mass.,  and  New  Haven,  Conn.  He  died  in  New 
Haven  in  1877.  Among  his  works  are :  History 
of  Napoleon  Bonaparte;  Napoleon  at  St.  Helena; 
History  of  Napoleon  III.;  History  of  the  Civil  War 
in  America,  and  History  of  Frederick  the  Great. 

Abbott*  Lyman,  clergyman,  author,  editor,  was 
born  in  Roxbury,  Mass.,  in  1835;  graduated 
from  the  university  of  New  York  in  1863; 
studied  and  practiced  law;  ordained  Congrega- 
tional minister  in  1860;  pastor  at  Terre  Haute, 
Ind.,  1860-65;  New  England  church,  New 
York,  1865-69;  resigned  pastorate  in  1869  to 
devote  himself  to  literature.  Edited  "Literary 
Record"  of  Harper's  Magazine;  associate  editor 
The  Christian  Union  with  Henry  Ward  Beecher, 
whom  he  succeeded  as  pastor  of  Plymouth 
church,  Brooklyn,  in  1888;  resigned  in  1899. 
Editor  of  The  Outlook.  Author:  Jesu^  of  Nazo' 
reth;  Old  Testament  Shadows  of  New  Testament 
Truth;  A  Layman's  Story;  How  to  Study  the 
Bible;  Illustrated  Commentary  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment; Dictionary  of  Religious  Knouiedge  (with 
late  T.  J.  Conant);  A  Study  in  Human  Nature; 
In  Aid  of  Faith;  Life  of  Christ;  Evolution  of 
Christianity;  The  Theology  of  An  Evolutionist; 
Christianity  and  Social  Problems;  Life  and 
Letters  of  Paul;  T}ie  Life  that  Really  Is;  Problems 
of  Life;  Life  and  Literature  of  the  Ancient  He- 
brews; The  Rights  of  Man;  Henry  Ward  Beecher; 
T tie  Other  Room;  The  Great  Companion;  Christian 
Ministry;  Personality  of  God,  and  Industrial 
Problems. 

Abd-ul-Hamld  II.  {db-ddU-hd-^med'),  deposed  sultan 
of  Turkey,  was  born  in  1842,  the  second  son  of 
Sultan  Abd-ul-Medjid.  He  was  proclaimed 
sultan  in  succession  to  his  brother,  Murad  V.. 
who  was  deposed  in  consequence  of  his  mental 
incapacity  in  1876,  and  died  in  1904.  Abd-ul- 
Hamid  was  forced  to  abdicate  the  throne  in  May, 
1909,  by  the  progressive  party  of  Turkey,  on 
account  of  maladministration  and  oppression. 
Under  his  rule  the  Ottoman  empire  was  dis- 
membered of  some  of  its  fairest  regions.  The 
Berlin  treaty,  concluded  after  the  disastrous 
war  with  Russia  in  1878,  practically  deprived  the 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


821 


sultan  of  Bulgaria,  Bosnia,  and  H^rtegovina  in 
Europe,  and  of  Ardahan,  Kare,  and  Batoum  in 
Asia. 

Abel  ((i'6eZ),  Niels  Henrik,  noted  Norwegian  mathe- 
maticism,  was  born  at  Findo,  Norway,  in  1802, 
and  died  near  Arendal  in  1829.  His  work  on 
elliptic  functions  is  j)articularly  celebrated.  His 
complete  mathematical  works  were  published 
in  1839. 

Ab£lard  (,db'-i-lard),  Peter,  scholastic  philosopher 
and  theologian,  the  boldest  thinker  of  the  twelfth 
century,  was  bom  at  Pallet,  near  Nantes,  France, 
in  1079,  and  died  in  the  abbey  of  St.  Marcel  in 
1142.  The  doctrines  advanced  by  Ab^lard  in 
his  controversy  with  St.  Bernard  have  a  decidedly 
rationalistic  tendency;  and  he  and  his  prede- 
cessor, Erigena,  ra&y  be  looked  upon  as  the  first 
avowed  representatives  of  that  school.  He  laid 
down  the  principle  that  nothing  is  to  be  believed 
but  what  has  been  first  understood,  while  the 
church  held  that  we  must  believe  in  order  to 
understand,  and  Bernard  was  for  banishing 
inquiry  altogether  from  the  province  of  religion. 
Until  recently  it  was  chiefly  the  history  of 
Ab^lard's  romantic  love  for  H^loise  which  en- 
gaged attention. 

Abercromble  {db'-lr-kriitn-bl),  James,  British  gen- 
eral, was  born  in  Scotland  in  1706.  He  was 
commander-in-chief  of  the  British  forces  in 
America  in  1758.  In  the  summer  of  that  year 
he  crossed  Lake  George  with  15,000  men,  and 
on  July  8th  tried  to  take  Fort  Ticonderoga  by 
storm,  but  was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  2,000 
men.  Sir  Jeffrey  Amherst  then  received  com- 
mand of  the  army,  and  General  Abercrombie 
went  back  to  England,  where  he  became  a 
member  of  parliament  and  deputy  governor  of 
Stirling  castle.     He  died  in  1781. 

Abercromble,  John,  bom  in  Aberdeen  in  1780. 
took  his  M.  D.  degree  in  Edinburgh,  1803,  and 
established  a  practice  there.  After  Dr.  Gregory's 
death  in  1821  he  was  recognized  as  the  first 
consulting  physician  in  Scotland.  He  is  best 
known  by  his  works  on  The  Intellectual  Powers, 
and  The  Moral  Feelings.  He  died  suddenly  in 
1844. 

Abercromby,  Sir  Ralph,  British  general,  born  in 
Scotland  in  1734.  He  served  with  much  ability 
in  Holland  and  in  the  West  Indies,  and  in  1800 
was  chosen  to  command  the  forces  to  be  sent 
against  the  French  in  Egypt.  On  March  8,  1801, 
he  landed  his  army  at  Aboukir  bay,  near  Alex- 
andria, though  strongly  opposed  by  the  French, 
and  on  the  21st  fought  the  battle  of  Alexandria 
in  which  he  was  victorious.  He  was  struck  by 
a  musket  ball  in  the  thigh  early  in  the  action, 
but  remained  on  the  field  giving  his  orders  until 
the  battle  was  over.  He  was  then  carried  off 
in  a  hammock,  cheered  by  the  soldiers  as  he 
passed,  and  taken  on  board  a  ship  in  the  bay, 
where  he  died,  1801. 

Abemethy  (&b'-er-ne-thl),  John,  eminent  British 
surgeon,  was  born  in  London  in  1764,  and 
died  in  1831.  In  1787  he  was  elected  assistant- 
surgeon  to  St.  Bartholomew's,  London,  an  office 
which  he  filled  for  twenty-eight  years,  at  the 
end  of  which  time  he  was  appointed  surgeon. 
He  was  famous  as  an  investigator  and  lecturer 
and  has  left  many  valuable  works.  One  popular 
book  is  Surgical  Observations,  which  became 
known  among  his  patients  as  "My  Book,"  from 
his  frequent  reference  to  it.  He  was  brusque  to 
the  degree  of  rudeness  but  his  wit  and  shrewd- 
ness made  him  popular.  A  rich,  gouty  patient 
once  asked  him  for  a  remedy.  "Live  on  six- 
pence a  day  and  earn  it,"  he  answered. 

About  (d'-6<?5'),  Edmond  Francois  Valentin,  French 
novelist  and  miscellaneous  writer,  bom  in  1828, 
died  in  1885.  He  was  educated  at  the  Lyc^e 
Charlemagne  and  the  Ecole  Nonuale,  Paris;  was 


sent  at  govemment  expenae  to  the  French  scbool 
at  Athens;  on  his  return  to  Paris,  devoted  him- 
self to  hterature.  Principal  novels:  ToUa,  L« 
.Rot  dejt  Montagnea,  Germaitu,  Maddon,  U 
FeUah,  La  VieiUe  Roche,  L'J^fanu,  Lm  AforiooM 
de  Pans,  Le  Roman  d'un  Brav«  Homtnt;  mi*. 
cellaneous  works:  La  Gric*  Contempormru,  La 
Queetton  Romaine,  La  Pnuae  en  1860,  and  Ronm 
Contemporaine.  He  was  latterly  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  tne  academy. 

Abraham,  the  progenitor  of  the  Israelitish  nation, 
was  a  native  of  Chaldea,  but  migrated  with 
his  wife,  Sarah,  and  his  nejtht-w,  Lot,  to  Canaan, 
where  he  lived  a  nomadic  life  and  worshiped  the 
one  God,  Jehovah,  in  the  midst  of  the  polytbe* 
istic  Canaanites.  The  details  of  the  narrative 
as  given  in  the  book  of  Genetig  are  familiar  to 
everyone.  He  died  at  the  age  of  176,  about 
1800  B.  C.  Of  his  two  sons.  Isaac  waa  the 
ancestor  of  the  Israelites;  the  Arabs  claim 
to  be  descended  from  Ishmael,  whose  mother 
was  Hagar,  a  bondwoman. 

AbruEzl  (d-brgdf-si),  Lulgl  Amadeo,  Duke  of  the, 
prince  of  royal  house  of  Italy,  was  bom  at 
Madrid,  Spain,  in  1873;  scientist,  explorer,  aero- 
naut, sportsman,  litterateur;  traveled  round  world 
as  a  youth;  ascended  Mount  St.  Elias,  Alaska, 
1896;  his  Arctic  expedition  of  1899  penetrated 
nearest  to  north  pole  up  to  that  time;  in  1906 
he  ascended  the  topmost  height  in  the  Ruwenzori 
range.  East  Africa,  for  which  he  was  eulogized 
by  King  Edward.  In  1909  he  ascended  some  of 
the  highest  peaks  of  the  Himalayas. 

Acton,  Lord.     See  Dalberg-Acton. 

Adams,  Brooks,  author,  was  bom  at  Quincy, 
Mass.,  in  1848,  son  of  the  late  Charles  Francis 
Adams;  educated  at  a  variety  of  schools,  at 
home,  in  Washington,  and  abroad,  following  his 
father's  changes  of  residence;  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1870;  studied  in  Harvard  law 
school  one  year;  went  as  secretary  to  his  father 
to  Geneva,  where  the  latter  was  arbitrator  upon 
the  Alabama  claims  under  the  treaty  of  Wash- 
ington. Admitted  to  the  bar,  1873;  practiced 
law  at  Boston  until  1881.  Later  resumed  law 
practice ;  lecturer  at  Boston  university  school  of 
law,  1904-11 ;  member  of  Massachusetts  historical 
society.  Author:  The  Emancipation  of  Massa- 
chusetts; The  Law  of  Civilitation  arid  Decay; 
America's  Economic  Supremacy;  The  New  Em- 
pire; Centralization  and  the  Law. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis,  statesman  and  economist, 
son  of  John  Quincy  Adams,  was  born  in  1807; 
nominated  by  the  free  soil  party  for  the  oflBce 
of  vice-presicfent  in  1848 ;  elected  member  of  con- 
gress 1858  and  1860  by  the  republicans;  minister 
to  England  1861-68;  and  one  of  the  arbitrators 
of  the  Alabama  claims  1871-72.  His  position  in 
England  during  the  civil  war  was  a  most  difficult 
one,  but  the  duties  were  performed  with  tact  and 
discretion.  He  was  the  democratic  candidate 
for  governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1876.  He  died 
in  1886. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis,  Jr^  historical  writer,  bom 
in  Boston,  1835;  graduatp<l  at  Harvard,  1856; 
admitted  to  the  bar,  1858;  served  in  Union 
army  through  civil  war;  brevetted  brigadier- 
general.  United  States  army.  March,  1865.  Be- 
came identified  with  railway  interests ;  appointed 
member  board  of  railway  commissioners  of 
Massachusetts,  1869;  president  Union  Pacific 
railway,  1884-90;  president  Massachusetts  his- 
torical society,  1895.  Author:  Chapters  on 
Erie  and  Other  Essays;  Railroads,  thetr  Origin 
and  Problems;  Notes  on  Railway  Accident*; 
Massachueetts,  Its  Historians  and  Its  History; 
Three  Epieodes  of  Massachueetta  History;  Life  of 
Charles  Prancia  Adama;  Richard  Henry  Dana,  a 
Biogravhy;  A  College  Fetich;  Lee  at  Appomattox, 
and  otner  papers. 


522 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


AdanUf  Charles  Kendall,  educator,  historiaa,  was 
bom  at  Derby,  Vermont,  in  1835,  and  educated 
at  the  university  of  Michigan.  He  also  studied 
in  Germany,  France,  and  Italy.  From  1867  to 
1885  was  professor  of  history  in  the  university  of 
Michigan;  from  the  latter  year  until  1892  wsis 
president  of  Cornell  university;  and  from  1892 
to  1901  was  president  of  the  university  of  Wis- 
consin. He  was  the  author,  among  other  writ- 
ings, of  Democracy  and  Monarchy  in  France; 
Manual  of  Historical  Literature,  and  of  a  mono- 

fraph  on  Christopher  Columbus,  From  1892  to 
895  he  acted  as  editor-in-chief  of  Johnson's 
Universal  Cydopadia.     Died  in  1902. 

Adams,  Georse  Burton,  educator  and  historian,  was 
born  at  Fairfield,  Vt.,  in  1851.  He  was  educated 
at  Beloit  college,  Yale,  and  the  university-  of 
Leipzig.  Professor  of  history  at  Drury  college, 
1877-88,  at  Yale  since  1888.  Editor:  Duru/s 
Middle  Ages;  B<5mont  and  Monod's  Medieval 
Europe;  Select  Documents  of  EnglUh  Constitu- 
tional History.  Author:  Civilization  During  tfie 
Middle  Ages;  Tfie  Growth  of  the  French  Nation; 
European  History;  Vol.  II.  in  Hunt  and  Poole's 
Political  History  of  England;  etc. 

Adams,  Henrj,  historian,  bom  in  Boston  in  1838; 
graduated  at  Har\'ard,  1868;  private  secretary 
to  his  father,  who  was  American  minister  at 
London,  1861-68;  assistant  professor  of  history 
at  Harvard,  1870-77;  editor  North  American 
Review,  1870-76.  Author:  Essays  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  Law;  Historical  Essays;  Life  of  Albert 
Gallatin;  John  Randolph;  Documents  Relating 
to  New  England  Federalism;  History  of  United 
States  (9  \oia.) ;   etc. 

Adams,  Henry  Carter,  professor  of  political 
economy  and  finance  at  the  university  of  Michi- 
gan since  1887;  born  in  Davenport,  Iowa,  1851; 
graduated  from  Iowa  college,  1874;  lecturer  in 
Cornell  and  university  of  Michigan,  1880-87, 
also  in  Johns  Hopkins,  1880-82;  director  division 
transportation,  11th  census;  statistician,  inter- 
state commerce  commission,  1887-1911;  presi- 
dent American  economic  association,  1895-97. 
Author :  Outline  of  Lectures  on  Political  Economy; 
State  in  Relation  to  Industrial  Action;  Taxation 
in  the  United  States;  PuMic  Debts;  The  Science  of 
Finance;  Statistics  of  Railways,  and  Economics 
and  Jurisprudence. 

Adams,  John,  second  president  of  the  United 
States,  was  bom  at  Quincy,  Mass.,  in  1735;  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1755,  and  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1758.  He  was  one  of  the  delegates 
to  the  continental  congress  at  Philadelphia, 
1774,  and  throughout  encouraged  the  movement 
for  indet>endence,  in  which,  as  chairman  of  the 
board  of  war,  he  took  an  active  part.  He  was 
commissioner  to  the  court  of  France,  1778,  and 
was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  England,  1779.  He 
was  elected  vice-president  of  the  United  States 
in  1789,  and  succeeded  Washington  as  president 
in  1797,  but  in  1801  failed  to  gain  reelection,  and 
then  retired  from  pubUc  affairs.     Died,  1826. 

Adams,  John  Couch,  astronomer,  was  bom  at 
Laneast,  near  Launceston,  England,  in  1819. 
He  entered  St.  John's  college,  Cambridge,  where 
he  graduated  in  1843 ;  became  fellow  and  mathe- 
matical tutor  after  graduation,  and  in  1858 
Lowdean  professor  of  astronomy.  Soon  after 
taking  his  degree,  he  undertook  to  find  out  the 
cause  of  the  irregularities  in  the  motion  of  Uranus, 
and  made  valuable  accessions  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  planets.  He  also  made  important 
researches  as  to  the  secular  acceleration  of  the 
moon's  mean  motion,  and  on  the  November 
meteors.     He  died  in  1892. 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  sixth  president  of  the 
United  States  and  son  of  the  second  president, 
was  born  in  Quincy,  Mass.,  in  1767.  In  iiis  boy- 
hood he  accompanied  his  father  on  an  embassy 


to  Eiurope,  and  passed  a  considerable  part  of  his 
youth  in  Paris,  at  The  Hague,  and,  lastly,  in 
London.  When  his  father  was  elected  president, 
the  younger  Adams  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to 
Berlm,  and  traveled  through  Silesia.  On  his 
return  to  America  he  was  engaged  as  professor  of 
rhetoric  at  Harvard  university,  and  chosen 
United  States  senator  for  Massachusetts.  By 
President  Madison  he  was  sent  as  pleni{>otentiary 
to  Russia,  and  afterward  to  England.  On  this 
embassy  he  took  part  in  the  negotiation  of  peace 
with  England,  and  assisted  witn  his  counsel  the 
deputies  sent  from  America  to  Ghent.  When 
Monroe  was  elected  president,  he  recalled  Adams 
from  Europe,  and  made  him  secretary  of  state. 
On  the  retirement  of  Monroe  from  office  Ad-inis 
gained  the  presidency  after  a  hard  contest 
against  Jackson,  in  1825,  and  on  the  expiration 
of  his  term  of  office  retired  to  Quinoy,  near  Bos- 
ton, but  in  1830  was  chosen  as  representative  of 
his  district.  He  now  joined  the  party  of  aboli- 
tionists, and  frequently  raised  the  whole  house 
of  representatives  against  lumself  by  his  inces- 
sant petitions  on  the  slavery'  question.  On  one 
occasion,  in  1842,  in  order  to  assert  strongly  in 
the  abstract  the  right  to  petition,  he  went  so  far 
as  to  present  a  petition  for  the  dissolution  of  the 
Union.  This  wss  misunderstood,  and  turned 
against  him.  He  died  at  Wasliington  during  the 
session  of  congress  184S. 

Adams,  Maude,  actress,  was  bom  at  Salt  Lake 
City  in  1872;  her  family  name  was  Kiskadden, 
but  she  adopted  her  mother's  maiden  name, 
Adams.  She  appeared  on  the  stage  in  child's 
parts;  went  to  school;  joined  E.  U.  Sothem's 
company.  New  York,  at  sixteen;  played  an 
inp^nue  rdle  in  the  Midnight  Bell;  afterward 
joined  Charles  Frolmian's  stock  company;  later 
supported  John  Drew  for  five  years;  starred 
as  Lady  Babbie  in  The  Little  Minister,  1897-98; 
as  Juliet  in  Romeo  and  Juliet,  1900;  in  L'Aialon, 
1900-01;  in  Quality  Street,  1902;  in  The  Little 
Minister,  and  Hop  o'  My  Thumb,  1905;  Ptier 
Pan,  1906-07 ;  What  Every  Woman  Knows,  1908- 
09;  Joan  of  Arc,  1909;  Chantecler,  1910-11;  etc. 

Adams,  Samuel,  one  of  the  American  revolutionary 
leaders,  was  bom  in  Boston,  Mass.,  1722.  He 
displayed  on  all  occasions  an  unflinching  zeal  for 
p>opular  rights,  and  was,  by  the  patriotic  party, 
placed  in  the  legislature  in  1766.  Adams  was  a 
member  of  the  first  congress,  and  signed  the 
declaration  of  independence  in  1776;  took  an 
active  part  in  framing  the  constitution  of 
Massachusetts,  and  was  for  several  years  president 
of  the  senate  of  that 'state.  He  held  the  office 
of  lieutenant-governor  from  1789  to  1794,  and  of 
govemor  from  that  time  until  1797.     Died,  1803. 

Adams,  Susanne,  op>eratic  singer,  was  bom  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  in  1873.  She  received  her 
musical  education  in  Paris,  and  made  her  oper- 
atic d^but  as  Juliet  in  Romeo  and  Juliet,  in 
Paris,  1894,  with  the  Maurice  Grau  opera  com- 
pany; at  Co  vent  Garden,  London,  1898  and 
1901;  sang  at  state  concerts,  Buckingham 
palace  and  Windsor  castle,  and  was  presented 
by  Queen  Victoria  with  valuable  brooches  and 
bracelets  as  souvenirs;  sang  at  Covent  Garden 
opera  and  with  the  Maurice  Grau  opera  com- 
pany for  five  successive  seasons,  and  as  star  in 
concert  tours  in  America. 

Adams,  William  T.     See  "Oliver  Optic." 

Addams,  Jane,  social  reformer,  h^id  resident  of 
Hull  House,  Chicago,  was  bom  at  Cedarville, 
III.,  in  1860;  graduated  from  Rockford  college, 
1881;  spent  two  years  in  Europe,  1883-85; 
studied  in  Philadelphia,  1888;  in  1889  opened, 
with  Miss  Ellen  Gates  Starr,  social  settlement 
of  Hull  House;  inspector  of  streets  and  alleys 
in  neighborhood  of  Hull  House  three  years. 
Writer    and    lecturer    on    social    and    political 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


reform.  Author:  Democracy  and  Social  Ethics; 
Nevoer  Ideals  of  Peace;  A  New  Conscience  and  an 
Ancient  Evil. 

Addison,  Joseph,  English  essayist,  was  bom  at 
Milston,  England,  in  1672,  graduated  at  Oxford, 
and  held  for  some  years  a  fellowship  at  the 
university.  Here  some  of  his  early  writings 
brought  him  into  notice  and  secured  him  a 
pension  of  $1,500  a  year.  Gaining  this,  he 
traveled  on  the  continent,  observing,  studying, 
and  writing.  In  the  winter  of  1701,  amid  the 
stoppages  and  discomforts  of  a  journey  across 
Mont  Cenis,  he  composed  his  Letter  from  Italy, 
which  contains  many  fine  touches  of  description 
and  is  by  far  the  best  of  his  poems.  At  the 
death  of  King  William  his  pension  was  stopped, 
and  having  no  means  of  his  own  his  prospects 
were  gloomy  indeed,  imtil  a  lucky  chance  put 
him  on  his  feet  again.  The  ministry  desired  a 
poem  written  in  praise  of  Marlborough,  who  had 
just  won  the  battle  of  Blenheim.  Addison  wrote 
the  poem,  The  Campaign,  and  was  rewarded 
with  the  office  of  excise  comnussioner.  He  held 
other  public  offices,  which  kept  him  from  writing 
much  for  the  next  six  years.  In  1710  he  began 
to  bring  out  his  famous  essays.  These  he  con- 
tributed to  the  Tatler,  next  to  the  Spectator, 
and  afterward  to  the  Guardian,  which  he  pub- 
lished in  conjunction  with  his  friend,  Richard 
Steele.  The  most  successful  of  these  periodicaJs 
was  the  Spectator.  It  was  a  daily  paper,  but  with- 
out any  news.  It  took  the  fancy  of  Londoners 
at  the  time,  and  though  it  ran  only  a  few  months 
has  been  renowned  ever  since.     Died,  1719. 

Ade  (ad),  George,  author  and  dramatist,  was  bom 
at  Kentland,  Ind.,  1866;  graduated  from  Purdue 
university,  1887;  in  newspaper  work  in  Lafay- 
ette, Ind.,  1887-90;  on  Chicago  Record,  1890- 
1900.  Author :  Artie;  Pink  Marsh;  Doc  Home; 
Fables  in  Slang;  The  Girl  Proposition;  People 
You  Knew;  Breaking  Into  Society;  True  Bills, 
and  The  Slim  Princess.  Plays:  Tfie  Sxdtan  of 
Sxdu;  Peggy  from  Paris;  The  County  Chairman; 
The  Sho-Gun;  The  College  Widow;  The  Bad 
Samaritan;  Mrs.  Peckham's  Carouse ;  Father  and 
the  Boys;    The  Fair  Co-Ed.;  etc. 

Adler,  Cyrus,  orientalist  and  archaeologist,  was 
bom  at  Van  Buren,  Ark.,  1863;  graduated  from 
university  of  Pennsylvania,  1883;  Ph.  D., 
Johns  Hopkins,  1887;  consecutively  fellow, 
instructor,  and  associate  professor  of  Semitic 
languages,  Johns  Hopkins,  1884-93;  librarian 
Smithsonian  institution,  1892-1905,  assistant 
secretary  of  same,  1905-08;  curator  of  historic 
archaeology  and  historic  relipons,  United  States 
national  museum,  1889-1908.  He  has  written 
many  articles  on  Semitic  philology,  Assyriologv, 
oriental  archaeology,  comparative  religion,  bibli- 
ography, American  Jewish  history,  etc.  Author: 
Told  in  the  Coffee  House,  a  book  of  Turkish 
tales  (with  Allan  Plamsay). 

Adler,  Felix,  educator,  lecturer;  bom  in  Alzey, 
Germany,  1851.  Studied  under  Hebrew  rabbi; 
graduated  at  Columbia;  studied  at  Berlin  and 
Heidelberg  (Ph.  D.);  professor  of  Hebrew  and 
oriental  literature"  at  Cornell,  1874-76;  estab- 
lished in  1876  New  York  society  for  ethical 
culture,  to  which  he  gives  regular  Sunday  dis- 
courses. Professor  of  political  and  social  ethics, 
Columbia  university;  member  of  editorial  board 
of  International  Journal  of  Ethics.  Author: 
Creed  and  Deed;  The  Moral  Instruction  of  Chil- 
dren; Life  and  Destiny;  Marriage  and  Divorce; 
Religion  of  Duty. 

Adrian    IV.    (d'-drl-on),   named    Nicholas    Break- 
speare,  the  only  English  pope,  was  bom  about 
1100.     He  left  England  a  poor  man,   went  to 
Paris,  became  an  ardent  student,  and  was  soon  ' 
known  for  his  learning  and  zeal.     He  was  chosen  ; 
abbot,  then  cardinal,  and  lastly  pope,  in  1154.  I 


He  WM  vigorous  in  maintaining  his  authority 
at  Rome  and  throughout  Europe.  He  died  in 
I  tidy  in  1159. 

Aerenthal  (d'-rJIn-Mi),  Alois  Leopold  Baptlct, 
Baron  von,  Austro-Hungarian  minister  for 
foreign  affairs,  was  bom  in  1864.  Hia  family 
is  of  German  origin,  but  has  long  been  eeiUed 
in  Bohemia.  He  was  educated  at  Prague  and 
Bonn  universities,  and  as  a  boy  learned  both 
Czech  and  German.  He  entered  the  diplomatie 
service  in  1877,  and  served  in  Paris  and  St. 
Petersburg  J  became  secretary  to  Count  Kalnoky 
in  the  foreign  office  in  1883,  councillor  of  lega- 
tion at  St.  Petersburg  in  1888.  minister  to 
Rumania  in  1895,  and  ambaasaoor  to  Huaeia 
in  1899.  In  October,  1906.  he  was  appointed 
to  succeed  Count  Goluchowski.     Died.  1912. 

iCschines  (8«'-A;t-n^z),  an  Athenian  orator,  Moond 
only  to  Demosthenes,  was  bom  389  B.  C.  Demos- 
thenes a<lvocated  strenuous  opposition  to  Philip 
of  Macedon,  then  pursuing  his  designs  for  the 
subjugation  of  the  several  Greek  states,  while 
.£schines,  as  head  of  the  peace-party,  was  a 
member  of  more  than  one  embassy  sent  by  the 
Athenians  to  Philip.  The  result  justified  the 
sagacious  fears  of  Demosthenes.  But  when  it 
was  proposed  to  reward  him  with  a  eolden 
crown,  .^schines  indicted  the  proposer,  Ctesiphon, 
for  bringing  forward  an  illegal  proposition. 
Demosthenes  replied  in  perhaps  the  greatest  of 
his  speeches;  and  .Machines,  defeatwl,  had  to 
leave  Athens.  He  went  into  exile  at  Rhodes, 
where,  tradition  says,  he  established  a  school  of 
eloquence.     Died  at  Samos,  314  B.  C. 

./Cschylus  {ts'-ki-liis).     See  page  12. 

JEso^  (e'-sdp),  celebrated  fabulist,  said  to  have 
been  bom  at  Phrygia  about  620  B.  C.  He  was 
as  deformed  in  body  as  accomplished  in  mind, 
and  was  originally  a  slave  at  Athens  and  at 
Samos.  Having  gained  freedom  by  his  wit,  be 
traveled  through  Asia  Minor  and  Egypt,  and 
attached  himself  to  the  court  of  Croesus,  king 
of  Lydia.  Sent  by  that  monarch  upon  an 
embassy  to  Delphi,  he  so  offended  the  inhabit- 
ants by  the  keenness  of  his  sarcasms  that  they 
hurled  him  from  a  rock  into  the  sea.  He  died 
about  564  B.  C. 

AStius  (d-e'-shi^Hs),  Roman  general,  bom  about 
396,  in  Moesia;  in  433  became  patrician,  consul. 
and  general-in-chief,  and  as  such  maintaineo 
the  empire  against  the  barbarians  for  twenty 
years,  defeating  West  Goths,  Burgundians, 
rebellious  Gauls,  and  Franks.  His  crowning 
victory  was  that  at  Chalons  over  Attila  in  451; 
three  years  later  the  emperor  Valentinian  III., 
jealous  of  his  greatness,  stabbed  him  to  death 
with  his  own  hand. 

Agamemnon  (dg-d-mSm'-nSn),  king  of  Mycenje  and 
Argos,  son  of  Atreus  and  Eriphyle,  and  brother 
of  Menelaus,  was  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Grecian  army  at  the  siege  of  Troy.  Returning 
from  Troy,  Agamemnon  was  treacherously  mur- 
dered by  his  wife,  who,  during  his  aboence,  had 
formed  an  attachment  with  jCgisthus,  eon  of 
the  noted  Thyestes.  This  catastrophe  is  the 
subject  of  the  Agamemnon  of  .£schvluB,  one  of 
the  most  sublime  compositions  in  the  range  of 
the  Grecian  drama. 

Agassis  i&g'-dse),  Alexander,  naturalist,  bom  in 
NeuchAtel,  Switzerland,  1835;  graduated  at 
Harvard,  1855,  Lawrence  scientific  school, 
1857;  on  coast  survey  of  California,  1869; 
assistant  in  zoology.  Harvard,  1860-65;  de- 
veloped and  was  superintendent,  1865-W,  Calu- 
met &  Hecia  copper  mines.  Lake  Superior-  cura- 
tor museum  comparative  zoology,  Cambridge, 
1874-85;  afterward  engaged  in  zoological  investi- 
gation. Appointed  director  museum  compara- 
tive zoology,  Cambridge,  1902;  appointed  by 
Emperor    WilUam    III.    of    Germany    member 


024 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


order  of  merit,  1902 ;  was  member  of  academy  of 
science,  Paris,  and  president  of  national  academy 
of  science.  Author:  Explorations  of  Lake  Titi- 
caca;  List  of  the  Echinoderms;  Three  Cruises  of 
the  Blake;  Revision  of  the  Echini;  Pacific  Coral 
Reefs;  Coral  Reefs  of  the  Maldives;  Panamic 
Deep  Sea  Echini,  etc.      Died,  1910. 

Agassiz,  Louis  Johann  Budolph,  eminent  natural- 
ist, was  born  in  Switzerland  in  1807,  the  son  of  a 
Swiss  Protestant  clergyman.  He  studied  medi- 
cine and  graduated  at  Munich,  but  devoted  him- 
self principally  to  ichthyology,  and  was  employed 
to  clas.sify  and  arrange  the  collection  brought 
from  Brazil  by  Martius  and  Spix.  In  1846  he 
came  to  America,  where  he  was  well  received, 
and  in  1848  accepted  the  chair  of  zoology  ana 
geology  at  Harvard  college.  In  18G5  he  visited 
Brazil,  and  on  his  return  placed  the  large  collec- 
tion he  had  made  in  the  museum  of  Cambridge. 
He  wrote  Glaciers,  Outlines  of  Comparative  Physi- 
ology, An  Essay  on  Classification,  and  numer- 
ous other  valuable  works,  and  was  to  the  last 
a  disbeliever  in  the  Darwinian  theory  of  evolu- 
tion.    Died,  1873. 

AgathocleB  (d-g&th'-d-kliz),  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  was 
bom  at  Therma',  Sicily,  about  301  B.  C  From 
310  for  four  years  he  fought  unsuccessfully  with 
the  Carthaginians  in  Africa.  A  favprite  killed 
him  with  a  poisoned  toothpick  in  289  B.  C. 

Agesilaus  (d-]is-i-ld'-iis),  king  of  Sparta  from  397 
B.  C,  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  soldiers  of 
antiquity.  Called  on  by  the  lonians  to  assist 
them  against  Artaxerxes,  he  commenced  a 
splendid  campaign  in  Asia;  but  the  Corinthian 
war  recalled  him  to  Greece.  At  Coronea  he 
defeated  the  allied  forces,  and  peace  was  con- 
cluded in  favor  of  Sparta.  Afterward,  in  the 
Theban  war,  though  hard  pressed  by  Pelopidas 
and  Epaminondas,  and  defeated  at  Mantinea, 
he  bravely  defended  his  country.  He  was 
bom  in  444  B.  C,  and  died  in  Egypt  in  360 
B.C. 

A.gnew  (dg'-nu),  Daniel  Hayes,  surgeon,  was  bom 
in  Pennsylvania  in  1818.  He  established  the 
Philadelphia  school  of  operative  surgery,  and 
founded  the  present  pathological  museum  of  the 
Philadelphia  hospital.  In  1863  he  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  lecturer  on  clinical  surgery  at 
the  university  of  Pennsylvania,  and  surgeon  of 
Wills  ophthalmic  hospital.  In  1865  he  was 
elected  surgeon  of  the  Pennsylvania  and  Ortho- 
pedic hospitals;  in  1870  appointed  professor  of 
operative  surgery  in  the  university  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  in  1871  became  professor  of  the 
principles  and  practice  of  surgery  in  the  same 
mstitution,  and  professor  of  clinical  surgery  in 
the  university  hospital.  A  most  skillful,  rapid, 
and  eflBcient  operator,  his  reputation  as  a  surgeon 
was  worldwide.  When  President  Garfield  was 
shot  he  was  called  as  the  chief  consulting  surgeon. 
His  writings  are  voluminous,  but  his  best  work 
is  a  large  and  exhaustive  one  on  operative 
surgery.     He  died  in  1892. 

Agrlcola  (d-^rik'-6-ld),  Cnseua  Julius,  a  Roman  of 
the  imperial  times,  distinguished  not  less  by  his 
great  abilities  as  a  statesman  and  a  soldier  than 
by  the  beauty  of  his  private  character;  bom  at 
Forum  Julii  (now  FrJ'jus,  in  Provence,  France) 
37  A.  D.  Having  served  with  distinction  in 
Britain,  Asia,  and  Aquitania,  and  gone  through 
the  round  of  civil  offices,  he  was,  in  77  A.  D., 
elected  consul,  and  in  the  following  year  pro- 
ceeded as  governor  to  Britain  —  the  scene  of  his 
military  and  civil  administration  during  the 
next  seven  years.  He  was  the  first  Roman 
general  who  effectually  subdued  the  island,  and 
the  only  one  who  displayed  as  much  genius  and 
success  in  training  the  inhabitants  to  the  ameni- 
ties of  civilization  as  in  breaking  their  rude  force 
in  war.     Died,  93. 


Agrlppa  (d-grip'-d),  Marcus  Vipsanlus,  a  Roman 
citizen  who  lived  63-12  B.  (J.,  and  rose  to  an 
exalted  position.  He  was  the  chief  instrument 
of  Octavius  in  establishing  tlie  empire.  In  40 
he  took  Perusia  from  Lucius  Antonius  and 
Sipontum  from  Mark  Antony.  In  36  he  defeated 
Sextus  Pompey  at  Mylae  and  Naulochus,  and  in 
31  chiefly  contributed  to  the  great  victory  at 
Actium.  Agrippa  was  praetor  in  41,  consul 
(with  Octavius)  in  37,  28,  and  27,  when  he  built 
the  Pantheon,  sedile  in  33,  and  tribune  from  18 
until  his  death.  Rome  owed  to  him  the  restora- 
tion and  construction  of  several  aqueducts  and 
of  the  Pantheon,  besides  other  public  works  of 
ornament  and  utility. 

AKuessesu  (d'-^S'-sd'),  Henri  Francois  d%  a  distin- 
guished P'rench  jurist  and  statesman,  born  at 
Limoges  in  1668;  was  in  1690  advocate-general 
at  Paris,  and  at  the  age  of  thirty-two  procureur- 
general  of  the  parliament.  He  risked  disgrace 
with  Louis  XIV.  by  successfully  opposing  the 
famous  papal  bull  Unigenitus.  He  was  made 
chancellor  in  1717,  was  deprived  of  his  office  in 
1718  on  account  of  his  opposition  to  Law's  system 
of  finance,  but  had  to  be  recalled  in  1720.  In 
1722  he  had  to  retire  a  second  time  but  was 
recalled  in  1727  by  Cardinal  Fleury,  and  in  1737 
again  secured  the  chancellorship,  which  he  held 
until  1750.     He  died  in  1751. 

ABulnaldo  (d-gi-nOl'-du),  Emillo,  Philippino  general, 
was  bom  at  Imus,  a  village  near  Cavite,  Luzon, 
in  1870 ;  educated  at  St.  Thomas  by  the  Domini- 
cans. During  the  rebellion  of  the  Philippinoa 
against  Spain  he  was  in  constant  fear  of  assassi- 
nation, as  the  Spanish  government  offered  a 
reward  of  $25^000  for  bis  head.  He  was  the 
chief  of  the  insurgents  and  a  capable  man; 
acting  as  a  dictator,  he  assumed  sovereign  power. 
In  March,  1901,  was  captured  by  General  Fred- 
erick Funston,  a  Kansas  volunteer,  after  being  in 
constant  flight. 

Abab  (,d'-hdb),  the  son  and  successor  of  Omri,  was 
king  of  Israel  from  875-853  B.  C.  He  married 
Jezebel,  through  whose  injurious  influence  the 
Phoenician  worship  of  Baal  was  introduced,  the 
king  himself  turning  to  idolatry  and  the  priests 
and  prophets  of  Jehovah  being  cruelly  persecuted. 
Ahab  prosecuted  three  wars,  with  various  success, 
again.st  Henhadad,  king  of  Syria;  but  in  the  last 
campaign  he  was  killed  by  an  arrow.  His  whole 
family  was  afterward  extirpated  under  King  Jehu. 

Alkin  (d'-fcin),  John,  English  physician,  was  bom 
at  Kibworth,  Leicestershire,  in  1747.  After 
studying  at  Edinburgh  and  London,  he  took  his 
M.  D.  at  Leyden  in  1780,  and  practiced  in 
Chester,  Warrington,  Yarmouth,  and  London; 
but  in  1798  retired  to  Stoke-Newington,  where 
he  died  in  1822.  A  friend  of  Priestley,  E. 
Darwin,  John  Howard,  and  Southey,  he  was  a 
voluminous  author.  His  works  include:  Lives 
of  Howard,  Selden,  and  Usher;  the  General 
Biography  (10  vols.),  and  the  well-known  Even- 
ings at  Home  (6  vols.),  written  in  conjunction 
with  his  sister,  Mrs.  Barbauld. 

Ainsworth  {dm^-wHrth),  William  Harrison,  English 
novelist,  was  bom  at  Manchester,  England,  in 
1805,  and  educated  at  the  grammar  school. 
A  solicitor's  son,  in  his  seventeenth  year  he  waa 
articled  to  a  solicitor;  and,  on  his  father's  death 
in  1824,  he  went  to  London  to  complete  his  legal 
studies.  Two  years  later,  however,  he  married  a 
publisher's  daughter,  and  himself  turned  pub- 
lisher for  eighteen  months.  He  had  contributed 
some  articles  to  magazines  prior  to  1822,  and  his 
earliest  success  was  Rookwood,  with  its  vivid 
description  of  Dick  Turpin's  ride  to  York.  By 
1881  he  hjwi  published  no  fewer  than  thirty-nine 
novels.  Seven  of  them  were  illustrated  by 
Cruikshank  —  viz.:  Rookwood,  Jack  Sheppara, 
Tovoer  of  London,  Guy  Favokes,  Miser's  Daughter, 


THROUGHOUT  THE   WORLD 


S25 


Windsor  Castle,  and  St.  James's.  To  these  may 
be  added  his  Crichton,  Old  St.  Paul's,  and  Lan- 
cashire Witches,  as  possessing  some  intrinsic 
claim  to  literary  merit.  He  died  at  Reigate  in 
1882. 

Airy  (dr'-l),  George  Biddell,  English  mathematician, 
astronomer,  physicist,  and  engineer,  was  bom  at 
Alnwick,  England,  in  1801;  was  graduated  at 
Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  in  1823;  soon  after 
published  his  Mathematical  Tracts  on  the  Lunar 
and  Planetary  Theories,  the  Figures  of  the  Earth, 
and  the  Undulatory  Theory  of  Optics;  in  1825 
discovered  astigmatism;  in  1826  was  appointed 
Lucasian  professor  of  mathematics,  and  m  1828 
Plumian  professor  of  astronomy  at  Cambridge, 
and  director  of  the  observatory ;  in  1836  succeeded 
Pond  as  astronomer-royal  at  the  Greenwich 
observatory,  a  post  which  he  held  for  forty-six 
years,  equipping  the  observatory  with  an  entirely 
new  outfit  of  instruments  mostly  of  his  own  design, 
and  which  were  for  a  long  time  the  most  accurate 
in  use.  Here  he  introduced  the  systematic  obser- 
vation of  the  magnetic  elements,  and  carried  on 
investigations  in  the  lunar  theory,  the  magnet- 
ism of  iron  ships,  the  density  of  the  earth,  the 
length  of  the  seconds-pendulum,  and  a  great 
variety  of  other  subjects.  After  his  retirement 
from  the  direction  of  the  Greenwich  observatory, 
in  1881,  he  was  continuously  engaged  upon  his 
numerical  lunar  theory.     He  died  in  1892. 

Akbar  (ak'-bdr),  celebrated  Mogul  emperor,  was 
bom  at  Amarkote  in  Sindh  in  1542.  When  he 
ascended  the  throne,  only  a  small  part  of  what 
had  formerly  belonged  to  the  Mogul  empire 
acknowledged  his  authority,  and  he  devoted 
himself  with  wonderful  success  to  the  recovery 
of  the  revolted  provinces.  He  encouraged  com- 
merce, and  had  the  land  carefulW  measured  so 
that  the  taxes  should  be  fair.  His  people  were 
of  different  races  and  religions,  but  ne  was  just 
and  tolerant  to  all.  He  founded  schools  and 
encouraged  learning.  Measures  like  these  gained 
for  him  the  title  of  "guardian  of  mankind,"  and 
caused  him  to  be  held  up  as  a  model  to  Indian 
princes  of  later  times.     He  died  in  1605. 

Aked,  Charles  Frederic,  clergyman,  was  bom  at 
Nottingham,  England,  1864;  was  educated  at 
Midland  Baptist  college,  and  University  college, 
in  Nottingham,  and  received  the  degree  D.  D., 
Temple  college,  Philadelphia,  1901,  Brown,  1907. 
Ordained  to  Baptist  ministry,  1886;  pastorates: 
Syston,  Leicestershire,  1886-88;  St.  Helen's  and 
Earlstown,  1888-90;  Pembroke  chapel,  Liver- 
pool, 1890-1907;  Fifth  Avenue  Baptist  church. 
New  York,  1907-11 ;  First  Congregational  church, 
San  Francisco,  since  1911;  made  annual  lecture 
and  preaching  trips  to  United  States,  1893- 
1907.  Author:  The  Courage  of  the  Coward,  A 
Ministry  of  Reconciliation,  Mercies  New  Every 
Morning,  and  many  social,  religious,  and  political 
pamphlets. 

Akenside  (d'-ASn-sid),  Mark,  an  English  poet,  was 
born  in  1721,  died  in  1770.  He  owes  his  position 
among  the  p>oets  chiefly  to  his  Pleasures  of  the 
Imagination,  a  poem  which  at  once  became 
famous. 

Alarc6n  y  Mendoza  (d4ar-kdn'  e  mSn-do'-thd), 
Don  Juan  Ruiz  de,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
dramatic  poets  of  Spain,  bom  in  Mexico  about 
the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He 
went  to  Europe  about  1622,  and  in  1628  pub- 
lished a  volume  containing  eight  comedies,  and 
in  1634  another  containing  twelve.  One  of 
them,  called  La  Verdad  Sosjtechosa,  "The  Truth 
Suspected,"  furnished  Comeille  with  the  ground- 
work and  greater  part  of  the  substance  of  his 
Menteur.  His  Tejedor  de  Segovia,  "Weaver  of 
Segovia,"  and  Las  Paredes  Oyen,  "Walls  have 
Ears,"  are  still  performed  on  the  Spanish  stage. 
He  died  in  1639. 


Alaric  L  (ai'-d-rVc),  king  of  the  Visigoths,  wm 
born  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  c«ntury, 
and  is  first  mentioned  in  history  in  304  A.  U., 
when  Theodosius  the  Great  gave  him  th*  oom- 
mand  of  his  Gothic  auxiliaries.  The  riisMnrinns 
between  Arcadius  and  Honorius,  ths  sons  of 
Theodosius,  inspired  Alario  with  the  intention 
of  attacking  the  Roman  empire.  In  396  he 
ravaged  Greece,  from  which  ho  was  driven  by 
the  Roman  general,  Stiliclio,  but  made  a  mas- 
terlv  retreat  to  lllyria,  of  which  Arcadius, 
frightened  at  his  successes,  appointed  him 
governor.  In  400  he  invaded  Italy,  but  was 
defeated  by  Stilicho  at  Potleutia  in  403,  and 
induced  to  transfer  his  services  from  Arcadius 
to  Honorius  on  condition  of  receiving  4,000 
pounds  of  ^old.  Honorius  having  failed  to  fulfill 
this  condition,  Alaric  made  a  second  invasion  of 
Italy,  during  which  he  besieged  llokie  thrice. 
The  first  time,  408,  the  city  was  saved  by  payinx 
a  heavy  ransom;  the  second,  409,  it  capitulated, 
and  Honorius  was  deposed,  but  shortly  after- 
ward restored.  His  sanction  of  a  truiichcrouji 
attack  on  the  forces  of  Alaric  brought  about  the 
third  siege,  and  the  city  was  taken  in  410,  and 
sacked  for  six  days,  Alaric,  however,  doing 
everything  in  his  power  to  restrain  the  violence 
of  his  followers.  He  quitted  Rome  with  the 
intention  of  reducing  Sicily  and  Africa,  but  died 
at  Cosenza  in  410. 

Albanl  {dl-b&'-ne),  Madame  (n6e  Emma  La  Jean- 
esse),  vocalist,  was  born  in  1852,  at  Chambly, 
Canada,  and  was  trained  in  music  by  her  father. 
At  twelve  she  made  her  d6but  at  Albany,  N.  Y., 
whence  she  assumed  the  professional  name  of 
Albani.  She  studied  at  Paris  and  Milan,  and 
in  1870  sang  at  Messina  with  a  success  that 
attended  her  subsequently  at  London  and  Paris, 
the  United  States,  St.  Petersburg,  Berlin,  etc. 
In  1878  she  married  Ernest  Gye,  eldest  son 
of  the  director  of  the  royal  Italian  opera, 
London,  and  heis  since  resided  in  that  city. 

Alberonl  (al-bd-ro'^ne),  Giullo,  cardinal  and  states- 
man, was  bom  at  Firenzuola,  near  Piacenza^ 
1664.  In  1713  the  duke  of  Parma  employed 
him  as  his  agent  in  Madrid.  Quickly  gaining 
the  favor  of  Philip  V.,  in  1714  he  became  prime- 
minister  of  Spain,  and  in  1717  was  made  a 
cardinal.  His  internal  administration  was  liberal 
and  wise,  and  he  did  much  to  develop  the  re- 
sources of  Spain,  while  he  remodeled  the  army 
and  fleet,  and  increased  the  foreign  commerce. 
To  gratify  the  queen,  he  suddenly  invaded  Sar- 
dinia, in  violation  of  the  peace  of  Utrecht  —  a 
step  which  made  England,  France,  Austria,  and 
Holland  form,  in  1719,  the  "quadmple  alliance." 
He  sought  to  unite  Peter  of  Russia  and  Charles 
XII.  -mth  him,  to  plunge  Austria  into  a  war 
with  the  Turks,  to  stir  up  an  insurrection  in 
Hungary,  and  to  bring  about  the  downfall  of 
the  regent  in  France.  But  Philip  lost  courage, 
and  concluded  a  treaty,  its  chief  condition 
being  the  dismissal  of  the  cardinal.  He  waa 
ordered  to  leave  Spain  without  delay,  and  fled 
to  a  monastery  at  Bologna.  On  the  death  of 
the  pope  in  1721,  he  repaired  to  Rome,  and 
took  part  in  the  election  of  Innocent  XIII., 
who,  like  his  two  successors,  befriended  the 
great  exile.  Alberoni,  however,  soon  retired  to 
Piacenza,  where  he  died  in  1752. 

Albert,  prince  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  and  husband 
of  Queen  Victoria  of  England,  was  bora  near 
Coburg,  Germany,  in  1819.  He  married  Queen 
Victona  in  1840 ;  soon  after  he  was  made  field- 
marshal  in  the  British  army,  and  in  1857^  re- 
ceived the  title  of  prince  consort.  He  acquired 
great  influence  in  public  affairs  as  the  prudent 
and  trusted  adviser  of  the  queen,  and  became 
popular  throughout  England.  He  died  In 
1861. 


£20 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


▲Ibcrtl  (6l-btr'-U%  Loon  BatUsta,  an  Italian 
architect,  and  writer  on  art  and  poetry,  was 
bom  at  Florence,  Italy,  in  1404-  died  at  Rome 
in  1472.  He  waa  much  employed  by  Pope 
Nicholas  V.  He  completed  the  Pitti  palace  at 
Florence,  and  designea  the  church  of  St.  Frances 
at  Rimini.  His  chief  book,  De  Re  JEdificatoria, 
is  highly  valued. 

Albertus  Magnus  (al-bir'-tiis  m&g^-^us),  count  of 
Bollstadt,  the  Doctor  Universalis  of  the  school- 
men, was  born  at  Lauingen,  in  Swabia,  about 
1193,  studied  at  Padua,  and,  entering  the  newly 
founded  Dominican  oraer,  taught  in  the  schools 
of  Hildesheim,  Ratisbon,  and  Cologne.  In 
1246-54  he  lectured  at  Paris,  in  1254  became 
provincial  of  the  Dominicans  in  Germany,  and 
in  1260  was  named  bishop  of  Ratisbon.  But  in 
1262  he  retired  to  his  convent  at  Cologne  to 
devote  himself  to  literary  pursuits,  and  there  he 
died  in  1280.  Of  his  works  the  most  notable 
are  the  Summa  Theologice  and  the  Summa  de 
Creaturis.  Albertus  excelled  all  his  contem- 
poraries in  the  wideness  of  his  learning,  and  in 
legend  appears  as  a  magician. 

▲Iboln  {Ol'-boin),  kin^  of  the  Lombards  from  about 
661  to  673,  died  in  Verona  in  the  latter  year. 
In  6G6  he  destroyed  the  kingdom  of  the  Gepidoe. 
In  568  he  conquered  Italy  as  far  south  as  the 
Tiber,  and  established  the  kingdom  of  the  Lom- 
bards, with  Pavia  as  its  capital.  He  was  mur- 
dered during  a  carousal  at  the  instigation  of  his 
wife,  Rosamunda,  whom  he  had  commanded  to 
drink  from  her  father's  skull. 

Albuquerque  (ul-bdo-kir' -kt,),  Alfonso  de,  an  emi- 
nent Portuguese  admiral,  born  in  1453,  died  in 
1615.  Portugal  having  subjected  to  its  power  a 
large  part  of  the  western  coast  of  Africa,  and 
begun  to  extend  its  sway  in  the  East  Indies, 
Albuquerque  was  appointed  viceroy  of  the 
Portuguese  acquisitions  in  this  quarter,  and 
arrived  in  1503  with  a  fleet  on  the  coast  of  Mala- 
bar. His  career  here  was  extremely  successful, 
he  having  extended  the  Portuguese  power  over 
Malabar,  Ceylon,  the  Sunda  islands,  and  the 
peninsula  of  Malacca,  and  made  the  Portuguese 
name  respected  by  all  the  nations  and  princes  of 
India. 

Alcteus  (dZ-se'-fis),  of  Mitylene,  one  of  the  greatest 
lyric  j)oets  of  Greece,  flourished  about  the  end  of 
the  seventh  or  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century 
B.  C.  He  was  the  inventor  of  the  form  of  verse 
which  after  him  is  called  the  Alcaic,  and  which 
Horace,  the  happiest  of  his  imitators,  trans- 
planted into  the  Latin  language. 

▲Iciblades  {dl-s^l'-d-dez),  Athenian  general,  was 
born  at  Athens  450  B.  C.  He  lost  his  father  in 
the  battle  of  Chseronea,  and  was  educated  in  the 
house  of  Pericles,  his  uncle.  In  his  youth  he 
gave  evidence  of  his  future  greatness,  excelling 
both  in  mental  and  bodily  exercises.  His  hand- 
some person,  his  distinguished  parentage,  and 
the  high  position  of  Pericles  procured  him  a  mul- 
titude of  friends  and  admirers.  Socrates  was  one 
of  the  former,  and  gained  considerable  influence 
over  him,  but  was  unable  to  restrain  his  love  of 
luxury  and  dissipation,  which  found  ample 
means  of  gratification  in  the  wealth  that  accrued 
to  him  by  his  union  with  Hipparete,  the  daughter 
of  Hipponicus.  After  a  distinguished  career  in 
military  life  in  Greece  and  Persia  he  was  put  to 
death  404  B.  C. 

Alcott  {6l'-kiit),  Amos  Branson,  American  philoso- 
pher, was  bom  at  Wolcott,  Conn.,  in  1799;  died 
in  1888.  In  1834-37  he  conducted  a  school  in 
Boston.  His  system  was  denounced,  however, 
by  the  press,  and  he  left  Boston  for  Concord, 
Mass.,  where  he  gave  his  attention  to  natural 
theology  and  reform  in  education,  diet,  and 
social  institutions.  Returning  from  a  visit  to 
England   in    1842,    he    brought    with    him    two 


friends,  one  of  whom,  Charles  Lane,  bought 
a  farm  near  Harvard,  Mass.,  and  proceeded  to 
found  a  new  community,  since  called  transcen- 
dentalists.  The  scheme  failed,  and  Alcott 
thenceforward  devoted  himself  to  lecturing,  or 
rather  conversing,  on  a  wide  range  of  subjects. 
theoretical  and  practical.  He  published  several 
books,  of  which  Concord  Days,  the  latest,  con- 
tains his  personal  reminiscences. 

Alcott,  Louisa  May,  daughter  of  Amos  Bronson 
Alcott,  a  justly  famous  American  authoress,  was 
bom  in  Germantown,  Pa.,  in  1832.  Her  first 
volume  was  Flower  Fables,  pubUshed  in  1855. 
During  the  civil  war  she  was  a  volunteer  nurse 
in  the  South,  and  wrote  Hospital  Sketches  in 
1863.  Litde  Women  was  published  in  1868,  and 
was  followed  at  short  intervals  by  Little  Men, 
Work,  Rose  in  Bloom,  Jo's  Boys,  etc.  She 
died  in  1888  at  Boston,  Mass. 

Alculn  {fil'-kxcin\  or  Flaccus  Alblnus,  the  most  dis- 
tinguished scuolar  of  the  eighth  century,  the 
confidant  and  adviser  of  Charlemagne,  was  bom 
at  York  about  735.  At  his  death  in  804  he  left, 
besides  numerous  theological  writings,  a  number 
of  elementary  works  on  philosophy,  mathematics, 
rhetoric,  and  philology;  also  poems  and  a  great 
number  of  letters. 

Alden,  Henry  Mills,  author  and  classical  scholar, 
editor  Harper's  Magazine  since  1869,  was  bom  at 
Mount  Tabor,  near  Danby,  Vt.,  1836;  graduated 
from  Williams  college  in  1867,  Andover  theolc^- 
cal  seminary  in  1860;  L.  H.  D.,  1890,  LL.  D., 
1907,  Williams.  Lecturer  1863-64,  before 
Lowell  institute,  Boston,  subject,  "Structure  of 
Paganism":  managing  editor  Harper's  Weekly, 
1863-69.  Author:  6W  in  His  World;  A  Study 
of  Death;  Harper's  Pictorial  History  of  the  Great 
Rebellion  (with  A.  H.  Guernsey),  etc. 

Alden,  John,  one  of  the  pilgrims  to  Plymouth,  Mass., 
was  bom  in  England  in  1599,  died  at  Duxbury, 
Mass.,  in  1687.  He  was  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
compact  in  the  cabin  of  the  Mayflower.  Aides 
married  Priscilla  Mullens,  to  whom  his  first 
proposal  was  in  behalf  of  Miles  Standish,  but 
who  indicated  her  preference  for  Alden  over  the 
soldier.  A  poem  by  Longfellow  has  this  incident 
for  its  theme.  He  was  a  magistrate  for  more 
than  fifty  years^  and  greatly  assisted  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  infant  colony. 

Alderman,  Edwin  Anderson,  educator,  president 
of  the  university  of  Virginia  since  1904,  was 
bom  at  Wilmington,  N.  C,  in  1861;  graduated 
from  the  university  of  North  Carolina,  1882; 
D.  C.  L.,  university  of  the  South,  1896;  LL.  D., 
Tulane,  1898,  Johns  Hopkins,  1902,  Columbia, 
1905,  Yale,  1905,  university  of  North  Carolina, 
1906;  assistant  state  superintendent  of  schools. 
North  Carolina,  1889-92;  professor  of  English, 
state  normal  college,  1892;  professor  pedagogy, 
university  of  North  Carolina,  1892-96;  president 
of  same  1896-99;  president  Tulane  university, 
1899-1904.  He  is  well  known  as  a  speaker  and 
lecturer.  Author:  LAfe  of  William  Hooper, 
signer  of  the  Declaration;  School  History  of  North 
Carolina;  Life  of  J.  L.  M.  Curry. 

Aldrich,  Nelson  Wilmarth,  l^blator,  ex-United 
States  senator,  was  bom  at  Foster,  R.  I.,  in  1841 ; 
received  an  academic  education ;  president  of  the 
Providence  common  council,  1872-73;  member 
of  the  Rhode  Island  general  assembly,  1875-77, 
serving  in  1876-77  as  speaker  of  the  house  of 
representatives;  elected  to  the  hoxise  of  repre- 
sentatives of  the  forty-sixth  congress  and 
reelected  to  the  forty-seventh  congress;  elected, 
1881,  to  the  United  States  senate  to  succeed 
Ambrose  E.  Bumside,  and  was  reelected  in  1886, 
in  1892,  1898,  and  in  1905.  For  many  years  he 
was  the  republican  leader  of  the  senate,  luod  was 
co-author  of  the  Payne-Aldrich  tariff  bill.  He 
retired  from  the  senate,  1911. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


887 


Aldiich,  Thomas  Bailey,  poet  and  editor,  was  bom 
in  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  in  1836.  While  engaged 
in  the  office  of  a  New  York  merchant  he  began  to 
write  verses,  the  success  of  which  soon  induced 
him  to  enter  on  a  Uterary  career.  His  first 
volume,  miscellaneous  poems,  was  published  in 
1855,  and  was  called  The  Bells;  afterward  he 
published  Babie  Bell,  several  other  volumes  of 
poems,  and  The  Story  of  a  Bad  Boy.  Aldrich 
was  an  industrious  contributor  to  our  best 
periodicals,  and  was  also  on  the  editorial  stafi  of 
the  Home  Journal,  1856-59,  and  Every  Saturday. 
In  1881  he  became  editor  of  the  Atlantic  Monthly, 
but  resigned  in  1890.   Died  at  Boston,  Mass..  1907. 

Alembert  (d'-/<iN'-fcdr'),  Jean  le  Rond  d%  a  celebrated 
man  of  letters  and  mathematician,  the  natural 
son  of  Madame  de  Tencin  and  the  poet  Des- 
touches;  wa«  born  in  Paris,  France,  in  1717. 
He  was  the  friend  of  Voltaire,  and  acquired  high 
esteem  by  his  works,  which  fill  eighteen  volumes. 
The  most  important  of  these  are  his  Treatise  on 
Dynamics;  Theory  of  the  Winds;  Precession  of  the 
E^inoxes,  and  Essay  on  the  Resistance  of  Fluids. 
His  treatises  on  dynamics  and  fluids  at  once 
established  for  him  a  reputation  in  science. 
Died,  1783. 

Alexander  the  Great.     See  page  419. 

Alexander  I.,  emperor  of  Russia,  1801-25,  was 
bom  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1777.  With  a  humane 
and  benevolent  disposition  the  "Northern  Tele- 
maque  "  was  imbued  by  Laharpe  with  the  enlight- 
ened principles  of  the  age.  Professor  Kreft 
instructed  him  in  experimental  physics,  and 
Pallas  in  botany.  In  1793  he  married  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  Karl  Ludwig,  crown  prince  of  Baden, 
and,  on  the  assassination  of  his  father,  Paul,  in 
1801,  succeeded  him  up)on  the  throne.  He 
encouraged  education  and  science,  and  carried 
out  many  reforms.  In  1805  he  joined  the  coali- 
tion against  Napoleon,  and  was  present  at  the 
battle  of  Austerlitz.  In  1808  he  conquered 
Firdand,  and  in  1806-12  waged  a  successful  war 
against  Turkey.     He  died  at  Taganrog   in    1825. 

Alexander  II.,  emperor  of  Russia,  1855-81,  was 
bom  in  1818.  He  was  carefully  educated  by 
his  father,  Nicholas  I.,  traveled  through  Ger- 
many, and  there  in  1841  married  the  princess 
Marie,  daughter  of  the  grand-duke  of  Hesse. 
He  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1855,  and  a  year 
later  the  Crimean  war  was  terminated  by  the 
peace  of  Paris.  The  grand  achievement  of  his 
reign,  which  was  in  great  measure  his  own  deed, 
was  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs  —  twenty- 
three  million  souls  —  in  1861.  Legal  and  munic- 
ipal reforms  followed,  and  in  1865  Alexander 
established  elective  representative  assemblies  in 
the  provinces.  He  resisted  strenuously  all  for- 
eign interference  with  Polish  affairs  during  the 
insurrection  of  1863,  which  was  suppressed  with 
great  severity.  During  his  reign,  the  Russian 
empire  was  widely  extended  in  the  Caucasus 
and  in  central  Asia.  During  the  Franco- 
German  war  of  1870-71,  Alexander  maintained  a 
sympathetic  attitude  toward  Germany,  a  policy 
which  was  continued  in  subsequent  alliances 
both  with  that  ^country  and  Austria.  The  czar 
shared  the  national  sympathy  with  the  Slavonic 
races  under  Turkish  rule,  and.  took  the  field  with 
the  army  during  the  victorious  war  between 
Russia  and  Turkey  in  1877-78.  By  his  estab- 
lishment of  schools  and  internal  improvements 
he  did  more  to  build  up  Russia  than  any  other 
emperor  since  Peter  the  Great.  He  was  assassi- 
nated at  St.  Petersburg  in  1881. 

Alexander  III^  emperor  of  Russia,  1881-94,  was 
bom  in  1845.  He  showed  vigor  in  government 
and  ability  in  repressing  the  nihilists,  who  made 
several  attempts  on  his  life,  and  who  assassinated 
his  father,  Alexander  II.  The  harsh  laws  against 
the   Jews   and   the   severe   famine   of    1892   are 


among  the  later  events  of  his  rdgn.  In  1866  he 
married  Princess  Dsgmsr,  daughter  of  Christian 
IX.,  king  of  Denmark.  His  son,  Nicholas  II., 
succeeded  Alexander  III.,  who  died  at  Livsdis, 
Crimea,  in  1894. 
Alexander,  Archibald,  divine  and  educator,  was 
bom  in  Virginia  in  1772.  He  wss  self-educated: 
was  led  to  religious  study  by  the  great  revival 
of  1789-90,  was  licensed  to  preach  Tn  1701,  and 
spent  some  years  as  itinerant  missionary.  In 
1796  he  became  president  of  Hampden  Sidney 
college,  resigning  in  1801 ;  was  pastor  of  Pine 
Street  Presbyterian  church,  Pniladelphia,  in 
1807;  in  1810  lie  received  the  degree  of  D.  D., 
and  was  elected  president  of  Utuon  college  in 
Georgia.     In  1812  he  was  chosen  first  theological 

Erofessor  in  Princeton  theological  seminary, 
olding  the  place  until  his  death.  His  best 
known  work  is  Outlines  of  the  Evidence*  of 
Christianity,  which  has  been  rcproduc«'d  in  many 
languages.  He  wrote  Treatise  on  the  Canon  of  thM 
Old  and  New  Testaments;  History  of  the  Patri- 
archs; Essays  on  Religious  Experience:  History  of 
African  Colonization;  History  of  the  Log  College, 
and  a  History  of  the  Israrlitish  Nation.  A  work 
on  Moral  Science  was  published  after  his  death, 
and  he  left  several  religious  works  unpublished. 
He  died  in  1851. 

Alexander,  De  Alva  Stanwood,  ex-congressman, 
lawyer,  was  born  in  1846  in  Richmond,  Maine;  at 
the  age  of  fifteen  entered  the  army,  serving  until 
the  close  of  the  war,  as  a  private  soldier;  upon 
leaving  the  service  he  prepared  for  college,  and 
in  1870  took  his  bachelor's  degree  from  Bowdoin 
college,  of  which  he  is  now  an  overseer  and 
which  has  conferred  upon  him  the  degree  of 
LL.  D.;  in  1874  located  at  Indianapolis,  Ind.. 
where  he  practiced  law;  in  1881  was  appointed 
fifth  auditor  of  the  treasury  department; 
moved  to  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  in  1885;  in  1889-93 
was  United  States  attorney  for  the  northern 
district  of  New  York;  he  published  Politieal 
History  of  the  State  of  New  York,  1906-09; 
member  of  congress,  1897-1911. 

Alexander,  George,  actor,  was  bom  at  Reading. 
England,  in  1858,  and  made  his  professional 
d^but  at  Nottingham  in  1879.  He  has  played 
in  Lady  Windermere's  Fan;  The  Second  Mrs. 
Tanqueray;  The  Masqueraders;  Prisoner  of 
Zenda;  As  You  Like  It;  The  Princess  and  the 
Butterfly;  The  Tree  of  Knowledge;  Muck  Ado 
About  Nothing;  The  Ambassador;  The  Man  of 
Forty;  Rupert  of  Hentzau;  A  Debt  of  Honour; 
Wisdom  of  the  Wise;  The  Awakenirig;  The  Wil- 
derness; The  Importance  of  betno  Earnest; 
Paolo  and  Francesca;  If  I  Were  King;  Old 
Heidelberg;  Love's  Carnival;  Saturday  to  Mortday; 
The  Garden  of  Lies;  MolUntrave  on  Women; 
The  Man  of  the  Moment;  John  Chilcote,  M.  P.; 
His  House  in  Order;  John  Glayde's  Hotiour; 
The  Thief,  and  The  Thunderbolt.  He  represents 
South  St.  Pancras  in  London  county  council. 

Alexander  Nevskt  (nif-ski),  Russian  hero  and 
saint,  was  born  at  Vladimir  in  1219,  the  son  of 
the  grand-duke  Jaroslav  of  Novgorod.  He 
received  the  surname  of  Nevski  on  account  of 
the  splendid  victory  over  the  Swedes  which  ha 
achieved  in  1240  on  the  Neva,  in  the  province 
where  St.  Petersburg  now  stands.  In  1242,  on 
the  ice  of  Lake  Peipus,  he  defeated  the  Livonian 
knights  of  the  sword.  At  the  death  of  his 
father,  in  1247,  he  became  grand  duke  of 
Vladimir,  when  Pope  Innocent  IV.  made  a  dip- 
lomatic attempt  to  reunite  the  Greek  and  Roman 
churches,  and  with  this  view  sent  an  embassy 
to  Alexander  which  proved  ineffectual.  To  the 
end  of  his  life  he  remained  a  vassal  of  the  Tartars 
or  Mongols.     He  died  in  1263. 

Alexander  Sevenis,  Roman  emperor.  222-236, 
bom  about  208,  was  the  cousin,  adopted  soa. 


528 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


and  successor  to  Heliogabalus.  Although  a 
pagan  he  reverenced  the  doctrines  of  Christianity 
and  often  quoted  the  "golden  rule."  His  first 
expedition  against  Artaxerxes,  king  of  Persia, 
was  happily  terminated  by  a  speedy  overthrow 
of  the  enemy.  But  during  a  campaign  against 
the  Germans  on  the  Rhine,  to  defend  the  frontiers 
of  the  empire  from  their  incursions,  an  insurrec- 
tion broke  out  among  his  troops,  headed  by 
Maximin,  in  which  he  was  murdered,  235. 

Alezeleff  (a4ika-d'-yi/),  Eugenli  iTanovitch,  Rus- 
sian admiral,  was  bom  in  1844.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  the  naval  school  of  Russia;  lieutenant, 
1867;  commander  of  the  Africa,  1878; 
attach^  naval  k  Paris,  1884;  post-captain, 
1886;  commander  of  cruiser  Admiral  Korni- 
low,  1887-91;  rear-admiral,  1802,  and  assistant 
head  of  chief  naval  staff  office;  chief  of  east- 
em  fleet  during  Japanese-Chinese  war,  1897. 
In  1898  he  was  made  vice-admiral,  and  com- 
mander of  Kwangtung  province.  In  1900-01 
he  was  chief  of  the  Russian  Pacific  squadron, 
but  his  conduct  of  affairs  during  the  Russo- 
Japanese  war  led  to  his  recall  to  Russia. 

Alexius  I.  C^mnenus  (d4ik'-8l-ils  kdm-n^-nHa), 
one  of  the  ablest  Byzantine  emperors,  was  bom 
at  Constantinople,  1048;  he  was  the  nephew  of 
the  emperor  Isaac  Comnenus,  and  in  1081  was 
elevatea  by  his  soldiers  to  the  throne.  Every- 
where he  was  encompassed  with  foes.  The 
Scythians  and  Turks  were  pouring  down  from 
the  north  and  north-cast;  the  fierce  Normans 
were  menacing  his  western  provinces;  and,  in 
1096,  the  myriad  warriors  of  the  first  crusade 
burst  into  his  empire  on  their  way  to  Palestine. 
Died  in  1118. 

Alflerl  {iU-fl-a'-ri),  Vlttorlo,  Count,  Italian  dramatic 
poet,  was  born  in  Piedmont  in  1749.  At  Turin, 
in  1772,  he  left  the  military  service  and  devotea 
himself  to  literary  occupation.  He  began  at  a 
mature  age  to  learn  Latm,  and  also  to  study  the 
Tuscan  dialect,  for  which  purpose  he  went  to 
Tuscany.  On  his  journey  thither  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  the  countess  of  Albany,  to 
whom  he  became  deeply  attached  and  to  whom 
he  was  privately  married.  He  left  twenty-one 
tragedies  and  six  comedies,  besides  various  odes 
and  sonnets.     Died  in  Florence  in  1803. 

Alfonso  Vm  i^ing  of  Aragon,  Naples,  and  Sicily, 
was  bom  in  1385.  He  received  the  surname  of 
"the  magnanimous"  because  on  his  accession 
to  the  throne  he  destroyed  a  document  contain- 
ing the  names  of  all  the  grandees  who  were 
hostile  to  him.  His  historical  importance  arises 
from  his  having  brought  southern  Italy  under 
the  dominion  of  Aragon.  He  honorably  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  patronage  of  letters. 
Died  at  Naples  in  1458. 

Alfonso  X^  sumamed  "the  astronomer,"  "the 
philosopher,"  or  "the  wise,"  king  of  Leon  and 
Castile,  was  bom,  1221 ;  succeeded  his  father, 
Ferdinand  III.,  in  1252-  died  at  Seville,  1284. 
He  was  the  most  learned  prince  of  his  time,  and 
acquired  lasting  fame  through  the  completion 
of  the  code  of  laws  commenced  by  his  father, 
and  called  Leyea  de  las  Partidas,  which  in  1501 
became  the  universal  law  of  the  land.  He  is 
credited  with  a  history  of  the  church  and  of  the 
crusades,  and  is  said  to  have  ordered  a  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible  into  Spanish.  He  improved 
the  Ptolemaic  planetary  tables. 

Alfonso  XIIIm  king  of  Spain,  is  the  son  of  the  late 
King  Alfonso  XII.  and  Queen  Maria  Christina, 
a  daughter  of  the  late  Karl  Ferdinand,  archduke 
of  Austria.  He  was  bom  after  his  father's 
death,  in  1886,  and  his  childhood  was  spent  at 
Madrid  and  the  palace  of  Miramar,  in  San 
Sebastian.  In  Spain  the  sovereign  comes  of  age 
at  sixteen,  and  during  the  king's  minority  his 
mother  reigned   as   queen   regent.     On  May  17, 


1902,  the  regency  ceased,  and  Alfonso  XIII. 
assumed  his  full  powers.  On  May  31,  1906,  he 
married  Princess  Ena  of  Battenberg,  and  as  the 
king  and  queen  were  returning  to  the  palace 
they  narrowly  escaped  death  from  a  bomb 
thrown  by  an  anarchist.  The  king  is  a  general 
in  the  British  army,  and  received  the  royal 
Victorian  chain  in  June,  1905. 

Alfred  the  Great.     See  page  435. 

Algardl  (dl-gar'-di),  Alessandro,  noted  Italian 
sculptor,  was  bom  at  Bologna,  Italy,  1602.  His 
chief  work  is  a  colossal  relievo,  in  St.  Peter's, 
of  "Pope  Leo  restraining  Attila  from  marching 
on  Rome."     Died  at  Rome  in  1054. 

Alser  (dl'-jlr),  Kussell  Alexander,  statesman,  capi- 
talist; bom  in  Lafayette  township,  Medina 
county,  Ohio,  1836;  orphaned  at  twelve  years 
of  age  and  for  seven  years  worked  on  farm, 
earning  money  to  defray  expenses  at  Richfield. 
Ohio,  academy  during  winters.  Taught  school 
two  winters;  admitted  to  bar,  1859;  began 
practice  in  Cleveland;  removed  to  Michigan 
January  1,  1860;  began  lumbering  in  a  small 
way;  enlisted  1861,  and  served  as  captain  and 
major  Second  Michigan,  lieutenant-colonel  Sixth 
Michigan,  colonel  Fifth  Micliigan,  cavalry: 
brevettea  brigadier-general  and  major-general 
volunteers.  In  lumber  business  after  war; 
head  of  Alger,  Smith  db  Co.,  and  Manistique 
lumbering  company,  owners  and  opera- 
tors of  extensive  timber  tracts  and  mills 
in  Michigan  and  Minnesota.  Was  governor  of 
Michigan,  1885  and  1886;  a  leading  candidate 
for  president  in  republican  national  conven- 
tion, 1888;  one  term  commander-in-chief  of 
G.  A.  R.;  secretary  of  war  of  United  States, 
1897-99,  resigned;  appointed  Unite<i  States 
senator,  1902,  to  succeed  James  McMillan, 
deceased,  and  was  elected  for  term  1903-O7. 
Author:  The  Spaniah- American  War.  Died, 
1907. 
'  Alger,  WUliam  RounscTllIe,  Unitarian  minister  and 
author,  was  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1822; 
graduated  at  Harvard  college,  1847;  Unitarian 
pastor  at  Roxbury,  1848-55;  successor  of 
Theodore  Parker  in  Boston,  1859-73;  in  New 
York,  1876-79;  at  Denver,  Colo.,  1880;  at 
Portland,  Maine,  1881.  Author:  Introduction 
to  the  Poetry  of  the  Orient,  Friendshipa  of  Women, 
and  several  books  on  ecclesiastical  subjects. 
Died,  1906. 

All  Pasha  (a'4i  pd-atiA')  was  bom  at  Tepeleni,  in 
Albania,  in  1741.  It  is  said  that,  having  acci- 
dentally discovered  a  chest  of  gold,  he  raised 
an  army  of  two  thousand  men.  gained  his  first 
victory,  and  entered  Tepelen  in  triumph.  He 
acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  soldier,  and  did 
sucn  good  service  lor  the  Turks  in  their  Austro- 
Russian  war  of  1787  that  he  was  named  pasha 
of  Trikala  in  Thessaly.  It  must  be  admitted 
that  as  a  ruler  he  displayed  many  excellent 
qualities.  He  swept  his  old  friends,  the  robbers, 
from  the  mountain  roads,  incorporated  them 
into  military  troops,  quelled  the  wretched  fac- 
tions that  prevailed,  and  everywhere  introduced 
order  in  the  place  of  anarchy.  Put  to  death, 
1822. 

Alison,  Sir  Archibald,  lawyer  and  historian,  was 
bom  at  Kenley,  England,  in  1792.  He  studied 
law.  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1814,  and  occu- 

Siea  subsequently  prominent  legal  positions. 
[e  was  a  writer  on  law,  politics,  and  literature. 
His  chief  work,  however,  is  The  History  of 
Europe  During  the  French  Revolution,  which  was 
exceedingly  popular.  It  passed  through  many 
editions,  ana  was  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages, including  Arabic  and  Hindustani.  It 
was  subsequently  continued  to  the  accession  of 
Louis  Napoleon.  He  was  created  a  baronet  in 
1852,  and  died  near  Glasgow,  Scotland,  in  1867. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


6W 


Allegrl  (Sl-l&'-gri),  Gregorio,  musical  composer, 
was  born  at  Rome  about  1584.  He  studied 
under  Nanini,  and  was  a  friend  of  Palestrina. 
He  composed  motets  and  sacred  pieces;  was 
appointed  to  the  choir  of  the  Sistine  chapel, 
Rome,  bv  Urban  VIII.,  remaining  until  his 
death.  lie  was  one  of  the  earliest  composers 
for  stringed  instruments ;  but  his  most  celebrated 
work  is  the  Miserere,  still' annually  rendered  in 
the  Sistine  chapel.     Died,  1052. 

Allen,  Alexander  Viets  Grlswold,  professor  of  church 
historj',  Episcopal  theological  school,  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  1867-1908,  was  born  at  Otis, 
Mass.,  1841;  graduated  Kenyon,  1862;  Andover 
theological  seminary,  1865;  D.  D.,  Harvard, 
1886,  Yale,  1901.  Ordained  priest  in  Protestant 
Episcopal  church,  1865.  Author:  Continuity  of 
Christian  Thought;  Life  of  Jonathan  Edwards; 
Religious  Progress;  Christian  Institutions;  Life 
and  Letters  of  Phillips  Brooks;  Freedom  in  the 
Church.     Died,  1908. 

Allen,  Charles  Grant  Blalrflndle,  author  and 
naturalist,  born  at  Kingston,  Canada,  in  1848; 
graduated  from  Merton  college,  Oxford,  in  1871. 
After  four  years  at  Queen's  college,  Jamaica,  as 
professor  of  logic  and  principle,  1873-77,  he 
returned  to  England,  and,  adopting  a  literary 
career,  published  Physiological  Esthetics,  Colour 
Sense,  Evolutionist  at  Large,  Darwin,  and  several 
clever  novels  —  Babylon;  In  all  Shades;  The 
Woman  Who  Did;  An  African  Millionaire,  etc. 
He  also  wrote  several  books  on  travel.   Died,  1899. 

Allen,  Ethan,  soldier,  was  bom  at  Litchfield,  Conn., 
about  1737,  and  distinguished  himself  early  in 
the  revolutionary  war  by  the  surprise  and 
capture  of  Fort  Ticonderoga  in  1775.  He  next 
did  good  service  in  Montgomery's  expedition  to 
Canada,  but  was  taken  prisoner,  and  not  ex- 
changed until  1778.  He  was  afterward  a 
member  of  the  Vermont  legislature.  He  was 
author  of  a  deistical  work.  Reason  the  Only 
Oracle  of  Man.     Died,  1789. 

Allen,  James  Lane,  author,  born  in  Kentucky, 
1849;  graduate  of  Transylvania  university; 
taught  in  Kentucky  university;  later  professor 
of  Latin  and  higher  English,  Bethany,  West 
Virginia,  college;  since  1886,  given  entire  atten- 
tion to  literature.  Author:  Flvie  and  Violin; 
The  Blue  Grass  Region  and  Other  Sketches  of 
Kentucky;  John  Gray,  a  novel;  The  Kentucky 
Cardinal;  Aftermath;  A  Summer  in  Arcady; 
The  Choir  Invisible;  The  Reign  of  Law;  The 
Mettle  of  the  Pasture,  etc. 

Alien,  Viola,  actress,  born  in  New  Orleans,  La., 
1867;  daughter  of  C.  Leslie  Allen,  character  actor, 
of  old  Boston  family;  went  to  Boston  when 
three  years  old;  educated  in  Boston  and  at 
Wykham  hall,  Toronto,  and  boarding  school 
in  New  York.  Made  d^but,  Madison  Square 
theater,  New  York,  in  Esmeralda,  at  age  of 
fifteen;  after  few  months  joined  John  McCul- 
lough  company,  playing  Virginia,  Desdemona, 
Cordelia,  etc.  Subsequently  played  leading  class- 
ical, Shakespearean,  and  comedy  rdles  with 
Lawrence  Barrett,  Tommaso  Salvini,  Joseph  Jef- 
ferson, and  William  J.  Florence.  Leading  lady 
at  Boston  museum  for  a  season;  also  at  Empire 
theater  in  1893,  and  four  years  following, 
creating  and  playing  r61es  in  Ltberty  Hall;  Sow- 
ing the  Wind;  The  Masqueraders;  tinder  the  Red 
Robe,  etc.  Starred,  1898,  as  Gloria  Quayle  in 
The  Christian,  by  Hall  Caine,  and,  in  1900, 
produced  In  the  Palace  of  the  King,  by  F. 
Marion  Crawford  and  Lorimer  Stoddard;  starred, 
1902,  as  Roma  in  Hall  Caine's  The  Eternal 
City.  In  1903,  under  management  of  her  brother, 
began  series  of  Shakespearean  revivals,  produc- 
ing first  Twelfth  Night,  in  which  she  played 
Viola  with  success,  in  subsequent  seasons  she 
appeared  as  Hermione  and  Perdita  in  A  Winter' a 


TaU,  also  in  At  You  Liht  It  aad  Tk4  8ckool  for 

Scandal. 

Allibone  (Ol'i-bdn),  BamiMl  AiuMai,  oomplUr  of 
A  Critical  Dictionary  of  Engtuh  LUmniun  cmd 
Brttiah  and  American  AtUKora,  Living  and  De- 
ceased, from  the  Ecarliui  AeeounU  to  tk»  MiddU 
of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  Mid  other  valuabl* 
works  of  rt'ferenoe;  aIm  contributor  to 
periodical  literature.  He  was  bom  at  PbU»> 
delphia  in  1816,  and  died  in  1880. 

AUison,  William  Boyd,  lawyer,  American  Ugl»> 
lator,  was  bom  in  Ohio,  1820;  educated  at 
Western  Reserve  college  and  practiced  law  until 
1857;  emigrated  to  Iowa;  served  in  the  dvil 
war;  was  sent  to  congress  while  that  struggU 
was  going  on,  and  remained  in  congress  as 
representative  and  senator  from  that  time  until 
his  death  in  1908.  save  in  1872-73.  His  influence 
was  marked  and  salutary  on  the  legislation  of 
his  day. 

Allston,  Washinicton,  American  painter,  was  bom 
in  South  Carolina,  in  1779;  graduated  at  Har- 
vard in  1800,  and  went  the  next  year  to  Londoa 
to  study  art.  In  1804  he  went  to  Paris,  and  ia 
1805  to  Rome,  where  he  formed  a  close  intimacy 
with  Thorwaldsen  and  Coleridge.  Elected  aa 
A.  R.  A.  in  1819,  he  had  the  year  before  returned 
finally  to  America,  and  fixed  his  residence  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  where  he  died  in  1843.  EUa 
pictures  are  very  numerous,  the  best  being 
scriptural  subjects.  He  is  author  of  a  poem. 
The  Sylphs  of  the  Seasons,  the  art-novel,  Monaldi, 
and  Lectures  on  Art. 

Alma-Tadema  {dl'-md-td'-di-md).  Sir  Laarencct 
painter  of  classical  subjects,  bom  in  Dronrj'p, 
Friesland,  in  1836;  studied  at  the  royal  acad- 
emy of  Antwerp,  and  was  afterward  pupil  and 
assistant  of  Baron  Henry  Leys.  He  settled  in 
England  in  1873,  where  his  pictures  found  a 
ready  welcome.  He  was  elected  A.  R.  A.  in 
1876,  and  R.  A.  in  1879.  Among  his  numerous 
works  are  "Phidias  and  the  Elgin  Marbles," 
"A  Roman  Emperor,"  "The  Sculpture  Gallery," 
"The  Roses  of  Heliogabalus,"  "Clothilde  at  the 
Tomb  of  her  Grandchildren,"  "The  Education 
of  the  Children  of  Clovis,"  "How  the  Ep-ptians 
Amused  Themselves  3.000  Years  Ago,  '  "Tar- 
quinius  Superbus,"  Pyrrhic  Dance,"  "The 
Vintage,"  "The  Wom«m  of  Amphiasa,"  "The 
Conversion  of  Paula,"  and  "Thernue  Antoni- 
nianae."      Died.  1912. 

Alraqvlst  {alm'-kvUt\  Karl  Jonas  Ladvlg,  Swedish 
author,  was  bom  at  Stockholm  in  1793,  and 
dieid  at  Bremen  in  1866.  He  had  a  very  erratic 
career;  was  once  convicted  of  forgery  and 
charged  with  murder;  fled  from  Sweden  to  the 
United  States,  becoming  for  a  time  private 
secretary  of  President  Lincoln.  His  romances, 
as  a  whole,  are  considered  the  best  in  the  Swedish 
language.  The  Book  of  the  Thorn-Rom  is  r»- 
garded  as  the  beat. 

Alstroemer  (Ol'-airt-mir),  Jonas.  Swedish  industrial 
reformer,  was  bom  in  1685,  and  ia  noted  for  the 
great  commercial  improvements  which  he  intro- 
duced into  his  native  country.  Of  very  humble 
origin,  he  was  for  a  time  unable  to  surmount 
the  obstacles  which  poverty  placed  in  his  path. 
He  visited  England,  and,  ha\-ing  minutely  noticed 
the  sources  of  its  manufacturing  prosperity, 
retumed  to  Sweden,  and  obtained  permissioa 
to  establish  a  manufactory  at  AUngsaes,  in 
West  Gothland,  his  birthplace.  8o  extenair* 
and  successful  were  the  manufacturing  and 
agricultural  resources  which  he  introduosd  thai 
the  state  conferred  on  him  a  patent  of  nobiUtT. 
made  him  chancellor  of  commerce,  and  erected 
a  statue  to  his  honor  on  the  Stockholm  exchanffe. 
Died,  1761 

Alva.  Fernando  Alvares  de  Toledo,  Duke  oC, 
Spanish    governor    of    the    Netheriands    under 


£30 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Philip  II.  of  Spain,  was  bom  in  1508.  He  was 
notorious  for  tne  merciless  nianner  in  which  he 
exercised  his  dictatorial  power.  Under  his  rule 
more  than  18,000  persons  were  sent  to  the 
scaffold,  and  a  revolt,  headed  by  the  prince  of 
Orange,  broke  out,  which,  after  nearly  forty 
years  of  war,  resulted  in  the  independence  of 
the  provinces.  Alva  was  recalled  in  1573,  but 
he  was  soon  given  the  command  of  Portugal, 
which  he  quickly  conquered.  Though  his  pride 
and  cruelty  were  excessive,  he  was  undoubtedly 
one  of  the  greatest  generals  of  his  age.  Died, 
1682. 

JJvarado  (al-v&-r&'-dd),  Alonzo,  one  of  the  Spanish 
conquerors  of  Mexico  under  Cortez  and  of  Peru 
under  Pizarro,  was  bom  at  Burgos  about  1490; 
he  was  defeated  and  made  prisoner  by  the  Incan 
leader,  Almagro.  He  afterward  joined  De  Castro, 
and  was  Ueutenant-general  of  the  armed  force 
which  suppressed  the  rebellion  of  Gonzalo  Pizarro 
in  1548.      Died,  1554. 

▲Ivarado,  Pedro  d*,  Spanish  cavalier,  was  bom  in 
Badajoz,  1485.  He  took  part  in  the  expedition 
and  victories  of  Ck>rtez,  and  was  intrusted  with 
the  command  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  and  after- 
ward made  governor  of  Guatemala  and  Hon- 
duras. He  explored  California,  and  was  killed 
soon  after  his  return  in  an  expedition  against 
Jalisco.     Died,  1541. 

Al  version  e.  First  Baron,  Sir  Richard  Everard 
Webster,  lord  chief-justice  of  England  since 
1900,  was  bom  in  1842.  He  was  educated  at 
King's  College  school;  Charterhouse;  Trinity 
colUfge,  Cambridge,  and  holds  the  degrees 
M.  A.,  LL.  D.,  D.  C.  L.  He  became  a  barrister 
in  1868,  and  joined  the  southeastern  circuit; 
appointed  tubman  and  subsequently  postman 
of  court  of  exchequer;  Q.  C,  1878;  Attomey- 
general,  1885-86,  1886-92,  and  1895-1900; 
M.  P.  Isle  of  Wight,  1885-1900;  master  of  the 
rolls,  1900.  He  was  knighted  in  1885,  and 
created  a  baronet  in  1899  and  baron  in  1900. 

Altog  ial'-tsoK),  Johann  Baptist,  Roman  Catholic 
historian,  v/na  born  at  Ohlau,  Silesia,  1808.  He 
was  profes-sor  of  church  historv  in  the  university 
of  Freiburg,  and  wrote  a  Manual  of  General 
Church  History,  which  is  known  in  many 
languages.  He  was  also  the  author  of  an 
OvUine  of  Patrology,  and  in  1869  was  a 
member  of  the  commission  on  dogma  which 
prepared  the  work  for  the  Vatican  council. 
Died  at  Freiburg,  Baden,  1878. 

Ambrose  {Sm'-broz),  8t^  a  doctor  in  the  Latin 
church  of  the  fourth  century,  was  bom  at 
Treves,  Gaul,  340.  Consecrated  archbishop  of 
Milan,  374.  Ambrose  was  repeatedly,  in  the 
discharge  of  his  duty  to  the  Church,  brought 
into  direct  conflict  with  the  highest  secmar 
authority.  He  rebuked  Valentinian,  defied 
Maximus,  and,  after  the  massacre  of  Thessalonica, 
compelled  tlie  great  Theodosius  to  a  humiliating 
penance  before  admitting  him  to  Christian  com- 
munion. To  him  we  owe  the  noble  hymn, 
"Te  Deum  Laudamus."  No  father  of  the 
church  has  a  wider  fame.      Died  at  Milan  in  397. 

Amerieo  Vespucci  {H-ma-re'-gd  vis-jHSdf-che).  See 
Vespucci. 

Ames  (amz),  Fisher,  American  lawyer  and  poli- 
tician, was  bom  at  Dedliam,  Mass.,  1758.  He 
was  graduated  from  Harvard  in  1774;  began 
the  practice  of  law  in  1781;  sat  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts convention,  and  was  afterward  a 
member  of  congress,  and  famed  for  his  eloquence. 
He  retired  from  public  life  with  Wa.shmgton, 
and  devoted  himself  to  Uterary  pursuits;  was 
elected  president  of  Harvard  college  in  1804, 
which  he  declined.     Died,  1808. 

Ames,  James  Barr,  dean  Harvard  law  school 
1895-1910;  bom  at  Boston,  Mass.,  1846;  grad- 
uate of    Harvard,    1868;     Harvard    law  school. 


1872;  LL.  D.,  university  of  the  city  of  New 
York,  university  of  Wisconsin,  1898;  univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania,  1899;  Northwestern,  1903; 
Williams,  Harvard,  1904.  Taught  in  private 
school,  Boston,  1868-69;  tutor  in  French  and 
German,  Harvard,  1871-72;  instructor  in  his- 
tory, 1872-73;  associate  professor  of  law,  1873- 
77,  professor  of  law  after  1877,  Harvard.     Com- 

Eiled  collections  of  cases  on  torts,  pleading, 
ills  and  notes,  partnership,  trusts,  suretyship, 
admiralty  and  equity  jurisdiction;  author  of 
numerous  articles  in  Harvard  Law  Review  and 
other  law  reviews.     Died,  1910. 

Ames,  Joseph  8weetman,  physicist,  professor  of 
physics  and  director  physical  laboratory  at  Johns 
Hopkins;  was  bom  at  Manchester,  Vt.,  1864; 
graduated  from  Johns  Hopkins  in  1886;  Ph.  D., 
1890.  Author:  T?ieory  of  Physiee;  Manual  of 
ExperimerUa  in  Physics;  Elements  of  Physics; 
Free  Expansion  of  Gases;  Prismatic  and  Dif- 
fraction Spectra;  Induction  of  Electric  Currents; 
Text  Book  of  General  Physics.  Editor-in-chief, 
Scientific  Memoir  series;  assistant  editor  Astro- 
physical  Journal;  associate  editor  American 
Journal  of  Science. 

Amherst  (am'-*r«/),  Jeffrey,  Lord,  British  general, 
was  bom  at  Kiverhead,  England,  1717.  As 
major-general  he  served  on  the  continent  and 
in  America,  where  he  succeeded  Abercrombie 
as  commander-in-chief.  Here  he  was  remark- 
ably successful,  and,  after  many  victories,  Mon- 
treal surrendered  and  Newfoundland  was  recov- 
ered from  the  French.  He  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  in  1776,  and  was  appointed  field  marshal 
in  1796.     Died,  1797. 

Ami,  Henry  M,.  assistant  palaeontologist,  geological 
Bur\'ey  of  Canada  since  1882,  was  bom  at  Belle 
Riviere,  near  Montreal,  1858;  graduated  from 
McGill  univenuty,  B.  A.,  1882;  M.  A.,  1885: 
1).  Sc.,  Oueen's,  1892;  McGill,  1907;  awarded 
the  Bigsby  medal  by  council  of  geological 
societv  of  London,  1903 ;  fellow  of  the  geological 
societies  of    London,  Switzerland,  and  America. 

Amiel  {d-myll'),  Henri  Fr^d^rlr,  scholar  and  poet, 
was  bom  at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  1821,  studiea 
at  Berlin,  1844-^8,  and  from  1849  until  his 
death  in  1881,  was  professor  at  the  academy 
(university)  of  Geneva.  He  published  sonoe 
essays  and  poems;  but  his  wide  culture,  critical 
pKiwer,  and  profound  but  melancholy  speculation 
were  first  made  known  after  his  death  by  a 
selection  from  his  Journal  Intime. 

Ampere  (fiN'-pdr'),  Andr6  Marie,  a  distinguished 
mathematician  and  naturalist,  was  bom  at 
Lyons  in  1775.  In  1805,  after  he  had  been 
engaged  for  some  time  as  private  mathematical 
tutor  at  Lyons,  he  was  called  to  Paris,  where  he 
distinguished  himself  as  an  able  teacher  in  the 
polytechnic  school,  and  began  his  career  as  an 
author  by  his  essay  on  the  Mathematical  Theory 
of  Chances.  In  1814  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  academy  of  sciences;  and  in  1824  was 
appointed  professor  of  experimental  physics  in 
the  Collie  de  France.     Died,  1836. 

Amundsen  (d'-munsSn),  Boald,  explorer,  discoverer 
of  the  South  Pole,  was  bom  in  Borge,  Norway, 
1872.  In  1897  became  mate  with  Belgica  antarctic 
expedition.  In  June,  1903,  he  sailed  in  the  Gjoa 
and  after  two  years  located  the  North  magnetic 
pole  and  the  Northwest  passage.  In  June,  1910, 
in  Nansen's  famous  ship,  the  Fram,  he  led  the 
Norwegian  antarctic  expedition  which  resulted  in 
the  discovery  of  the  South  Pole,  December  14, 
1911.  Made  a  member  of  the  French  legion  of 
honor  in  1912.  Received  gold  medal  from  the 
national  geographic  society  in  1913.  Has 
annoimced  arctic  cruise  in  1914.  Author:  The 
Northwest  Passage,  The  South  Pole. 

Amurath  (d-vioo^af),  or  Murad  L,  sultan  of 
Turkey,   was  bom   about    1319.     He   succeeded 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


Ol 


his  father,  Orkhan,  in  1360.     He  was  the  first  I  An>ii>p».t.  m.^      q„  w 

to  lead  Turkish  ar^  into  Europe,  «^d  in  1361  '  ~*i'"*">'  ^*^-     ^  Bf«T»rro,  WUrf  Aiid«o.  d*. 

took  Adrianople,  fixed  there  his  residence,  built    *"„«**"«'»•  Mrl^lU*-.  B«it.  profcwor  of  UtarmUu*  at 

a   splendid    mosque,    and    further    adorned    the        2n*„  ,m;''"''"™L^>'^**>V'«*"- Prof-^wremwttu. 
city.     Urban  V.  preached  a  cnwade  against  him, 
but  the  venture    was   disaatroua    to    the    Chris- 
tians.    He  lost  his  life  in  the  battle  of  Kossovo 
1389.  ' 


Amurath,   or  Murad    11^   sultan  of    Turkey,   was 
bom  about  1403.     He  succeeded  Mohammed  I. 
in  1422;    took  Salonika  from  the  Venetians  and 
opened  the  way  for  subjugating  Greece,  but  was 
defeated  by  Hunniades  in  1442,  and  obliged  to 
make  peace.     The  Hungarians  renewed  the  war, 
and  hastening  from  retirement  he  defeated  them 
in  the  important  battle  of  Varna,   1444,  where 
Ladislas,    king   of   Hungary,   fell.     He    invaded 
Albania   and   the    Peloponnesus,    where   George 
Castriot    (Scanderbeg)     defeated    him,    but     re- 
treated only   to  gain   a  ^reat   victory   over  his 
former    adversary,   Hunniades,    at    Kossovo,   in 
1448;      was    the    first    Ottoman    emperor    who 
caused  bridges  of  ^reat  length  to  be  built;    in 
his    reign    poetry,    jurisprudence,    and    theology 
began  to  flourish.     Died  of  apoplexy  at  Adrian- 
ople, 1451. 
Anacreon    (d-nAk'^e-dn),    celebrated    Greek    lyric 
poet,  was  born  at  Teos  in  Ionia,  about  563  B.  C. 
He  was  patronized  by  Polycrates,  the  tyrant  of 
Samoa,  and  Hipparchus,  the  tyrant  of  Athens. 
He  died  at  Abdera,  about  478  B.  C,  suffocated 
by  a  grape-stone  while  in  the  act  of  drinking. 
His  poems  are  chiefly  devoted  to  the  praises  of 
love,  pleasure,  and  wine. 
Anastaslus    I.    (&n-ds-td'-shi-iis),    emperor   of   the 
East,  was  bom  430  at  Dyrrachium,  in  Epims, 
and   proclaimed   emperor   at   the   age   of   sixty. 
He   owed   his   elevation   to   Ariadne,    widow   of 
Zeno,    whom   he   married.     He   suppressed   the 
cruel  and  degrading  spectacles  where  men  fought 
with  wild  beasts,   abolished  the  sale  of  offices, 
the  tax  on  domestic  animals,  built  a  wall  on  the 
west  side  of  Constantinople  to  defend  it  from 
the    incursions    of    the    barbarians,    constructed 
aqueducts    in    the    city   of    Hierapohs,    made    a 
harbor  at  Caesarea,  and  restored  the  light-house 
at  Alexandria.     Died,  518. 
Anaxagoras    (dn-dks-dg'-d-rds),   Greek  philosopher 
of   the    Ionian  school,   was  bom  at  Clazomenae 
about  500  B.  C.     He  studied  under  Anaximenes. 
and,  after  traveling  through  all  the  known  parts 
of  the  globe  in  search  of   knowledge,  estabhshed 
himself   at   Athens,    where   he   opened   the   first 
school    of    philosophy.      Pericles,    Socrates,    and 
Euripides  were  among  his  pupils.     He  was  con- 
demned to  die  for  alleged  impiety,   a  sentence 
which  was  changed  to  exile,  when  he  retired  to 
Lampsacus,     and     there     continued     to     teach 
philosophy  until  his  death  about  428  B.  C. 
Andersen,    Hans    Christian,    novelist,    poet,    and 
writer  of   fairy   tales,    was   bom   at   Odense,    in 
Funen,   1805.     He  early  displayed  a  talent  for 
poetry,   and  was  known  in  his  native  place  as 
"the    comedy- writer."     He    was    placed    at    an 
advanced    school    at    the    public    expense,    and 
b^an    his    academic    education    in    1828.     He 
completed  his  Agnes  and  the  Merman  in  Switzer- 
land;    one    of     his     best     works.     The    Impro- 
visatore,  a  series  of  scenes  depicted  in  a  glowing 
style  and  full  of  poetic  interest,  was  the  fruit  of 
a  visit  to  Italy.     In  the  end  of  1840  he  com- 
menced  a   somewhat   lengthened  tour  in   Italy 
and  the  East,  of  which  he  gave  an  account  in 
A  Poefs  Bazaar,  1842.     In  1844  he  visited  the 
court  of  Denmark  by  special  invitation,  and  in 
the  following  year  received  an  annuity,   which 
placed  him  in  comfortable  circumstances.     His 
works  have  all  been  translated  into  German  and 
English.     His  Dying  Child  has  been  translated 
into  the  language  of  Greenland.    He  died  in  1875. 


since  1910.  was  bom  at  KalamMOo,  Mich..  ISM- 
»'"^ied  at  Cornell  unive«ity,  1870-7^;  uniVinrfty' 
of  Gottingen.  1875-76,  an(f  at  Pari,  1876^ 
was  consecutively  profwuor  at  Butler  univendty! 
lUiox  college,  Purdue  univemity,  ttUlb  univ«raitv 

<^,,y*rginxa  (with  introductory  mmy);  Hugo's 
WxUxam  Shakespeare:  Bolasler'.  Vm«.  d,  SMSni; 
Caros  George  Sand;  Simon's  Ktctor  CoZin: 
Sorela  Montesquieu;  Say's  Turgot;  RteliiMt's 
y  Atera;  Joutel's  Journal  o/  La  Saliva  Laat  Voyaot: 
Tonty's  Relation.  Editor:  Baetm't  KSm. 
Author:  Repretentative  PO0U  of  tkt  YiniiiintJi 
Century. 

Anderaon,  Rasmus  BJSm.  author,  diplomat;  bom 
at  Albion,  Wisconsin,  of  Norwegian  parentace 
1846;  graduate  of  Luther  coRege,  DeoorTb' 
Iowa,  1866;  A.  B.,  university  of  Wiaconain,  1886* 
LL.  D.,  1888;  professor  of  Greek  and  modem 
languages,  Albion  academy,  1866;  instructor 
in  languages,  1869-75.  professor  of  Scandinavian 
languages  and  literature,  1875-83.  university  of 
Wisconsin;  United  States  minister  to  Denmark, 
1885-89.  Editor  and  pubUsher  of  Amerikm 
since  1898.  Author:  Norae  Mythology;  Viking 
Talea    of  the   North;     America    Not    Diacovered 


by  Columbtis;    The  Younger  Edda;  First  Chapter 
of  Norwegian  Immigration,  1821-1840;  also  many 
translations    of    Norse    books,    and    author    of 
several  works  in  Norwegian. 
Andr&ssy   (dn'-drH-ahl),   Count   Oynlft,  Hungarian 
statesman,    was  bom    1823,   of  an   ancient   and 
noble  family;    espoused  the  popular  cause  in  the 
revolution  of  1848;    was  condemned  to  death  in 
1849,  but  escaped  and  went  into  exile.     In  1867, 
when  the  right  of  self-government  was  conceded 
to  Hungary,   he  was  appointed  premier  of  the 
new  Hungarian  ministry.     He  filled  many  di»- 
tinguished   and   important   posts  and   positions. 
He  was  member  of  the  Presburg  diet  in  1847-48: 
lord-lieutenant  of   the  county  of    Zemplin,  ana 
Hungarian  ambassador  to  Constantinople.      He 
was  member  of  the  diet  of  1861,  and  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  diet  of  1865-66 ;    minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  1871-79.     Died,  1890. 
Andr£   (dn'-drd  or  dn'-dri),  John,   British  soldier, 
bom  in  London,  England,  1751;    served  in  the 
war  with  America,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  maior. 
He   conducted   the   negotiations   with    Benedict 
Arnold  for  the  betrayal  of  West  Point,  but,  being 
discovered  in  disguise,  was  arrested  and  put  to 
death  as  a  spy.     His  remains  lie  in  Westminster 
abbey,  where  a  monument  was  erected   to  his 
memory.     Executed,  1780. 
Andrew,  John  Albion,  statesman,  "war  governor," 
was  bom  in  Maine,  1818;   died  at  Borton,  1867: 
graduate  of  Bowdoin  in  1837.     He  was  admittea 
to   the    Boston    bar   in    1840;     practiced    than 
twenty    years,    and    was    conspicuous    in    OMW 
arising  under  the  fugitive  slave  law.     In  1860  h* 
was  a  delegate  in  the  national  convention  whltdi 
nominated  Lincoln  for  president,  and  was  him- 
self   elected    governor    of    MasMchusetts.     H* 
foresaw  the  danger  of  civil  war  and  took  imiii»> 
diate  steps  to  periect   the  organisation  of  ths 
militia  of^  his  state.     In  1861,  and  yeariy  until 
he  insisted  on  retiring  in  1866,  he  was  reelected 
governor,  and  was  conspicuous  for  his  friendlr 
care  of  soldiers.     He  declined  the  offered  praM- 
dency  of  Antioch  college. 
Andrews,    Charles   McLean,    educator,    historian, 
professor  of  American  history,  Yale,  since  1910, 
bom  at  Wethersfield,  Conn.,  1863;   graduated  at 
Trinity  college.  Conn.,  1884,  A.  M.,  1890;   Ph.  D. 
Johns    Hopkins.     1889;     professor    of    history, 
Bryn  Mawr  college,  1880-1907,  Johns  Hopkins 


£32 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


univereity,  1907-10.  Author:  The  Historical 
Development  of  Modem  Europe;  Contemporary 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa;  A  History  of  England; 
Colonial  Self -Government. 

Andrewst  Ellsha  Benjamin,  educator,  author; 
born  at  Hinsdale,  N.  H.,  1844;  served  private  to 
second  lieutenant  of  Union  arnay  in  civil  war; 
wounded  at  Petersburg,  losing  an  eye;  graduate 
of  Brown  university,  1870-  Newton  theological 
institution,  1874;  principal  Connecticut  literary 
institution,  Suffield,  Conn.,  1870-72;  pastor 
First  Baptist  church,  Beverly,  Mass.,  1874-75; 
president  Denison  university,  Granville,  Ohio, 
1875-79;  professor  homiletics,  Newton  theologi- 
cal institution,  1879-82;  professor  history  and 
political  economy.  Brown  university,  1882-88; 
professor  political  economy  and  6nance,  Cornell, 
1888-89;  president  Brown  university,  1889-98; 
Buperintendent  schools,  Chicago,  1898-1900; 
chancellor  university  of  Nebraska,  1900-09, 
chancellor  emeritus  since  1909.  Author:  iTitti- 
tutca  of  Constitutional  History,  English  and  Ameri- 
can; Institutes  of  General  History;  Institutes  of 
Economics;  An  Honest  Dollar;  Wealth  and  Moral 
Law;  History  of  the  United  States;  History  of  the 
Last  Quarter  Century  in  the  United  States,  etc. 

Andres  (dn'-drds).  Sir  Edmund,  was  born  at  Lon- 
don, England,  in  1637;  died,  1714.  He  was 
governor  of  the  colony  of  New  York  for  eight 
years,  beginning  in  1674;  subsequently  he  was 
governor  of  New  England  for  three  years.  He 
was  deposed  by  the  colonies  and  then  was  made 
covernor  of  Virginia  for  six  years,  where  he 
founded  William  and  Mary  college.  He  was 
harsh,  and  ruled  without  any  regard  to  the 
wishes  of  the  colonists.  This  made  him  disliketl, 
in  spite  of  his  acknowledged  honesty  and  upright- 
ness. His  demand  for  the  charter  of  Connecticut 
is  famous.  To  get  it,  he  went  to  Hartford  with 
s  band  of  soldiers.  The  general  assembly  kept 
bim  talking  in  their  hall  until  night,  when  candles 
were  lighted  and  the  charter  brought  in  a  box 
and  laid  on  the  table.  Suddenly  the  lights  were 
blown  out.  They  were  quickly  lighted  again, 
but  the  charter  was  gone.  For  three  years  no 
one  knew  where  it  was,  but,  in  1789,  when  the 
new  king,  William  III.,  had  recalled  Andros, 
the  charter  was  carefully  taken  from  the  hollow 
of  an  oak  tree,  where  it  had  been  hastily  put  on 
the  night  it  disappeared.  This  tree  was  Known 
as  the  "charter  oak." 

Angellco  {Hn-jW-e-ko),  Fra,  the  name  by  which  we 
best  know  the  great  friar-painter,  Guido  di 
Pietri,  whose  monastic  name  was  Giovanni. 
He  was  born  in  1387  at  Vecchio  in  Tuscany. 
In  1407  he  entered  the  Dominican  monastery  at 
Fiesole,  in  1436  was  transferred  to  Florence,  and 
in  1445  was  sununoned  by  the  pope  to  Rome, 
where  he  afterward  chiefly  resided  until  his  death 
in  1455.  His  most  important  frescoes  are  those 
in  the  Florentine  convent  of  San  Marco  (now  a 
museum),  at  Orvieto,  and  in  the  Nicholas  chapel 
of  the  Vatican.  Others  were  painted  at  Cortona 
and  Fiesole.  Of  his  easel  pictures,  the  Louvre 
possesses  a  splendid  example,  "The  Coronation 
of  the  Virgin,"  and  the  London  national  gallery 
a  "Glory,  or  Christ,"  with  265  saints  —  both  of 
which  were  originally  at  Fiesole.  There  are  fine 
examples  of  his  art  in  the  Uffizi  at  Florence. 

Angell  (dn'-yjSi),  James  Burrill,  educator,  diplomat ; 
born  at  Scituate,  R.  I.,  1829;  graduate  of  Brown 
university,  1849;  professor  modern  languages 
and  literature,  Brown,  1853-60;  editor  Provi- 
dence Journal,  1860-66;  president  university 
of  Vermont,  1866-71 ;  president  universitjr  of 
Michigan,  1871-1909,  president  emeritus  since 
1909;  United  States  minister  to  China,  1880-81, 
member  Anglo-American  international  com- 
mission on  Canadian  fisheries,  1887;  chairman 
Canadian-American  commission  on  deep  water- 


ways from  lakes  tb  sea,  1896;  appointed  min- 
ister to  Turkey,  1897,  but  resigned  August,  1898. 
Author:  Progress  in  International  Law,  The 
Higher  Education. 

Angelo  {&n'-je-lo),  Michael  de  Buonarott«.  See 
MIchaelangelo,  page  128. 

Anglln  {dng'-glln),  Margaret  Mary,  actress,  was  bom 
at  Ottawa,  Canada,  1876;  educated  at  Loretto 
abbey,  Toronto,  and  convent  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  Montreal;  graduated  from  the  Empire 
school  of  dramatic  acting,  New  York,  1894. 
Made  professional  d^but  m  Shenandoah,  New 
York,  1904;  leading  lady  with  James  O'Neil, 
playing  in  The  Courier  of  Lyons,  Virginius, 
Hamlet,  Monte  Cristo,  1896-97;  leading  woman 
with  E.  H.  Sothern,  1897-98,  Richard  Mansfield, 
1898-99,  and  in  P^mpire  Theater  stock  com- 
pany; starred  in  Zira,  1905  06;  co-star  with 
Henry  Miller,  in  The  Great  Divide,  1906-07. 

AnKOulftme  (dN'-otJB'-Mm'),  Louis  Antolne  de  Boor- 
bon.  Due  d%  eldest  son  of  Charles  X.  of  France, 
was  bom  at  Versailles,  France,  1775.  He 
retired  from  France  along  with  his  father  after 
the  revolution,  and  lived  in  various  places, 
including  Holyrood.  In  1799  he  married  his 
cousin,  Marie  Therese,  only  daughter  of  Louis 
XVI.,  "the  onlv  man  in  the  family,"  in  the 
words  of  Napofeon.  After  the  restoration,  he 
made  a  feeble  effort,  as  lieutenant-general  of 
France,  to  oppose  Napoleon  on  his  return  from 
Elba;  in  1823  be  led  the  French  array  of 
invasion  into  Spain.  During  the  revolution  of 
1830  he  accompanied  his  father  into  exile,  and 
died  at  Gdrs  in  1844. 

Anna  Comnena  {kdm-nt'-nd),  a  learned  Byzantine 
princess,  author  of  one  of  the  most  valuable 
works  to  be  found  in  the  collection  of  the  Byzan- 
tine historians,  was  the  daughter  of  the  emperor 
Alexius  I.  (Comnenus).  and  was  bom  1083.  She 
early  displayed  a  fondness  for  literary  pursuits, 
but  was  also  habituated  from  her  childhood  to  the 
intrigues  of  the  court;  during  the  last  illneas 
of  her  father  she  entered  into  a  scheme,  which 
her  mother,  the  empress  Irene,  also  favored,  to 
induce  him  to  disinherit  his  eldest  surviving  son, 
John,  and  to  bestow  the  diadem  on  her.  Failing 
in  this  she  framed  a  conspiracy  against  the  life 
of  her  brother  in  1118.  Her  brother  spared  her 
life,  but  punished  her  by  confiscation  of  her 
property,  which,  however,  he  soon  afterward 
generously  restored.  Disappointed  and  ashamed, 
she  withdrew  from  the  court  and  sought  enjoy- 
ment in  literature.     Died,  1148. 

Anne  of  Austria,  daughter  of  Philip  III.  of  Spain, 
was  bom  at  Madrid  in  1601,  and  in  1615  became 
the  wife  of  Louis  XIII.  of  France.  The  marriage 
was  so  far  from  being  a  happy  one  that  the 
royal  pair  lived  for  twenty-three  years  in  a  state 
of  virtual  separation,  a  result  due  chiefly  to  the 
influence  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  whose  fixed 
determination  to  humble  the  house  of  Austria 
led  him  to  spare  no  means  for  alienating  the 
affections  of  Louis  from  his  queen.  On  the 
death  of  the  king,  in  1643,  Anne  became  queen- 
regent,  and  evinced  her  discernment  by  choosing 
as  her  minister  Cardinal  Mazarin,  by  whose  able 
management  the  young  king,  Louis  XIV.,  came, 
on  attaining  his  majority,  into  possession  of  a 
throne  firmly  established  on  the  ruins  of  con- 
tending parties.     She  died  in  1666. 

Anne  of  Beaujeu,  daughter  of  Louis  XL,  was  bom 
about  1462;  married  Peter  Beaujeu,  duke  of 
Bourbon,  and  constable  of  France.  She  acted 
as  regent  of  the  kingdom  during  the  minority  of 
her  brother,  Charies  VIII.     Died  in  1522. 

Anne  of  Brittany,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Duke 
Francis  II.,  was  bom  at  Nantes,  France,  in  1476. 
In  1491  she  was  united  to  Charles  VIII  ,  king  of 
France,  and  governed  the  kingdom  during  the 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


58S 


expedition  of  that  prince  to  Italy.  After  his 
death  she  married  Louis  XII.  in  1499.  over  whom 
she  exercised  great  influence.  She  aied  at  Blois 
in  1514. 

Anne  of  Cleves,  the  fourth  wife  of  Henry  VIII., 
to  whom  she  was  married  in  1540,  was  born  at 
Cleves,  Germanv,  1515.  She  was  the  daughter 
of  John,  third  duke  of  Cleves.  The  match  was 
projected  by  Cromwell,  and  was  partly  the  cause 
of  that  minister's  ruin.  Henry  put  her  aside, 
settled  on  her  a  liberal  annuity,  with  which  she 
was  well  satisfied,  and  she  spent  the  remainder 
of  her  days  in  England,  where  she  died  in 
1557. 

Anne,  Qneen  of  England,  was  the  second  daughter 
of  King  James  II.,  by  his  first  wife,  Anne  Hyde, 
and  was  bom  in  London,  England,  in  1665.  In 
1683  she  married  Prince  George,  brother  to  the 
king  of  Denmark,  by  whom  she  had  a  numerous 
family  of  children,  all  of  whom  died  young. 
Anne  ascended  the  throne  on  March  8,  1702. 
She  established  a  fund,  known  as  "Queen  Anne's 
bounty,"  for  the  augmentation  of  the  livings  of 
the  poor  clergy.  During  her  reign,  which  was 
made  illustrious  by  the  military  triumphs  of  the 
duke  of  Marlborough,  Sir  George  Rooke  and  Sir 
Cloudesley  Shovel  conquered  the  fortress  of 
Gibraltar,  a  possession  which  Spain  has  never 
been  able  to  regain ;  and  the  legislative  union  of 
Scotland  with  England  was  effected.  The 
glorious  galaxy  of  writers,  in  almost  every  branch 
of  learning,  who  flourished  in  her  time,  has  caused 
it  to  be  considered  the  Augustan  age  of  British 
literature.     She  died  in  1714. 

Annunzlo,  Gabrlele  d*.    See  D'Annunzio,  Gabriele. 

Anselm  of  Canterbury,  a  scholastic  philosopher, 
bom  at  Piedmont,  1033,  and  died  in  1109.  He 
led  at  first  a  dissipated  life,  and  wandered  through 
France,  disputing  wherever  he  could  find  an 
adversary.  Attracted  by  the  reputation  of 
Lafranc,  he  went  in  1060  to  study  at  the  monas- 
tery of  Bee,  in  Normandy.  Three  years  later  he 
became  prior,  and  in  1078  abbot  of  this  monas- 
tery, the  most  famous  school  of  the  eleventh 
century.  Lafranc,  who  in  the  meantime  had 
gone  to  England  and  become  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  died  in  1089,  and  in  1093  Anselm  was 
appointed  his  successor.  He  was  distinguished 
both  as  a  churchman  and  a  philosopher.  His 
numerous  embroilments  with  William  Rufus  and 
Henry  I.,  and  the  unbending  spirit  which  he  dis- 
played in  these,  even  when  subjected  to  banish- 
ment, indicate  the  vigor  and  resoluteness  of  his 
character  as  much  as  his  writings  exhibit  the 
depth  and  acuteness  of  his  intellect. 

Anson,  Sir  William  Beynell,  English  jurist,  was 
born  at  Walberton,  Sussex,  1843;  M.  P.  for 
Oxford  university  since  1899;  trustee  of  the 
national  portrait  gallery  since  1904;  chancellor 
of  the  diocese  of  Oxford  since  1899 ;  warden  of 
All  Souls'  college,  Oxford,  since  1881.  He  was 
educated  at  Eton  and  Balliol  college,  Oxford. 
Fellow  of  All  Souls',  1867;  barrister,  1869; 
bencher.  Inner  Temple,  1900;  Vinerian  reader 
in  English  law,  1874-81 ;  unsuccessful  candidate 
for  West  Staffordshire,  1880;  warden  of  All 
Souls',  1881;  fellow  of  Eton  college,  1883; 
alderman,  city  of  Oxford,  1892-96;  chairman 
of  quarter  sessions  for  Oxfordshire,  1894;  vice- 
chancellor  of  the  university  of  Oxford,  1898-99; 
parliamentary  secretary  to  the  board  of  educa- 
tion, 1902-05.  Publications:  Principles  of  the 
English  Law  of  Contract,  Law  and  Custom  of  the 
Constitution. 

Anthony  of  Padua,  St^  bom  at  Lisbon^  1195,  was 
at  first  an  Augustinian  monk,  but  m  1220  he 
entered  the  Franciscan  order,  and  became  one  of 
the  most  active  propagators.  He  preached  in 
the  south  of  France  and  upper  Italy,  and  died 
at  Padua  in  1231.     He  waa  canonized  by  Gregory 


IX.  in  the  following  year.  Aooordiac  to  l«f«xl, 
he  preached  to  the  QahM  whan  mtn  rafuMd  to 
hear  him ;  heno«  be  ia  the  pataon  of  tlM  km«r 
animals,    and   ia   often   repra— itwi  M  Moom* 

panied  by  a  pig. 

Anthony  the  Great,  8i„  the  founder  of  mooaatlc 
institutions,  was  bom,  251,  near  Heraeleay  in 
upper  Egypt.  In  285,  having  aold  all  hia 
property  and  given  the  proceeda  to  the  poor, 
he  withdrew  into  the  dencrt  whither  a  numbar 
of  disciples  were  attracted  by  hia  reputation  for 
sanctity;  and  thus  was  formed  the  firat  eom- 
munity  of  monks.  He  afterward  went  to 
Alexandria  to  seek  the  honor  of  martyrdom 
amid  the  persecutions  there  raging  againat  the 
Christians;  but  as  his  life  was  apared,  ha  again 
returned  to  the  desert,  and  died  at  the  great 
age  of  105. 

Anthony,  Susan  Brownell,  reformer:  bom  at 
Adams,  Mass.,  1820;  educated  at  BattenviUe, 
N.  Y.,  and  1837-38  at  Friends'  boarding  school. 
West  Philadelphia.  Taught  school  from  age  of 
fifteen  to  thirty;  aided  in  1852  in  organizing  the 
first  state  woman's  temperance  society;  active 
in  anti-slavery  and  woman's  rights  work;  organ- 
izer and  secretary  of  women's  national  loyal 
lea^e  during  civil  war.  After  the  war,  waa 
entirely  devoted  to  the  woman's  suffrage  move- 
ment; founded  in  18C8  The  Revolution,  exclu- 
sively woman's  rights  {laper;  managed  it  several 
years;  in  1869  organized,  with  Mrs.  Stanton, 
national  woman  suffrage  association;  joint 
author  with  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton  and 
Mrs.  Matilda  Joslyn  Gage  of  The  History  of 
Woman  Suffrage  (3  vols.),  and  of  volume  iv. 
with  Mrs.  Ida  Husted  Harper;  contributed^ to 
leading  magazines  and  lectured  in  England  and 
throughout  the  United  States.     Died.  1906. 

Antlgonus  {dn-tlg'-6-niis\  Cyclops,  or  ''one-eyed," 
a  distinguished  general  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
on  whose  death  he  became  governor  of  Phrygia. 
Lycia,  and  Pamphylia,  and,  after  defeating  and 
slaying  Eumenes,  and  waging  other  successful 
wars,  assumed  the  title  of  King.  His  ambitious 
schemes  united  his  rivals,  and  he  was  slain  in 
battle  of  Ipsus.     Died,  301  B.  C. 

Antlochus  i&n-tl'-d-kiis)  IIL,  sumamed  the  Great* 
was  bom  about  238  B.  C. ;  succeeded  his  father, 
Seleucus  Callinicus,  as  kinfj  of  Syria  in  223  B.  C, 
and  was  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Scleucida. 
He  failed  to  recover  Parthia  and  Bactria,  but 
waged  war  with  success  against  Ptolemy  Philo- 
pator,  and  though  defeated  at  Raphia  near  Gasa. 
217,  he  afterward  obtained  entire  posdeasion  of 
Palestine  and  Coele-Syria,  dowering  therewith 
his  daughter  Cleopatra  on  her  betrothal  to  the 
young  king,  Ptolemy  of  Egypt.  He  afterward 
became  involved  in  war  with  the  Romana,  who 
had  conquered  Macedonia;  but  declined  to 
invade  Italy  at  the  instigation  of  HannibaljWho 
had  come  to  his  court  of  refuge.  He  croaaed 
over  into  Greece,  but  was  defeated  in  101  at 
Thermopylae,  and  in  190  by  Scipio  at  Magnesia. 
Peace  was  granted  him  only  on  condition  of  hia 
jrielding  all  his  dominions  east  of  Mount  Taurua, 
and  pajfing  a  heavy  tribute.  To  raise  the  money, 
he  attack^  a  rich  temple  in  Elymais,  when  the 
people  rose  against  him,  and  killed  him  in  187 

Antlochus  IVm  sumamed  Epipbanes,  became  king 
of  Syria  in  175  B.  C.  He  fought  against  Egypt 
and  conquered  a  great  part  of  it.  He  twice  took 
Jerusalem;  and,  endeavoring  there  to  establiah 
the  worship  of  Greek  gods,  excited  the  Jews  to  • 
successful  insurrection  under  Mattathiaa  and  hia 
heroic  sons,  the  Maccabees.     Died,  164  B.  C. 

Antipater  {&n-tlj/-d-Ur).  Of  the  many  peraooa 
who  bore  this  name  in  antiquity  the  most  cele- 
brated was  one  of  the  generals  of  King  PhiHp 
of    Macedon,    bom    about    400    B.    C.     When 


034 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Alexander  led  his  troops  into  Asia  he  left  Antip- 
ater,  who,  along  with  Parmenion,  had  endeavored 
to  dissuade  him  from  the  expedition,  as  governor 
of  Macedon.  Antipater  discharged  the  duties  of 
this  office  with  great  ability,  suppressing  the 
Insurrections  in  Thrace  and  Sparta;  but  Ol^m- 
pias,  the  mother  of  Alexander,  who  entertained 
a  dialike  to  Antipater,  prevailed  on  her  son  to 
appoint  Craterus  as  regent  of  Macedonia.  Alex- 
ander, prompted  also,  it  is  supposed,  by  his  own 
jealousy  of  Antipater,  consented,  but  died  before 
the  change  was  carried  into  effect,  and,  in  spite 
of  his  enemies,  Antipater  was  left  to  share  with 
Craterus  the  government  of  Alexander's  terri- 
tories in  ?]urope.     He  died  319  B.  C. 

Antipater  of  Idumea,  father  of  Herod  the  Great; 
took  part  in  the  disputes  between  Hyrcanus  II. 
and  Aristobulus  II.  He  assisted  in  placing 
Hyrcanus  on  the  throne  of  Judica  63  B.  €.,  and 
contrived  to  get  the  power  in  his  own  hands. 
He  was  afterward  appointed  procurator  of  all 
Jud»a.     Died,  43  B.  C. 

Antoinette,  Marie.  See  Marie  Antoinette,  JosApbe 
Jeanne. 

Antonelll  (dn-td^nil'-le).  Cardinal  Glacomo,  Roman 
prelate  and  statesman,  was  bom  in  Italy  in 
1806,  and  died  at  Home  in  1876.  He  was  raised 
to  the  cardinalate  in  1847,  and  was  for  a  time 
secretary  of  foreign  affairs  for  the  papal  states. 
As  a  champion  of  the  papal  interest,  he  stren- 
uously opposed  the  union  of  Italy,  under  Victor 
Emmanuel.  He  was  chief  adviser  and  prime 
minister  of  Pope  Pius  IX.  and  during  the  Italian 
revolution  of  1848  he  accompanied  his  holiness 
in  his  flight  to  the  seaport  of  Gaeta. 

Antoninus  {&n-tt>-nl'-niui\  Marcus  Aurellus.  See 
Marcus  Aurellus  Antoninus. 

Antoninus  Plus  (Titus  Aurellus  Fulvus),  Roman 
emperor,  was  bom  86  A.  D.  The  family  of 
Antoninus  was  originally  from  Nemausus,  now 
Nimcs,  in  Gaul.  He  inlierited  great  wealth,  and 
early  gave  proof  of  excellent  qualities.  In  120 
he  was  made  consul;  afterward  was  sent  by 
Hadrian  as  proconsul  into  Asia,  where  the 
wisdom  and  gentleness  of  his  rule  won  for  him 
a  higher  reputation  than  had  been  enjoyed  by 
any  of  his  predecessors.  In  138  he  was  adopted 
by  the  emperor  Hadrian,  in  consequence  of 
merit  alone,  and  came  to  the  throne  in  the  same 
year.  The  reign  of  Antoninus  was  proverbially 
peaceful  and  happy.  The  persecution  of  Chris- 
tians, which  was  continura  during  his  reign, 
was  partly  stayed  by  his  mild  measures.  He 
died  at  Lorium.  Italy,  in  161. 

Antony,  Mark,  celebrated  Roman  general,  was  bom 
at  Rome  in  83  B.  C.  He  fought  bravely  as  a 
soldier  in  Syria,  Egypt,  and  in  Gaul  under  Caesar, 
whose  firm  friend  he  became.  He  took  part  in 
Caesar's  great  victory  of  Pharsalia,  and  with  him 
was  made  consul  in  44  B.  C.  After  Csesar  was 
killed,  Antony,  with  Augustus  and  Lcpidus, 
formed  a  government  called  the  triumvirate, 
which  defeated  the  republican  army  of  Brutus 
and  Cassius  at  Philippi.  Some  time  after, 
Antony  visited  Greece  and  Asia,  and  met  the 
fascinating  Cleopatra,  queen  of  Egjrpt.  His  love 
for  her  made  him  forget  the  provinces  he  was  to 
govern.  When  at  last  he  turned  his  attention  to 
them,  his  rule  was  so  despotic  that  Augustus  sent 
a  force  against  him,  and  defeated  him  in  the 
naval  battle  of  Actium,  during  the  progress  of 
which  he  was  deserted  by  the  Egyptian  fleet. 
He  took  his  own  life  in  30  B.  C. 

Aold  (&'-6-ke)f  Tlscount  Sluxo,  diplomatist;  was 
bom  at  Choshu,  Japan,  1844;  studied  in  Berlin 
university,  Germany,  1869-73 ;  secretary  Japan^ 
ese  legation  at  Berlin,  1873-74;  Japanese  min- 
ister to  Germany,  1874-75  and  1892-96;  minister 
to  Great  Britain,  1894 ;  vice-minister  for  foreign 
a£fairs,    Japan, ^,  1886-89 ;     minister   for   foreig^n 


affairs,  188^91,  1898-1900;  privy  councillor 
1900-O6;  ambassador  to  United  States,  1906-08. 
Decorated  with  first-class  order  of  the  rising  sun. 

Apelles  (d-pil'-Uz),  the  most  celebrated  painter  in 
ancient  times,  the  son  of  Pythias,  and  probably 
bom  at  Colophon,  Asia  Minor.  He  m>urished 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  century  B.  C, 
and  he  united  the  fine  coloring  of  the  Ionian 
with  the  accurate  drawing  of  the  Sicyonic  schooL 
During  the  time  of  Phihp,  Apelles  \dsit^  Mace- 
don, where  he  became  the  intimate  friend  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  It  was  probably  at  the 
Macedonian  court  that  the  best  days  of  ApeUes 
were  spent.  The  period  of  liis  aeath  is  not 
known.  The  most  celebrated  of  his  paintings 
were  "Anadyomene,"  or  "Venus  Rising  from  the 
Sea,"  and  similar  subjects;  but  he  cultivated 
the  heroic  as  well  as  the  graceful  style.  Hi* 
ideal  portrait  of  Alexander  wielding  a  thunder- 
bolt was  highly  esteemed,  and  preserved  in  the 
temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus. 

Apollodoms  id-pOl-^^-dd'-rCui),  a  great  architect  of 
the  second  century,  was  bom  at  Damascus. 
He  worked  at  Rome  for  the  em{>eror  Trajan, 
and  built  the  forum  and  column  which  bear 
that  monarch's  name,  but  his  greatest  work  was 
a  huge  bridge  over  the  Danube  at  its  confluence 
with  the  Alt.  He  was  banished  and  put  to 
death  by  Hadrian. 

Apollonlus  (&p-6l-l0'^nl-ii»)  of  Perga,  in  Asi» 
Minor,  called  "the  great  geometer,"  lived  in 
the  second  half  of  the  third  century,  B.  C.  He 
was  educated  at  Alexandria,  and  wrote  a  treatise 
on  Conic  Sectiona  in  eight  books.  He  is  generally 
considered  one  of  the  founders  of  the  mathe- 
matical sciences. 

Apolkmlas,  called  the  Rhodian  (Apollonlus  Rho- 
dius^,  was  bom  in  Alexandria  230  B.  C.  He 
presided  over  an  academy  at  Rhodes,  was  an 
eminent  rhetorician,  and  wrote  a  poem,  in  four 
books,  on  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts,  and 
other  poems. 

Apollonlus  of  Tyana,  in  Cappadocia,  bom  about 
3  B.  C,  was  a  cealous  neo-Pythagorean  teacher, 
who  collected  many  disciples,  traveled  through 
a  great  part  of  Asia  Minor,  and  ultimately  made 
his  way  to  India.  On  this  journey  he  was 
introduced  to  the  Magi  at  Babylon,  and  at  the 
court  of  King  Phraortee,  in  India,  made  the 
acquaintance  of  the  notable  Brahmins.  When 
he  returned  his  fame  as  a  wise  man  was  greatly 
increased;  the  people  regarded  him  as  a  worker 
of  miracles  and  a  divine  being,  and  princes  were 
glad  to  entertain  him.  He  was  patronized  by 
Vespasian,  and  followed  him  to  Egypt.  After 
travels  in  Spain,  Italy,  and  Greece,  he  was 
accused  of  coiwpiring  with  Nerva  against  Domi- 
tian;  ultimately  he  appears  to  have  settled  in 
Ephesus,  where  he  taught  until  he  died,  neariy 
one  hundred  years  old. 

Apponyi  (dp'-po-nye).  Count  Albert,  royal  Hun- 
garian nunister  of  pubhc  education  since  1906, 
was  bom  1846,  son  of  Count  George  Apponyi, 
late  chief-justice  of  the  kingdom  of  Hungary. 
He  was  educated  at  the  college  of  the  Jesuits  at 
Ralksburg,  and  the  universities  of  Vienna  and 
Budapest.  Member  of  the  house  of  commons 
since  1872;  speaker  in  the  same,  1902-04;  has 
spent  almost  nis  whole  parliamentary  career  in 
opposition.  He  has  written  many  articles  on 
questions  of  Hungarian  public  law  in  Hungarian, 
French,  German,  English,  and  American  maga- 
zines.    He  visited  the  United  States  in  1911. 

Apponyi,  Count  George,  Hungarian  statesman,  was 
bom  1808.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Presburg 
diet  of  1843,  and  chancellor  of  Hungary  in  1847, 
when  he  opposed  the  revolutionary  movements 
then  brealung  out,  and  which  caused  his  retire- 
ment. In  1859  he  was  made  a  member  of  the 
imp>erial  council  in  Vienna,  and  was  instrumental 


THROUGHOUT  THE   WORLD 


W 


ia  briaging  about  the  reconciliation  between 
Austria  and  Hungary.  He  is  classed  among  the 
ablest  of  European  statesmen.      Died,  1899. 

Apuleius  (&p-u-li'-yus),  a  satirical  writer  of  the 
second  century,  bom  at  Numidia,  Africa;  studied 
at  Carthage.  He  went  to  Athens,  where  he 
entered  keenly  upon  the  study  of  philosophy, 
displaying  a  special  predilection  for  tne  Platonic 
school.  He  visited  Italy,  Asia,  etc.,  and  was 
initiated  into  numerous  religious  mysteries. 
The  knowledge  of  the  priestly  fraternities  which 
he  thus  acquired  he  made  abundant  use  of 
afterward  in  his  Golden  Ass.  He  was  so  ex- 
tremely popular  that  the  senate  of  Carthage 
and  other  states  erected  statues  in  his  honor. 

Aquinas   (d-kivi'-nds),  St.  Thomas.     See  page  274. 

Arab!  Ahmed  (d-ra'-he)  ("Arabi  Pasha  ),  leader 
of  the  military  insurrection  in  Egypt  in  1882, 
was  bom  in  Egypt  about  1841.  He  was  for 
twelve  years  a  private  soldier  in  the  Egyptian 
army,  then  rose  to  be  colonel,  minister  of  war, 
and  pasha.  He  proclaimed  to  his  troops  that  he 
was  inspired  by  the  prophet  to  undertake  a  holy 
mission,  the  motto  of  which  was,  "Egvpt  for  the 
Egyptians,"  and  he  thus  became  the  leader  of  a 
great  rebellion.  A  massacre  by  his  forces  at 
Alexandria  followed.  The  English  came  to  the 
help  of  the  khedive,  and  their  fleet  bombarded 
and  dismantled  the  forts  at  Alexandria.  The 
war  lasted  but  a  few  months,  Arabi's  army  being 
entirely  defeated  at  Tel-el-kebir,  in  1882,  by  the 
English  under  General  Wolseley.  After  his  de- 
feat Arabi  was  banished  to  Ceylon,  but  was 
permitted  to  return  in  1901.      Died,  1911. 

Arago  i&r'-d-go),  Dominique,  celebrated  French 
philosopher,  was  bom  at  Estagel,  France,  1786. 
In  1806  he  was  engaged  with  Biot  in  measuring 
an  arc  of  meridian.  His  subsequent  life  was 
distinguished  by  an  ardent  and  successful  devo- 
tion to  science.  In  1816,  with  Gay-Lussac,  he 
established  the  Annates  de  Chimie  et  de  Physique, 
and  confirmed  the  truth  of  the  undulatory 
theory  of  light.  In  the  same  year  he  visited 
England.  In  1818  appeared  his  Recueil  d' 
Observations  gSodisiques,  astronomiques,  et  phy- 
siques. In  1820  he  made  several  important 
discoveries  in  electro-magnetism.  He  was  also 
eminent  as  a  liberal  politician.     He  died  in  1853. 

Aratus  {d-ra'-tHs)  of  Sicyon,  Greek  statesman,  bom 
at  Sicyon,  Greece,  271  B.  C. ;  died  213  B.  C.  He 
Hberated  Sicyon  from  the  tyrant  Nicocles  in  251. 
His  great  object  was  to  unite  the  Greek  states, 
and  so  form  an  independent  nation.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  poisoned  by  Philip  of  Macedon. 

Arbaces  (dr-bd'-sez),  one  of  the  generals  of  Sardana- 
palus,  and  the  founder  in  876  B.  C.  of  the  Median 
empire.  In  conspiracy  with  a  Chaldean  priest 
who  commanded  the  troops  from  Babylon,  he 
revolted,  gained  the  assistance  of  several  promi- 
nent officers,  and  defeated  Sardanapalus,  who 
conunitted  suicide.  The  dynasty  of  Arbaces 
lasted  until  559  B.  C,  when  Cvrus  overthrew  it. 

Arbutlinot  {ar-biUh'^ndt  or  dr-bHth^ndt),  John, 
British  physician  and  wit,  the  much-loved 
friend  of  Swift  and  Pope,  was  bom  at  Arbuthnot, 
Scotland,  1667i  He  studied  at  Aberdeen  and 
University  college,  Oxford,  but  took  his  M.  D. 
degree  at  St.  Andrews,  1696.  Settling  in  Lon- 
don, where  before  this  he  had  taught  mathe- 
matics, in  1697  he  attracted  notice  by  his  exami- 
nation of  Dr.  Woodward's  account  of  the  deluge. 
Accident  called  him  into  attendance  on  Prince 
George  of  Denmark;  in  1705  he  was  appointed 
physician  to  the  queen,  and  her  death  in  1714 
was  a  severe  blow  to  his  prosperity.  In  1715, 
along  with  Pope,  he  assisted  Gay  in  Three  Hours 
after  Marriage,  a  farce.  He  pronounced  the 
Harveian  oration  in  1727,  and  died  1735.  Utterly 
ceu^less  of  Uterary  fame,  Arbuthnot  was  the 
chief    if  not   the  sole   author  of  the    brilliant 


Memoirs  of  Martinua  SeribUrus,  firat  pubUahwl 
in  Pope's  works.  He  wrote,  also,  th*  paUbratod 
History  of  John  Bull. 

Arc  Joan  of.     See  Joan  of  Are. 

ArchlmedM  (ar-M-m4'-dte),  the  moat  eelabratod 
mechanician  of  antiquity,  was  bom  in  Syraeuaa^ 
Sicily,  about  287  B.  C,  and  died  212  B.  C.  H« 
is  said  to  have  visited  Egypt  in  early  life,  and  (o 
have  invented  there  several  hydraulic  machlnaa, 
including  the  Archimedean  screw,  which  he 
applied  to  drainage  and  irrigation.  V'itruvius 
relates  that  he  discovered  the  principle  of  specific 
gravity  while  pondering  the  means  of  detecting 
a  supposed  fraud  in  the  debasenient  of  a  golden 
crown  of  King  Hiero  with  silver,  by  observing 
that  his  body  would  displace  its  own  bulk  of 
water  in  a  full  bath  tub,  and  ran  home  naked 
exclaiming.  Eureka,  eureka,  "I  have  found  it. 
I  have  found  it."  In  his  old  age  he  defended 
Syracuse  against  the  Romans  under  Marcellus 
with  great  mechanical  skill,  and  wius  killed  at  its 
capture.  His  purely  mathematical  works  show 
that  he  far  excelled  all  who  preceded  him.  The 
most  celebrated  are  on  the  ratio  of  the  sphere  and 
cylinder,  on  the  ratio  of  the  circumference  to  a 
diameter,  on  spiral  lines,  and  on  the  parabola. 

AretKUS  {&r-e-te'-iis),  a  famous  Greek  physician  of 
Cappadocia,  flourished  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
first  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  second  century 
after  Christ.  He  is  considered  to  rank  next  to 
Hippocrates  in  the  skill  with  which  he  treated 
diseases.  His  great  work  is  divided  into  two 
parts.  The  first  four  books  treat  of  the  causes 
and  symptoms  of  acute  and  chronic  diaeaaes,  and 
the  second  of  their  cure. 

Argand  {dr'-gds',  Eng.  dr'-g&nd),Kiml,  Swiss  physi- 
cian and  chemist,  was  bom  in  Geneva  al>out  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  He  invented 
the  "Argand  lamp,"  which  was  brought  out  in 
England  in  1782.  The  patent  was  also  claimed 
by  a  Frenchman,  Ambroise  Lange,  and  finally 
taken  out  in  France  in  their  joint  names,  the 
priority  of  invention  being  conceded  to  Argand. 
The  French  revolution,  however,  deprived  him 
of  all  profit  from  his  patent.  Died  in  Switserland 
in  1803. 

ArgyU  {dr-gil'),  Archibald  Campbell,  Marquis  of, 
was  the  descendant  of  Sir  Colin  Campbell  of 
Lochow  or  Loch  Awe,  who  was  knighted  in  1286. 
Archibald  was  bom  in  1598,  and  in  1619,  his 
father  having  turned  Catholic  and  quitted  Scot- 
land, became  the  sole  potentate  of  all  the  broad 
lands  of  his  line.  In  the  general  assembly  at 
Glasgow  in  1638  he  openly  took  the  side  of  the 
covenanters,  and  next  year  joined  Leslie's 
encampment  on  Duns  Law.  In  1640  he  marched 
with  4,000  men  through  Badenoch,  Athole,  Mar, 
and  Angus,  enforcing  subjection  to  the  Scottish 
parliament.  Charles,  on  his  visit  to  Scotland  in 
1641,    created    him    marquis.     In    1644    he   di»- 

Sersed  the  royalist  forces  under  Huntly;  but 
[ontrose  in  1645  annihilated  his  army  at 
Inverlochy.  He  was  strongly  opposed  to  the 
king's  execution;  In  1651  he  crowned  Charles  II. 
at  Scone.  After  the  defeat  of  Worcester  be 
defended  himself  for  nearly  a  year  in  his  castle 
of  Inverarav  against  Cromwell  s  troops;  but  in 
1652  he  submitted  to  the  protector.  At  the 
restoration  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower, 
from  there  taken  by  sea  to  Leith  in  1661,  and 
beheaded.  A  gorgeous  monument  was  ereetad 
to  him  in  1895  in  St.  Giles's  cathedral. 
Argyll.  Geonte  John  DouKlas,  eighth  duke  of,  was 
bom  in  1823,  and  died  in  1900.  He  held  impor- 
tant offices  in  the  English  government,  and  was 
a  liberal  in  politics.  He  also  wrote  valuable 
religious  and  scientific  works,  among  them  Th« 
Reign  of  Law,  and  Primeval  Man.  His  eldest 
son,  the  marquis  of  Lome,  married  Princess 
Louise,  the  fourth  daughter  of  Queen  Victori*. 


536 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


This  is  the  first  instance  of  the  marriage  of  a 
daughter  of  a  reigning  sovereign  of  England  to  a 
subject.  The  marquis  succeeded  to  the  dukedom 
on  the  death  of  his  father. 

Ariosto  (ii-ri-ds'-ld),  Ludovico,  one  of  the  greatest 
of  Italian  poets,  born  at  lieg^o  1474,  died  at 
Ferrara  1533.  His  imaginative  powers  were 
developed  in  early  life.  In  1603  he  was  intro- 
duced to  the  court  of  the  cardinal  Ippolito 
d'Este.  who  employed  him  in  many  negotiations. 
Here  ne  produced  his  poem  Orlando  Furioso, 
which  was  published  in  Ferrara  in  1516. 

Arlovlstus  {iX-ri-d-vls'-tiis),  a  chief  of  the  Marco- 
manui,  a  German  tribe,  who  crossed  the  Rhine 
to  aid  the  Scouani  against  the  ^Edui,  and  occupied 
a  considerable  territory  in  Gaul,  but  was  finally 
defeated  by  Caesar  at  Vcsontium  (Besan^on),  in 
68  B.  C. 

Arlstarchus  (dr-ia-tar'-k'iia)  of  Samos,  an  Alex- 
andrian astronomer,  flourished  280-264  B.  C. 
He  seems  to  have  anticipated  Copernicus,  main- 
taining that  the  earth  moves  round  the  sun.  He 
wrote  a  treatise  on  the  magnitude  and  distance 
of  the  sun  and  moon. 

Arlstldea  (dr-la-ti'-dez),  surnamed  "the  just,"  was 
the  son  of  Lysimachus.  He  was  one  of  the  ten 
leaders  of  the  Athenians  against  the  Persians  at 
the  battle  of  Marathon,  490  B.  C.  It  had  been 
arranged  that  each  leader,  or  atraUgos,  should 
hold  the  supreme  command  for  one  day;  but 
Aristides,  who  saw  the  folly  of  this  want  of  unity, 
induced  his  companions  to  give  up  their  claims 
and  make  Miltiades  commander-in-chief,  which 

S roved  the  means  of  winning  the  battle.  In  477 
.  C.  he  introduced  a  change  of  the  constitution 
by  which  all  citizens,  without  distinction  of  rank, 
were  admitted  to  political  offices.    Died,  468  B.  C. 

ArtstippuB  (dr-la-tlji'-piis),  the  founder  of  the 
Cyrenaic  school  of  philosophy  among  the  Greeks, 
was  tlie  son  of  Artiades,  a  wealthy  gentleman  of 
Cyrene,  in  Africa,  and  was  born  in  that  city  about 
426  B.  C.     He  was  a  pupil  of  Socrates. 

Aristophanes  (dr-la-td/'-d-nez),  the  most  celebrated 
of  tlie  ancient  Athenian  writers  of  comedy,  was 
contemporary  with  Socrates  and  Plato.  He  was 
bom  at  Athens,  probably  about  444  B.  C.  He 
began  writing  when  very  young,  and  his  first 
plays  were  brought  out  under  another  name, 
Decause  he  was  not  old  enough  to  contend  for 
the  prize.  He  wrote,  in  all,  fifty-four  comedies, 
but  only  eleven  have  come  down  to  us.  The 
Knights  and  The  Clouds  are  among  his  most 
admired  pieces.  Others  are  The  Wasps,  The 
Birds,  ana  Ttie  Frogs.  Aristophanes  laughed  at 
everything  and  everybody,  especialljr  at  every- 
thing new.  He  liked  old  Athens,  "as  it  had  been 
in  the  days  of  the  Persian  wars,"  and  thus  failed 
to  see  the  good  in  men  Uke  Socrates.  One  of  his 
finest  plays,  The  Clouds,  is  a  satire  against 
Socrates.  His  plays  have  in  them  specimens  of 
the  most  beautiful  and  finished  poetry.  He 
died  about  380  B.  C. 

ArlstoUe  i&r'-is-tdt-'l).     See  page  266. 

Arisugawa  {&-resdi>-g&'-wd).  Prince  Takehlto,  mem- 
ber of  Japanese  supreme  council  of  war,  was 
bom  in  1862.  He  belongs  to  one  of  the  four 
imperial  families  of  Japan.  Visited  England 
when  a  naval  cadet ;  was  a  midshipman  for  two 
years  on  H.  M.  S.  Iron  Duke;  served  in  channel 
sc^uadron;  studied  at  naval  college,  Green- 
wich; commanded  cruiser  Matsushima  through- 
out war,  1894-95;  admiral  superintendent  of 
Yokosuka;  represented  Japan  at  diamond 
jubilee  of  Queen  Victoria,  of  England,  and  again 
visited  England  in  1905. 

Arius  {a'-rl-us  or  d-ri'-iis),  fb\inder  of  Arianism, 
was  bom  in  Libya  about  256  A.  D.,  was  trained 
in  Antioch,  and  became  a  presbyter  in  Alexandria. 
Here  about  318  he  maintained,  against  his  bishop, 
that  the  Son  was  not  co-equal  or  co-eternal  with 


the  Father,  but  only  the  first  and  highest  of  all 
finite  beings,  created  out  of  notlxing  by  an  act  of 
God's  free-will.  He  secured  the  adherence  of 
clergy  and  laity  in  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Asia  Minor, 
but  was  deposed  and  excomxuunicated  in  321  by 
a  synod  oi  bishops  at  Alexandria.  Eusebius, 
bishop  of  Nicomedia,  absolved  him,  and  in  323 
convened  another  synod  in  Bithynia,  which 
pronounced  in  his  favor.  He  defended  his  views 
before  the  council  of  Nicaea,  325,  but  they  were 
condemned.     Died  at  Constantinople,  336. 

Arkwright,  Richard,  Sir.     See  page  372. 

Anninius  {Qr-min'-i-^ds),  a  German  chieftain,  prince 
of  the  Cherusci,  was  bom  about  18  B.  C,  and 
died  by  assassination  in  21  A.  D.  He  became  a 
Roman  citizen  and  served  as  a  soldier  in  the 
Roman  army.  Coming  home,  be  found  the  whole 
country  stirred  up  by  the  cruelties  of  Varus,  the 
Roman  governor,  and  became  the  head  of  a  con- 
spiracy. He  induced  the  Roman  general  to 
scatter  his  troops  in  small  detachments,  saying 
that  it  would  keep  better  order  among  the  Ger- 
mans. News  of  the  conspiracy  caused  Varus  to 
march  into  the  interior,  but  the  scattered  Roman 
troops  were  murdered,  the  main  body  was  sur- 
rounded and  killed  almost  to  a  man.  Varus 
taking  his  own  life.  Rome  was  filled  with  shame. 
The  emperor  Augustus  kept  crying  for  days: 
"Varus,  give  me  oack  my  legions!  Germani- 
cus  marched  against  the  Cherusci,  but  accom- 
plished nothing.  The  next  year  he  marched 
again  with  80,000  men  and  a  fleet;  Arminius 
artfully  led  him  into  narrow  passes,  then,  falling 
upon  him,  cut  off  his  cavalry,  almost  destroyed 
four  legions  and  forced  him  to  retreat.  The 
next  year  the  undaunted  Germanicus  came  with 
100,000  men  and  1,000  ships.  On  a  plain,  called 
"no-man's  meadow,"  a  great  battle  was  fought. 
The  Germans  were  beaten,  but  the  next  morning 
they  compelled  the  Romans  to  retreat.  From 
this  time  no  Roman  army  ever  marched  beyond 
the  Rhine,  and  Arminius  is,  therefore,  justly 
called  the  "German  liberator." 

Arminius,  Jacob,  teacher  of  the  system  of  Armini- 
anism,  bom  1660,  at  Oudewater,  a  small  town  in 
Holland.  He  studied  at  the  university  of 
Leyden,  attended  the  school  of  theology  in 
Geneva,  and  later  studied  at  Basel.  He  was 
ordained  at  Amsterdam  in  1688,  and  soon  became 
distinguished  as  a  preacher.  In  1589  he  con- 
sented to  answer  a  book  which  attacked  the 
doctrine  of  Calvinism,  and  while  preparing  to  do 
so  embraced  the  doctrine  which  he  was  trj-ing  to 
refute.  In  1603  he  became  professor  in  the 
university  of  Leyden,  and  received  the  degree  of 
D.  D.,  the  first  ever  conferred  by  that  institution. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  age,  a 
preacher  of  great  jxtpular  power  and  an  author  of 
rare  ability.     He  died  in  1609. 

Armour,  Philip  D.,  merchant,  capitalist,  head  for 
many  years  of  the  great  firm  of  Armour  &  Com- 
pany, pork  packers  and  dealers  in  dressed  meats 
and  provisions,  was  bom  at  Stockbridge,  N.  Y., 
1832,  and  died  at  Chicago  in  1901.  His  fortune 
was  largely  made  in  the  inomense  commission 
business  he  conducted  in  Chicago  and  elsewhere, 
and  in  railways.  His  wealth  was  estimated  at 
his  death  at  about  forty  millions.  The  chief 
object  of  his  benevolence  was  the  Armour  insti- 
tute of  technology  in  Chicago,  which  was  opened 
in  1893. 

Armstrong,  John,  American  soldier  and  writer, 
was  born  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  1758;  died.  1843.  He 
served  in  the  revolutionary  war,  leaving  the 
service  with  the  rank  of  major.  He  wrote  the 
Newburgh  Letters,  setting  forth  the  hardship®  of 
the  revolutionary  soldiers  in  respect  to  pay.  He 
was  attorney-general  of  Pennsylvania;  United 
States  senator  from  New  York  ,1800-04;  minis- 
ter to  France,  1804—10;    brigadier-general  in  the 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


687 


war  of  1812;  and  secretary  of  war,  1813-14. 
He  was  charged  with  inefficiency  in  consequence 
of  the  capture  of  WasiiinRtun,  and  resigned  in 
September,  1814.  He  published  a  History  of  the 
War  of  1812,  Memoirs  of  Montgomery  and  nayru. 
a  Review  of  Oen.  Wilkinson's  Memoirs,  ana 
partially  prepared  a  history  of  the  revolution. 

Armstrong,  8ir  William  George,  noted  for  various 
mechanical  inventions,  especially  in  artillery  «uid 
in  water-power  machinery,  was  born  in  1810  at 
Newcastle,  England.  In  1840  he  produced  a 
much  improved  hydraulic  engine,  in  1842  an 
apparatus  for  producing  electricity  from  steam, 
and  in  1845  the  hydraulic  crane.  He  was  elected 
an  F.  R.  S.  in  1846,  and  shortly  afterward  com- 
menced the  Elswick  engine-works,  Newcastle. 
This  large  establishment  at  first  chiefly  produced 
hydraulic  cranes,  engines,  accumulators,  and 
bridges,  but  was  soon  to  be  famous  for  its  ord- 
nance, and  especially  the  Armstrong  gun,  whose 
essential  feature  is  that  the  barrel  is  built  up  of 
successive  coils  of  wrought-iron,  and  which  in 
1859  was  recommended  by  the  rifle-cannon 
committee.  Armstrong  offered  to  his  govern- 
ment all  his  inventions.  He  was  knighted  in 
1859,  and  in  1887  was  created  Baron  Armstrong; 
in  1894  he  purchased  Bamborough  castle,  to 
convert  it  into  a  retreat  for  cultured  poverty. 
He  wrote  Electric  Movement.     Died,  1900. 

Amauld  {dr'-no'),  Antoine,  known  as  "  the  great 
Arnauld,"  French  philosopher  and  Jansenist 
theologian,  was  bom  at  Paris  in  1612.  Entering 
the  Sorbonne  he  became  a  pupil  of  Lescot,  the 
confessor  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  and  afterward 
bishop  of  Chartres.  His  published  works  num- 
ber 100.  He  died  at  Brussels  in  1694.  In  1643 
he  published  a  work  entitled  De  la  Friquente 
Communion,  which  was  received  in  the  most 
favorable  manner. 

Amdt  (arnt),  Ernst  Moritz,  German  poet  and 
patriot,  was  born  in  the  then  Swedish  island  of 
Rvigen,  1769.  He  received  an  excellent  educa- 
tion at  Stralsund,  Greifswald,  and  Jena,  with  a 
view  to  the  ministry ;  but  in  1805,  after  traveling 
over  a  great  part  of  Europe,  he  became  professor 
of  history  at  Greifswald.  His  Geschichte  der 
Leibeigenschaft  in  Pommern  und  Riigen  led  to  the 
abolition  of  serfdom;  in  his  Geist  der  Zeit  he 
attacked  Napoleon  with  such  boldness  that, 
after  Jena,  he  had  to  take  refuge  in  Stockholm. 
Was  ist  des  Deutschen  Vaterlandf  and  others  of 
his  fiery  songs,  did  not  a  little  to  rouse  the  spirit 
of  Germany.  In  1818  he  became  professor  of 
history  in  the  new  university  of  Bonn;  but, 
aiming  steadily  at  constitutional  reforms,  he  was 
suspended  in  1820  for  participation  in  so-called 
"demagogic  movements,"  and  was  not  restored 
until  1840.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
German  national  assembly  in  1848,  but  retired 
from  it  in  1849.  Vigorous  in  mind  and  body, 
beloved  and  revered  by  the  whole  German  people 
as  "Father  Amdt,"  he  died  at  Bonn  in  1860. 

Ame  (arn),  Thomas  Augustine,  composer,  was 
born  in  London  in  1710,  and  educated  at  Eton. 
His  father,  an  upholsterer,  intended  him  for  the 
bar,  but  young  Arne  became  skillful  as  a  violinist, 
forming  his  style  chiefly  after  Corelli;  his 
zeal  in  the  study  of  music  induced  his  sister, 
Mrs.  Gibber,  to  cultivate  her  excellent  voice. 
He  wrote  for  her  a  part  in  his  first  opera,  Rosa- 
mond, which  was  performed  with  great  success 
in  1733.  Next  followed  his  comic  operetta, 
Tom  Thumb,  and  afterward  his  Comus.  He 
married  a  singer,  Cecilia  Young;  after  a  suc- 
cessful visit  to  Ireland  was  engaged  as  composer 
to  Drury  Lane  theater,  and  wrote  many  vocal 
pieces  for  the  Vauxhall  concerts.  Rule  Britannia, 
originally  given  in  Tfie  Masque  of  Alfred,  is  his, 
as  well  as  two  oratorios  and  two  operas,  Eliza 
and  Artaxerxes.     He  died  in  London  in  1778. 


Arnold.  Benedict,  an  American  general  and  traitor, 
was  bora  in  Connecticut,  1741.  Joined  Ethan 
Alien  against  Ticondcroga,  and  later  suooeeded 
Montgomery  after  the  capture  of  Ouebee,  1776, 
becoming  a  brigadier^eneral.  Reiuaed  promo* 
tion  by  congreaa,  and  oonaented  to  remain  in  the 
army  only  at  Washington's  requect.  la  oom- 
mand  of  rhiladclphiu,  1778-79,  hie  aettona  wera 
severely  criticised  and  he  waa  courtmartialed  and 
reprimanded.  He  secured  oommaod  of  West 
Point  and  entered  into  treasonable  nefotiatioM 
with  Sir  Henry  Clinton  for  its  betrayal.  Tba 
capture  of  Major  Andrd  exposed  the  plot,  and 
Arnold  fled  at  once.  He  became  a  brigadier* 
general  in  the  British  army  and  oommanded 
several  minor  attacks  during  the  last  months  of 
the  war.  He  was  pensioned  by  the  English  gov- 
ernment, but  despised  and  ncclected  bv  the 
English  people,  except  the  royal  Umily.  He  was 
a  soldier  of  remarkable  danng  and  ability,  but 
unscrupulous  from  his  boyhood.  Died  in  Lon- 
don, 1801. 

Arnold,  Bion  Joseph,  electrical  engineer,  inventor, 
was  born  at  Casnovia,  Mich.,  1861  -  graduatexl 
from  Hillsdale  college,  B.  S.,  1884,  M.  8.,  1887; 
post-graduate  course  at  Cornell,  1888-89:  E.  E., 
university  of  Nebraska,  1897.  Chief  designer, 
Iowa  iron  works,  Dubuque,  Iowa;  later  con- 
sulting engineer  for  Chicago  office  of  the  Ueowal 
electric  company;  since  1893  independent  con- 
sulting engineer.  Designer  and  builder  intra- 
mural railway.  World's  Columbian  exposition; 
consulting  electrical  engineer  Chicago  dc  Mil- 
waukee electric  railway;  Chicago  board  of 
trade;  Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy  rail- 
road; Grand  Trunk  railway  on  electrification 
of  St.  Clair  tunnel  since  1905;  consulting 
engineer  Wisconsin  state  railway  commission, 
1905-07;  devised  plan  for  electrically  operating 
trains  of  New  York  Central  railroad  in  and  out 
of  New  York,  and  member  electric  traction 
commissioners  engaged  in  carrying  on  the  work ; 
member  electric  traction  committee,  Erie  rail- 
road, 1900-04;  consulting  engineer  for  city  of 
Chicago  to  revise  street  railway  systems  of  city, 
1902;  chief  engineer  rebuilding  Chicago  traction 
system  at  cost  of  $60,000,000.  1907,  and  chair- 
man of  board  of  supervising  engineers  of  the 
same.  President  of  the  Ara«jld  company. 
Inventor  of  combined  direct-connected  machines, 
a  magnetic  clutch,  storage  battery  improvements, 
and  new  systems  and  devices  for  electric  railways. 
President  of  American  institution  of  electrical 
engineers,  1903-04. 

Arnold,  Sir  Edwin,  English  author  and  ioun^list, 
was  bora  in  1832;  educated  at  Kings  coUeg^ 
London,  and  at  Oxford;  was  appointed  secpod 
master  at  King  Edward  VI. 's  school  at  Birming- 
ham; resigned  this  for  position  of  principal  in 
the  Sanskrit  college  of  Poona,  British  In^a. 
In  1861  he  became  connected  with  the  London 
Telegraph;  noted  as  the  author  of  several  booju, 
among  them  Poets  of  Greece,  etc.,  and  lUer  bis 
well-known  poem,  The  Light  of  Asia.     Died,  1904. 

Arnold,  Matthew.  English  poet  and  critic,  eldest 
son  of  Dr.  Arnold  of  Rugby,  was  bom  in  Middle- 
sex, England,  1822;  was  educated  at  Win- 
chester, Rugby,  and  Balliol  college,  Oxford. 
He  was  elected  fellow  of  Oriel  college  in  1845, 
and  in  1851,  after  having  been  for  some  time 
private  secretary  to  Lord  Lanadowne,  he  was 
appointed  lay  inspector  of  schools  under  the 
committee  of  council  on  education.  His  poetic 
activity  was  manifested  in  eariy  life;  for  ten 
years,  1857-67,  he  held  the  chair  of  poetry  at 
Oxford;  among  his  productions  may  be 
noted  his  Newdigate  prise  poem  CnmwU, 
The  Strayed  ReveOer  and  a  volume  of  A  «w 
Poems  published  in  1809.  As  a  critic  he  hoWs 
a  very  high  place.     His  later  woriu  were  chistly 


638 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


theological,  being  attempts  to  grapple  with  the 
supernatural  aspects  of  Christiamty  from  a 
rationalistic  standpoint.  St.  Faid  and  Protest- 
antism, Literature  and  Dogma,  and  God  and  the 
Bible  are  among  his  writings.     Died,  1888. 

Arnold,  Sarah  Louise,  educator,  bom  at  North 
Abington,  Mass.,  1859;  graduated  state  normal 
school,  Bridgewater,  Mass.,  1878;  A.  M.,  Tufts, 
1902;  taught  in  Massachusetts,  Pennsylvania, 
Vermont,  and  New  Hampshire;  principal  train- 
ing school,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  two  years;  super- 
visor schools.  Minneapolis,  seven  years;  super- 
visor of  schools,  Boston,  1895-1902;  dean 
Sinunons  college  since  1902.  Author:  Way- 
marks  for  Teachers;  Stepping  Stones  to  Literature; 
Reading:    How  to  Teach  It;    Ttie  Mother  Tongue. 

Arnold,  Thomas,  educator  and  historian,  was  bom 
in  1795,  in  the  isle  of  Wight,  and  educated  at 
Winchester,  and  Corpus  Christi  college,  Oxford. 
In  1815  he  became  fellow  of  Oriel,  obtaining  in 
that  year  the  chancellor's  prize  for  the  Latin 
and  in  1817  for  the  English  essay.  After  taking 
holy  orders,  he  passed  nine  years  at  Laleham, 
near  Staines,  in  literary  occupations,  and  in 
preparing  young  men  for  the  universities. 
Appointed  head  master  of  Rugby  school  in 
1828,  he  raised  that  institution  beyond  all 
precedent,  both  by  the  remarkable  success  of 
his  pupils  and  by  the  introduction  of  new  branches 
of  study  into  the  Rugby  course.  He  was  of  the 
Broad  church  school  of  thought,  and  a  vigorous 
opponent  of  the  tractarian  movement.  In  1841 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  modem  history 
at  Oxford.  The  best  known  of  Dr.  Arnold  s 
works  are  his  edition  of  Thucydidea,  his  History 
of  Rome  (unfinished),  and  his  sermons  delivered 
in  the  chapel  of  Rugby  school.     Died,  1842. 

Arnold  of  Wlnkelried,  a  Swiss  of  Unterwalden,  who, 
according  to  tradition,  made  a  way  for  his  com^ 
rades  into  the  enemies'  ranks  at  Sempach, 
in  1386,  by  grasping  an  armful  of  Austrian 
spearheads  and  plunging  them  into  his  own 
bosom. 

Arrhenlus  (6r^d'^ni-ila),  Svante  August,  Swedish 
chemist,  director  of  physico-chemical  departs 
ment,  Nobel  institute,  since  1905,  was  bom  in 
1859.  In  1884  he  received  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  philosophy  from  the  university  of  Upsala.  In 
1895  he  was  appointed  professor  of  physics  in 
Stockholm.  His  most  important  contributions 
are  in  physical  chemistry,  more  particularly  in 
the  theory  of  solutions,  although  his  study  of 
comets  has  added  greatly  to  our  knowledge  of 
that  subject.  Received  Nobel  prize  for  chemis- 
tr>',  1903. 

Arrian  (Hr'-i-an),  or  Flavlus  Arrlanus,  Greek 
historian,  was  bom  in  Nicomedia,  Bithynia, 
about  100  A.  D.  He  is  best  known  by  his  history 
of  the  campaigns  of  Alexander  the  Great,  which, 
in  imitation  of  Xenophon,  he  called  the  Ana- 
basis of  Alexander.  The  emperor  Hadrian 
made  him  a  Roman  citizen  and  governor  of 
Cappadocia  in  136.  When  fifty  years  old  he 
settled  in  his  native  city.  Besicles  the  Arwbasis 
he  wrote  an  account  of  a  voyage  in  the  Black 
sea,  an  account  of  India,  and  other  works. 

Artaxerxes  I.  {ar-tdks-inrk'-sez),  king  of  Persia, 
sumamed  Longimanus,  the  second  son  of  Xerxes, 
escaped  from  the  conspiracy  of  Artaban  and 
others,  and  ascended  the  throne  in  465  B.  C. 
His  long  reign,  extending  to  425,  was  marked 
by  a  decline  of  i>ower.     Died,  425  B.  C. 

Artaxerxes  II.,  sumamed  Mnemon,  succeeded  his 
father,  Darius  II.,  in  405  B.  C.  After  gaining 
the  victory  over  his  brother,  Cyrus,  he  became 
involved  in  a  war  with  Sparta,  which  ended 
with  Antalcidean  treaty  of  peace.    Died,  361  B.  C. 

Artaxerxes  III^  sumamed  Ochus,  was  the  son  and 
successor  of  Artaxerxes  II.,  and  reigned  in  the 
true  style  of   oriental  despotism  until  338  B.  C. 


One  of  his  most  daring  exploits  took  place  in 
Egypt,  where  he  caused  the  divine  bull  Apis  to 
be  slaughtered  and  cooked  as  ordinary  beef. 
He  was  poisoned  in  338  by  his  eunuch,  Bagoas. 

Artevelde  {br-d-vH'  -di),  Jacob  van,  popular 
Flemish  leader  of  the  fourteenth  century,  was  a 
brewer  in  Ghent.  His  wealth,  eloquence,  and 
talents  made  him  the  most  prominent  man  on 
the  side  of  the  citizens  in  their  struggles  against 
Count  Louis  of  Flanders.  The  people  of  Ghent 
made  him  commander  of  their  forces,  and  he 
banished  from  the  town  all  the  nobles  and 
friends  of  the  count.  His  power  was  secure  for 
ten  years,  but  in  1335  he  made  a  treaty  with 
Edward  III.  of  England,  persuading  him  to 
assume  the  title  of  king  of  France.  To  strengthen 
this  alliance,  he  tried  to  make  Edward,  the 
black  prince,  count  of  Flanders,  when  the 
people  rose  in  rebellion  and  Artevelde  waa 
slain,  1345. 

Arthur,  Chester  Alan,  twenty-first  president  of  the 
United  States,  son  of  a  Baptist  minister,  waa 
bom  in  Franklin  county,  Vt.,  1830;  graduated 
from  Union  college  in  1848;  was  admitted  to 
the  bar;  in  1861  appointed  inspector-general  of 
New  York  state  national  guard,  and  later 
quartermaster-general  of  New  York  state; 
appointed  United  States  collector  of  the  port  of 
^Iew  York,  1871,  served  until  1878;  was  elected 
vice-president  of  the  United  States  in  1880,  and 
on  the  death  of  President  Garfield,  September 
19,  1881,  he  became  president.     Died,  1886. 

Arthur,  Julia,  actress,  was  bom  in  Hamilton, 
Ontario,  1869,  of  Irish  and  Welsh  parentage; 
real  name,  Ida  Lewis;  at  eleven  played  in 
amateur  dramatic  club,  taking  part  of  Gamora 
in  The  Honeymoon,  and  of  Portia  in  The  Mer- 
chant of  Venice;  three  years  later  made  profes- 
sional d^but  as  the  prince  of  Wales  in  Daniel 
Bandmann's  presentation  of  Richard  III.; 
remained  three  seasons  with  that  company; 
studied  violin  music  and  dramatic  art  in  Eng- 
land; first  New  York  success  at  Union  Square 
theater  in  The  Black  Masque:  later  in  A.  M. 
Palmer's  company  in  several  r61es,  notably  in 
Mercedes,  1893;  London  d^but,  1895,  in  Henry 
Irving's  company,  playing  rdles  next  to  Miss 
Terry;  very  successful  as  Rosamond  in  A'Becket, 
with  Ir\'ing  and  Terrv  in  the  United  States,  1896. 
Married,  1898,  B.  P.  Cheney,  Jr. 

Asakawa  {&-sa,-k&'-wQ,),  Kwan-Ichl,  educator, 
author,  was  bom  at  Nihonmatsu,  Japan,  1873; 
educated  at  Waseda  university,  Tokio,  Japan, 
Dartmouth  college,  and  Yale  university;  Ph.  D., 
Yale,  1902.  Lecturer  on  history  and  civilisation 
of  East  Asia  at  Dartmouth  college,  1902;  pro- 
fessor of  English  at  Wasinla  university,  1906-07; 
instructor  history  of  Japanese  civilization,  1907- 
10,  assistant  professor  since  1910,  Yale.  Author: 
The  Early  Institutional  Life  ofja-pan;  The  Russo- 
Japanese  Conflict — Its  Causes  ana  Issues.  Eklitor 
of  Japan  in  the  History  of  Nations  series. 

Asbury  (iz'-ber-i),  Francis,  the  first  bishop  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  church  ordained  in  America, 
was  bom  in  Staffordshire,  England,  1745.  At 
the  age  of  fourteen,  he  was  apprenticed  to  a 
mechanic;  two  years  later  he  began  work  as  a 
local  preacher.  Later  he  joined  the  itinerant 
ministry,  and  after  three  years  of  service  waa 
sent  to  America  as  a  missionary.  In  1772 
he  was  appointed  general  assistant  by  John 
Wesley.  He  brought  new  life  into  the  work, 
and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution,  when 
many  other  ministers  returned  to  England,  he 
kept  on  in  his  labors.  At  the  end  of  the  war,  it 
was  decided  to  found  an  independent  Methodist 
Episcopal  church  for  America,  and  he  was 
oraained  in  1784  as  bishop  by  his  colleagues  who 
had  already  been  ordained  by  Wesley  in  England 
For  more  than  thirty  years  he  worked  earnestly 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


&90 


and  successfully,  and  the  wonderful  progress  of 
Methodism  in  America  was  largely  due  to  his 
efforts  and  ability.  He  helped  to  lay  the  founda- 
tion of  the  first  Methodist  college  in  America,  in 
1785.     He  died  in  Virginia  in  1816. 

Ascham  (As'-kam),  Roger,  English  writer  and 
classical  scholar,  was  born  in  1515  at  Kirby 
Wiske,  in  Yorkshire.     His  reputation  as  a  classi- 

^  cal  scholar  brought  him  numerous  pupils,  and, 
there  being  at  that  time  no  Greek  chair,  he  was 
appointed  by  Cambridge  university  to  read  lec- 
tures in  the  public  schools.  He  wrote,  in  1545,  a 
treatise  entitled  Toxophilus,  the  pure  English 
style  of  which,  independently  of  its  other  merits, 
rajiks  it  among  the  classical  pieces  of  English 
literature.  For  this  treatise,  which  was  dedi- 
cated to  Henry  VIII.,  he  was  awarded  a  pension. 
In  1548  he  became  master  of  languages  to 
Lady  Elizabeth,  afterward  queen,  and  was  subse- 
quently appKjinted  Latin  secretary  to  Edward 
VI.  and  Queen  Mary.  After  the  death  of  Mary, 
Elizabeth  retained  him  at  court  as.  secretary  and 
tutor.     Died,  1568. 

Asbburton,  Lord,  Alexander  Baring,  English 
diplomat,  was  born  in  1774,  second  son  of  the 
eminent  merchant.  Sir  Francis  Baring.  Having 
been  employed  as  special  ambassador  from  Eng- 
land to  the  United  States  to  settle  the  Northeast- 
em  boundary  question  that  then  threatened  to 
involve  the  two  countries  in  war,  in  August, 
1842,  he  concluded  the  famous  treaty  called  the 
Ashburton  treaty,  by  which  the  frontier  line 
between  the  state  of  Maine  and  Canada  was 
definitely  settled.  He  was  created  Baron  Ash- 
burton in  1835.     Died,  1848. 

Ashburst,  John,  Jr.,  American  surgeon,  educator, 
and  author,  was  born  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1839; 
acting  assistant  surgeon  of  United  States  army, 
1862-65 ;  professor  of  clinical  surgery  in  univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania,  elected  in  1877.  His  two 
principal  works  are  Injuries  to  the  Spine,  and 
Principles  and  Practice  of  Surgery.     Died,  1900. 

Ashley,  William  James,  English  educator,  econo- 
mist; professor  of  commerce  since  1901,  and 
dean  since  1902  of  the  faculty  of  commerce,  in 
the  university  of  Birmingham,  England;  bom 
at  London  in  1860;  educated  at  Oxford  univer- 
sity; professor  of  political  economy,  Toronto 
university,  1888-92;  professor  of  economic 
history,  Harvard,  1892-1901.  Author:  Iniro- 
duction  to  English  Economic  History  and  Theory; 
Surveys,  Historic  and  Economic;  Adjustment  of 
Wages;  The  Tariff  Problem;  Progress  of  the 
German  Working  Classes.  Editor:  Economic 
Classics,  and  translated  therein  Turgot's  Reflec- 
tions, and  SchmoUer's  Mercantile  System. 

Asbmole,  Elias,  British  antiquary,  bora  at  Lichfield, 
England,  1617;  held  appointment  of  Windsor 
herald,  and  published  the  History  of  the  Order  of 
the  Garter.  He  left  many  works,  and  presented  to 
the  university  of  Oxford  his  valuable  collection  of 
coins,  specimens,  and  manuscripts.      Died,  1692. 

Aspasia  (ds-pa'-shl^),  a  beautiful  Athenian 
woman,  said  to  have  been  a  native  of  Miletus  in 
Asia  Minor.  Socrates  is  said  to  have  been  one  of 
her  admirers.  Tn  order  to  marry  her,  Pericles  repu- 
diated his  wife.  An  affront  offered  to  Aspasia 
is  said  to  have  caused  the  Peloponnesian  war. 

Asquith  (ds'-kwUh),  Rt.  Hon.  Herbert  Henry, 
prime  minister  of  England,  was  bom  in  1852, 
and  entered  the  British  parliament  in  1886. 
He  was  educated  at  Balliol  college,  Oxford,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  Lincoln's  Inn,  1876. 
D.  C.  L.,  Oxford;  LL.  D.,  Edinburgh,  Glasgow 
and  Cambridge.  In  the  course  of  the  home  rule 
debates,  he  rose  rapidly  to  the  first  rank  m  the 
house.  He  was  intrusted  with  the  conduct  of 
the  disestablishment  of  the  church  of  Wales  bill 
in  1894.  On  the  defeat  of  the  Rosebery  mimstry 
in  1895,  he  resumed  practice  at  the  bar.     He  was 


one  of  the  most  efTeoUve  «pc«ken  on  the  liberal 
side  during  1903  on  the  education  question  and 
the  war  comminion's  report,  and  auring  1008, 
1904,  and  1905,  in  opposition  to  Chamber- 
lain's fiscal  policy.  Chancellor  of  the  ezebequer, 
1905-08.  On  the  death  of  Sir  Heniy  Cbmpbell- 
Bannerman,  1908,  he  became  prime  '»»«»««tttr  and 
first  lord  of  the  treasury.  Introduced  mintmum 
wage  bill  passed  by  British  house  of  oommona. 
1912. 

Astor,  John  Jacob,  American  merchant,  founder  of 
the  American  fur  company,  waa  bom  near 
Heidelberg,  Germany,  1763.  After  spending 
some  years  in  London  he  sailed  to  America  in 
1783,  and  soon  invested  his  small  capital  in  furs. 
By  economy  and  industry  he  so  increased  his 
means  that  after  six  years  he  had  acquired  a 
fortune  of  $200,000.  Although  the  increasing 
influence  of  the  English  fur  companies  in  NortE 
America  was  unfavorable  to  his  plans,  he  vei^ 
tured  to  fit  out  two  expeditions  to  Oregon,  one 
by  land  and  one  by  sea,  the  purpose  of  which  was 
to  open  up  regular  commercial  intercourse  with 
the  natives.  After  manv  mishaps  his  object  was 
achieved  in  1811,  and  the  fur-trading  station  of 
Astoria  was  established.  From  this  period,  in 
spite  of  the  war  of  1812  and  other  temporary 
obstacles,  his  commercial  connections  extended 
over  the  entire  globe,  and  his  ships  were  found  in 
every  sea.  He  died  in  1848,  leaving  property 
amounting  to  $20,000,000. 

Astor,  John  Jacob,  capitalist,  great-grandson  of 
John  Jacob  Astor,  was  bom  at  Khinebeck,  N.  Y., 
1864;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1888;  traveled 
abroad,  1888-91 ;  manager  of  the  family  estates, 
1891-1912;  in  1897  he  built  the  Astoria  hotel. 
New  York,  adjoining  the  Waldorf  hotel,  which 
was  built  by  William  Waldorf  Astor,  his  cousin, 
the  two  now  forming  one  building  under  the 
name  of  Waldorf-Astoria  hotel,  one  of  the  largest 
and  probably  most  costly  hotels  in  the  world. 
Was  colonel,  staff  of  Governor  Levi  P.  Morton, 
and  in  May,  1898,  commissioned  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  United  States  volunteers ;  presented  to 
the  government  a  mountain  battery  for  use  in 
war  against  Spain,  said  to  have  cost  over 
$100,000.  After  assisting  Major-General  Breckin- 
ridge, inspector-general  of  the  United  States 
army,  in  inspection  of  camp  and  troops  at 
Chickamauga  Park,  Ga.,  assigned  to  duty  on 
staff  of  Major-General  Shafter,  and  served  in 
Cuba  in  operations  ending  in  surrender  of 
Santiago.  Invented  a  bicycle  brake,  a  pneu- 
matic road  improver,  and  an  improved  turbine 
engine.  Author:  A  Journey  in  Other  Worlds,  etc. 
Died,  1912.  ,     „ 

Astor,  William  Waldorf,  capitalist,  author,  was 
born  in  New  York,  1848;  son.  of  John  Jacob, 
second,  and  Charlotte  Aiigusta  (Oibbes)  Astor; 
great-grandson  of  John  Jacob,  founder  of  the 
Astor  fortune.  Educated  by  private  tutors, 
finishing  in  Europe;  entered  office  of  the  Astor 
estate,  1871;  succeeded  his  father,  1890,  as 
head  of  the  Astor  family,  with  personal  fortune 
estimated  at  about  $100,000,000.  Member  of 
New  York  legislature,  1878-81;  United  SUtes 
minister  to  Italy,  1882-85;  removed  to  Englwid, 
1890-  became  owner  Pall  Mall  GaxeUe,  and  Pall 
Mall  'Magazine,  1893.  Author :  Valentino,  a  Story 
of  Rome;  Sforta,  an  historical  romance  of  the 
sixteenth  century  in  Italy,  etc.  Has  for  many 
years  lived  in  England. 

Astyages  (&s-t\'-A-iii),  last  king  of  Media,  eon  and 
successor  of  Cvaxares,  bora  695  B.C.  According  to 
Herodotus,  Astyages  gave  his  daughter,  Mandane, 
in  marriage  to  Cambysee,  an  eminent  Persian. 
Led  by  a  dream  which  gave  him  alarm,  be  sent 
Harpagus  to  destroy  the  child  which  was  the 
fmit  of  the  marriage.  But  the  child  was  hidden 
away  by  a  diepherd,  and  it  was  after  many 


540 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


yean  that  his  existence  was  brought  to  the 
notice  of  Astyagea,  who  easily  discovered  the 
boy's  parentage.  Astyages  punished  Harpagus 
for  deceiving  him,  and  Harpagus  instigated 
Cyrus,  the  cliild  now  grown  up,  to  lead  a  revolt, 
through  which  Astyages  was  made  prisoner, 
and  Cyrus  took  the  scepter  549  B.  C.  Astyages 
was  treated  mildly,  but  kept  a  prisoner  until  his 
death. 

▲tahualpa  (it-ta-wQl'-pa),  the  last  of  the  Incas  of 
Peru,  succeeded  his  father,  Huayna  Capac,  in 
1525,  on  the  throne  of  Quito  while  his  half- 
brother,  Huascar,  although  the  rightful  heir, 
obtained  only  the  kingdom  of  Peru.  The  two 
brothers  engaged  in  a  struggle  for  supremacv, 
in  which  Huascar  was  defeated.  The  Spaniard 
under  Pizarro,  taking  advantage  of  these  internal 
dissensions,  invaded  Peru,  and  by  an  act  of 
deliberate  perfidy  obtained  possession  of  the 
person  of  Atahualpa,  and  attempted  to  compel 
nim  to  acknowledge  the  kin^  of  Spain  as  master, 
and  to  embrace  the  Christian  religion.  His 
refusal  was  made  a  pretext  for  a  massacre,  and 
the  imprisonment  of  their  king,  whom  the 
Spaniards  induced  to  raise  an  enormous  treasure 
in  the  hope  of  regaining  his  throne.  After  a 
mock  trial,  however,  he  was  condemned  and 
strangled  in  1533. 

Athanaslus  i&th-d-nd'-ahl-Ha),  Saint,  was  bom  in 
Egypt  about  the  year  29G,  entered  the  church  at 
an  early  ago,  and  was  chosen  bishop  of  Alex- 
andria m  326.  He  is  esteemed  one  of  the  most 
eminent  among  the  ancient  fathers  of  the  church. 
He  was  a  violent  opponent  of  Arius;  and  his 
earnest  advocacy  oi  the  Catholic  faith,  more 
particularly  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity, 
subjected  him  to  much  persecution  from  the 
emperors  Constantine  ana  Julian,  by  both  of 
whom  he  was  several  times  exiled,  but  he  finally 
closed  his  days  in  tranquillity  in  373,  in  the 
forty-eighth  year  of  his  prelacy.  His  works  are 
numerous,  but  consist  chiefly  of  invectives 
against  his  enemies,  and  controversial  treatises 
against  Arianism.  The  more  important  of  his 
writings  are  his  Apologies;  Two  Books  on  the 
Incarnation;  Conference  with  the  Avians;  The 
Id/e  of  St.  Anthony;  The  Abridgment  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures;  Letters  to  Those  that  Lead  a  Monastic 
Life,  and  Letters  to  Serapion. 

Athenagoras  {&th-^^n6g'-6-rds),  a  Christian  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Athens,  who  lived  toward  the 
close  of  the  second  century.  His  conversion  to 
Christianity  has  been  hkenod  to  that  of  St.  Paul. 
Writing  against  the  Chri.stians,  in  order  to 
render  his  attacks  more  formidable,  he  referred 
to  the  scriptures,  and  by  reading  them  was 
converted  to  the  true  faith.  His  Discourse  on 
the  Resurrection  of  the  Dead  and  his  Apology  for 
Christians  were  much  admired. 

Atherton,  Gertrude  Franklin,  novelist,  was  bom  at 
San  Francisco,  California,  1858,  the  daughter  of 
Thomas  L.  Horn.  She  was  educated  at  St. 
Mary's  Hall,  Benicia,  California ;  SajTC  institute 
at  Lexington,  Kentucky;  married  George  H. 
Bowen  Atherton,  deceased.  Author:  The  Dooms- 
woman;  Before  the  Gringo  Came;  A  Whirl 
Asunder;  Patience  Spar  hawk  and  Her  Times; 
His  Fortunate  Grace;  American  Wives  and 
English  Husbands;  The  Califomians;  A  Daughter 
of  the  Vine;  The  Valiant  Runaways;  Senator 
North;  The  Aristocrats;  The  Conqueror;  The 
Splendid  Idle  Forties,  being  a  revised  and  en- 
larged edition  of  Before  the  Gringo  Came;  A  Few 
of  Hamilton's  Letters;  Mrs.  Pendleton's  Four-in- 
Hand;  Rulers  of  Kings;  The  Bell  in  the  Fog; 
The  Traveling  Thirds;   Rezanov;   Ancestors. 

Atticus  (d.f-ti-kiis)  Herodes,  Tiberius  Claudius,  a 
rich  Athenian,  born  about  104  A.  D.  To  a  vast 
sum  of  money  left  him  by  his  father,  he  added 
much  more  by  marriage.     He  was  educated  by 


the  best  masters,  devoting  special  attention  to 
oratory,  in  which  he  greatly  excelled.  He  was 
also  a  noted  teacher  of  rhetoric,  havine  for 
pupils  Marcus  AureUus  and  Lucius  Verus. 
From  Aurelius  he  received  the  archonship  of 
Athens  and  the  consulate  of  Rome.  His  fame 
rests  mainly  upon  immense  expenditures  for 
public  purposes.  In  Athens  he  built  a  race- 
course of  Pentelic  marble,  and  a  splendid  theater. 
In  Corinth  he  built  a  theater;  in  Delphi,  • 
stadium;  at  Thermopylae,  hot-baths;  at  Canu- 
sium,  in  Italy,  an  aqueduct.  He  contemplated 
a  canal  across  the  bthmus  of  Corinth,  but  gave 
it  up  because  Nero  had  tried  and  failed.  He 
restored  several  of  the  partially  ruined  cities  of 
Greece,  where  inscriptions  testified  the  public 
gratitude  to  him.  For  some  reasons  the  Athe- 
nians became  his  enemies,  and  he  left  the  city 
for  his  villa  near  Marathon,  where  he  died, 
180  A.  D. 

Atticua,  Titiia  Pomponlua,  bom  at  Rome  109 
B.  C,  was  educated  with  Cicero  and  the  younger 
Marius.  In  85  B.  C.  he  withdrew  to  Athens; 
and,  after  65  B.  C,  when  Sulla  induced  him  to 
return  to  Rome,  he  still  devoted  himself  chiefly 
to  study  and  the  pleasures  of  friendship.  In 
32  B.  C.  he  was  informed  that  a  disorder  from 
which  he  suffered  was  mortal,  and  died  after  Ave 
days  of  voluntarv  starvation.  A  man  of  large 
wealth,  and  an  Epicurean  in  philosophy,  he  was 
intimately  acquainted  with  both  Gr(H.>k  and 
Roman  literature,  and  his  taste  was  so  good  that 
Cicero  used  to  send  him  his  works  for  revision. 
None  of  his  own  writings  have  been  preserved, 
but  we  have  396  epistles  addressed  to  him  by 
Cicero,  ranging  from  68  to  44  B.  C. 

AttUa  (Of-Ud),  king  of  the  Huns,  who  lived  in 
the  fifth  century.  He  styled  himself  "the 
scourge  of  God,  and  devastated  Lombardy. 
The  city  of  Venice  was  founded  by  those  who 
fled  before  him.  On  his  death,  in  453,  his  body 
was  buried  in  three  cofhns,  made  of  gold,  silver, 
and  iron.  The  captives  who  dug  his  grave  were 
put  to  death. 

Atwood,  George,  British  mathematician,  was  bom 
in  1746;  died  in  London,  1807.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge  university,  became  tutor  of 
Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  and  invented  a 
machine  to  illustrate  the  relations  of  time, 
space,  and  velocity  in  the  motion  of  a  body 
falling  under  the  action  of  gravity.  It  is  now 
known  as  "Atwood's  machine." 

Atwood,  Thomas,  British  composer,  was  bom  in 
1765.  He  commenced  his  musical  education  in 
the  choir  of  the  Chapel  Royal  xuider  Dr.  Nares, 
and  later  studied  under  Mozart.  In  1795  he  was 
appointed  organist  of  St.  Paul's.  He  wrote 
coronation  anthems  for  George  IV.  and  William 
IV.,  and  died  in  1838. 

Aul>er  (o'-Mr'),  Daniel  Francis  Esprit,  French 
composer  of  operas,  was  bom  at  Caen,  in  Nor- 
mandy, 1782.  His  father  was  a  print-seller  in 
Paris,  and,  being  desirous  that  his  son  should 
devote  himself  to  business,  he  sent  him  to  London 
to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  trade.  But  his 
irresistible  passion  for  music  obtained  the  upper 
hand,  and  he  became  a  pupil  of  Cherubini.  His 
opera  Masaniello  is  considered  his  best.  Among 
his  works  are  the  well-known  operas,  Fra  Diavolo, 
Le  Domino  Noir,  Manon  Lescaut,  etc.  In  1842. 
after  the  death  of  Cherubini,  he  was  appointed 
director  of  the  conservatory  of  music,  Paris. 
Died,  1871. 

Aubign£  {o'-ben'-ya'),  Jean  Henri  Merie  d*.  See 
Merie  d*Aublgn£. 

Audnl>on  {d'-dob-b&n),  John  James,  celebrated 
American  naturalist  of  French  descent,  was  bom 
near  New  Orleans,  La.,  in  1780;  from  childhood 
devoted  to  natural  history,  but  it  was  not  until 
1830  that  the  first  of  the  four  volumes  of  his 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


Ml 


sreat  work,  The  Birds  of  America,  appeared. 
This  magnificent  collection  of  plates,  which  was 
sold  for  $1,000  a  copy,  was  quickly  followed  by 
explanatory  letterpress  under  the  title  of  Amerx- 
can  Ornithological  Biography.  Audubon  also 
projected  a  similar  work  on  the  Quadrupeds  of 
America,  but  much  of  this  work  was  done  by 
his  sons,  John  and  Victor.  Died  in  New  York, 
1851. 

AuenbruKger  von  Auenbrug  (ou'-en-brd^-g^  f6n 
ou'-en-brooK),  Leopold,  Austrian  physician,  was 
born  in  1722.  He  originated  the  method  of  ex- 
amining the  lungs  by  percussion  of  the  chest, 
and  published  the  results  of  his  investigations  in 
a  treatise  which  marks  an  ep>och  in  the  nistory  of 
medicine.  The  work  has  been  frequently  trans- 
lated. He  also  wrote  on  various  forms  of  insan- 
ity.    He  died,  1809. 

Auerbach  (ou'-ir-baK),  Berthold,  German  author, 
was  born  at  Nordstetten  in  1812.  Having 
abandoned  the  study  of  Jewish  theology,  he 
devoted  his  attention  to  literature.  His  first 
publications  were  Judaism  and  Modern  Litera- 
ture, and  a  translation  of  the  works  of  Spinoza. 
In  his  Educated  Citizen  and  Village  Tales  of  the 
Black  Forest  he  applied  himself  to  the  portraiture 
of  real  life,  and  succeeded  well.  By  some  his 
Auf  der  Hohe,  "On  the  Heights,"  is  regarded  as 
his  best  novel.  Many  of  his  works  have  been 
translated  into  English,  Swedish,  and  Dutch. 
Das  Landhaus  am  Rhein,  is  known  by  the  English 
title.  The  Castle  on  the  Rhine.  Died  at  Cannes, 
France,  1882. 

Auersperg  {ou'-&rs-p$rK.),  yon*  Anton  Alexander, 
famous  Austrian  statesman  and  poet,  whose  pen- 
name  was  "Ahastasius  Griin,  '  was  born  at 
Laibach,  Austria,  in  1806.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Frankfort  parliament  of  1848,  and  later  of 
the  Austrian  Reichsrath.  Among  his  works  are 
Th^  Last  Knight,  Ruins,  Promenades  of  a 
Viennese  Poet,  Robin  Hood,  etc.  Died  at  Gratz, 
1876. 

Augereau  (o  zh'-ro'),  Pierre  Francois  Charles,  duke 
of  Castiglione,  marshal  and  peer  of  France, 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  and  intrepid  of  that 
band  of  general  officers  whom  Napoleon  gathered 
around  himself,  was  born  in  1757.  In  1792  he 
volunteered  in  the  French  revolutionary  army 
intended  for  the  repulsion  of  the  Spaniards. 
His  services  were  so  conspicuous  that  in  less 
than  three  years  he  was  made  general  of  a 
(Uvision.  He  took  an  active  part  and  gained 
much  glory  in  the  battles  of  Millesimo,  Ceva, 
Lodi,  Cfistiglione,  Roveredo,  Bassano.  In  1797 
he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  army 
of  the  Rhine;  but  after  a  few  months  the 
directory  made  him  commander  of  the  10th 
division  at  Perpignan.  This  post  he  resigned 
in  1799,  when  he  was  elected  as  deputy  to  the 
council  of  the  five  hundred.  In  1800  he 
received  the  command  of  the  army  in  Holland, 
and  was  active  in  several  engagements.  In  1804 
he  was  made  a  marshal,  and  in  the  following 
year  he  commanded  a  division  of  the  army 
which  reduced  the  Vorarlberg.  He  was  after- 
ward engaged  at  Wetzlar,  Jena,  Eylau;  also  m 
Italy,  Spain,  Berlin,  Bavaria,  and  Saxony. 
Died  in  La  Houssaye,  1816. 

Augustine  (^d'-giis-tln  or  S-giis'-tln),  Saint.  See 
page  212. 

Augustus,  Calus  Julius  C«sar  Octavlanus,  Roman 
emperor,  born  63  B.  C,  was  the  son  of  Cams 
Octavius  and  Atia,  niece  of  Julius  Caesar,  by 
whom  he  was  adopted  when  but  four  years  of 
age.  He  was  in  Epirus  when  Julius  Caesar  was 
assassinated,  but  speedily  returned  to  claim  his 
inheritance.  Connected  with  Antony  and  Lepi- 
dus,  Octavianus  shared  the  guilt  which  stains 
the  name  of  the  triumvirate.  His  colleagues  put 
aside,  at  the  age  of   thirty-six  he  became  em- 


peror, with  the  title  of  Augustus.  Hla  raign  wm 
fortunate,  good  laws  were  framed  in  it,  and  the 
arts  fiourisliod  under  hie  protection.  He  died 
14  A.  D.  His  death  threw  a  shade  of  aonow 
over  the  wholo  Roman  world ;  the  bereawd  people 
erected  temples  and  altars  to  his  memory. 

Aurellanus  (<)-r^-/l-dn'-u«),  Claodliu  or  Lactae 
Domitlus,  emperor  of  Rome,  was  bom  in 
Pannonia.  212  A.  D.,  the  eon  of  a  peaaaat; 
entered  the  Roman  army,  his  exploits  m  whieh 
attracted  the  notice  of  the  emperors  Valerian 
and  Claudius,  and  on  the  death  of  the  latter  in 
270  he  was  proclaimed  emperor.  His  short 
reign  was  a  series  of  brilliant  victories:  the  Qoths 
and  Vandals  were  subdued,  the  Alemanni,  who 
threatened  Rome  itself,  were  extenninatad. 
Palmyra  was  sacked,  and  Tetricus,  the  ss- 
emperor  of  Gaul,  Britain  and  Spain,  and  Zenobia, 
the  renowned  queen  of  the  East,  led  captive  in 
the  splendid  triumph  of  Aurelian.  A  formidable 
rebellion  at  home  was  crushed  with  terrible 
sternness,  and  the  emperor's  severity  made  him 
feared  even  by  his  friends,  who,  as  they  deemed 
in  pure  self-defense,  con.spired  against  him  and 
put  him  to  death  275  A.  D. 

Aurungzebe  (6'-r&ng-zib'),  emperor  of  India,  known 
as  the  Great  Mogul,  was  born  in  1618.  The 
third  son  of  Shah  Jehan,  he  affected  devotion  in 
early  life  but  subsequently,  at  the  call  of  ambition, 
he  deposed  his  father  ana  put  to  death  his  two 
brothers  and  nephew.  As  emperor,  his  career 
was  brilliant.  He  conquered  Golconda,  Visa- 
pour,  and  Bengal,  and  posed  as  "conqueror  of 
the  world."  His  sons  disturbed  his  latter  days 
by  attempting  to  depose  him.     He  died  in  1707. 

Ausonlus  ((5-so'-nl-us),  Declraus  Magnus,  foremoat 
Latin  poet  of  the  fourth  century,  was  bom  at  Bor- 
deaux, Gaul,  about  310  A.  D.  He  was  appointed 
by  Valentinian  tutor  to  his  son  Gratian ;  and  he 
afterward  held  the  offices  of  quaestor,  prefect 
of  Latium,  and  consul  of  Gaul.  On  the  death  of 
Gratian,  Ausonius  retired  to  his  estate  at  Bor- 
deaux, where  he  occupied  himself  with  literature 
and  rural  pursuits  until  his  death,  394.  It  is 
most  probable  that  he  was  a  Christian.  His 
works  include  epigrams,  poems  on  his  deceased 
relatives  and  on  his  colleagues,  epistles  In  vera* 
and  prose,  and  idylls. 

Austen,  Jane,  English  novelist;  bom  in  1775,  at 
Steventon,  Hampshire,  England,  of  which  parish 
her  father  was  rector.  Her  principal  productions 
are  Pride  and  Prejudice;  Sense  and  Sensibility; 
Emma;  Mansfield  Park;  Northanger  Abbey;  and 
Persuasion.  They  are  distinguished  for  origi- 
nality, naturalness,  and  fidelity  of  delineation, 
qualities  in  which  the  literature  of  her  time  was 
most  deficient.  Her  family  moved  succesrively 
to  Bath  and  Chawton.  She  died  at  Win- 
chester in  1817,  and  was  buried  in  the  cathedral. 

Austin,  Alfred,  English  poet,  novelist,  and  jour- 
nalist; bom  at  Headingley,  near  Leeds,  1836; 
took  his  degree  at  the  university  of  London, 
1853;  admitted  to  the  bar,  1857;  has  publia^ 
The  Season,  a  Satire;  The  Human  Tro^ed^: 
Interludes;  Savonarola;  English  Lyrics,  and 
many  other  poems,  playB,  and  various  poUtl(Mt 
papers;  was  special  correspondent  of  Ths 
Standard  in  Franco-German  war,  and  editor  of 
The  National  Review,  18*3-93;  was  made 
fifteenth  poet  laureate  of  England,  succeeding 
Tennyson,  1896.  ^     ..  .    ,  j    i       i 

Austin,  John,  eminent  English  lawver  SJid  lent 
writer,  was  bom  at  Creeling  Mill,  Suffolk,  England, 
1790.  He  was  professor  of  jurispmdence  at  ^e 
university  of  London  from  1826  to  1832.  He 
wrote  Province  of  Jvaxrprudenee  Determined  jaa 
Lectures  on  Jurisprudence.  Died  at  Weybrtdje, 
Surrey,  1859.  u         i- 

Austln,  Oscar  Phelps,  statistician,  was  bora  m 
Illinois.     Has  been  reporter,  editor,  Washin«toa 


M2 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


correspondent  for  metropolitan  dailies;  professor 
commerce  and  statistics,  George  Washington 
university;  made  chief  bureau  of  statistics, 
department  of  commerce  and  labor,  May,  1898. 
Author:  Unde  Sam's  Secrets;  Uncle  Sam's 
Soldiers;  Unde  Sam's  Children;  Steps  in  Our 
Territorial  Expansion;  Colonial  Systems  of  the 
World;  Colonial  Administration;  Commercial 
China;  Commercial  Japan;  Commercial  Philip- 
pines; Commercial  India;  Commercial  Africa; 
Commercial  South  and  Central  America;  Com- 
mercial Orient;  Submarine  Telegraphs  of  the 
World;  Great  Canals  of  the  World;   etc. 

Avebury  (&'-bir-1,).  Lord.  See  Lubbock,  Sir 
John. 

AverroSs  (d-vir'-d-iz),  originally  Ibn  Roshd,  or, 
more  fuUv,  Mohammed-Ibn-Roshd,  the  most 
famous  of  Arabian  philosophers,  was  bom  at 
Cordova,  Spain,  1126,  He  was  appointed  suc- 
cessor to  his  father  as  chief  mufti,  and  afterward 
chief  judge  in  the  province  of  Mauritania. 
Accuse*!  oT  a  departure  from  the  orthodox  doc- 
trines of  Mohammedanism,  he  was  dismissed 
from  his  office,  and  condemned  by  the  ecclesias- 
tical tribunal  of  Morocco  to  recant  his  heretical 
opinions  and  do  penance.  After  this  he  returned 
to  his  native  place,  and  lived  in  great  poverty 
until  the  caliph  Almansor  reinstated  him  in  his 
offices.     Died  about  1198. 

Avery,  EIroy  McKendree,  author,  historian,  bom 
at  Erie,  Monroe  county,  Mich.,  1844;  gradu- 
ate of  university  of  Michigan,  Ph.  B.,  1871; 
served  in  civil  war;  mustered  out  at  close  as 
sergeant-major  of  11th  Michigan  volunteer 
cavalry.  Principal  of  high  school.  Battle  Creek, 
Mich.,  1869,  and  high  and  normal  schools,  Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  1871-79.  Member  of  Cleveland  city 
council,  1891-92 ;  of  Ohio  senate,  1893-97 ;  mem- 
ber of  many  historical  and  economic  societies. 
Author :  Elementary  Physics;  Elements  of  Natural 
Philosophy;  Physical  Technics;  Teachers'  Hand 
Book  of  l^atural  Philosophy;  Elements  of  Chemis- 
try; Teachers'  Hand  Book  of  Chemistry;  Complete 
Chemistry;  First  Principles  of  Natural  Philoso- 
phy; Words  Correctly  Spoken;  Columbus  and  the 
Columbia  Brigade;  School  Physics;  First  Lessons 
in  Physical  Science;  School  Chemistry;  The  Toum 
Meeting;  History  of  the  United  States  and  Its 
People,  16  vols. 

ATlcenna  {&v-i-shn'-dY  properly  Ibn  Sina  or, 
more  fully,  Abu  Ah  Al-Hossein  Ibn  Abdallah 
Ibn  Sina,  a  famous  Arabian  philosopher  and 
physician,  whose  authority  for  many  centuries 
passed  for  indisputable;  bom  980,  at  Charma- 
tain,  a  village  near  Bokhara.  He  was  physician 
to  several  of  the  Samanide  and  Dilemite  sover- 
eigns, and  also  for  some  time  vizier  in  Hamadan. 
Died,  1037. 

ATogadro  {d,-v6-gd.'-dro),  Amadeo,  Italian  chemist 
and  physicist,  was  bom  at  Turin,  Italy,  1776; 
died  there,  1856.  Professor  of  physics  at  Turin; 
formulated  his  celebrated  law  concerning  the 
atomic  theory  in  1811. 

Ayeshah  {V-i-shd  or  a'-i-shd),  the  favorite  wife 
of  Mohanuned,  was  bom  at  Medina  in  610  or 
611  A.  D.  She  was  only  nine  years  of  age  when 
she  married  the  prophet.  Although  she  bore  no 
children  to  Mohammed  she  was  so  tenderly  be- 
loved by  him  that  he  was  wont  to  say  that  she 
would  be  the  first  of  his  wives  to  whom  the  gates 
of  paradise  would  be  opened.  It  is  stated  by 
Mohanunedan  historians  that  to  the  charms  of 
her  beauty  she  added  a  knowledge  of  mathe- 
matics, rhetoric,  and  music.  In  his  last  illness 
Mohammed,  by  his  request,  was  carried  to  her 
house  and  expired  in  her  arms.  After  the 
prophet's  death  Ayeshah  took  active  part  in  the 
plot  which  deprived  Caliph  Othman  of  his  power 
and  life,  and  headed  a  force  to  resist  the  acces- 
sion  of  All.     Died,  678. 


Baber  (bd'-Mr)  (Zehir-Eddin  Mohammed),  the  first 
of  the  Great  Mo^ls  in  India,  a  descendant  of 
Timur,  was  bom  m  1483,  and  was  barely  twelve 
when  he  succeeded  his  father  in  the  sovereignty 
of  the  countries  l^ng  between  Samarkand  and 
the  Indus.  Having  made  himself  master  of 
Kashgar,  Kunduz,  Kandahar,  and  Kabul,  in 
1526  ne  routed  at  Panipat  the  vast  army  of  the 
Afghan  emperor  of  Delhi,  and  entered  the 
capital.  Agra  shortly  after  surrendered.  Baber 
died  in  1530. 

Babeuf  (bd'-bif),  Francois  Noel,  French  com- 
munist, was  bom  about  1760  at  St.  Quentin, 
France ;  was  a  land  surveyor  at  Rove  in  Picardy, 
when  on  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  in  1789 
he  attached  himself  to  the  most  extreme  party. 
As  "Gracchus  BaAieuI,"  in  his  Tribun  du  Peupte, 
he  advocated  a  rigorous  system  of  communisin ; 
a  secret  conspiracy  was  formed,  its  aim  the 
destruction  of  the  directory  and  the  establish- 
ment of  an  extreme  democratic  and  communistic 
system.  The  plot  was  discovered,  and  Babeuf 
guillotined  in  1797. 

Bacclo  della  Porta.     See  Bartolommeo,  Fra. 

Bach  (6dK),  Jobann  Sebastian.     See  page  159. 

Bach,  Karl  Phlllpp  Enimnuel,  German  com- 
poser, second  son  of  Johann  Sebastian,  was  bora 
at  Weimar  in  1714:  died  at  Hamburg  in  1788. 
He  was  probably  the  most  highly  gifted  of  the 
eleven  brothers,  and  his  influence  on  the  develop- 
ment of  certain  musical  forms  gives  him  a 
prominent  place  in  the  history  of  the  art.  He 
studied  in  tne  Thomas  school,  and  afterward  in 
the  university  of  Leipzig,  where  jurisprudence 
was  his  preference.  In  1738  he  went  to  Berlin, 
and  soon  afterward  was  appointed  chamber- 
musician  to  Frederick  the  Great.  In  1767  he 
became  chapel  master  at  Hamburg,  where  he 
passed  the  remainder  of  his  life.  His  most 
ambitious  composition  is  the  oratorio  Israel  in 
the  Wilderness.  His  essay  on  The  True  Method 
of  Harpsichord  Playing  was  long  a  standard  work. 

Bacbe  (bach),  Alexander  Dallas,  physicist,  great- 

frandson  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  was  bom  at 
'hiladelphia,  180G.  He  was  president  of  Girard 
college  1836-42,  where  he  established  a  meteoro- 
logical and  magnetic  observatory;  superin- 
tendent of  United  States  coast  survey,  1843, 
regent  of  Smithsonian  institution,  1846;  presi- 
dent of  the  national  academy  of  sciences,  1863. 
Died  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  1867. 

Bache,  Franklin,  physician  and  chemist,  was  bom 
at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1792;  he  published  System 
of  Medicine  in  1819;  was  professor  of  chemistry 
in  the  Philadelphia  collie  of  pharmacy,  1831 ; 
held  same  chair  in  Jefferson  medical  college, 
Philadelphia,  in  1841 ;  one  of  the  authors  of 
Wood  and  Bache's  United  States  Dispensatory. 
Died,  1864. 

Bacbeller,  Irving,  novelist,  was  bom  at  Pierrepont, 
N.  Y.,  1859;  graduated  from  St.  Lawrence 
university,  B.  S.,  1882,  M.  S.,  1892,  A.  M.,  1901 ; 
actively  connected  with  press  of  New  York  for 
years;  one  of  the  editors  of  the  New  York 
IWorld,  1898-1900.  Author:  The  Master  of 
Silence;  The  StUl  House  of  O'Darrow;  Eben 
Holden;  D'ri  and  I;  Darrd  of  the  Blessed  Ides; 
Vergilius;  Silas  Strong. 

Backbuysen  (Mk'-lioi-zen),  or  Bakhulzen,  Ladolf, 
a  famous  marine  painter  of  the  Dutch  school, 
was  bom  at  Emden  in  Hanover  in  1631,  and 
died  at  Amsterdam  in  1708. 

Bacon,  Alice  Mabel,  author,  educator,  was  bom  at 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  1858;  educated  in  private 
schools,  and  took  the  Harvard  examinations  in 
1881;  taught  at  Hampton  institution,  188^-88 
and  1889,  at  Tokyo,  Japan,  1888-89  and  1900-02  • 
founded  Dixie  hospital  for  training  colorea 
nurses,  1890.  Author:  Japanese  Girls  and 
Women;    Japanese  Interior;    In  the  Land  of  the 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


643 


Gods;     also   editor    Human   BuUeta,    a   Soldier's 
Story  of  Port  Arthur.     Lecturer  on  Japanese  his- 
tory, character,  and  domestic  life. 
Bacon,  Augustus  OctaTlns,  lawyer,  United  States 
senator  from  Georgia;    born   in    Bryan   county, 
Georgia,  1839 ;  graduate  of  university  of  Georgia. 
1859;    law  department  of  same,   1860.     Served 
a£    regimental    adjutant    and    staff    captain    in 
Confederate  States  army;     in    law   practice  in 
Macon,    Georgia,    since    1866;     member   several 
state  democratic  conventions  (president,  1880); 
delegate   national   democratic   convention,  1884; 
several  times  candidate    for  democratic  nomina- 
tion for  governor  of  Georgia;  presidential  elector, 
1868;      member,     1870-82,     1892,     and     1893, 
speaker,  1873-74  and  1877-81,  Georgia  house  of 
representatives.      United    States    senator    from 
1894  to  1913;  reelected  for  term,  1913-19.     He  is 
and  for  many  years  has  been  a  trustee  of  the 
university  of  Georgia,  and  one  of  the  regents  of 
the  Smithsonian  institution. 
Bacon,  Benjamin  Wisner,  biblical  writer  and  critic; 
professor  new  testament  criticism  and  exegesis  in 
Yale  university  since  1897;   was  bom  at  Litch- 
field, Conn.,  1860;    graduated  from  Yale,  1881; 
B  D  ,  Yale,  1884.     Pastor  Congregational  church 
in  Old  Lyme,  Conn.,  1884-89;    Oswego,  N.  Y., 
1889-96;    director    of    the   American    school    of 
oriental   research  in  Jerusalem,  Syria,   1905-06. 
Author:    The  Genesis  of  Genesis;  Triple  Tradition 
of  the  Exodus;  Introdttction  to  the  New  Testament; 
The  Sermon  on  the  Mount;    Story  of  St.  Paul. 
Translator   of    Wildeboer's     Kanon    des    Ouden 
Verbonds,  and  contributor  to  theological  reviews. 
Bacon,  Francis.     See  page  278. 
Bacon,  Nathaniel,  lawyer  and  member  of  Governor 
Berkeley's  council  in  Virginia,  leader  of  an  al- 
leged insurrection  against    the   colonial   govern- 
ment under  pretense  of   resisting  aggressions  of 
the   Indians,  was  born  in  England  about  1642. 
Berkeley  was  forced  to  make  many  concessions 
to    demands    for    better    government;    but    he 
broke  his  promises,  and  a  brief  civil  war  followed, 
in  which  Jamestown  was  burned,  1676,  and  the 
governor  took  shelter  in  an  English  vessel.     Be- 
fore   Bacon    completed  plans  for  reestablishing 
the  government,  he  died  from  disease  taken  in 
an    Indian    campaign,    and    the    rebellion    soon 
came  to  an  end.     Died  in  Virginia,  1676. 
Bacon,  Roger,  English  scientist  and  publicist,  was 
bom  about  1214.     The  most  learned  man  of  his 
day,  he  is  reputed  to  have  advocated  the  change 
since  made  in  the  calendar,   to  have  invented 
gunpowder,  and  is  known  to  have  manufactured 
magnifying  glasses.     His  great  work,  Opus  Maius, 
urges  philosophical  reform,   and  is  a  marvel  of 
learning  and  prophecy.     Died,  1294. 
Baden-Powell     {ba'-den-po'-el    or    pou'el),    Robert 
Stephenson  Smyth,  British  general  and  inspector- 
general  of  cavalry,  was  born,  1857,  and  educated 
at   Charterhouse,    London.      In    1876   he  joined 
the  13th  English  hussars,  and  served  as  adjutant 
of    that    regiment    in    India,    Afghanistan,    and 
South  Africa.      In  1887-89  he  served  in  South 
Africa    as    assistant    military    secretary    on    the 
staff;  took  part  in  the  operations  in  Zululand; 
staff  officer  in  the  Matabele  war.      In  the  Boer 
war  he  was  given  command  of   the  5th  dragoon 
guards,    and   with    a    force   of    1,200   men   was 
besi^ed  in  Maf eking,  which  he  held  agamst  the 
Boers  from  a  few  davs  following  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  until  May  'l8,   1900,  the  longest  siege 
recorded  in  modem  warfare;     afterward  organ- 
ized the  South  African  constabulary.     Founded 
the  organization  of  Boy  Scouts  to  promote  good 
citizenship  in  rising  generation,  1908.      He  is  the 
author  of  a  work  on  Reconnaissance  and  bctnmng, 
Vedette  Duty,  Cavalry  Instruction,  The  Downfall  oj 
Prempeh,    The    Matabele    Campaign,    and    Prg- 
Sticking  or  Hog-Hunting. 


Baedeker  (b&'-d»-k»r),  Karl,  Q«nn«a  pubUiri>«r  at 
Cobleiitz,  the  oristnator  of  a  aerie*  it  adinirabl* 
guidebooks,  pubUBhed  sinoe  1873  at  Laipiig. 
Born,  1801 ;  died,  1859. 

Baer,  George  F^  railway  ofllicial,  lawyer;  bom  in 
Somerset  county.  Pa.,  1842;  educated  at  Frank- 
lin and  Marshall  college.  At  thirteen  entered 
office  of  Somerset  Democrat;  worked  at  printing 
trade  over  two  ycare,  and  with  hb  orotber 
became  owner  of  that  paper  in  1 80 1 .  Hia  brother 
went  to  the  war  and  he  conducted  the  paper: 
also  studied  law,  principally  at  night.  Raieea 
volunteer  company  in  I8(Vi;  elected  captain. 
joined  army  of  Potomac  at  second  battle  of  Bull 
Run  and  took  part  in  all  engagements  up  to  and 
including  ChanccUorsville,  when  be  waa  detailed 
as  adjutant-general  second  brigade;  resumed 
legal  studies  and  was  admitted  to  bar,  1864. 
Removed  to  Reading,  1868;  gainr<l  large  practice 
at  Berks  county  bar;  counsel  for  Philadelphia 
&  Reading.  1870,  and  later  a  director.  For 
years  confiaential  legal  adviser  in  Pennsylvania 
of  J.  Pierpont  Morgan;  took  prominent  part  in 
reorganization  of  Philadelphia  &  lieading  rail- 
road, 1893;  elected,  1901,  president  of  Philaxlcl- 
phia  &  Reading  railway  company,  Philadelphia  4 
Reading  coal  and  iron  company,  and  Central  rail- 
road company  of  New  Jersey;  took  leading  part 
for  railway  anthracite  operators  in  negotiations 
and  proceedings  connected  with  the  anthracite 
coal  strike,  1902. 

Baer,  Karl  Ernst  von,  Russian  naturalist,  one  of  the 
founders  of  modern  embryology,  wa«  born  in 
Esthonia,  Russia,  1792;  died  at  Dorpat,  1876.  He 
was  educated  in  Germany  and  became  a  professor 
in  the  university  at  Konigsberg,  where,  in  1828, 
he  published  The  Development  of  Animals,  a  set 
of  careful  observations,  and  philosophical  reflec- 
tions that  are  most  remarkable  for  clearness 
and  thoroughness.  This  book  made  an  epoch 
in  the  science  of  the  development  of  animal  life. 
In  1834  he  became  librarian  of  the  St.  Peters- 
burg academy  of  science. 
Baeyer  (Jb&'-yer),  Adolf,  German  chemist,  was  bora 
at   Berlin,   Pmssia,    1835.     In   1872  he  became 

Erofessor  of  chemistry  at  the  university  of 
trassburg,  and  was  Liebig's  successor  at  Munich 
in  1875.  He  discovered  cerulein.  eosin,  and 
indol,  besides  making  other  valuable  contribu- 
tions to  the  chemistry  of  dye-stuff.  In  1905 
he  was  awarded  the  Nobel  prize  for  chemistry. 

Bagehot  (Jb&g'-iU  or  h&j'-iU),  Walter,  English  econo- 
mist and  joumalist,  was  bom  at  Langport, 
Somerset,  1826.  From  a'  school  at  Bristol  he 
passed  in  1842  to  University  collej[[e,  London, 
where  he  took  his  M.  A.  degree  in  1848;  in 
1852  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but  joined 
his  father  as  a  banker  and  shipowner  at  I-^ng- 
port.  In  1858  he  married  a  daughter  of  the 
Right  Hon.  James  Wilson,  founder  of  the 
Economist  newspaper  and  from  1860  until 
1877,  when  he  died  in  his  "a^^'ve  town,  he 
was  its  editor.  His  works  include  The  tniAx*h 
ConstUuiion;  Physics  and  Politics;  Lombard 
Street;  Literary  Studies;  Economic  Studies,  and 
Biographical  Studies. 

Baggesen  Q^^ -ge-sin),  Jens,  Danish  Poe*  and 
author,  was  bom  at  Korsor,  in  the  IsUnd  of 
Zealand,  1764,  and  died  at  Hamburg,  1826.  His 
German  works  fill  5  volumes;  his  Danish  \i 
volumes.  Chief  among  them  are  his  Com%e 
Talcs,  Labyrinthen,  and  Parthenais. 

BaUey,  Joseph  Weldon,  Uwyer,  United  States 
senator,  1901-13:  bom  in  Copiah  ooun^,  Miss.. 
1863;  admitted  to  bar,  1883;  preridential 
elector,  1884;  removed  to  Texas,  1885.  and 
began  practice  of  law  at  Gainesville ;  preaidenUaJ 
5wtor  at  large,  1888;  member  lower  house  ol 
congress  from  1891  to  1901 ;  caucus  nominee  of  the 


544 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


democratic  party  for  speaker  and  minority  mem- 
ber; committee  on  rules  of  55th  congress.  He  was 
chosen  United  States  senator  to  succeed  Hon. 
Horace  Chilton  in  1901 ;  reelected  in  1907.  He 
was  considered  one  of  the  ablest  lawyers  and 
debaters  in  the  senate. 

Baileyt  Liberty  Hyde,  scientist,  director  of  college 
of  agriculture  at  Cornell  since  1903 ;  born  in  South 
Haven,  Mich.,  1858;  graduated  at  Michigan  agri- 
cultural college,  B.  S.,  1882,  M.  S.,  1886;  LL.  1).; 
assistant  to  Asa  Gray,  Harvard,  1882-83;  pro- 
fessor of  horticulture  and  landscape  gardening  at 
Michigan  agricultural  college,  1883-88 ;  professor 
of  horticulture,  Cornell,  1888-1903.  Author: 
Survival  of  the  Unlike;  Evolution  of  our  Native 
Fruits;  Leaaona  with  Plants;  Botany,  an  Elemen- 
tary Text  for  Schoola;  Principles  of  Fruit  Grouping; 
Pnnciplea  of  Vegetable-Gardening;  Plant-Breed- 
ing; Garden-making;  Horticulturist's  Rule- 
Book;  Principles  of  Agriculture;  Nursery-Book; 
Forcing-Book;  Pruning-Book;  Practical  Garden- 
Book;  The  Nature-Study  Idea;  Outlook  to  Nature, 
etc.  Editor:  Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticul- 
ture, 4  vols.;  Rural  Science  Series;  Garden- 
Craft  Series;  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture.  He  has 
been  a  frequent  contributor  to  technical  journals 
and  popular  scientific  magazines. 

BallUe  ib6'4l),  Joanna,  Scotch  poet  and  dramatist, 
was  born  1762,  in  Both  well  manse.  In  1784  she 
went  to  reside  in  London,  and  in  1806  took  up 
her  residence  at  Hampstead,  where  she  remained 
until  her  death  in  1851.  No  author  has  ever 
enjoyed  a  larger  share  than  the  "immortal 
Joanna"  of  the  esteem  and  affection  of  her 
literary  contemporaries.  Her  greatest  achieve- 
ment is  undoubtedly  the  nine  Plays  on  the 
Passions,  which,  though  erroneous  in  conception, 
are  full  of  impressive  poetry,  and  often  character- 
ized by  intense  dramatic  power.  The  most 
popular  as  well  as  the  most  powerful  of  them, 
the  tragedy  De  Monfort,  was  brought  out  at 
Drury  Lane,  London,  in  1800,  Kemble  and  Mrs. 
Siddons  taking  the  leading  parts.  Her  Family 
Legend,  produced  at  Edinburgh  under  Scott's 
auspices  m  1810,  was  a  great  success. 

Bailly  {bd'-yi'),  Jean  Sylvain,  French  astronomer 
and  politician,  president  of  the  national  assembly 
of  1789,  and  mayor  of  Paris,  was  bom,  1736. 
The  revolution  interrupted  his  studies  and  inves- 
tigations in  astronomy.  During  the  earUer  part 
of  it  he  occupied  a  very  prominent  position.  He 
was  elected  president  of  the  national  assembly, 
June  17,  1789,  and  mayor  of  Paris,  July  15th. 
He  was  seized  at  Melun  by  the  Jacobin  soldiery, 
accused  of  being  a  royalist  conspirator,  con- 
demned, and  executed  with  the  usual  Jacobin 
preliminary  of  savage  insult,  1793.  He  is  best 
Known  by  his  great  works  on  the  history  of 
astronomy. 

Bally,  Edward  Hodges,  English  sculptor,  and 
member  of  the  royal  academy,  was  bom  in 
Bristol,  1788;  died  m  London,  1867.  His  works 
were  much  in  request  during  his  lifetime,  and  are 
still  much  admired.  The  statue  of  Nelson  in 
Trafalgar  square,  London,  and  the  bas-reliefs  on 
the  south  side  of  the  marble  arch  in  Hyde  Park 
are  both  the  work  of  Baily.  Among  his  finest 
pieces  are:  "Eve  at  the  Fountain;"  "Eve  List- 
ening to  the  Voice ; "  "  Maternal  Affection ; "  "Girl 
Preparing  for  the  Bath,"  and  "The  Graces 
Seated." 

Bain,  Alexander,  Scottish  writer  on  mental  phi- 
losophy, was  bom  at  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  in  1818. 
For  several  years  he  acted  as  examiner  in  mental 
philosophy  at  the  India  civil  service  examina- 
tions. In  1860  he  became  professor  of  logic  in 
the  luiiversity  of  Aberdeen,  and  lord  rector  there. 
His  chief  works  are:  The  Senses  and  the  Intel- 
lect; The  Emotions  and  the  Will;  Logic;  Mind  and 
Body;   and  Education  as  a  Scierux.     Died,  1903. 


Bain,  Robert  Nisbet,  assistant  librarian  British 
museum,  1883-1909,  was  bom  at  London  in  1854; 
was  educated  privately.  In  business  in  London 
until  1883.  He  published  numerous  transla- 
tions from  the  Russian,  Ruthenian,  Rumanian, 
Hungarian,  Swedish,  Danish,  and  Finnish, 
chieny  fairy  tales  and  novels.  Among  his  boolu 
are:  Gustavus  III.  and  his  Contemporariea; 
Hans  Christian  Andersen:  a  Biography;  Charles 
XII.  and  the  Collapse  of  the  Swedish  Empire; 
The  Pupils  of  Peter  the  Great;  The  Daughter  of 
Peter  the  Great,  a  History  of  Rtissian  Diplomacy 
under  the  Empress' Elizah^  Petrovna,  1741-62; 
Peter  III.,  Emperor  of  Russia,  1762;  Tales  from 
Gorky,  with  biography;  Tales  from  Jokai,  with 
full  biography;  Scandinavia,  the  Political  His- 
tory of  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden,  1613- 
1900;  The  First  Romanovs,  1613  to  1725,  a 
History  of  Muscovite  Civilization,  and  the  Rise  of 
the  Alodem  Russian  State;  Slavonic  Europe, 
the  Political  Hilary  of  Poland  and  Russia  from 
1469  to  1796.     Diedf.  1909. 

Balnbiidse,  WlUlam,  American  naval  officer,  waa 
bom  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  1774,  and  died  at 
Philadelphia,  1833.  He  waa  actively  engaged 
in  the  Mediterranean  in  succeaaive  commancTof 
the  frigates  George  Washington,  Essex,  and  Phila- 
delphia, waa  once  captured  by  the  French,  and 
had  to  aurrender  his  ship  in  tne  Tripolitan  war. 
In  the  war  of  1812  he  waa  given  command  of  a 
squadron,  consisting  of  the  Constitution,  Essex, 
and  Hornet,  which  sailed  from  Boston  in  that 
year.  When  cruising  off  the  coast  of  Brazil 
toward  the  close  of  1812,  he  captured  the  British 
frigate,  Java,  for  which  congress  voted  him  a 
gold  medal,  together  with  a  share  in  the  prize- 
money.  During  the  remaining  months  of  the 
war  he  had  charge  of  the  Charlestown  navy- 
yard;  and  from  1815  to  1821  he  was  again  in 
command  of  a  squadron  at  sea.  He  waa  later 
atationed  at  Philadelphia,  Beaton,  and  other 
naval  stations. 

Baird,  Sir  David,  British  general,  was  bom  1757, 
at  Newbyth,  Scotland.  He  entered  the  military 
service  in  1772,  and  in  1779  sailed  to  India  as 
captain  in  a  Highland  regiment.  In  July,  1780. 
Hyder  Ali  burst  into  the  Camatic  at  the  heaA 
of  100,000  men,  disciplined  and  commanded  by 
French  officers.  A  portion  of  the  English  army 
fell  into  an  ambuscade  and  was  cut  to  pieces- 
among  the  few  pri.soner8  was  Baird,  who  endured 
a  captivity  of  nearly  four  years  at  Seringapatam. 
In  1799  he  was  created  a  major-general,  and  led 
the  storming  column  at  the  victorious  assault  of 
Seringapatam.  He  commanded  an  expedition 
sent  from  India  to  Egypt  in  1801  to  aid  in  the 
expulsion  of  the  French,  and  marched  across  the 
desert  to  the  Nile.  Knighted  in  1804.  in  1805 
he  conunanded  an  exp>edition  against  the  Dutch 
settlements  at  the  cape  of  Good  Hope.  In  1807 
he  conunanded  the  first  division  at  the  bom- 
bardment of  Copenhagen,  and  in  1808  was  sent 
to  Spain  with  10,000  men  to  assist  Sir  John 
Moore.  In  the  battle  of  Corunna,  1809,  his  left 
arm  was  shattered,  and  had  to  be  amputated. 
Created  a  baronet,  he  retired  from  active  service 
in  1810,  and  in  1820  was  made  conunander  of 
the  forces  in  Ireland.  He  died  at  Fern-Tower, 
Crieff,  1829. 

Baird,  Spencer  Fullerton,  American  naturalist,  waa 
bom  at  Reading,  Pa.,  1823.  He  was  educated 
at  Dickinson  college,  Carlisle,  Pa.,  and  was 
afterward  professor  of  natural  science  in  that 
institution.  He  was  secretary  of  the  Smithson- 
ian institution,  at  Washington,  and  afterward 
commissioner  of  fish  and  fisheries.  He  wrote 
many  papers  on  birds,  reptiles,  fishes,  etc.,  and 
under  his  direction  the  national  museum  waa 
begun  in  1850.  In  connection  with  other  editors, 
he  published  The  Birds  of  North  America,  The 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


545 


Mammals  of  North  America,  and  a  Hiatory  of  the 
Birds  of  North  America,  in  five  volumes.  He 
died  at  Wood's  Holl,  Mass.,  1887. 

Bajazet  I.  (b&j-d-zif),  sultan  of  the  Turks,  was 
born  in  1347.  In  1389  he  succeedetl  his  father, 
Murad  I.,  who  fell  in  battle  near  Kossovo,  fighting 
against  the  Servians.  In  three  years  he  con- 
quered Bulgaria,  a  part  of  Servia,  Macedonia, 
and  Thessaly ;  he  also  subdued  most  of  the  states 
of  Asia  Minor.  From  the  rapidity  with  which 
these  extraordinary  conauests  were  effected  he 
received  the  name  of  llderim,  i.  e.,  lightning. 
He  even  blockaded  Constantinople  for  ten  years, 
thinking  to  subdue  it  by  famine.     Died,  1403. 

Baker,  Alfred,  scientist,  educator,  professor  of 
mathematics  at  the  university  of  Toronto  since 
1887 ;  was  born  at  Toronto ;  graduated  from  the 
university  of  Toronto,  B  A.,  with  gold  medal  in 
mathematics.  After  being  principal  of  several 
high  schools  in  Ontario  he  was  appointed  mathe- 
matical master  in  Upper  Canada  college,  and 
became  mathematical  tutor  in  University  college, 
Toronto,  1875 ;  registrar,  1880;  dean  of  residence, 
1884;  elected  by  graduates  a  member  of  senate 
of  university  of  Toronto,  1887-1906;  retired 
from  queen  s  own  rifles,  1883,  with  rank  of 
captain;  F.  R.  S.  Canada;  a  member  of  the 
Soci6t6  Math6matique  de  France,  and  of  the 
American  mathematical  society;  president  of 
the  Ontario  educational  association,  1895 ;  presi- 
dent of  section  III.  royal  society  of  Canada, 
1905;  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  John  Seath  re- 
organized geometrical  teaching  in  schools  of 
Ontario,  1904.  Author  of  articles  relating  to 
quaternions,  geometry  of  position,  and  founda- 
tions of  geometry  (translated  into  Japanese)  in 
the  proceedings  of  the  royal  society  of  Canada; 
also  elementary  treatises  on  synthetic  and  analyti- 
cal geometry;  has  edited  elementary  treatises 
on  trigonometry  and  on  mechanics. 

Baker,  James  H.,  educator,  president  of  the  uni- 
versity of  Colorado  since  1892;  was  bom  at 
Harmony,  Maine,  1848;  educated  at  Bates  col- 
lege, Lewiston,  Maine.  Principal  of  Yarmouth 
high  school,  1873-75;  principal  of  Denver 
high  school,  1875-92;  president  national  coun- 
cil of  education,  1892;  president  national 
associatic>i  of  state  universities,  1907 ;  author 
of  movement  that  resulted  in  national  investiga- 
tion of  "committee  of  ten"  on  secondary 
schools.  Author  of  Elementary  Psychology,  Edu- 
cation and  Life,  and  American  Problems. 

Baker,  Ray  Stannard,  author,  was  born  at  Lansing, 
Mich.,  1870;  graduated  at  Michigan  agricultural 
college,  B.  S.,  1889;  took  partial  law  course  and 
studies  in  literature  at  university  of  Michigan. 
Has  traveled  extensively.  Member  national 
geographical  society.  Contributor  of  many 
articles  and  stories  to  American  and  English 
magazines.  Was  associate  editor  of  McClure's 
Magazine,  now  of  American  Magazine.  Author: 
Boys'  Book  of  Inventions;  Our  New  Prosperity; 
Seen  in  Germany;  SecoTid  Boys'  Book  of  Inventions. 

Baker,  Sir  Samuel  White,  British  African  explorer, 
was  born  at  London,  1821.  He  explored  the 
western  arm  of  the  Nile  and  discovered  the  Albert 
Nyanza  lake;  organized  an  extensive  agricul- 
tural colony  in  Ceylon;  made  a  successful  ex- 
pedition 1869-73,  in  company  with  his  wife  and 
100  picked  men,  for  the  purpose  of  suppressing 
the  slave-trade  and  extending  the  Egyptian 
boundaries.  He  wrote  Eight  Years'  Wanderings 
in  Ceylon;  The  Albert  Nyanza;  The  Nile  Tribu- 
taries; Ismailia,  etc.  Died  at  Newton  Abbot, 
England,  1893. 

Balboa,  Vasco  Nunez  de,  Spanish  conqueror,  was 
bom  at  Xeres-de-los-Caballeros  in  1475.  After 
leading  rather  a  dissolute  life  in  his  youth,  he 
took  part  in  the  great  mercantile  expedition  of 
Rodrigo  de  Bastidas  to  the   new  world.      He 


established  himself  in  Saoto  Domingo,  Mid  bc^aa 
to  cultivate  the  soil;  but  fortune  proving  ad- 
verse, in  order  to  escape  from  his  crwliton,  h» 
had  hiniHelf  smugglml  on  board  a  nhip,  and  Jouied 
the  e.\pc<lition  to  Durien  in  1510,  commandad 
by  Francisco  de  Enciso.  An  insurrection  which 
took  place  obtained  for  Balboa  the  suprwne 
command  in  the  new  colony,  but  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Pedrarias  Davila,  by  means  of  (he 
intrigues  of  the  Spanish  court,  and  in  a  aubordi- 
nate  situation  Balboa  made  several  suooeaiful 
expeditions.  Accounts  reaching  him  of  a  greai 
western  ocean  impelled  him  in  1513  to  set  out  in 
quest  of  it.  On  September  25th  of  that  year  he 
obtained  the  first  sight  of  the  Pacific  ocean  from 
a  mountain-top  in  tlie  isthmus  of  Panama.  He 
took  possession  of  it  in  the  name  of  his  sovweign. 
He  was  executed  in  1517  on  the  charge  of  a  oon> 
templated  revolt. 

Baldung  {bOl'-ddtmg),  Hans,  called  also  Hans 
Griin,  German  painter  and  wood-engraver,  con- 
temporary of  Alorecht  Diirer,  was  boni  in  Gmiind, 
Swabia,  1476;  died  at  Strassburg,  l.')45.  His 
masterpiece,  a  painting  of  the  crucifixion,  is  in 
the  cathedral  ot  Freiburg;  his  wood-engravings 
are  numerous. 

Baldwin  I,,  first  Latin  emperor  of  Constantinople, 
was  bom  at  Valenciennes  in  1171.  In  1200  he 
appointed  his  brother,  Philip,  and  others  to  the 
regency  of  Hainault  and  Flanders,  and  joined 
the  fourth  crusade.  Part  of  the  crusaders  — 
Baldwin  among  others  —  were  induced  to  assist 
the  Venetians  in  reconquering  Zara,  in  Dalmatia, 
from  the  king  of  Hungary.  While  at  Zara  the 
young  Alexis,  son  of  Isaac  II.,  emperor  of  Con- 
stantinople, asked  the  assistance  of  the  crusaders 
against  nis  uncle,  Alexis  Angelus,  who,  having 
deposed  and  blinded  Isaac  IL,  had  usurped  the 
throne.  The  crusaders  soon  defeated  the 
usurper's  forces  and  restored  the  rightful  em- 
peror; but  Alexis  having  some  difficulty  in 
carrying  out  his  promises,  they  turned  their 
arms  against  him.  Alexis  Ducas  Murzuphlua 
then  usurped  the  throne,  but  was  defeated 
by  the  cmsaders  and  the  city  was  sacked  — 
the  crusaders  and  Venetians  sharing  the  booty. 
Baldwin  was  chosen  emperor,  and  crowned  in 
1204;  but  he  received  only  a  fourth  part  of  the 
empire  —  Constantinople  and  Thrace.  He  died 
in   1206. 

Baldwin,  James  Hark,  psychologist;  bom  in 
Columbia,  S.  C,  1861;  graduate  of  Princeton, 
1884;  A.  M.,  1887;  Ph.  D.,  1889;  8c.  D.,  Oxford 
university,  England,  1900;  studied  in  Ldptig. 
Berlin  and  Tiibingen;  instructor  of  French  and 
German  at  Princeton,  1886;  professor  of  phi- 
losophy. Lake  Forest  university,  III.,  1887-W 
same,  Toronto  university,  Canada,  1889-M 
professor  psychology,  Princeton,  1893-1903 
professor  philosophy  and  psychology,  Johns  Hop- 
kins, 1903-09,  National  university  of  llezioo  since 
1909.  Author:  German  Paychology  of  To-doff 
(translated);  Hand  Book  of  Payehclouy;  EUmmOB 
of  Psychology;  Mental  Development  \n  the  Child 
and  the  Race;  Social  and  Ethical  Intervrelatiane 
in  Mental  DevdopmerU;  Story  of  the  Mind; 
Fragments  in  Philosophy  and  Science;  DetMlopmetU 
and  Evolution.  Editor-in-chief:  Dictionary  of 
Philosophy  and  Psychology.  His  various  books 
have  been  translated  Into  French,  German. 
Italian,  and  Spanish.  Editor:  PtyeholoaiaU 
Review,  Princeton  Contribution*  to  Ptychoiogy, 
and  the  Library  of  Hittorieed  Ptyehology. 

Baldwin,  Simeon  Eben,  jurist,  governor,  was  bora 
at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1840:  graduated  from 
Yale,  1861;  studied  law  at  Yale  and  Harvard; 
LL.  D.,  Harvard,  1891 ;  admitted  to  bar,  1863. 
Became  member  faculty,  Yale  law  school,  In 
1869,  and  later  professor  of  constitutional  and 
private    international    law;     aasodate    justioa, 


M6 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


189S-1907,  chief-justice,  1907-10,  eupreme  court 
of  errors,  Ck)imecticut.  President  American  bar 
association,  1890,  American  social  science  associ- 
ation, 1897,  International  law  association,  1899- 
1901,  American  historical  association,  1905. 
Elected  governor  of  Connecticut,  1910;  reelected, 
1912.  Author:  Baldwin's  Connecticut  Digest; 
Bctldwin'e  Cases  on  Railroad  Law;  Modem 
Political  Institutions;  (co-author)  Two  Centuries 
Growth  of  American  Law;  American  Railroad 
Law,  and  American  Judiciary. 

Balfe  ih&lf),  MJcbael  William,  British  composer, 
bom  at  DubUn,  Ireland,  1808;  as  a  boy  showed 
great  musical  talent;  at  the  age  of  sixteen  was 
engaged  in  the  Drury  Lane  orchestra  in  London. 
While  there  he  attracted  the  attention  of  an 
Italian  nobleman.  Count  Mazzara,  who  took  him 
to  Italy  to  study  music.  After  singing  at  Paris 
in  the  Italian  opera  under  Rossini,  Balfe  returned 
to  Italy  and  produced  in  1830  several  operas. 
In  1835  he  went  to  England  as  a  vocalist  and 
composer  of  opera,  and  after  five  years  of  suc- 
cessful composition  he  produced  two  operas  in 
Paris.  In  1844  his  most  popular  work,  The 
Bohemian  Girl,  appeared  at  Drury  Lane,  and 
was  followed  by  several  other  operas.  Died, 
1870. 

Balfour  (MH'-fdbr),  Arthur  James,  British  states- 
man and  author,  was  bom  in  Scotland  in  1848; 
educated  at  Eton,  and  Trinity  college,  Cam- 
bridge; was  private  secretary  to  Lord  Salisbury 
1878-80,  and  went  with  him  to  Berlin  in  1878; 
member  of  the  so-called  "fourth  party;"  presi- 
dent local  government  board  1885-86-  secretary 
for  Scotland,  with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet,  and 
vice-president  committee  of  council  on  education 
for  Scotland,  1886-87;  chief  secretary  for  Ire- 
land, 1887-91,  and  carried  the  crimes  act  through 
parUament ;  created  the  congested  districts  board 
for  Ireland,  1890;  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and 
leader  of  the  house  on  the  death  of  W.  H.  Smith, 
1891,  and  again  in  1895-1906.  On  the  retire- 
ment of  Lord  Salisbury  in  1902,  he  became  prime 
minister  and  lord  privy  seal,  retaining  the  office 
of  first  lord  of  the  treasurv.  He  introduced 
the  education  act,  1902.  When  Chamberlain 
made  his  fiscal  proposals,  1903,  Balfour,  hold- 
ing that  the  country  was  not  ripe  for  the 
taxation  of  food,  committed  himself  and  the 
government  only  to  a  policy  of  retaliation.  At 
the  end  of  1905  he  and  his  cabinet  resigned. 
Author  of  A  Defense  of  Philosophic  Doubt; 
Essays  and  Addresses;  The  Foundations  of 
Belief,  being  Notes  Introductory  to  the  Study 
of  Theology;  Economic  Notes  on  Insular  Free 
Trade;  Reflections  Suggested  by  the  New  Theory 
of  Matter. 

Balfour,  Francis  Maitland,  British  biologist,  bom 
at  Edinburgh,  1851 ;  educated  at  Trinitv  college, 
Cambridge.  His  investigations,  especially  in  the 
line  of  embryology,  were  of  great  importance. 
Between  1879  and  1882  he  brought  together  all 
that  was  known  about  the  developmental  stages 
of  animals  in  his  Comparative  Embryology,  a 
work  of  the  greatest  value  to  students  of  embry- 
ology. In  1882  he  and  his  single  guide  were 
killecl  on  the  Alps  by  slipping,  while  attempting 
to  cUmb  one  of  the  spurs  of  Mont  Blanc. 

Baliol  {bal'-yOl  or  bdl'-yid),  Edward,  son  of  John 
Baliol,  went  to  Scotland  in  1332,  and  tried  to 
win  the  kingdom  from  King  David  II.,  the  son 
of  Robert  Bruce.  With  the  aid  of  Edward  III. 
of  England,  he  defeated  the  Scotch,  and  was 
crowned  king  September  24,  1332.  But  most  of 
the  people  did  not  want  him,  and  after  a  reign  of. 
only  three  months  he  fled  to  England  and  died 
there  in  1363. 

Ballot,  John,  king  of  Scotland,  was  bom  in  1249. 
Through  his  mother  he  was  connected  with  the 
royal  family,  and  on  the  death  of  the  heir  to  the 


throne,  the  "maid  of  Norway,"  he  became  a 
competitor  for  the  throne  with  Robert  Bruce. 
The  question  was  left  to  Ekiward  I.  of  England 
to  decide.  He  chose  John  Baiiol,  who  swore 
obedience  to  him  as  his  feudal  lord.  In  conse- 
quence of  his  oath,  he  soon  found  he  had  no  real 
power.  In  1295  he  made  a  treaty  with  France, 
which  was  then  at  war  with  England.  Immedi- 
ately Edward  invaded  Scotland,  and,  taking 
Bahol  prisoner,  compelled  him  to  give  up  his 
crown.  In  1302  he  was  allowed  to  settle  on  bis 
Norman  estates,  where  he  died  in  1315. 

Ball,  Sir  Robert  Stawell,  British  scientist,  Lowndean 
professor  of  astronomy  and  geometry,  Cam- 
bridge, director  of  the  Cambridge  observatory 
since  1892,  was  bom  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  1840; 
graduated  from  Trinity  college,  Dublin.  Hon. 
M.  A.,  Cambridge,  1892;  LL.  D.,  DubUn. 
Royal  astronomer  of  Ireland,  1874-92;  ex- 
president  of  the  royal  astronomical  society; 
ex-president  of  the  mathematical  association ; 
ex-president  of  the  royal  zoological  society  of 
Ireland.  Author:  A  Treatise  on  the  Theory 
of  Screws;  many  memoirs  on  mathematical, 
astronomical,  and  physical  subjects;  and  the 
following  works  on  astronomy:  The  Story  of 
the  Heavens;  Starland;  In  Starry  Realms;  In  the 
High  Heavens;  Time  and  Tide;  The  Cause  of 
an  Ice  Age;  Atlas  of  Astronomy;  The  Story  of  the 
Sun;  Great  Astronomers;  The  Earth's  Beginning; 
Popular  Guide  to  the  Heavens. 

Ballantine  {bal'4an-an),  Wiliiam,  British  lawyer, 
was  bom  in  London,  1812;  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1834^  and  soon  obtained  a  large  practice, 
chiefly  in  criminal  cases.  Among  the  famous 
trials  with  which  he  was  associated  were  tlie 
Miiller  murder  trial,  Tichbome  case,  and  the 
defense  of  the  Guicowar  of  Baroda.  From  the 
latter  he  is  said  to  have  received  a  fee  of  20,000 
guineas  to  induce  him  to  visit  India.  He  wrote 
Experiences  of  a  Barrister's  Life,  and  Old  World 
and  the  New.     Died,  1887. 

Balllet,  Thomas  M^  educator,  was  bom  in  1852; 
was  educated  at  Franklin  and  Marshall  college 
and  Yale;  superintendent  of  pubUc  schools, 
Springfield,  Mass.,  1887-1904;  now  dean  school 
of  pedagogy.  New  York  university.  Associate 
editor  of  f'edagogical  Seminary.  Has  written 
several  monograph.s,  and  delivered  many  lectures 
and  addresses  on  education. 

Balllnger,  Richard  Achilles,  lawyer,  ex-secretary 
of  the  interior,  was  born  at  Boonesboro,  Iowa, 
1858;  was  graduated  from  WilUams  college, 
Mass.,  1884 ;  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Springfield, 
111.,  in  1886.  Served  as  city  attorney  of  Kan- 
kakee, 111.,  and  was  appomted  to  a  similar 
position  at  New  Decatur,  Ala.  In  1889  he  moved 
to  Port  Townsend,  Wash.  Engaged  in  the 
practice  of  law;  elected  superior  court  judge  in 
1894,  serving  four  years.  In  1897  moved  to 
Seattle,  Wash.,  becoming  the  senior  member  of 
the  law  firm  of  Ballinger,  Ronald  &  Battle; 
engaged  in  active  practice  until  1904,  when  he 
was  elected  mayor  of  Seattle,  serving  until 
February,  1906.  In  March,  1907,  appointed 
commissioner  of  the  general  land  office,  serving 
one  year,  when  he  resigned  to  return  to  Seattle 
to  resume  the  practice  of  law.  Appointed  secre- 
tary of  the  interior,  assuming  office  March,  1909. 
Resigned  from  cabinet,  1911. 

Ballou  {bdl-lod'),  Hosea,  American  preacher  and  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Universalists,  was  bom  in 
New  Hampshire,  1771.  He  was  self-educated; 
was  expelled  from  his  father's  church  on  declaring 
his  behef  in  the  final  salvation  of  all  men ;  began 
to  preach  at  twenty-one,  and  became  minister 
of  the  Second  Universalist  church  in  Boston,  in 
which  he  preached  thirty-five  years.  He  started 
the  Universalist  Magazine  in  1819,  and  in  1831, 
with   his   grandnephew,    began   the    Universalist 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


M7 


Expositor,  a  quarterly  publication.  It  is  said 
that  he  preached  over  10,000  sermons,  none  of 
which  were  written  before  delivery.  He  attained 
wide  celebrity  both  as  a  preacher  and  as  a  theo- 
logian.    Died,  1852. 

Balmaeeda  {bdl'-ma-sd'-rad),  Jos6  Manuel,  Chilean 
statesman,  was  born  in  1840;  president  of  the 
republic  of  Chili  1880-91.  In  the  civil  war 
between  the  congressional  party  and  himself, 
he  was  defeated  and  committed  suicide  in 
1891. 

Baltimore  {bSl'-tl-mdr),  George  Calvert,  first  Lord, 
bom  at  Kipling,  in  Yorkshire,  about  1580, 
entered  parliament  in  1609,  was  knighted  in  1617, 
and  in  1619  became  secretary  of  state.  In  1625 
he  declared  himself  a  Catholic,  and,  resigning 
office,  was  created  Baron  Baltimore  in  the  Irish 
peerage,  and  retired  to  his  Irish  estates.  As 
early  as  1621  he  had  despatched  colonists  to  a 
small  settlement  in  Newfoundland,  and  in  1627 
he  visited  the  place.  Next  spring  he  returned 
with  his  family,  and  stayed  until  the  autumn  of 
1629.  The  severe  winter  induced  him  to  sail 
southward  in  search  of  a  more  genial  country; 
but  his  attempts  to  settle  in  Virginia  led  to  dis- 
putes, and  he  returned  home  to  obtain  a  fresh 
charter.  He  died  in  1632,  and  the  patent  was 
granted  in  June  of  the  same  year  to  his  son, 
Cecil,  second  Lord  Baltimore. 

Balzac  (Fr.  bdl'-zdk'),  (Eng.  bdl'-zdk),  Honort 
de.     See  page  98. 

Bancroft,  Frederick,  historian,  bom  at  Galesburg, 
III.,  1860;  graduated  from  Amherst,  1882;  Ph.D., 
Columbia,  1885;  LL.  D.,  Knox  college,  1900; 
studied  law  and  political  science  at  Columbia; 
history,  political  economy,  and  diplomacy  at 
Gottingen,  Berlin,  Freiburg  (Baden)  and  in 
Ecole  des  Science  Politiques,  Paris;  lectured  on 
political  history  of  civil  war  and  reconstruction, 
Amherst,  1888;  1888-92,  chief  of  bureau  of  rolls 
and  library,  department  of  state;  has  also 
lectured  on  diplomatic  and  political  history  at 
Columbia,  Johns  Hopkins,  and  Chicago  universi- 
ties, and  has  contributed  to  most  of  the  leading 
reviews  and  magazines.  Delegate  to  Paris  con- 
gress of  historians,  1900.  Gave  course  of  lectures 
at  Lowell  institute,  Boston,  1902-03,  on  "Life  in 
the  South,  1860-65."  Author:  Life  of  William 
H.  Seward,  The  Negro  in  Politica,  A  History  of 
the  Confederates. 

Bancroft,  George,  American  historian,  was  bom 
in  1800,  at  Worcester,  Mass.;  graduated  from 
Harvard  college  in  1817;  proceeded  in  1818  to 
Gottingen,  where  he  studied  history  and  philology 
under  Heeren,  Plank,  and  Eichhom,  and  in  1820 
obtained  the  degree  of  doctor.  At  Berlin  he 
attended  the  lectures  of  Hegel,  and  had  frequent 
intercourse  with  Schleiermacher,  W.  von  Hum- 
boldt, Savigny,  Vamhagen  von  Ense,  and  other 
literary  men  of  note.  Subsequently  he  traveled 
through  Germany,  and  formed  an  acquaintance 
with  Goethe  and  Schlosser.  Having  visited 
Paris,  London,  and  Italy,  he  returned  to  the 
United  States,  and,  after  some  time  spent  in 
teaching,  devoted  himself  to  politics.  He  soon 
became  celebrated  as  a  democratic  politician, 
and  was  made  collector  of  customs  at  Boston. 
He  still  continued  his  literary  labors,  especially 
in  lectures  upon  German  literature,  philosophy, 
etc.  When  Polk  was  elected  president,  in  1845, 
he  appointed  Bancroft  secretary  of  the  navy. 
While  in  this  office  he  established  an  observatory 
at  Washington  and  a  naval  school  at  Annapolis. 
In  the  autunm  of  1846  he  was  sent  by  Polk  as 
ambassador  to  England,  where  he  remained  until 
1849,  carefully  collecting  materials  for  his  His- 
tory of  the  United  States.  He  published  the  result 
of  his  labors  in  his  History  of  the  Revolution  in 
North  America.  He  had  already  published  his 
History  of  the  Colonization  of  the  United  States  of  i 


North  America.  The  whole  of  these  wriUofi  mw 
mcludod  in  the  author'a  History  of  Amtnea,  m 
work  of  solid  excellence,  the  tenth  •aid  last  volume 
of  which  appeared  in  1874.  In  1860  Bsaeroft 
delivered  an  oration  in  honor  of  Abfttbam 
Lincoln.  From  1867-74  he  was  minister  to  Ger- 
many. For  some  years  he  was  a  l»»Alnm  goo* 
tributor  to  the  North  Anurican  tUvim.  Died. 
1891.  ^ 

Bancroft,  Hubert  Howe,  historian;  born  at  Qran- 
villc.  Ohio,  1832.  Entered  bookstore  of  hie 
brother-in-law,  George  H.  Derby,  Buffalo,  N.  Y., 
1848,  and  in  1852  went  to  establish  a  branch  in 
San  Francisco,  Cal.;  collected  as  materials  for 
Pacific  coast  history  a  library  of  60,(XX)  volumes, 
and  with  aid  of  a  staff  of  collaboratora  has  writ- 
ten and  published  a  historical  series  of  M 
volumes,  covering  the  western  part  of  North 
America;  also  The  Book  of  the  Fair,  Th»  Book 
of  Wealth,  The  New  Pacific,  etc. 

Bancroft,  William  Amos,  president  Beaton  el»> 
vated  railway  company  since  1899,  was  bom  at 
Groton,  Mass..  1855;  graduated  from  Harvard, 
1878;  studied  at  Harvard  law  school,  187»-€1; 
admitted  to  Suffolk  bar,  1881;  member  Cam- 
bridge common  council,  1882;  Massachusetta 
legislature,  1883-85;  alderman,  Cambridge, 
1891-92:  mayor  of  Cambridge,  1893-96;  overseer. 
Harvard,  1893-1905;  Massachusetts  volunteer 
militia  since  1875;  private  to  major-general; 
appointed  brigadier-general  United  States  vol- 
unteers during  war  with  Spain.  Director  United 
States  trust  company,  Puritan  trust  company, 
Chelsea  trust  company;  trustee  Norwich  univer- 
sity, Vt.,  Lawrence  academy,  Groton,  Mass., 
and  Phillips  academy,  Exeter,  N.  H. 

Bandinelli  {bdn'-de-ruU'-le),  Baccio,  Italian  sculptor, 
was  born  1488,  at  Florence,  the  son  of  a  famous 
goldsmith.  He  was  a  jealous  rival  of  Michael- 
angelo,  who  is  said  to  have  repaid  his  enmity 
with  contempt.  His  talent,  however,  secured 
him  many  patrons,  and  Pope  Clement  VII.  be- 
stowed on  him  an  estate.  Among  his  works  are 
his  colossal  "  Hercules  and  CaciiS,"  his  "Adam 
and  Eve,"  his  copy  of  the  "  Laocoon,"  and  the 
exquisite  bassi-rUtevi  in  the  duomo  of  Florence. 
He  died  in  1560. 

Ban£r  {bd'-n&r'),  Johan,  Swedish  commander,  of  a 
distinguished  family,  born  in  1596.  Ue  was  so 
much  addicted  to  hterary  studies  that  Gustaviia 
Adolphus  styled  him  his  "learned  general."  He 
gained  many  victories;  was  revered  for  his 
humanity,  and,  having  acquired  a  high  reputa- 
tion, died  at  Halberstadt  in  1641. 

Bangs  {b&ngz),  John  Kendricic,  author,  humorist, 
was  bom  at  Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  1862;  graduated 
from  Columbia,  1883;  studied  Uw,  1883-84; 
associate  editor  Life,  1884-88;  editor  of  Litera- 
ture, 1898-99;  Harper's  Weekly,  1898-1900; 
Metropolitan  Magazine,  1902-03;  Pvck,  1904-05. 
Democratic  candidate  for  mayor  of  Yonlters, 
1894,  defeated ;  vice-president  Yonkers  board  of 
education,  1897;  president  Halsted  school, 
Yonkers,  1896-1904.  Author:  Roger  Camenien; 
Katharine;  The  New  Wagqings  of  Old  Tales; 
Coffee  and  Repartee;  The  Water  Ghost;  Thret 
Weeks  in  Polities;  The  Idiot;  Mr.  BonaparU. 
of  Corsica;  A  House  Boat  on  the  Styx;  The  Pur- 
suit of  the  House  Boat;  GhosU  I  Have  Met;  Peeps 
at  People;  The  Enchanted  Type  Writer;  Cabvebe 
from  a  Library  Comer;  Mr.  Munchausen;  Olym- 
pian NighU;  Unde  Sam,  Trustee;  Alice  in 
Municipaland,  etc. ;  also  many  stories  contributed 
to  syndicates  and  magazines. 

Bankbead,  John  HoUls,  United  States  senator, 
was  bora  at  Moscow,  Ala.,  1842;  was  aelf- 
educated;  serv-ed  four  years  in  the  eonfederat« 
army,  being  wounded  three  times ;  member  of  thm 
state  senate  1876-77,  and  of  the  house  of  repre- 
senUtives  1880-81 ;    was  warden  of  the  Alabama 


M8 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


penitentiary  from  1881  until  1885;  elected  to  the 
national  house  of  representatives  ten  terms; 
appointed  member  of  the  inland  waterways 
commission,  1907.  In  June,  1907,  he  was 
appointed  United  States  senator  to  fill  the 
vacancy  caused  by  the  death  of  Hon.  John  T. 
Morgan,  and  in  July,  1907,  was  elected  by  the 
legislature.     Reelected  for  term  1913-19. 

Banks,  Sir  Joseph,  English  naturalist,  bom,  accord- 
ing to  some  accounts,  at  Reversby  abbey,  in 
Lincolnshire;  according  to  others,  in  London,  in 
1743:  died,  1820.  In  1766  he  made  a  voyage  to 
Newfoundland  and  Labrador,  collecting  plants; 
from  1768-71  he  sailed  with  Cook  around  the 
world  in  the  capacity  of  naturalist.  He  wrote 
a  work  on  the  diseases  of  plants. 

Banks,  Louis  Albert,  clergyman,  author,  was  bom 
at  Corvallis,  Ore.,  1855;  educated  at  Philomath 
college  and  Boston  university;  D.  D.,  Mt.  Union 
college,  Ohio.  Entered  Methodist  Episcopal 
ministry^;  prohibition  candidate  for  governor  of 
Massachusetts  in  1893.  Pastor  Independence 
Avenue  church,  Kansas  City,  1909-11.  Mem- 
ber society  of  American  authors.  He  has  written 
a  long  list  of  inspirational  and  religious  books. 

Banks,  Nathaniel  Prentiss,  s[>eaker  of  the  house  of 
representatives,  1835-37;  governor  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, 1858-61 ;  major-general  of  the 
United  States  volunteers,  1861-64;  bom  at 
Waltham,  Mass.,  1816.  Distinguished  as  a 
soldier  during  the  civil  war,  he  became  an 
influential  legislator  during  the  stormy  con- 
gressional discussions  which  followed  the  close 
of  the  great  struggle.      Died,  1894. 

Banks,  Thomas,  the  first  eminent  English  sculptor, 
was  born  at  Lambeth,  England,  1735.  The 
monuments  of  Sir  Eyre  CJoote  in  Westminster 
abbey,  and  of  Captains  Burgess  and  Westcott 
in  St.  Paul's  cathedral  were  among  his  last 
works.     Died  at  London,  1805. 

Barbarossa  (b&r'-M-rda'-d).     See  Frederick  I. 

Barbauld  {bar'-bdld),  Anna  Letltla,  English  author, 
was  born  at  Kibworth-Harcourt,  in  Leices- 
tershire, 1743.  In  1795  she  edited  Akenside's 
Pleasures  of  Imagination  and  Collins's  Odes,  and 
prefixed  to  each  a  critical  essay.  In  1804  she 
Degan  to  etlit  a  selection  from  the  Spectator, 
Guardian,  Toiler,  etc.^  and  in  1810  published  a 
collection  of  the  British  novelists.  Her  last 
poetical  effort  was  an  ode  entitled  Eighteen 
Hundred  and  Eleven.     Died,  1825. 

Barbour  (6dr'-6«r),  John,  father  of  Scottish  poetry 
and  history,  was  born  about  1316;  paid  several 
visits  to  England  and  France;  was  arch- 
deacon of  Aberdeen  from  1357,  or  earlier,  until 
his  death  in  1395.  His  national  epic.  The  Brus, 
was  first  printed  at  Edinburgh  in  1571. 

Barclay  de  Tolly  {h&r'-kla'  di  to'-le').  Prince 
Michael,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  Russian 
generals,  was  bom  in  Livonia,  1761.  He  fought 
with  great  bravery  in  the  Turkish  war  of  1788-89, 
in  the  campaign  against  Sweden  in  1790,  and  in 
those  against  Poland  in  1792-94.  In  the  year 
1806,  at  Pultusk,  as  major-general  he  commanded 
Benningsen's  advanced  guard.  He  lost  an  arm 
at  the  battle  of  Eylau.  Although  hated  by  the 
Russian  national  party,  because  regarded  as  a 
German,  he  was  appointed  minister  of  war  by 
the  emperor  Alexander  in  1810  —  an  office 
which  he  held  until  1813.     He  died  in  1818. 

Barham  (bdr'-am),  Richard  Harris,  English  poet 
and  humorist,  was  bom  at  Canterbury,  1788; 
died  in  London,  1845.  He  was  a  clergyman 
of  the  church  of  England,  and  in  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  rector  of  St.  Augustine's,  in 
the  city  of  London.  The  Ingoldsby  Legends 
constitute  his  chief  claim  to  fame,  and  were  first 
contributed  to  Bentley's  Miscellany.  Some  of 
Barham's  previously  uncollected  writings  were 
published  under  the  title  of  the  Ingoldsby  Lyrics. 


Baring-Gould  (Jba' -ring-gddld'  or  Mr'-lnp),  Sabine, 
English  clergyman  and  writer,  was  born  at  Exeter, 
England,  1834;  graduated  from  Clare  college, 
Cambridge;  M.  A.,  1860;  traveled  in  Iceland, 
1861 ;  various  parts  of  Europe;  curate,  Horburv, 
Yorksiiire,  1864;  vicar,  Dalton,  Yorkshire,  1866- 
rector  of  East  Mersea,  Essex,  1871;  inherited 
family  estates,  Lew-Trenchard,  1872,  on  death 
of  father;  succeeded  to  rectory  of  Lew-Trench- 
ard on  death  of  his  uncle,  1881.  Owns  3,000 
acres.  His  works  cover  a  wide  range  of  subjects, 
mythical,  legendary',  imaginative,  historical, 
religious,  and  descriptive. 

Barker,  Georjg^e  Frederick,  phjnsicist,  professor  of 
physics  university  of  Pennsylvania,  1873-1900, 
was  bom  at  Charfestown^  Mass.,  1835 ;  graduated 
from  Sheffield  scientific  school,  Ywe,  1858; 
M.  D.,  Albany,  1863;  hon.  Sc.  D.,  university 
of  Pennsylvania,  1898;  LL.  D.,  Allegheny  col- 
lege, 1898;  LL.  D.,  McGill  university,  Montreal, 
1900.  Was  assistant  in  chemistry  and  later 
professor  of  physiology,  chemistry,  and  toxi- 
colog^,  Yale;  United  States  commissioner  Paris 
electrical  exhibition,  1881 ;  delegate  to  electoral 
consrees  and  vice-president  jury  of  awards; 
received  decoration  commander  legion  of  honor 
of  France;  United  States  commissioner  electri- 
cal exhibition,  Philadelphia,  1884;  on  jury  of 
awards  World's  Columbian  exposition,  1893. 
Expert  in  poisons,  criminal  cases;  expert  in 
Edison,  Berliner,  and  other  patent  suits.  Mem- 
ber national  academy  of  sciences:  president 
of  the  American  association  for  the  advance- 
ment of  science,  1879;  American  chemical  so- 
ciety, 1891 ;  hon.  member  royal  institution  of 
Great  Britain,  1899.  For  several  years  asso- 
ciate editor  of  the  American  Journal  of  Science. 
He  wrote  textbooks  on  both  chemistry  and 
physics.     Died,  1910. 

Barker,  Wbartoo,  politician  and  financier,  presi- 
dential nominee,  1900,  of  antifusion  populists, 
was  born  at  Philatlelphia,  1846;  graduated  from 
the  university  of  Pennsylvania  in  1866;  A.  M.. 
1869;  in  1863  commanded  a  company  of  colored 
soldiers  and  helped  to  enlist  and  organize  3d 
United  States  colored  troops;  became  member 
of  the  banking  firm  of  Barker  Bros.  A  Co. ;  ap- 
pointed financial  agent  in  United  States  of  Rus- 
sian government  in  1878,  and  intrusted  with  the 
building  of  four  cruisers  for  its  navy;  made 
knight  of  St.  Stanislaus  by  Alexsmder  II.  of 
Russia,  1879;  was  called  to  Russia  to  advise  on 
development  of  coal  mines  north  of  the  Azof: 
in  1887  obtained  valuable  railroad,  telegraph,  and 
telephone  concessions  from  China.  Founded 
Investment  company  of  Philadelphia,  and  the 
Finance  company  of  Pennsylvania.  Founded 
Penn  Monthly,  1869,  and  in  1880  merged  it  into 
The  American,  a  weekly  published  1880-1900. 
Prominent  republican  until  1896;  since  then 
pK>pulist.  Member  American  philosophical  society 
and  academy  of  natural  sciences.  Trustee  of 
the  university  of  Pennsylvania. 

Barlow,  Joel,  American  ix>et  and  politician,  was 
bom  at  Connecticut  in  1754.  He  serv'ed  as  a 
military  chaplain  during  the  war  of  independ- 
ence. .  In  1787  he  published  a  poem  called  The 
Vision  of  Columbus,  which  in  1807  appeared 
anew  in  an  enlarged  form  as  The  Columbiad. 
He  spent  some  years  in  Europ>e  in  political, 
literary,  and  mercantile  pursuits,  and  was  for  a 
short  time  American  consul  at  Algiers.  He 
returned  to  America  in  1805,  and  was  api>ointed 
ambassador  to  France  in  1811;  died  1812  at 
Zamawiczc,  near  Cracow,  when  on  his  way 
to  a  conference  with  the  emperor  Napoleon  at 
Vilna. 

Barnabas  (bar'-nar-bas).  Saint,  a  disciple  of  Jesus, 
whose  name  was  Joses  or  Joseph,  but  received 
from   the   apostles    the    surname   of     Barnabas, 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


M» 


which  is  diversely  interpreted  as  "son  of  conso 
lation,"  and  "son  of  prophecjy."  He  accom- 
panied St.  Paul  on  a  religious  mission  to  Antioch, 
and  afterward  visited  Cyprus  with  St.  Mark. 
His  festival  is  celebrated  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  on  June  11th. 

Barnard  (bdr'-nUrd),  Edward  Emerson,  scientist, 
professor  of  astronomy,  university  of  Chicago, 
and  astronomer  Yerkes  observatory*  bom  at 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  1857 ;  graduate  of  Vanderbilt 
university,  1887;  astronomer  Lick  observatory, 
California,  1887-95.  His  principal  discoveries 
are  the  fifth  satellite  of  Jupiter  and  sixteen 
comets;  has  also  made  many  other  discoveries 
and  done  much  work  in  celestial  photography, 
making  photographs  of  the  milky  way,  the  comets, 
nebulae,  etc.  Received  Lalande  gold  medal. 
PVench  academy  of  sciences,  1892;  Arago  gold 
medal,  same,  1893;  gold  medal  royal  astronomi- 
cal society  of  Great  Britain,  1897 ;  Janssen  gold 
medal,  French  academy  of  sciences,  1900; 
elected  foreign  associate  royal  astronomers 
society,  1898;  member  many  American  and 
foreign  societies. 

Barnard,  Frederick  Augustus  Porter,  American 
mathematician,  physicist,  and  educator,  was 
bom  at  Sheffield,  Mass.,  1809;  graduated  at 
Yale  in  1828;  professor  in  the  university  of 
Alabama,  1837-54;  professor,  president,  and 
chancellor,  1854-61,  university  of  Mississippi; 
member  of  eclipse  expedition  to  Labrador;  one 
of  the  original  corporators  of  the  national 
academy  of  science.  In  1864  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  Columbia  college.  New  York;  resigned 
in  1888.  One  of  the  United  States  commissioners 
to  the  Paris  exposition,  and  a  member  of  numer- 
ous societies  of  art,  science,  and  literature.  His 
publications  are  mostly  scientific  and  educa- 
tional.    Died,  1889. 

Barnard,  George  Grey,  American  sculptor ;  bom  at 
Belief onte,  Pa.,  1863;  educated  at  Chicago  art 
institute,  and  at  Paris.  His  style  is  distinctly 
emotional.  His  statue,  the  "Two  Natures," 
is  in  the  Metropolitan  museum.  New  York,  and 
his  "God  Pan"  in  Central  park. 

Barnard,  John  Gross,  military  engineer,  was  born 
at  Sheffield,  Mass.,  1815,  died  1882.  He  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  1833;  served  for  seventeen 
years  on  the  gulf  coast,  then  in  the  war  with 
Mexico;  was  director  of  a  survey  of  the  isthmus 
of  Tehuantepec,  of  the  construction  of  San 
Francisco  fortifications;  superintendent  of  United 
States  military  academy,  and  then  of  fortifica- 
tions of  the  harbor  of  New  York.  In  the  civil 
war  served  at  Bull  Run,  in  the  army  of  the 
Potomac,  as  chief  engineer  of  the  defenses  of 
Washington,  and  on  General  Grant's  staff  until 
Lee's  surrender;  received  the  rank  of  major- 
general  in  the  United  States  army. 

Bamby,  Sir  Joseph,  English  composer  and  organist; 
born  at  York,  England,  1838;  chorister  in  York 
Doinster;  organist  St.  Andrew's,  Wells  street, 
London,  1863-71;  precentor  and  director  of 
musical  instruction  in  Eton  college,  1875.  His 
Rebekah,  a  sacred  idyll,  and  The  Lord  is  King,  both 
with  orchestra,  ^  numerous  highly  interesting 
"services"  and  anthems,  such  as  King  AU 
Glorious,  for  the  church,  as  well  as  several  secular 
choruses  and  songs,  have  rendered  him  famous 
both  in  England  and  America.  He  is,  perhaps, 
most  widely  and  affectionately  known  by  his 
Original  Tunes  to  Popular  Hymns.  Knighted 
1892.     Died,  1896. 

Baraeveldt  (bar'-nf-vSlt),  John  van  Olden,  grand 
pensionary  of  Holland,  was  born  in  1547.  Chosen 
pensionary  of  Rotterdam  in  1576,  at  a  time  when 
the  Spanish  arms  were  victorious  everywhere  in 
the  united  provinces,  he  was  sent  at  the  head 
of  an  embassy  to  offer  the  sovereignty  of  the 
Netherlands   to    Queen    Elizabeth    of    England, 


1585.  On  his  return  he  wm  appointed  gnod 
pensionary  of  Holland,  and,  after  a  aevere  oon- 
test  with  the  stadtholdcr  Maurio*  of  NaHau  and 
his  party,  obtained  from  the  Spaniaitla  the 
recognition  of  the  independence  of  ^«llfifMi^  tatd 
in  1609  concluded  a  truce  for  twelve  yean.  He 
then  courageously  oppoeed  the  *»»«tftmfn  of 
Maurice,  who  aimed  at  the  aupreme  power,  and 
supported  Arminius  agidnst  tne  Oalvlniete,  the 
sect  to  which  Maurice  beionfed.  Arrwrted  !• 
1618,  he  was  tried  by  a  irprailiii  fMininilMliin  and 
condemned  to  death ;  this  rmtTinm  hnth  lllega  1 
and  unjust,  being  confirmed  by  the  lynod  of 
Dort,  the  venerable  and  patriotic  etatcemao  waa 
beheaded,  1619. 

Bamum,  Phlneas  Taylor,  American  showman. 
born  in  Betiicl,  Conn.,  1810.  At  the  ace  ol 
thirteen  he  was  employed  in  a  country  store,  and 
about  five  vears  afterward  went  into  the  lottery 
business.  When  only  nineteen  he  m&rriod  and 
moved  to  Danbury,  Conn.,  where  he  edited  7*^4 
Herald  of  Freedom.  In  1834  he  removed  to  New 
York,  where,  hearing  of  Joyce  Ileth.  nurse  oif 
General  Washington,  he  bought  her  for  $1,000 
and  exhibited  her  to  considerable  profit.  He 
bought  the  American  museum  in  New  York, 
which  he  raised  at  once  to  prosperitv  by  exhibit- 
ing a  Japanese  mermaid,  made  of  a  fish  and 
a  monkey ;  a  white  negress,  a  woolly  horse,  and 
finally  a  noted  dwarlj  styled  "General  Tom 
Thumb,"  whom  he  exliibited  in  Europe  and 
elsewhere.  He  introduced  Jenny  Lind  to  the 
American  public,  then  became  proprietor  of 
"the  greatest  show  on  earth."  He  made  and 
lost  several  fortunes,  and  his  show  was  twice 
destroyed  by  fire.  He  twice  visited  Europe,  the 
second  time  in  1889.     Died,  1891. 

Barr,  Amelia  Edith,  Anglo-American  novelist, 
was  born  at  Ulverston,  Lancashire,  England, 
1831;  daughter  of  William  Henry  Huddleston; 
was  educated  at  the  high  school,  Glasgow,  Scot- 
land. In  1850  she  married  Robert  Barr,  subse- 
quently came  to  this  country  and  settled  in 
Texas,  where  her  husband  and  three  children 
died  of  yellow  fever  at  Galveston  in  1807; 
removed  to  New  York,  where  she  began  to  write 
for  the  religious  periodicals,  and  to  publish  a 
series  of  semi-historical  tales  and  novels.  The 
more  popular  are:  Jan  Vedder'a  Wife;  Bow  of 
Orange  Ribbon;  Friend  Olivia;  A  Daughter  of 
Fife;  The  Squire  of  Sandal-Side;  A  Border 
Shepherdess;  Paul  and  Christina;  The  HaUam 
Succession;  A  Sister  to  Esau;  Remember  the 
Alamo;  Prisoners  of  Conscience;  The  Lion'a 
Whelp;  I,  Thou,  and  the  Other  One;  Trimtjf 
Bells;  The  Maid  of  Maiden  Lane;  A  Song  of  a 
Single  Note;  Thyra  Varrick. 

Barr,  James  (Angus  Evan  Abbot),  Canadian  author, 
was  bora  at  Waliacetown,  Ontario,  Canada, 
1862;  educated  in  the  Canadian  public  schools. 
From  sixteen  to  twenty-one  devoted  himself  to 
newspaper  work  in  America,  since  then  a  jour- 
nalist in  London.  Author:  The  Ooda  Oiv  My 
Donkey  Wings;  The  Gods  Gave  Mfi  DonUy 
Wings;  Under  the  Eaves  of  Night;  Th*  Great 
Frozen  North;  The  Witchery  of  the  Serpent; 
Laughing  through  a  Wilderness;    The  Grey  Bat, 

Barr,  Robert,  novelist,  editor  of  the /«fl«r,  1895-1912, 
was  born  at  Glasgow,  Scotland,  1850.  He 
was  educated  at  the  normal  school,  Toronto, 
Canada:  school  teacher  in  Canada  until  1876; 
then  joined  editorial  staff  of  the  Detroit  Free 
Press;  went  to  England  in  1881.  Founded  the 
Idler  magadne  with  Jerome  K.  Jerome  in  1892, 
of  which  he  was  co-editor  until  1896.  Author: 
In  a  Steamer  Chair;  From  whose  Bourn;  The 
Face  and  the  Mask;  Revenge;  In  the  MidM  of 
Alarms;  A  Woman  Intervenes;  The  MtUabU 
Many;    The  Countess  TeUa;    The  Strong  Arm; 


650 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


The  Unchanging  East;  The  Tempeatuoua  Petti- 
coat; A  Rock  in  the  Baltic.     Died,  1912. 

Barms  (bd'-rd').  Count  Paul  Francois  Jean 
Nicolas,  French  revolutionist,  was  bom  1755. 
at  Fos-Emphoux  in  Var.  In  his  youth  he  served 
against  the  English  in  India;  then  returned  home 
and  plunged  into  reckless  dissipation  at  Paris. 
An  original  member  of  the  Jacobin  club,  he  rei>- 
resented  Var  in  the  national  convention,  voted 
for  the  king's  execution,  and  had  a  share  in  the 
Girondists'  downfall.  He  conducted  the  siege 
of  Toulon,  and  suppressed,  with  great  cruelty, 
the  revolt  in  the  south  of  France.  Hated  by 
Robespierre,  he  played  the  chief  part  in  the 
tyrant  8  overthrow,  and  by  the  terrified  conven- 
tion was  ap|>ointed  virtual  dictator;  as  such  he 
crushed  the  intrigues  of  the  terrorists.  On  sub- 
sequent occasions  he  acted  with  decision  against 
both  roj''ali8t8  and  Jacobins;  and  in  1795,  being 
again  appointed  dictator,  he  called  his  ^'oung 
fnend  Bonaparte  to  his  aid,  who  assured  his  own 
future  with  the  historical  "whiff  of  grape-shot." 
The  directory  being  appointed,  Barras  was 
nominated  one  of  the  five  members.  Once  more 
dictator  in  1797,  he  guided  the  state  almost  alone, 
until  his  covetousness  and  love  of  pleasure  haa 
rendered  him  so  unpopular  that  Bonaparte,  with 
Sieyfes's  help,  overthrew  him,  1799.  Compelled 
to  remove  from  Paris,  he  resided  in  Bru-ssels, 
Marseilles,  Rome,  and  Montpellier;  in  1815  he 
returned,  and  purchased  an  estate  near  Paris 
with  part  of  the  great  fortune  acquired  in  the 
revolution.     He  died  in  1829. 

Barrett,  John,  diplomatist,  was  bom  at  Grafton, 
Vt.,  1866;  graduated  from  Dartmouth  college, 
1889.  Taught  Hopkins  academy,  Oakland, 
Cal. ;  assistant  editor  of  the  Statistician,  San 
Francisco;  on  editorial  staff  newspapers  San 
Francisco,  Tacoma,  Seattle;  associate  editor  of 
the  Tdegram,  Portland,  Ore.,  1891-94;  American 
minister  to  Siam,  1894-98,  settling  by  arbitra- 
tion claims  involving  $3,000,000;  undertook 
special  diplomatic  and  commercial  investigations 
in  Japan,  Siam,  Korea,  Siberia,  and  India;  war 
correspondent  in  Philippines,  1898-99;  Ameri- 
can plenipotentiary  to  the  international  con- 
ference American  republics,  Mexico,  1901-02; 
commissioner-general  of  foreign  affairs  for  St. 
Louis  exposition,  1902-03;  American  minister 
to  Argentina,  1903-04,  to  Panama,  1904-05, 
to  Colombia,  1905-06;  director  general,  Pan- 
American  Union,  since  December,  1906.  Author: 
Admiral  George  Dewey,  and  books  on  Asia  and 
South  America. 

Barrett,  Lawrence,  American  actor,  was  bom  at 
Paterson,  N.  J.,  1838;  first  appearance  at 
Detroit,  1853;  leading  actor  Boston  museum, 
1858;  served  as  captain  of  Massachusetts  volun- 
teers in  civil  war;  from  1864  until  his  death  in 
1891  continued  as  star  actor  and  manager;  from 
1886  closely  associated  with  Edwin  Booth. 
Wrote  Life  of  Edwin  Forrest,  and  life  of  Booth  in 
Actors  and  Actresses  of  the  Time. 

Barrett,  Wilson,  English  actor  and  manager,  was 
bom  in  Essex,  England,  1846;  in  1879  became 
manager  of  the  Court  theater,  London,  and  in 
1881  of  the  Princess's.  The  Silver  King;  Clau- 
dian;  Hamlet;  Hoodman  Blind,  and  his  own 
Christian  melodrama.  The  Sign  of  the  Cross,  are 
among  the  best  plays  in  which  he  acted.  He 
died  in  1904. 

Barrle  (b&r'-l),  James  Matthew,  novelist,  dram- 
atist, was  bom  at  Kirriemuir,  Scotland,  1860; 
educated  at  Edinburgh  university,  taking  his 
M.  A.  degree  in  1882.  After  a  year  and  a  half 
as  a  journalist  in  Nottingham,  he  settled  in  Lon- 
don, and  became  a  regular  contributor  to  the 
St.  James's  Gazette,  British  Weekly,  National 
Observer,  Speaker,  etc.  His  first  volume. 
Better  Dead,  was  largely  a  satire  on  London  life; 


in  Auld  lAcht  Idylls  he  opened  a  new  and  rich 
vein,  the  humor  and  the  pathos  of  his  native 
village.  "Thrums,"  that  village,  still  furnishes 
the  keynote  to  When  a  Man's  Single,  nominally 
a  tale  of  literary  life  in  London,  and  still  more 
to  A  Window  vn  Thrums.  The  Little  Minister, 
his  first  novel,  came  out  in  Good  Words,  in  1891 ; 
it  was  dramatized  in  1897.  Walker,  London,  a 
farcical  comedy,  had  a  prodigious  run  at  Toole's 
theater  in  1892;  Jane  Annie  was  written  with 
Sir  Conan  Doyle.  Other  successful  pieces  have 
been  The  Professor's  Love  Story,  his  own  setting 
of  the  Little  Minister;  The  Wedding  Guest;  The 
Admirable  Crichton;  Little  Mary;  Peter  Pan; 
Alice-sit-by-the-fire;  Quality  Street;  What  Every 
Woman  Krunos  and  Peter  and  Wendy. 

Barrtnger,  Paul  Brandon,  educator,  president 
Virginia  polytechnic  institute,  was  bom  at 
Concord,  N.  C,  1857;  attended  university  of 
Virginia,  M.  D.,  1877;  university  of  New  York, 
LL.  D.,  1878;  hon.  LL.  D.,  Davidson  college, 
N.  C.  In  1888  became  professor  of  physiology 
and  materia  medica,  and  1896-1903,  chairman  of 
faculty,  university  of  Virginia.  Has  written: 
The  American  Nearo,  His  Past  and  Future; 
Textr-book  of  Physiology;  Brochure  on  Venemoua 
Serpents,  and  other  articles  on  the  race  problem. 
Pr«iident  medical  society  of  Virginia. 

Barrow,  Isaac,  English  theologian,  scholar,  mathe- 
matician, was  bom  at  London,  1630;  educated 
at  Cambridge,  M.  A.,  1652.  He  was  ordained 
in  the  ministry  in  1660,  and  chosen  professor  of 
Greek  at  Cambridge;  professor  of  geometry, 
Greoham  college,  1662;  Lucasian  professor  of 
mathematics,  1663-69;  master  of  Trinity  col- 
lege, 1672.  Published  Elements  of  Eudid, 
Treatise  on  the  Pope's  Supremacy,  Lectures  on 
Mathematics,  etc.     Died  in  London,  1677. 

Barrows,  John  Henrj,  educator.  Presbyterian 
clergyman,  president  Oberlin  college,  Ohio,  was 
bom  at  Medina,  Mich.,  1847;  graduated  from 
OHvet  college,  Mich.,  1867;  subsetiuently  studied 
at  Yale,  Union,  and  Andover  theological  semi- 
naries, and  from  1881  to  1896  was  pastor  of  the 
First  Presbyterian  church,  Chicago.  During 
the  World's  Columbian  exposition  he  was  chair- 
man of  the  general  committee  on  religious  con- 
gresses. In  1896  he  resigned  his  pastoral  charge 
m  Chicago  and  proceeded  to  India,  to  lecture 
on  religious  subjects,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Haskell  endowment  of  the  university  of  Chicago. 
On  his  return  he  became  lecturer  at  the  latter 
on  comparative  religions,  and  was  also  lecturer 
at  the  Union  theological  seminary.  New  York. 
In  1898  he  became  president  of  Oberlin  college. 
Author  of  History  of  the  Parliament  of  Religions; 
Life  of  Henry  Ward  Beecher;  Christianity,  the 
World  Religion;  and  of  a  work  entitled  The 
World  Pilgrimage.      Died,  1902. 

Barrows,  Samuel  June,  legislator,  author,  clergy- 
man, bom  at  New  York,  1845 ;  graduated  Harvard 
divinity  school,  1875;  D.  D.,  Howard  university, 
Washington,  1897.  Before  graduation  was  ste- 
nographer and  journalist;  pastor  First  church 
(Unitarian),  Dorchester,  Boston,  1876-80;  editor 
Chri.ttian  Register,  1881-97;  member  of  congress, 
10th  district,  Massachusetts,  1897-99;  represented 
the  United  States  on  international  prison  commis- 
sion, 1896 ;  president  of  international  prison  con- 
gress, 1905.  Author:  Shaybocks  in  (Jamp;  Isles 
and  Shrines  of  Greece;  A  Baptist  Meeting  House; 
The  Doom  of  the  Majority  of  Mankind;  Crimes 
and  Misdemeanors  in  the  United  States;  etc. 
Died,  1909. 

Banr,  Sir  Charles,  English  architect;  designed 
the  two  houses  of  parliament,  the  Mancheaeter 
Athenaeum,  and  the  grammar  school  of  King 
Edward  VI.,  at  Birmingham.  In  London  he 
also  designed  the  Travelers'  club  and  the  Re- 
form  club,  both   in   Pall   Mall,  and  tihe  college 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


S51 


of  surgeons,  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields;   bom  at  West- 
minster, 1795,  died  at  Clapham,  1860. 

Barry,  James,  historical  painter,  was  bom  at  Cork. 
Ireland,  1741.  A  prot6g6  of  Burke,  he  studied 
in  Italy,  17G6-70,  and  m  1782  was  appointed 
professor  of  painting  to  the  royal  academy, 
from  which  his  irritable  temper  brought  about 
his  expulsion,  1799.  Painted  "Death  of  General 
Wolfe,"  "Victors  at  Olympia,"  etc.  He  died 
in  poverty  in  1806. 

••Barry  Cornwall".     See  Procter,  Bryan  Waller. 

Barrymore,  Ethel,  actress,  born  at  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  1879;  daughter  of  Maurice  and  Georgi- 
ana  (Drew)  Barrymore;  niece  of  John  Drew; 
educated  at  convent  of  Notre  Dame,  Philadel- 
phia. Made  d^but  in  John  Drew's  company, 
1896 ;  played  Priscilla  in  Secret  Service,  London ; 
later  appeared  in  leading  r61es  with  Henry  Irving; 
first  starred  in  Captain  Jinks,  1900  •  later  starred 
in  Cousin  Kate;  Sunday;  A  Doll's  House; 
Aliee-Sit-by-the-Fire,  and  Lady  Frederick. 

Barth£lemy  Saint-Hilaire  (bar'-tdl'-vte'  s&tt'-te'- 
l&r'),  Jiiles  de,  French  philosopher,  and  member 
of  the  institute,  bom  at  Paris,  1805.  His  pub- 
lished works  are:  La  Politique  d' Aristotle,  Du 
Bouddhisme,  and  Le  Bouddha  et  sa  Religion. 
He  was  an  intimate  friend  and  confidential 
secretary  of  Thiers,  president  of  the  third  French 
repubhc.     Died,  1895. 

Barthec  (bar'-td'),  Paul  Joseph,  French  physician 
and  physiologist;  born  at  Montpellier,  1734; 
professor  of  medicine  at  Montpellier,  1759;  con- 
sulting physician  to  the  king,  1780.  Author  of 
Functions  of  the  Human  Body,  New  Elements  of 
the  Science  of  Man,  Discourse  on  the  Genius  of 
Hippocrates,  etc.     Died,  1806. 

Bartholdi  (bdr'-tol'-de')^  Fr6d€rlc  Auguste,  sculptor, 
was  born  at  Cobnar,  Alsace,  of  Italian  ancestry 
on  his  father's  side,  in  1834.  His  best-known 
work  is  the  colossal  bronze  "Liberty  Enlighten- 
ing the  World,"  which  was  unveiled  on  Bedloe's 
island.  New  York  harbor,  in  1886 ;  the  statue 
itself  is  151  feet  high,  and  the  top  of  the  torch 
rises  over  305  feet  above  low-water  mark.  He 
received  the  cross  of  the  legion  of  honor  in 
1887.     Died,  1904. 

Bartholdt  (bar'-tolt),  Richard,  congressman;  editor 
St.  Louis  Tribune,  1885-92;  bom  in  Germany, 
1855 ;  came  to  United  States  in  boyhood ;  classical 
education;  learned  printing  trade;  since  then  in 
journalism.  Was  member  board  of  public  schools, 
St.  Louis,  and  its  president,  1891;  member  con- 
gress, tenth  Missouri  district,  since  1893 ;  presi- 
dent interparUamentary  union  for  promotion  of 
international  arbitration. 

Bartlett,  Paul  Wayland,  American  sculptor;  bom 
at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1865;  studied  at  Boston 
under  Fr^miet  and  in  Paris  under  Cavelier.  Has 
produced  statues  of  General  McClellan,  General 
Joseph  Warren,  Columbus,  and  Michaelaneelo 
in  this  country,  Lafaj^ette  in  Paris,  as  well  as 
many  other  works  m  the  art  collections  of 
Philadelphia,  Boston,  Chicago,  and  Paris. 

Bartolommeo     (bdr'-to-ldm-mi'-o),     Fra     (properly 
Baccio  della  Porta),  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
masters    of   the  Tlorentine    school    of   painting, 
was  bom  near  Florence  in  1475.     His  first  teacher 
was  Cosimo  Rosselli;     but  he  owed  his  higher 
cultivation  to  the  study  of  the  works  of  Leonardo 
da  Vinci.     His  subjects  are  mostly  all  religious, 
and  by  far  the  greater  part  of  his  pictures  belong 
to  the  later  years  of  his  life.     He  was  a  warm 
adherent  of  Savonarola,  after  whose  tragical  end 
he  in  1500  assumed  the  Dominican  habit.     The 
visit  of  the  young  Raphael  to  Florence  in  1504 
seems  to  have  been  instrumental  in  stimulating  i 
him  to  resume  his  art.     He  imparted  to  Raphael  | 
his  knowledge   of   coloring,    and   acquired   from  j 
him   a  more  perfect   knowledge  of  perspective.  | 
The    two    remained    constant    friends  —  Barto-  ! 


lommeo  on  one  ooeaalon  fint^mny  eertein  of 
Raphael's  unfiniahed  works,  Raphad  pacfonning 
a  like  kindne«s  for  him  at  another  tima.     Barto- 

lonuneo  died  at  Florence  in  1517. 
Barton,  Clara,  philanthropist,  founder  and  Ofnaiaar 

iBtatea. 


of  national  rtni  cruiw  society  in  the  United  1 
president  1881-1904;  bom  in  Oxford, 
1821;  graduate  of  Clinton  liberal  inatitutal 
New  York.  Taught  school  ten  yean;  oq^aalaea 
system  of  public  schools,  Bordentown,  N.  J. 
During  civil  war  did  relief  work  on  baUlafielda 
and  organized  search  for  miming  men,  for  the 
carrying  on  of  which  work  oongreaa  voted  115,- 
000;  laid  out  grounds  for  national  oemetery, 
Andersonville,  1865;  aaeoeiated  with  Inter- 
national red  cross  of  Geneva  and  worked 
through  entire  Franco-Pruaaian  war,  1870; 
distributed  relief  in  Strassburg,  Itelfort,  Mont- 
pellier, Paris,  1871;  secured  adoption  of  treaty 
of  Geneva,  1882;  first  president  American  red 
cross-  appointed  to  represent  United  Statea 
in  all  international  conferences,  Geneva,  1884; 
Carbmhe,  1887;  Rome,  1892;  Vienna,  1807; 
St.  Petersburg,  1903;  inaugurated  American 
amendment  of  red  cross,  to  provide  relief  for 
great  calamities;  distributed  relief  Johnstown 
Mood,  1889;  Russian  famine,  1892;  Armenian 
massacre,  1896;  at  request  of  president  of 
United  States  carried  relief  to  Cuba,  1898;  did 
personal  field  work,  Spanish-American  war; 
conducted  red  cross  reUef  at  Galveston,  Texas, 
after  great  disaster,  August,  1900;  president 
national  first  aid  association,  1905-12.  Held 
decorations  or  diplomas  of  honor  from  Germany, 
Baden,  Austria,  Servia,  Turkey,  Armenia, 
Switzerland,  Spain,  Russia.  Author:  Hxatary 
of  the  Red  Cross;  America's  Relief  Expedition 
to  Asia  Minor;  History  of  the  Red  CrosM  in 
Peace  and  War,  and  &tory  of  the  Red  Croat. 
Died,  1912. 

Barton,  William  Paul  CriUon,  American  botanist; 
born  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1786;  died  there  in 
1856.  His  Flora  of  North  America,  Lectures  on 
Materia  Medica  and  Botany,  Medical  Botany,  etc.. 
contain  valuable  contributions  to  the  science  oi 
botany. 

Bartsch  (b&rtsh),  Karl  Frledrtch,  German  philol- 
ogist; bom  at  Sprottau,  Silesia,  1832;  studied 
at   Breslau,    Berlin,    Halle,    Paris,    and   Oxford; 

grofessor  of  philology  at  Ro.stock,  1868-71,  at 
[eidelberg,  1871-88.  He  published  many  works 
on  German,  French,  and  romance  language  and 
Uterature.     Died,  1888. 

Barye  (bd'-re'),  Antoine  Louis,  French  sculptor, 
bom  at  Paris,  in  1795.  He  was  at  first  an  en- 
graver and  metal-worker.  His  famous  bronze 
of  a  Uon  struggling  with  a  snake  secured  for  him 
the  cross  of  the  legion  of  honor.       Died,  1875. 

Bascom,  John,  American  educator,  former  president 
of  the  university  of  Wisconsin,  was  bom  at  Genoa, 
N.  Y.,  1827;  graduated  in  1849  from  WilUanu 
college,  and  six  years  later  from  Andover  theo- 
logical seminary ;  was  for  twenty  years  profeesor 
of  rhetoric  at  Williams,  and  for  thirteen  years 
president  of  Wisconsin  university.  He  retired 
from  Wisconsin,  1887,  and  accepted  the  chair 
of  political  science  at  Williams  from  which  he 
resigned,  1901.  Author:  Political  Economy; 
Esthetics;  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric;;  Pnwctget 
of  Psychology;  Philosophy  of  Religion;  Compara- 
tive Psychology;  Htstorieal  JnUrpretation  of 
Philosophy;  Social  Theory;  Evolution  and 
Religion;  Growth  of  Nationality  in  the  United 
States;  God  and  His  Goodneee,  etc.     Died.  1911. 

Bashford.  James  Whitford,  bishop  of  Methodiat 
Episcopal  church  since  1904;  wa«  bom  at 
Favette,  Wis.,  1849;  graduate  from  univenrfty 
of  Wisconsin,  1873,  A.  M.,  1876:  theological 
school,  Boston  university,  8.  T.  B.,  1878; 
Ph.  D.,  1881;  LL.  D.,  Wealeyan  university,  1W3 


582 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Tutor  Greek,  tmiversity  of  Wisconsin,  1874 ;  from 
1876-89  pastor  M.  E.  churches  in  Boston  and 
Auburndale,  Mass.;  Portland,  Maine;  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.  President  Ohio  Wesleyan  university, 
I889-I994.  Author:  Science  of  Religion;  The 
Awakening  of  China;  China  and  Methodism; 
God's  Missionary  Plan  for  the  World. 

Basil  {b&zf-iL  or  ba  -zU),  Balnt,  sumamed  the  Great, 
bishop  of  Csesarea,  where  he  was  bom  about  329, 
is  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  Christian 
fathers.  He  succeeded  Eusebius  in  the  see  of 
Csesarea,  in  370,  and  by  his  opposition  to  Arian 
doctrines  greatly  offended  the  emperor  V'alens. 
The  attempts  which  St.  Basil  made  to  reunite 
the  two  hostile  churches  of  the  East  and  West 
were  unsuccessful.     Died,  379. 

Baskervllle,  Charles,  chemist;  bom  in  Noxubee 
county,  Miss.,  1870;  graduated  from  university 
of  Virginia,  1890;  studied  at  Vanderbilt  univer- 
sity, 1891;  university  of  Berlin,  Germany,  1893; 
Ph.  D.,  university  of  North  Carolina;  instructor, 
1891-94,  assistant  professor  of  chemistry, 
1894-1900,  professor  of  chemistry  and  director 
of  chemical  laboratory,  1900-04,  university  of 
North  Carolina;  professor  of  chemistry,  college 
of  the  city  of  New  York  since  1904.  Author: 
School  Chemistry,  Key  to  School  Chemistry, 
Radium  and  Its  Applications  in  Medicine;  also 
numerous  scientific,  educational,  and  techno- 
logical articles;  discoverer  of  the  chemical  ele- 
ments, carolinium  and  berzelium. 

Baskervllle,  John,  English  printer  and  letter- 
founder,  bom  1706  in  Worcestershire;  began 
about  1750  to  make  experiments  in  letter- 
founding,  and  succeeded  in  making  types  which 
have  scarcely  yet  been  excelled.  He  printed  an 
edition  of  Vergil  at  Birmingham  in  1757,  fol- 
lowed by  other  Latin  classics,  a  few  English  and 
Italian  authors,  and  a  new  testament  at  Oxtord, 
1763,  much  aamired  as  specimens  of  printing, 
although  not  otherwise  possessing  high  merit. 
Died,  1775. 

Bassett,  John  Spencer,  educator;  bom  at  Tarboro, 
N.  C,  1867;  graduated  from  Trinity  college, 
N.  C,  1888;  Ph.  D.,  Johns  Hopkins,  1894; 
professor  of  history,  Trinitv  college,  N.  C, 
1893-1906,  Smith  college,  Mass.,  smce  1906. 
Author:  ConstittUional  Beginnings  of  North 
Carolina;  Slavery  and  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of 
North  Carolina;  Anti-Slavery  Lenders  of  North 
Carolina;  Slavery  in  the  State  of  North  Carolina; 
The  Regulators  of  North  Carolina;  The  Federalist 
System.  Editor  of  the  South  Atlantic  Quarterly, 
1902-05. 

Baatable,  C.  F„  economist,  professor  of  political 
economy,  Dublin  university,  since  1882;  pro- 
fessor of  jurisprudence  and  international  law, 
Dublin  umversitv,  since  1902;  bom  at  Charle- 
ville.  County  Cork,  1855;  graduated  from 
Trinity  college,  Dublin.  Professor  of  juris- 
prudence and  political  economy,  Queen's 
college,  Galway,  1883-1903;  examiner,  uni- 
versity of  London,  1888-93,  1897-1903,  1904-06; 
university  of  Wales,  1898-1902;  royal  univer- 
sity of  Ireland,  1888-91,  1895-99;  university 
of  Manchester,  1905-07;  George  Rae  lecturer. 
University  college  of  North  Wales,  1905.  Author : 
Theory  of  International  Trade,  Commerce  of 
Nations,  Public  Finance;  contributor  to  Ency- 
dopadia  Britannica;  Harmsworth  Encydo- 
pcedia;  The  Encydopcedia  of  Accounting;  Dic- 
tionary of  PoliHcal  Economy,  and  Economic 
Journal. 

Bastian  (bds'-te-&n),  Adolf,  German  traveler  and 
anthropologist,  author  of  nearly  sixty  works, 
was  bom  at  Bremen,  1826.  He  studied  at 
Berlin,  Heidelbere,  Prague,  Jena,  and  Wiirsburg, 
and  in  1851  sailed  for  Australia  as  a  ship  s 
doctor,  thereafter  traveling  in  North  and  South 
America,    Europe,    Asia,    and   Africa.     In    1866 


be  became  professor  of  ethnology  at  Berlin  and 
curator  of  the  ethnological  museum;  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Zeitschrift  fiir  Ethnologic, 
and  published  numerous  books  on  racial  science. 
Died,  1905. 

Bastian  {h&slf^an),  Henry  Charlton,  English  physi- 
ologist, was  bom  at  Truro,  Cornwall,  1837,  and 
from  a  private  school  at  Falmouth  proceeded  to 
University  college,  London,  where  he  became 
professor  of  pathological  anatomy,  1867,  hospital 
physician.  1871,  professor  of  chnical  medicine, 
1878,  and  from  1887  to  1895  professor  of  the 
principles  and  practice  of  medicine.  He  is  the 
champion  of  the  doctrine  of  spontaneous  genera- 
tion. Author:  Evolution  and  the  Origin  of  Life; 
The  Brain  as  an  Organ  of  Mind;  Parcuyses:  Cers- 
bral,  Bulbar,  and  Spinal;  A  Treatise  on  Aphasia 
and  other'Speech  defects;  many  articles  on  diaeaaes 
of  the  nervous  system  in  Quoin's  Dictionary  of 
Medicine;  The  Nature  and  Origin  of  Living 
Matter,  Evolution  of  Life  and  The  Origin  of  lAfe. 

Bates,  Blanche,  actress;  bom  in  Portland,  Ore., 
1873;  removed  to  San  Francisco  with  parents, 
1876;  educated  in  San  Francisco  public  schools: 
married  Lieutenant  Milton  F.  Davis,  United 
States  army;  in  1912  married  George  Creel. 
First  appearance  on  stage  at  Stockwell's 
theater,  San  Francisco,  1894;  starred  as 
Mrs.  Hillary,,  in  The  Senator,  1895;  played 
leading  parts  in  various  comedies,  1896-98; 
appeared  in  Shakespearian  rdles,  Augustin  Daly's 
company,  1898;  later  starred  in  The  Great 
Ruby,  "The  Musketeers,  Madame  Butterfly; 
created  title  r61e  of  Cigarette,  in  Under  Tu>o 
Flags;  Princess  Yo-San,  in  The  Darling  of^  th« 
Qods;  The  Girt,  in  The  Girl  of  the  Golden  West. 

Bates,  Henry  Walter,  British  naturalist  and 
traveler,  was  bom  at  Leicester,  England,  1825. 
During  his  apprenticeship  to  a  manufacturing 
hosier  he  formed  a  friendship  with  Alfred  R. 
Wallace,  and  in  1848  the  two  left  to  explore  the 
Amasons,  where  Bates  remained  until  1859.  In 
1864  he  became  assistant-secretary  of  the  royal 
geographical  society  of  England,  which  post  he 
held  until  his  death,  1892.  He  wrote  Naturalist 
on  the  River  Amazon,  and  also  a  handbook  to 
South  and  Central  America. 

Bates,  John  Lewis,  ex-govemor,  lawyer;  bom  at 
North  Easton,  Mass.,  1859;  graduated  from 
Boston  university,  1882,  law  department  of 
same  in  1885;  LL.  D.,  Wesleyan  university, 
Connecticut,  1903;  taught  private  school  in 
Jamestown,  N.  Y.,  1882-83;  admitted  to  bar, 
Boston,  1885;  member  law  firm  of  Bates,  Nay 
and  Abbott  since  1906.  Member  Boston  com- 
mon council,'  1891-92;  member  Massachusetts 
house  of  representatives,  1894-99,  speaker, 
1897-99;  lieutenant-governor  of  Massachusetts, 
1900-02-  ^ovemor  of  Massachusetts,  1903-04; 
director  Umted  States  trust  company,  Columbia 
trust  company,  Chelsea  trust  company,  trustee 
Wildey  savings  bank.  President  board  of 
trustees  Boston  university. 

Bates,  Katharine  I^ee,  author,  educator-  bom 
Falmouth,  Mass.,  1859;  graduated  Wellesley 
college,  1880.  Taught  mathematics,  classics 
and  English,  Natick  high  school;  later  taught 
Latin  in  Dana  Hall;  1885-88  instructor  English 
literature;  1888-91  associate  prof essor,  and  in 
1891  professor  in  charge,  Wellesley  college. 
Author:  Rose  and  Thorn;  English  Rdigiou* 
Drama  (lectures) ;  American  Literature;  Spanish 
Highways  and  By-ways;  and  editor  of  numerous 
English  classics. 

Bauer  (bou'-ir),  Bruno,  German  philosophical  and 
historical  writer,  and  biblical  expositor  of  the 
Hegelian  school,  was  bom  at  Eisenberg,  Germany, 
1809,  and  died  near  Berlin,  1882.  His  writings 
embrace  a  number  of  critiques  on  the  gospels 
and  Pauline  epistles;     one  on  Strauss's  Life  of 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


668 


Jesus;  an  Exposition  of  the  Religion  of  the  Old 
Testament;  besides  a  History  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution to  the  Establishment  of  the  Republic,  and  a 
History  of  Germany  during  the  French  Reix)lution 
and  the  Ride  of  Napoleon.  He  also  published 
Philo,  Strauss,  Renan,  and  Primitive  Christianity, 
and  a  work  entitled  Disraeli's  Romantic  and  Bis- 
marck's Socialistic  Imperialism.  On  theological 
subjects  Bauer  has  been  called  the  "Voltaire  of 
Germany." 
Bauer,  Louis  Aericola,  scientist,  magnetician; 
bom  in  Cincinnati^  Ohio,  18G5;  graduated  from 
university  of  Cincinnati;  astronomer  and  mag- 
netic computer.  United  States  coast  and  geodetic 
survey,  1887-92;  docent  in  mathematical 
physics,  university  of  Chicago,  1895-96;  in- 
structor in  geophysics,  1896-97,  assistant  pro- 
fessor mathematics  and  mathematical  physics, 
university  of  Cincinnati,  1897-99:  inspector 
magnetic  work  and  chief  terrestrial  magnetism 
division,  United  States  coast  and  geodetic 
survey,  1899-1906;  director  department  terres- 
trial magnetism,  Carnegie  institution  since  1904 ; 
lecturer  on  terrestrial  magnetism^  Johns  Hop- 
kins, since  1899;  editor  Terrestrial  Magnetism 
and  Atmospheric  Electricity.  Frequent  con- 
tributor to  scientific  press  on  terrestrial  mag- 
netism. 
Baumgarten  (bourn' -g&r-ten),  Alexander  Gottlieb, 
the  founder  of  the  science  of  aesthetics,  or  the 
philosophy  of  the  beautiful,  was  born  at  Berlin, 
1714,  studied  at  Halle  under  Wolf,  and  was 
appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Oder,  where  he  died,  1762.  His  ^sthet- 
ica,  the  work  in  which  his  special  philosophy  is 
developed,  was  published  in  two  volumes,  1750- 
58.  His  Metaphysica  is  still  highly  esteemed. 
Baumgfirtner  {bourn' -ghrt-rier),  Karl  Helnrich, 
German  physiologist,  was  bom  in  Baden,  179&, 
and  died  at  Baden-Baden.  1886.  From  1824 
to  1862  he  was  professor  of  clinical  medicine  at 
Freiburg.  He  made  important  discoveries  in 
embryology  and  physiology,  and  published  works 
on  the  blood  and  nerves. 
Baur  (bour),  Ferdinand  Christian  von,  German 
theologian,  bom  1792,  at  Schmiden,  near  Stutt- 
gart, was  the  founder  of  the  Tubingen  school  of 
theology.  His  first  important  work  was  Symbolik 
und  mythologie,  oder  die  N aturreligion  des  Alter- 
thums.  In  1826  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of 
Protestant  theology  at  Tubingen,  which  he  held 
until  his  death  in  1860.  The  task  he  set  before 
himself,  and  to  which  he  devoted  his  life,  was  to 
supply,  in  a  thoroughly  free  spirit,  what  was 
yet  wanting  for  the  comprehension  of  early 
Christian  literature.  Strauss  had  previously 
sought  to  show  only  what  the  gospels  are  not; 
Baur  sought  to  discover  what  they  are  —  to 
disclose  the  peculiarities  of  their  structure,  and 
to  show  how  all  the  new  testament  writings 
grew  out  of  contemporary  circumstances. 
Bax,  Ernest  Belfort,  barrister-at-law.  Middle 
Temple;  author;  bom  at  Leamingjtom  Eng- 
land, 1854;  was  educated  privately  in  London 
and  Germany;  studied  music,  especially  theory 
and  composition;  also  later,  philosophy,  more 
particularly  the  German  movement  from  Kant 
to  Hegel;  returning  to  England,  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  English  socialist  movement.  In 
1885  helped  to  start  the  socialist  lea^e  in 
conjunction  with  the  late  William  Moms,  and 
for  some  time  co-edited  with  him  the  weekly 
journal  Commonweal;  subsequently  resigned 
from  league,  and  again  became  connected  with 
the  social  democratic  federation,  cooperating 
on,  and  for  a  time  editing,  its  organ  Justice. 
Author:  Jean-Paxd  Marat;  Kant's  Prolegomena, 
etc.,  with  biography  and  introduction;  Hand- 
book to  the  History  of  Philosophy;  Rdigion  of 
Socialism;    Ethics  of  Socialism;    French  Revalu- 


tion;  Tha  Problem  of  Reality;  Seeialiein,  Itt 
Growth  and  Outcome  (in  oonjunetioQ  with  Um 
late  William  Morria);  Outepoken  Eeeayt  on 
Social  Subjects;  The  PeaaanU'  War  in  Germany; 
Essays  in  Soeialiem,  Nero  and  (Md;  The  Roots 
of  Reality;  also  edited  the  monthlies  Time  and 
To-day. 

Bayard  (bd'-ydr*),  Pterre  Du  TerraU  Chevalter  D*. 
French  knight,  was  born  near  Grenoble,  In  1476. 
He  served  under  Charles  VIII.,  in  an  expedition 
against  Naples^  and  in  the  wars  acainat  the  Eng* 
lish  and  Spaniards  he  distlngulmed  himself  by 
his  bravery  and  nobleness  of  character.  In  the 
reign  of  Prancis  I.,  he  gained  a  great  victory 
for  the  kin^  of  Marignano,  amd  defended  we 
city  of  M6zi%res  against  Charles  V.,  for  which 
he  was  called  the  "saviour  of  his  country." 
He  was  killed  in  a  battle  at  the  river  Scuia,  Italy, 
in  1524.  He  is  known  as  "the  knight  without 
fear  and  without  reproach." 

Bayard,  Thomas  Francis,  American  statesman, 
was  born  at  Wilmington,  Del..  1828;  died,  1898. 
He  was  privately  educated  ana  began  the  practice 
of  law  m  his  native  city  in  1851.  In  1860  he 
succeeded  his  father  as  senator  from  Delaware. 
when  he  served  continuously  until  18H5;  enterea 
Cleveland's  cabinet  as  secretary  of  state  in  the 
latter  year.  In  1880  and  1884  he  was  candidate 
on  the  democratic  ticket  for  the  presidential 
nomination.  In  1893  was  appointed  ambassador 
to  England,  the  first  to  hold  that  rank  as  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  United  States. 

Bayle  (bil),  Pierre,  French  skeptic  and  critic,  was 
bom  at  Carlat,  1647.  He  studied  philosophy 
under  the  Jesuits  at  Toulouse,  and  lor  a  year 
and  a  half  turned  Catholic.  To  escape  ecclesi- 
astical censure  he  withdrew  to  Geneva,  and 
from  there  to  Coppet,  on  the  lake  of  Geneva, 
where  he  studied  the  philosophy  of  Descartes. 
After  a  few  years  he  returned  to  France,  and  in 
1675  was  elected  to  the  chair  of  philoeophy  at 
Sedan;  in  1681  at  Rotterdam.  In  1684  he 
started  Nouvelles  de  la  RipuUique  des  Ltttree, 
one  of  the  most  successful  attempts  at  a  popular 
journal  of  Uterary  criticism.  The  revocation 
of  the  edict  of  Nantes  letl  Bayle  to  write  a  strong 
defense  of  toleration.  Bayle  devotwl  his  leisure 
to  the  Dictionnaire  Histonque  et  Critique.  This, 
the  first  work  published  under  his  own  name, 
exercised  an  immense  influence  over  literature 
and  philosophy,  and  was  the  dawn  of  scej^cism 
of  the  eighteenth  centurv.     He  died  in  1706. 

Basaine  (bd'-zin'),  Francois  Achllle,  a  marshal  of 
France;  bom  at  Versailles,  1811;  distinguished 
himself  in  Algiers,  the  Crimea,  and  Mexico;  did 
good  service  as  commander  of  the  army  of  the 
Rhine,  in  the  Franco-German  war,  but  after 
the  surrender  at  Sedan  was  shut  up  in  Meti, 
surrounded  by  the  Germans,  and  obliged  to  sur- 
render, with  all  his  generals,  officers,  and  men; 
was  tried  by  court-martial,  and  condemned  to 
death,  but  was  imprisoned  instead;  made  good 
his  escape  one  evening  to  Madrid,  where  he  lived 
to  write  a  justification  of  his  conduct,  the  sale 
of  the  book  being  prohibited  in  France.  Died 
at  Madrid  1888.  ^        r.        .  ,,^ 

Basard  (bd'-zdr').  Saint  Amand,  French  soclaltot, 
bora  at  Paris,  1791 :  in  1820  founded  an  associa- 
tion of  French  Carbonari,  and  in  1825  attached 
himself  to  the  school  of  Saint  Simon,  he  and 
Enfantin  becoming  its  "pliTea  supr*mes."  But 
they  quarreled  over  "free  love,'  and  during  a 
heated  discussion  Bacard  was  struck  with 
apoplexy.     He  died  in  1832.  

Beach,  Bex  EIHngwood,  author,  playwright:  bom 
at  Atwood,  Mich.,  1877:  educated  at  Rollins 
college,  Winter  Park,  Fla.,  1891-96,  Chicago 
college  of  law,  1896-97,  Kent  college  of  law, 
Chicago,  1899-1900.  Author:  Pardnert,  The 
Spoilers,   The    Barrier,   and    The   Silver   Horde. 


554 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Contributor  to  McClure'a,  Ledie's,  Aindie's, 
Metropolitan,  Lipjnncott'8,  Red  Book,  Saturday 
Evening  Post,  New  York  World,  Pearson' e. 

Beaconsfleld,  Eari  of.     See  Disraeli,  Benjamin. 

Beale  {bel),  Joseph  Henry,  Jr.,  lawyer,  educator; 
bom  in  Dorchester,  Mans.,  1861:  graduated  from 
Harvard,  1882,  A.M.,  1887,  LL.  B.,  1887;  LL.D., 
university  of  Wiaconain,  university  of  Chicago, 
1904.  Waa  a  teacher  at  St.  Paul's  school,  Con- 
cord, Mass.,  one  year;  practiced  law,  Boston, 
1888-92;  assistant  professor  law,  1892-97,  pro- 
fessor, 1897-1908,  Carter  professor  general  juris- 
prudence since  1908,  Harvard;  professor  of  law 
and  dean  of  law  school,  university  of  Chicago, 
1902-04.  Author:  Casea  on  Crimirud  Law; 
Cases  on  Damages;  Case*  on  Carriers;  Criminal 
Pleadings  and  Practice;  Cases  on  the  Conflict  of 
Laws;  Cases  on  Public  Service  Corporations;  i 
Foreign  Corporations;  Innkeepers;  Railroad  Rate  \ 
Regulation  (with  Bruce  Wvman) ;  and  various  i 
legal  articles  and  monographs.  I 

Beatrice  Portlnarl  (b^-d-tres,  or  trU,  pdr'-ti-nA'^l),  ' 
Dante's  poetical  idol,  daughter  of  a  Florentine 
noble,  remarkably  graceful  and  accomplished. 
Dante  first  saw  her  when  she  was  but  nine  years 
old,  and  but  seldom  afterward ;  but  in  his  vivid 
imagination  she  grew  to  be  the  personification  of 
divine  truth,  and  so  appears  in  the  Divine 
Comedy.  In  1287  she  married  a  citizen  of 
Florence.    Bom  in  1206;  died,  1290. 

Seattle  {bi'-tl),  James,  Scottish  poet  and  writer  on 
philosophy,     bom    at     Laurencekirk.     Scotland, 
1735:  died,  1803.     Professor  of  moral  philosophy 
in    Marischal    college,  Aberdeen,    1760-97.      His 
writings   include    an    Essay   on   the   Nature   and 
Immutability  of  Truth;    The  Elements  of  Moral 
Science;    Dissertations,    Moral  and  Critical;    and  j 
Essays   on   Poetry   arid   Music.     His   fame   now  | 
rests  almost  wholly  on  The  Minstrel,  a  descriptive 
poem  on  the  progress  of  ,Tenius,  written  in  the  | 
Spenserian  stanza,  and  marked  by  great  harmonj-  ; 
of  style,  rich  imagery,  and  delicate  sentiment. 

Beatty,  John  W.,  director  of  fine  arts,  Carnegie 
institute,  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  bom  at  Pittsburg,  1851; 
student  of  Munich  acaclemy  of  fine  arts;  A.  M., 
Western  university  of  Pennsylvania,  1900: 
member  iurv  on  painting  for  Pennsylvania  ana 
New  York,  World  s  Columbian  exposition,  1893 ; 
member  national  advisory  board,  Paris  expo- 
sition, 1900,  fine  arts  committee,  Pan-American 
exposition,  Buffalo,  1901,  national  advisorj' 
committee,  Louisiana  Purchase  exposition, 
St.  Louis,  1904;  member  of  many  art  societies. 
Execute<i  etching,  "Return  to  Labor." 

Beaufort  {bH'-firt),  Henry,  cardinal  and  bishop  of 
Winchester,  bom  about  1370;  was  half-brother 
to  King  Henry  IV.  He  was  educated  in  England 
and  Germany,  and  in  1405  became  bishop  of 
Winchester.  He  was  present  at  the  council  of 
Constance,  and  voted  for  the  election  of  Pope 
Martin  V..  by  whom  he  was  subsequently  made 
a  cardinal.  In  1431  he  conducted  the  young 
king,  Henry  VI.,  to  France,  to  be  crowned  in 
Pans  as  king  of  France  and  England.  His 
memory  is  stained  by  his  suspected  participation 
in  the  murder  of  the  earl  of  Gloucester  and  of  the 
maid  of  Orleans.     Died,  1447. 

Beaufort,  Margaret,  countess  of  Richmond  and 
Derby,  was  bom  1441,  died  1509.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  the  duke  of  Somerset,  wife  of  the 
earl  of  Richmond  (half-brother  of  Henry  VI.), 
and  by  him  mother  of  Henrv  VII.  of  England. 
She  was  afterward  wife  of  Sir  Henry  Stafford, 
and  of  Thomas,  Lord  Stanley.  She  endowed 
Christ's  and  St.  John's  colleges  in  Cambridge,, 
establishing  a  divinity  school  in  each,  but  Henry 
VIII.  recovered  the  property  as  her  heir.  She 
translated  some  devout  works  from  the  French. 

Beauhamais  {bo'-dr'-^^'),  Eugtoe  de,  viceroy  of 
Italy  during  the  reign  of  Napoleon  I.,  and  after- 


ward duke  of  Leuchtenberg,  and  prince  of 
Eichstadt,  bom  1781,  the  son  of  the  vicomte 
Beauharnais.  After  his  mother's  marriage  with 
Bonaparte,  he  accompanied  him  in  his  campaigns 
in  Italy  and  in  the  expedition  to  Egypt.  He 
rapidly  rose  to  the  liighest  military  rank;  and  in 
1805,  after  the  erection  of  the  imperial  throne, 
he  waa  made  a  prince  of  France  and  viceroy  of 
Italy.  His  military  talents  were  ^eat,  and  were 
displayed  particularly  in  the  Italian  campaigns, 
in  the  wars  against  Austria,  and  in  the  retreat 
from  Moscow.  The  victory  of  Liitzen  was 
decided  by  his  conduct  in  that  battle.  Napoleon 
sent  him  from  Dresden  to  Italy,  which  he  ably 
defended,  even  after  Austria  had  joined  the 
coalition,  and  Murat  had  deserted  the  cauae  of 
the  French  empire.     Died,  1824. 

Beauhamais,  Hortense  Eugtote  de,  daughter  of 
Josephine;  born  in  1783;  was  married  against 
her  will  to  Louis,  youngest  brother  of  Nap>oleon 
Bonaparte,  from  whom  she  separated  in  1810, 
after  he  waa  driven  from  the  throne  of  Hol- 
land. Her  son  by  him  waa  Napoleon  III. 
Died,  1837. 

Beaumarchais  {bd'^mQr'-sht'),  Pierre  Augustla 
Caron  de,  French  dramatist  and  lK>et,  was  the 
son  of  a  watchmaker  named  Caron,  and  waa  bora 
at  Paris,  1732;  married  a  widow,  Madame 
Franquet  in  1757,  and  from  a  little  property  of 
hers  took  the  aristocratic  name  of  Beaumarchais. 
In  1768  be  married  a  second  time,  obtaining  on 
thia  occaaion  a  splendid  fortune  with  his  wife. 
Meanwhile  devoting  himself  to  literature,  he 
produced  Eug&nie,  a  drama  in  five  acta;  Les 
Deux  Amis,  ou  Le  Nigociant  de  Lyon;  Le 
Barbier  de  Siville;  and  Le  Mariage  de  Figaro. 
On  these  last  two  well-known  productions  his 
fame  now  rests.  He  lost  largely  by  the  publica- 
tion of  a  complete  edition  of  the  worka  of  Vol- 
taire, for  whose  manuscripts  he  had  paid  200,000 
francs.     He  died  in  1799. 

Beaumont  {bo'-mdnt),  Francis,  English  poet  and 
dramatist,  best  known  by  his  literary  partner- 
ship with  John  Fletcher,  waa  bom  at  Grace  Dieu, 
Leicestershire,  in  1584;  died  1616.  About  1607 
he  became  acquainted  with  Fletcher,  and  ao 
friendly  did  thev  become  that  they  lived  in  the 
same  house  until  Beaumont's  marriage  in  1613. 
A  vague  belief  long  prevailed  that  Beaumont 
wrote  the  graver  and  tragic,  Fletcher  the  lighter 
and  comic  portions  of  their  collaborated  works. 
It  seems,  however,  to  be  the  general  opinion  that 
Beaumont's  chief  share  lay  in  correcting  the 
exuberance  of  Fletcher. 

Beauregard  {bd'-ri-gQrd),  Pierre  Gustave  Toutant, 
gene^  of  the  army  of  the  Confederate  States 
during  the  civil  war,  was  bom  near  Orleans, 
La.,  1818.  At  the  secession  of  Louisiana  he 
resigned  his  commission  in  the  regular  armj';  in 
1861  he  waa  appointed  bv  the  confederate  gov- 
ernment to  the  command  at  Charleston,  S.  C, 
where,  on  April  12-13th,  he  commenced  the  war 
by  the  bombardment  of  Fort  Sumter;  July  21st 
he  won  the  battle  of  Bull  Run;  March  5,  1862, 
took  command  of  the  army  of  the  Mississippi; 
was  defeated  April  7th  at  Pittsburg  Landing; 
in  1863  defended  Charleston,  and  aided  in 
defense  of  Richmond;  after  the  war  he  became 
a  railroad  president,  and  in  1878  adjutant 
general  of  Louisiana.     Died,  1893. 

Bebel  {ba'-bU),  Ferdinand  Aufnist,  German  social 
democrat,  was  born  at  Cologne,  1840,  and  in  1860 
removed  to  Leipzig,  where  in  1864  he  established 
himself  as  a  master  turner.  Entered  politics  in 
1862;  since  1871  has  been  a  leader  of  the  social- 
democratic  movement  in  the  Reichstag  and  in  the 
press.  He  is  an  effective  speaker  and  writer. 
Among  his  works  are  Dcr  Deutsche  Bauemkrieg; 
Die  Frau  und  der  Socialismtis;  Die  Socialde- 
mokratie;  Charles  Fourier;  etc. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


666 


Beecaria  (Mfc'-fcd-r«'-a),  Cesare,  Marchrsc  dl, 
Italian  economist  ancl  jurist,  was  born  at  Milan, 
1735.  Having  formed  his  opinions  by  study 
of  the  French  encyclopaedists  and  Montesquieu, 
in  1764  he  published  anonymously  his  work  on 
Crimea  and  Punishments,  in  which  he  argued 
against  capital  punishment  and  torture.  The 
work  was  hailed  with  enthusiasni  by  the  French 
school;  commentaries  were  published  by  Vol- 
taire and  Diderot;  and  subsequent  reforms 
have  generally  taken  the  direction  it  pointed 
out.  Beecaria  was  among  the  first  to  advocate 
the  beneficial  influence  of  education  in  lessening 
crime.  In  1768  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  poUtical  philosophy  at  Muan;  in  1791  he 
was  made  a  member  of  the  board  for  the  reform 
of  the  judicial  code.  He  died  of  apoplexy  in 
1793. 

Becher  (b^K'-er),  Johann  Joachim,  German  chemist, 
was  bom  at  Speyer  in  1635,  and  lived  successively 
at  Mainz,  Vienna,  Munich,  Wiirzbut-g,  Haarlem, 
London,  where  he  died  in  1682.  His  Physica 
Subterranea  was  the  first  attempt  made  to  bring 
physics  and  chemistry  into  close  relation. 

Beck,  James  M,,  lawyer,  bom  at  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
1861 ;  graduate  of  Moravian  college,  Bethlehem, 
Pa.,  1880;  LL.  D.,  Muhlenberg  college,  1902; 
studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  bar,  1884- 
United  States  attorney  for  eastern  district  of 
Pennsylvania,  1896—1900;  assistant  attorney- 
general  of  United  States,  1900-03.  He  has 
argued  many  important  cases  in  United  States 
supreme  court,  including  the  Neely  case,  and 
the  lottery  cases;  argued  the  Northern  Securi- 
ties merger  case  before  circuit  judges.  Spoke 
for  the  Americap  bar  at  dinner  given  in  the 
Temple,  London,  by  the  bench  and  bar  of  Eng- 
land. As  master  appointed  by  United  States  court 
sold,  1902,  the  Philadelphia  Record  for  $3,000,000 
—  highest  price  ever  brought  by  an  American 
newspaper  at  pubUc  sale.  In  1902  negotiated 
purchase  of  Philadelphia  Ledger  and  the  merging 
of  it  with  Philadelphia  Times;  entered  law  firm 
of  Shearman  &  Sterling,  New  York,  1903,  and 
removed  to  that  city;  also  member  law  firm  of 
Beck  &  Robinson,  Philadelphia. 

Becker,  Wilhelm  Adolf,  German  author  and 
philolopst,  was  born  at  Dresden  in  1796,  died 
1846.  In  1837  was  appointed  professor  of  archse- 
ology  at  the  university  of  Leipzig;  in  1840  he 
travel«i  through  Italy.  His  lively  fancy, 
aided  by  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  classic 
lan^ages,  enabled  him  to  make  a  novel  use  of 
antiquity.  In  his  CharicLes  he  ventured  to 
reproduce  the  social  life  of  old  Greece,  and  in  his 
Oallus  to  give  sketches  of  the  Augustan  age 
at  Rome.  The  learning  which  he  has  contrived 
to  weave  into  his  picturesque  sentences  is  mar- 
velous. 

Becket,    Thomas    k,    celebrated    English    prelate, 
the  son  of  a  merchant,  was  bom  at  London  in 
1118;   studied   at   Oxford,    Paris,   and   Bologna, 
and  on  his  return    home    entered  the   church. 
Henry  II.   made  him  high  chancellor  and  pre- 
ceptor to  Prince  Henry  in  1155,  admitted  him 
to  the  closest  intimacy  and  coniidenee,  and  in 
1162  raised  him  to  the  archbishopric  of  Canter- 
bury.    Becket  now  entirely  gave  up  his  courtier 
habits,  assumed  a  rigid  austerity  of  manner,  and 
became  a  stubborn  champion  of  the  exorbitant 
privileges    of    the    clergy.     A    violent    contest 
ensued  between  the  sovereign  and  the  prelate,  | 
and  the  latter  was  at  length  obliged  to  flee  from  j 
the  kingdom.     In  1170,  however,  he  was  restored,  j 
and    he    instantly    recommenced    his    resistance 
to   the   monarch.     Irritated   by    this   fresh   dis-  j 
obedience,  Henry  uttered  a  hasty  speech,  which 
four  of    his  knights   not  unnaturally  construed  , 
into  a  command  to  rid  him  of  the  pertinacious  j 
archbishop.     They  accordingly  hastened  to  Eng-  I 


land,  and  murdered  Becket  in  C«ot«rbury 
cathedral  in  1 170.     He  wm  eanonlMd  io  1772. 

Beckford,  WlUlain«  tax  eccentric  man  of  cenius, 
was  bom  at  Fonthlll,  England,  17«>.  When  he 
was  about  »l<«veu  years  of  age  him  father  died,  and 
he  inherited  estates  in  Jamaica,  and  Fonthiil, 
in  Wiltshire.  His  annual  revenue  is  said  to 
have  excwHled  $500,000.  In  1783  he  married 
Lady  Margaret  Gordon,  daughter  of  Charles, 
fourth  earl  of  Aboyne,  and  in  the  following 
year  entered  parliament.  In  the  year  1787  be 
published  VcUhek  in  French.  He  infomu  ua 
that  he  wrote  this  tale  at  twenty-two  yean  of 
age,  and  that  it  was  composed  at  one  (ritiing. 
During  all  his  life  he  was  a  hard-working  student, 
but  was  of  a  most  erratic  disposition.  Died. 
1844. 

Becqner  (bd-kAr'),  Gustavo  Adolfo.  Spanish  poet 
and  novelist,  was  bom  at  Seville,  1836,  Ilia 
weird  and  fantastic  tales  are  written  after  the 
manner  of  Poe  and  Heine,  and  have  proved  very 
popular.  He  left  three  volumes  of  poems  and 
legends  of  which  the  best  known  is  LeyendoM 
eapafUdas.     Died  at  Madrid  in  1870. 

Becquerel  (bik'-rW),  Antotne  C^sar,  French 
physicist,  bom  at  Loiret,  France,  1788.  While 
studying  the  physical  properties  of  yellow  amber 
he  had  occasion  to  make  experiments  on  the 
liberation  of  electricity  by  pressure;  the  result 
of  his  inquiries  was  the  overthrow  of  Volta's 
theory  of  contact,  and  the  construction  by  him 
of  the  first  constant  pile.  He  next  discovered 
a  method  of  determining  the  internal  temperature 
of  human  and  animal  bodies,  and  by  physiologi- 
cal applications  demonstrated  that  when  a 
muscle  contracts  there  is  a  development  of  heat. 
He  is,  besides,  one  of  the  creators  of  electro- 
chemistry, and  invented  a  method  of  electro- 
typing.     Died,  1878. 

Beddoe,  John,  physician,  anthropologist,  bom  at 
Bewdley,  England,  1826;  was  educated  at 
Bridgnorth,  University  college,  London,  and 
Edinburgh  university,  graduating  B.  A.,  Lon- 
don, in  1851,  and  M.  1).,  Edinburgh,  in  1853. 
He  served  as  a  surgeon  during  the  Crimean  war, 
and  afterward  practiced  at  Clifton,  1857-91. 
He  is  the  author  of  Stature  and  Bulk  of  Man; 
The  Races  of  Britain;  Anthropological  History  of 
Europe;   Color  and  Race,  etc.     Died,  1911. 

Bedc  {bed),  or  B«eda  {bi'-di),  sumamed  "the 
venerable,"  English  monk,  scholar,  and  church 
historian,  was  bom,  673,  in  the  coimty  of  Dur- 
ham, and  died  at  Jarrow,  at  the  monastery  of 
St.  Paul,  in  735.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the 
most  learned  Englishman  of  his  day,  and  in  the 
seclusion  of  his  cell  he  wrote,  besides  his  impor- 
tant Ecclesiastical  History  of  England,  which 
was  translated  from  the  Latin  by  King  Alfred 
into  Anglo-Saxon,  a  number  of  commentaries, 
homilies,  hymns,  and  lives  of  the  saints. 

Bedford,  John,  Duke  of,  third  eon  of  Henry  IV., 
was  bom  1389,  died  1435;  in  1403  was  made 
governor  of  Berwick-upon-Tweed  and  warden 
of  the  west  marches.  In  1414  his  brother,  Henry 
v.,  created  him  duke  of  Bwlford ;  and  during 
the  war  with  France  he  was  appointed  lieutenant 
of  the  kingdom.  After  Henry's  death  in  1422. 
Bedford  became  guardian  of  the  kingdom,  and 
regent  also  of  France;  and,  Charles  VI.  dying 
two  months  afterward,  he  had  his  nmhew 
proclaimed  king  of  France  and  England  as  Menrv 
VI.  In  the  wars  with  the  dauphin  which  fol- 
lowed, Bedford  displayed  great  generalship  and 
defeated  the  French  at  Vemeuil  in  1424.  The 
appearance  of  Joan  of  Arc  was  followed  by  dis- 
aster to  his  arms;  and  in  1436  a  treaty  was 
negotiated  at  Rouen  between  Charles  VIL  and 
the  duke  of  Burgundy,  which  ruined  F.ngHsh 
interests  in  France.  Bedford's  death  at  Rooen 
was  mainly  occasioned  by  anxiety  and  vezatioo. 


566 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


B«echer,  Catherine  Esther,  eldest  child  of  Lyman 
Beecher,  was  born  at  East  Hampton,  L.  I.,  1800. 
In  1822  she  opened  a  school  at  Hartford,  Conn., 
and  ten  years  later  a  seminary  for  young  women 
in  Cincinnati,  but  was  compelled  to  give  it  up 
on  account  of  ill  health  two  years  afterwara. 
She  made  it  the  business  of  her  life  to  improve 
and  advance  the  intellectual,  physical,  and 
practical  education  of  women.  She  organized 
societies  and  schools  for  training  teachers  and 
sending  them  to  new  states  and  territories. 
In  pursuit  of  this  object  she  published  DometHc 
Service,  Duty  of  American  Women  to  their  Coun- 
try, Domestic  Receipt  Book,  True  Remedy  for  the 
Wrongs  of  Women,  Letters  to  the  People  on  Health 
and  Happiness,  Physiolo^  and  Calisthenics, 
Religious  Training  of  ChUdren,  The  American 
Woman's  Home,  etc.  She  also  published  Com- 
mon Sense  applied  to  Religion,  Truth  Stranger 
than  Fiction,  a  memoir  of  her  brother  George, 
and  Appeal  to  the  People  a«  the  Authorized  Inter- 
preters of  the  Bible.     Died,  1878. 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  preacher,  theologian,  lec- 
turer, orator,  was  born  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  1813 : 
graduated  at  Amherst  college  in  1834,  studied 
theology  under  his  father  at  Lane  seminary, 
Cincinnati.  After  a  pastorate  of  ten  years  in 
two  churches  in  Indiana,  he  removed  to  Brooklyn 
and  assumed  charge  of  Plymouth  church,  "an 
organization  of  orthodox  Congregational  be- 
lievers." He  for  many  years  drew  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  influential  regular  congrega- 
tions in  the  United  States,  and  his  published 
sermons  soon  became  a  power  in  this  and  other 
countries.  Owing  to  his  rich  fund  of  illustra- 
tion, his  impressive  manner,  and  his  keen  sense 
of  humor,  his  popularity  as  a  pulpit  orator  and 
as  a  lecturer  soon  became  recognized.  His 
attitude  during  the  agitation  on  the  slavery 
question  was  emphatically  that  of  an  abolitionist: 
he  visited  Great  Britain  in  18G3  with  the  avowed 
object  of  enlisting  sympathy  for  the  people  of 
the  North;  and,  although  very  unfavorably 
received  at  first,  such  was  the  force  of  his  elo- 
quence that  he  caused  no  inconsiderable  change 
In  public  opinion.  His  reputation  as  a  writer 
is  second  only  to  his  celeority  as  a  preacher. 
For  nearly  twenty  years  he  was  editor  of  the 
New  York  Independent,  and  in  1870  he  became 
editor  of  the  Christian  Union,  also  a  religious 
weekly.  His  most  important  works  are:  Lec- 
tures to  Young  Men,  Industry  and  Idleness,  Life 
Thoughts,  being  selections  from  his  extemporane- 
ous sermons,  revised  by  himself;  The  Star 
Papers,  these  last  being  composed  of  articles 
contributed  to  the  New  York  Independent,  and 
the  Life  of  Christ.  He  also  edited  the  Plymouth 
Collection  of  Hymns.  Died  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
1887. 

Beecher,  Lyman,  preacher  and  theologian,  was 
bom  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1775;  graduated 
from  Yale  college,  studied  theology  for  a  year, 
and  began  preaching  at  East  Hampton,  L.  I., 
where  he  remained  until  1810.  He  then  went  to 
Litchfield,  Conn.,  where  were  bom  his  two  most 
famous  children,  Henry  Ward  and  Harriet  (Mrs. 
Stowe),  though  nearly  all  of  his  thirteen  children 
are  well  known.  He  was  one  of  the  first  pulpit 
orators  of  the  time.  After  sixteen  years  he  was 
called  to  Hanover  Street  church,  Boston,  and 
during  his  six  years  of  hard  work  there  enga^ged 
in  a  theological  discussion  with  Dr.  Channing. 
He  spent  twenty  years  at  the  head  of  Lane 
theological  seminary,  Cincinnati.  Died  at 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1863. 

Beers  (bSrz),  Henry  Aufnistln,  author,  professor  of 
English  literature  at  Yale  since  1880;  was  born 
at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  1847;  graduated  from  Yale, 
1869.  Author:  A  Century  of  American  Litera- 
ture;   Odds  and  Ends  (verse);    Nathaniel  Parker 


Willis;  The  Thankless  Muse  (verse);  From 
Chaucer  to  Tennyson;  Initial  Studies  in  American 
Letters;  A  Suburban  Pastoral  and  Other  Tales; 
The  Ways  of  Yale;  A  History  of  English  Roman- 
ticism in  the  Eighteenth  Century;  A  History  of 
English  Romanticism  in  the  Nineteenth  Century; 
Points  at  Issue;  contributor  to  leading  maga- 
zines. 

Beethoven,  van  (vdn  ba'-to-ven),  Ludwlg.  See  page 
175. 

Begas  (M'-gas),  Karl,  German  painter,  bom  at 
Heinsberg,  near  Aix-la-Chapelle,  1794 ;  became  a 
pupil  of  Gros  at  Paris  in  1813;  studied  after- 
ward at  Rome,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
academy  and  court  painter  at  Berlin  from  1825 
until  his  death  in  1854.  His  pictures  are  partly 
biblical,  partly  romantic,  and  partly  genre  pieces. 
Of  the  first  may  be  mentioned  his  "  Baptism  of 
Christ."  in  the  style  of  the  old  Florentines,  which 
was  placed  in  the  garrison  church  at  Potsdam, 
and  nis  fine  fresco  of  Christ  and  the  four  evan- 
gelists surrounded  by  a  choir  of  angels  in  the 
churoh  of  Cracow.  Specimens  of  the  other 
classes  are  the  "Lorelei,  "Girls  under  the  Oak 
Tree,"  "The  Vine  Dressers"  etc.  He  is  chiefiy 
memorable  as  a  master  of  light  and  shade. 

Begas,  Bctnbold,  German  sculptor,  was  bom  in 
BerUn,  1831;  son  of  Karl  Begas.  Educated 
under  Ranch  and  Wichmann,  1846-51;  studied 
in  Italy,  1850-58.  Principal  works:  statue  of 
BorusBia  for  hall  of  glory ;  Neptune  fountain  on 
Schlossplatz :  statue  of  Alexander  von  Humboldt, 
statue  of  Schiller  for  Gendarmen  market,  all  in 
Berlin;  sarcophagus  of  Emperor  Frederick  III. 
in  Friedenskirche,  Potsdam,  and  sarcophagus  of 
Empress  Frederick;  national  monument  to 
Emperor  William;  statue  of  Bismarck  before 
the  Reichstag  Gebaiide;  several  statues  in  the 
Siegflsalle,  Berlin.     Died,  1911. 

Behaim  (bd'-him),  or  Behem  (,b&'-him),  Martin, 
German  na^•igator  and  geographer,  was  bom  at 
Nuremberg  about  1459,  di«i  about  1506;  prob- 
ably a  pupil  of  Regiomontanus ;  visited  Portugal 
about  1480,  and  in  1484  was  made  geographer  of 
an  expedition  for  the  exploration  of  western 
Africa;  knighted  by  John  II.  of  Portugal.  In 
1492  he  ma^e  a  terrestrial  globe,  a  gift  to  his 
native  city,  where  it  is  still  preserved. 

Bekker  (MJf-*-),  Immanuel,  German  scholar  and 
philologist,  was  bom  at  Berlin,  1785;  died  there, 
1871.  He  became  professor  of  philology  at 
Berlin,  and  edited  critical  editions  of  Plato,  the 
Attic  orators,  Aristotle,  Thucydides,  Aristoph- 
anes, Herodotus,  Livy,  Tacitus,  and  otner 
classic  writers.  His  chief  independent  work  was 
Anecdota  Orceca. 

Belasco  (bi-lAs'-kd),  David,  dramatic  author,  was 
born  at  San  Francisco,  1859 ;  educated  at  Lincoln 
college,  California.  Author:  (plays)  Zata; 
The  Heart  of  Maryland;  The  Wife;  The  Charity 
Ball;  Lord  Chunuey;  May  Blossom;  Men  and 
Women;  La  Belle  Russe;  The  Girl  I  Left  Behind 
Me;  Valerie;  Hearts  of  Oak;  The  Darling  of  the 
Gods;  Du  Barry;  Sweet  Kitty  BcUairs;  Adrea; 
The  Return  of  Peter  Grimm.  Manager  of  Mrs. 
Leslie  Carter,  David  Warfield,  and  Blanche  Bates. 

Bellsarlus  {bH'-i-sa'-ri-iis).  the  great  general  of 
Jusunian,  was  born  in  lllyria  about  505.  After 
commanding  an  expedition  against  the  king  of 
Persia  about  530,  he  suppressed  an  insurrection  at 
Constantinople,  conquered  Gelimer,  kin^  of  the 
Vandals,  and  put  an  end  to  their  dominion  in 
Africa.  In  535  he  was  sent  to  Italy  to  carry  on 
war  with  the  Goths,  and  took  Rome  in  536.  He 
was  afterward  sent  against  the  Persians  and 
Huns,  and  in  563  was  charged  with  conspiracy 
against  Justinian,  but  was  acquitted.  That  he 
was  deprived  of  sight  and  reduced  to  beggary 
appears  to  be  a  fable  of  late  invention.  Died, 
565. 


Ctfyright,  iqOQt  hj  Uarrii-Eviiing 


ALEXANDER  GRAHAM  BELL 

From  a  photograph 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


659 


B«ll«  Alexander  Graham,  scientist,  inventor, 
born  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  1847;  educatea 
at  Edinburgh  and  in  London  university;  LL.  D., 
Ph.  D.,  M.  D.,  receiving  many  degrees  from 
American  and  European  universities;  8c.  D., 
Oxford  university,  1907 ;  went  to  Canada,  1870. 
and  to  Boston,  1871,  becoming  professor  of  vocal 
physiology,  Boston  university;  invented  tele- 
phone, for  which  patent  was  granted  February 
14,  1876;  also  invented  photophone,  induction 
balance,  and  telephone  probe  for  painless  detec- 
tion of  bullets  in  the  human  body,  for  which  he 
was  awarded  hon.  M.  D.  by  the  university  of 
Heidelberg,  Germany,  at  its  five  hundredth 
anniversary ;  with  C.  A.  Bell  and  Sumner  Taintor 
invented  the  graphophone,  1883.  Regent  Smith- 
sonian institution.  Officer  French  legion  of 
honor;  founder  of  Volta  bureau.  Member 
national  academy  of  sciences  and  other  scientific 
organizations.  Author  of  many  scientific  and 
educational  monographs,  including  Memoir  on  the 
Formation  of  a  Deaf  Variety  of  the  HuTnan  Race. 

Bell,  Sir  Charles,  British  physician  and  anatomist, 
famous  for  his  discoveries  in  the  nervous  system, 
was  bom  at  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  1774.  In  1804 
he  proceeded  to  London,  where  he  lectured  with 
great  success  on  anatomy  and  surgery.  In  1807 
he  distinguished  between  the  sensory  and  motor 
nerves  in  the  brain.  In  1812  he  was  appointed 
surgeon  to  the  Middlesex  hospital,  wnich  his 
climcal  lectures  raised  to  the  highest  repute. 
To  study  gunshot  wounds,  he  went  to  Haslar 
hospital  after  Corunna  in  1809,  and  after  Water- 
loo took  charge  of  a  hospital  at  Brussels.  In 
1824  he  became  senior  professor  of  anatomy 
and  surgery  to  the  royal  college  of  surgeons. 
London,  and  in  1826  head  of  the  new  medical 
school.  University  college,  but  soon  resigned. 
Knighted  in  1831,  and  elected  professor  of  surgery 
at  university  of  Edinburgh  in  1836;  he  died 
in  1842.  His  works  include  Anatomy  of  Exjrres- 
sion  in  Painting;  Anatomy  of  the  Brain;  Animal 
Mechanics;  Nervous  System  of  the  Human  Body, 
and  The  Hand. 

Bell,  Henry,  who  introduced  steam-navigation  into 
Europe,  was  bom  at  Torphichen,  Linlithgow- 
shire, 1767.  After  acquiring  a  knowledge  of 
mechanics  in  Scotland,  he  went  to  London  and 
worked  with  the  famous  engineer,  Rennie.  In 
1790  he  returned  to  Scotland,  and  conmienced 
business  as  a  carpenter  at  Glasgow;  removed 
to  Helensburgh  in  1808,  and  kept  the  principal 
inn  there,  but  occupied  himself  with  experiments 
in  mechanics.  In  1812  he  launched  the  Comet 
on  the  Clyde,  the  first  steam-vessel  on  European 
waters.  The  engine,  at  first  of  three-horse  power, 
was  afterward  increased  to  six.  He  died  at 
Helensburgh,  1830.  At  Dunelass,  on  the  Clyde, 
a  monument  has  been  erected  to  his  memory. 

Bell,  James  Franklin,  army  officer,  was  bom  at 
Shelbyville,  Ky.,  1856;  graduated  from  United 
states  military  academy,  1878;  served  on  plains 
in  7th  United  States  cavalry,  1878-94;  cap- 
tured band  of  half-breed  Cree  Indians  near  Ft. 
Buford,  S.  D.,  1883;  in  Sioux  campaign.  Pine 
Ridge,  S.  D.,  1891;  adjutant  of  regiment  and 
secretary  cavalry  and  light  artillery  school, 
1891-94;  aide  to  General  J.  W.  Forsyth,  Cali- 
fornia, Arizona,  and  state  of  Washington.  Served 
in  Spanish-American  campaign  in  Philippine 
islands,  and  in  Philippine  insurrection ;  organized 
36th  infantry  United  States  volunteers  in  is- 
lands, 1899;  appointed  brigadier  general  of 
United  States  army,  1901;  commanded  1st 
district  department  North  Luzon  to  November, 
1901,  and  3d  brigade  department  of  South  Luzon 
to  December,  1902;  returned  to  United  States 
in  1903;  commandant  of  infantry  and  cavalrv 
school,  signal  school  and  stafif  college  to  April, 
1906;  major  general,  1907. 


Bell,  John,  EnglUh  sculptor,  bom  in  1811,  Orat 
exhibited  in  1832,  and  has  produced  nunwroiw 
admirable  works  In  monumentaL  rvUcioiw,  and 
imaginative  art.  His  "  Babes  inttM  Wootb''  aod 
"Andromeda"  were  the  chief  aUrMtioos  in  the 
1851  exhibition  at  London ;  while  among  his  beat- 
known  statues  arc  "Sir  Hobort  WalpoGu"  "WeU 
lington,"  and  the  Guards'  niemortal.  UlelMt grant 
work  was  tlie  group  "The  United  States  DiraeUng 
the  Progress  of  America."  for  the  bese  of  the 
Prince  Consort  memorial,  in  London.    Died,  1805. 

Bell,  John,  American  politician,  was  bom  nenr 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  1797;  wiw  admitted  to  the 
bar,  1816;  member  of  congress  from  Tenneesse, 
1827-41;  speaker  of  the  house  of  representa- 
tives, 1834-35;  secretary  of  war,  1841;  United 
States  senator,  1847-59;  nominated  by  the 
constitutional  union  party  for  presideat,  i860, 
and  received  the  electoral  vote  of  Tennessee,  Ken- 
tucky, and  Virginia.  He  opposed  Calhoun's 
project  of  nullification.     Died,  1869. 

Bell,  Robert,  chief  geologist  geological  survey  of 
Canada;  acting  director,  1901-06;  was  bora  at 
Toronto,  Ontario,  1841 ;  was  educated  at  McOiU 
and  Edinburgh  universitiea;  D.  8c.,  McGiU; 
LL.  D.,  Queen's;  F.  R.  8.,  1897.  Joined  geo- 
logical  survey  of  Canada,  1857;  has  made  very 
extensive  topographical  and  geological  surveys 
in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  Dominion  idnoe  1857. 
The  Bell  river  or  west  branch  of  the  Nottaway, 
which  he  surveyed  in  1895^  is  officially  named 
after  him;  was  medical  officer,  naturalist,  and 
geologist  of  Neptune  expedition  in  1884,  and  of 
Alert  expedition  in  1885  to  Hudson's  strait  and 
bay;  was  also  on  the  Diana  exi>edition  in  1897, 
when  he  surveyed  the  south  coast  of  Baffinland 
and  penetrated  to  the  great  lakes  of  the  interior; 
has  surveyed  many  Canadian  rivers,  and  also 
made  the  first  surveys  of  some  of  the  largest 
lakes  of  Canada,  including  Great  Slave,  Nipigon, 
Seul,  Osnaburgh,  and  parts  of  Athabasca,  Win- 
nipeg, and  lake  of  the  Woods;  has  been  Cana- 
dian correspondent  of  the  royal  Scottish  geo- 
graphical society  ever  since  its  foundation,  and 
a  member  of  many  scientific  societies;  was  a 
royal  commissioner  on  the  mineral  resourcee 
of  Ontario,  1888-89;  has  published  over  200 
reports  and  papers,  mostly  on  geolon^,  biology, 
geography,  and  folk-lore;  professor  of  chemistry 
and  natural  science  in  Queen's  university,  Kings- 
ton, 1863-67. 

Bell,  Thomas,  naturalist,  was  bom  at  Poole,  Dor- 
setshire, England,  1792,  and  in  1813  entered 
Guy's  hospital,  where  from  1817  imtil  1861 
he  held  the  post  of  dental  surgeon  and  leetursd 
on  comparative  anatomy.  In  1836  he  beoame 
professor  of  zoology  in  King's  college,  London; 
elected  in  1828  a  fellow  of  the  royal  society, 
and  from  1848  to  1853  its  secretary;  also  presi- 
dent of  the  Linnaean  society,  and  first  prendent 
of  the  Ray  society.  He  wrote  BritiiK  Quad" 
rupeda,  British  Reptiles,  etc.  Retiring  from  prac- 
tice about  1860  to  the  wakes  of  Selbome,  which 
he  had  purchased  from  Gilbert  White's  grand- 
nieces,  he  died  there  in  1880. 

BeUamy  (bH'-d-mi),  Edward,  American  novelist 
and  economist,  bom  at  Chicopee  Fails,  Mass.. 
1850.  He  was  educated  in  Germany;  admitted 
to  the  bar;  was  on  the  staff  of  the  New  York 
Evening  Post  in  1871-72;  and  on  his  return  from 
the  Sandwich  islands  in  1877  founded  the  Spring- 
field News.  He  is  best  Icnown  by  his  noveU  Loot' 
ing  Backward,  and  Equality,  both  socialistic 
works.     Died,  1898. 

BeUarmine  {]bH'-lar-m\n  or  tn»n\  Bobsti.  oMbniM 
Roman  Catholic  theologian;  was  bom  at  Monte 
Pulciano,  in  Tuscany,  1642.  He  entered  the 
order  of  Jesuits  in  1560,  and  in  his  twenty- 
seventh  year,  when  he  went  to  Louvain  as  pro- 
fessor of   theology,  began  that  long  controversy 


MO 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


with  "heretics"  which  formed  the  main  business 
of  his  life.  In  1599  he  was  made  a  cardinal 
against  his  own  inclination.  In  1602  he  was 
appointed  archbishop  of  Capua;  after  the  death 
of  Clement  VIII.,  contrived  to  escape  promotion 
to  the  papal  chair,  but  was  induced  by  Pius  V. 
to  take  an  important  place  in  the  Vatican,  where 
he  remained  until  the  time  of  his  death,  which 
took  place  in  the  novitiate-house  of  the  Jesuits 
in  1621. 

Bellew  (bil'-a),  Harold  Kyrle-Money,  English 
actor;  was  bom  in  Calcutta,  1857-  son  of  Rev. 
J.  C.  M.  Bellew,  chaplain  cathedral  at  Calcutta; 
was  cadet  in  English  navy,  serving  seven  years, 
then  went  to  Australian  gold  fields;  worked  on 
Melbourne  newspapers;  returned  to  England; 
made  stage  ddbut  at  Theater  Royal,  Brighton; 
became  leading  man  and  star  in  London;  came 
to  United  States  as  leading  man  in  Wallack's 
theater,  New  York,  October,  1885;  subsequently 
starred  jointly  with  Mrs.  James  Brown  Potter, 
taking  leading  r6les  with  her  in  legitimate  drama 
in  all  English-speaking  countries.  Headed  ex- 
ploration expeaition  in  northern  Queensland, 
1900-02,  returning  to  stage  at  head  of  own  com- 
pany in  United  States,  October,  1902.  Author: 
Yvonne;  lolande;  Hero  and  Leander;  Charlotte 
Corday;  and  several  adaptations.     Died,  1911. 

BelUnl  {bU4e'-ni),  Gentile,  Venetian  painter,  was 
born  about  1427,  died  1507.  He  was  employed 
with  his  brother,  Giovanni,  to  decorate  the  great 
council-chamber  of  the  Venetian  senate-house. 
His  most  admired  work  is  "The  Preaching  of  St. 
Mark,"  in  the  college  of  that  saint  in  Venice. 

Bellini,  Giovanni,  Venetian  painter,  brother  to 
Gentile  Bellini,  and  with  him  the  founder  of  the 
Venetian  school  of  painting,  was  bom  1426;  died 
1516.  His  best  works  are  altar  pieces.  Among 
his  more  famous  pictures  are  his  Infant  Jesus, 
"Holy  Virgin,"  and  "Christ  and  the  Woman  of 
Samaria."  There  is  a  well-known  picture  of  Bel- 
lini's, "Christ  on  the  Mount,"  in  the  national  gal- 
lery, London,  and  another,  "The  Circumcision," 
at  Castle  Howard.  Among  BelUni's  many  pupils 
the  most  distinguished  were  Giorgione  and  Titian. 

Bellini*  Vtncenxo,  Italian  composer  of  op>eras,  was 
bom  at  Catania,  in  Sicily,  in  1802.  He  was 
sent  to  the  conservatoire  of  Naples,  where  he 
studied  composition.  After  a  number  of  early 
operas  had  made  him  known  in  Italy,  he  wrote, 
in  1827,  the  opera  II  Pirata,  which  pave  him  a 
name  in  the  musical  world.  He  visited  Paris 
and  London,  and  died  near  Paris  in  1835.  Among 
his  best  works  are  Norma,  I  Ptirxtani,  and  La 
Sonnambida. 

Bellman  (bil'-nUin),  Karl  Mikael,  Swedish  poet, 
was  bom  at  Stockholm,  1740;  became  court- 
secretary  in  1775,  and  died  in  1795.  His  later 
and  more  brilliant  pieces  are  chiefly  bacchanalian, 
idyllic,  or  humorous  songs,  for  which  he  also 
furnished  original  melodies.  The  best  specimens 
of  his  genius,  which  is  of  a  rare  order,  are  to  be 
found  in  the  collections  prepared  by  himself: 
Baehanaliake  OrdtnskapHleta  HaruUnbliothek,  Fred- 
mans  Efiadar,  and  Fredmans  Sanger.  A  monu- 
xnent  was  erected  to  his  memory  at  Stockholm 
in  1829,  and  ever  since  the  anniversary  of  its 
erection  has  been  kept  as  a  popular  holiday. 

Belloc  (bi4dk'),  HUalre  Joseph  Peter,  English 
writer  and  politician,  was  bom  in  1870;  gradu- 
ated from  Balliol  college,  Oxford,  1895.  Author: 
Verses  and  Sonnets;  The  Bad  Child's  Book  of 
Beasts;  More  Beasts  for  Worse  Children;  The 
Modem  Traveler;  The  Moral  Alphabet;  Danton; 
Lambkins  Remains;  Paris;  Robespierre;  Path 
to  Rome;  Caliban's  Guide  to  Letters;  AvrU;  Mr. 
Burden;  The  Old  Road;  Esto  Perpetua;  Hills  and 
the  Sea;  The  Historic  Thames;  Cautionary  Tales; 
On  Nothing;  Mr.  Clutterbuck's  Election.  He  was 
member  of  the  house  of  commons,  1906  10. 


Bellows,  Henry  Whitney,  Unitarian  divine  and 
writer,  was  bom  at  Boston,  Mass.,  1814;  gradu- 
ate of  Harvard  and  of  Cambridge  divinity  school ; 
in  1838  became  pastor  of  All  Souls  church,  New 
York;  was  instrumental  in  establishing  the 
Christian  Enquirer  in  1846;  pubUshed  a  number 
of  lectures  and  pamphlets,  among  the  more 
notable  his  Phi  Beta  Kappa  Oration,  a  Defense 
of  the  Drama,  Treatment  of  Social  Diseases, 
Christian  Doctrine,  The  Old  World  in  its  New 
Face,  etc.  With  an  excellent  literary  taste  and 
skill  he  combined  practical  and  administrative 
ability.  He  did  excellent  service  as  presiding 
officer  of  the  sanitary  commission  during  the 
war  of  the  rebellion.     Died,  1882. 

Bell-Smith,  Frederic  Marlett,  artist;  president  of 
the  Ontario  society  of  artists;  bom  at  London, 
1846:  studied  drawing  at  South  Kensington, 
London;  went  to  Canada,  1867;  charter  mem- 
ber society  of  Canadian  artists,  1867;  served  in 
volunteers  in  suppressing  Fenian  invasion,  1870; 
director  of  fine  arts,  Alina  college,  since  1881 ; 
teacher  of  drawing,  public  schools,  London, 
Ontario,  1882-89;  director  Toronto  art  school, 
1889-91:  lecturer  and  writer  on  art  subjects. 
Principal  pictures:  "Queen  Victoria's  Tribute  to 
Canada,"  "Landing  of  the  Blenheim,"  "Lights 
of  a  City  Street "  ;  has  exhibited  at  royal  academy 
and  other  principal  exhibitions. 

Belmont,  Aufcnst,  Danker,  was  bom  at  New  York, 
1853 ;  son  of  prominent  banker  of  the  same  name, 
now  deceasea;  graduate  of  Harvard.  1874,  ana 
at  once  entered  the  bank;  now  heaa  of  August 
Belmont  &  Company,  American  representatives 
of  European  banking  firm  of  Rothschilds;  is 
officer  and  director  of  many  large  railway,  bank- 
ing, manufacturing,  and  other  corporations: 
chairman  l)oard  of  directors,  Interborough  rapid 
transit  company. 

Belmont,  Auinist,  American  politician  and  financier, 
was  bom  at  Altey,  Germany.  1816;  was  repre- 
sentative of  the  Rothschilos  in  the  Umted 
States :  Austrian  consul  at  New  York,  1844-50 ; 
Unitea  States  minister  to  the  Netherlands. 
1854-^;  chairman  of  the  democratic  national 
committee,  1860-72.      Dietl,  1890. 

Belmont,  Perry,  lawyer;  was  bom  at  New  York. 
1851:  graduated  from  Harvard  in  1872 ;  studied 
civil  law,  university  of  BerUn:  LL.  B.,  Columbia 
law  school,  1876;  practiced  law  until  1881; 
member  of  congress,  1881-89;  chairman  com- 
mittee on  foreign  affairs,  1885-87;  United 
States  minister  to  Spain,  1887-88 ;  delegate  to  the 
national  democratic  convention  in  1896;  still 
active  in  politics.  Vice-president  United  States 
casualty  company;  trustee  Colonial  trust  com- 
pany, and  National  surety  company;  director 
Consolidated  national  bank,  etc.  Insp>ector  gen- 
ei»l  with  rank  of  major  Ist  division  2d  army 
corps.  United  States  volunteers,  1898.  Member 
New  York  chamber  of  commerce. 

Belshascar  (bSl-shAz'-ar),  last  king  of  Babylon  of 
the  Chaldean  dynasty,  began  to  reign  about  554 
B.  C.  The  hand--writing  on  the  walls  of  his  palace, 
its  interpretation  by  Daniel,  the  taking  of  Baby- 
lon by  Cyrus  the  Great,  and  Belshazzar's  death 
in   538   B.  C.    are   familiar  to  all  Bible  readere. 

Bern  (bhn\  Joseph,  Polish  general,  bom  in  Galicia 
in  1795;  served  in  the  French  campaign  against 
Russia,  1812;  took  part  in  the  Polish  insurrection 
of  1830;  joined  the  Hungarian  army  in  1848, 
defeated  the  Austrians  in  several  battles,  and 
after  the  defeat  of  Temesvar  took  refuge  in 
Turke}%  became  a  Mohammedan,  and  was  made 
a  pasha.     Died,  1850. 

Bembo  (bim'-bd),  Pletro,  Italian  scholar,  was  bom 
at  Venice,  1470,  and  died  at  Rome,  1547,  having 
in  1513  been  made  secretary  to  Leo  X.,  and  in 
1539  a  cardinal  by  Paul  III.,  who  afterward 
appointed  him  to  the  dioceses  of  Gubbio  and 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


Ml 


Bergamo.  Bembo  was  the  restorer  of  good 
style  in  both  Latin  and  Italian  literature.  Among 
his  works  ma^  be  mentioned  the  Rerum  Venetica- 
rum  Libri  XII.;  this  little  treatise  on  Italian 
prose  marked  an  era  in  Italian  grammar. 

Bemls,  Edward  Webster,  educator,  economist, 
was  born  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  18G0;  graduated 
from  Amherst,  1880;  A.  M.,  1884;  Ph.  D.,  Johns 
Hopkins,  1885;  professor  of  history  and  political 
economy,  Vanderbilt  university,  1881)-92;  asso- 
ciate professor  political  economy,  university  of 
Chicago,  1892-95;  assistant  statistician  Illinois 
bureau  of  labor  statistics,  1896;  professor 
economic  science,  Kansas  state  agricultural 
college,  1897-99;  later  director  department 
municipal  monopolies,  bureau  of  economic 
research.  New  York;  deputy  commissioner 
water  supplv.  New  York;  member  committee 
of  national  civic  federation  investigating 
municipal  ownership.  Author:  Municip<u  Mo- 
nopolies, Municipal  Ownership  of  Gas  Works  in 
the  United  States;  also  numerous  papers  and 
articles  on  municipal  government,  trades  vmions, 
trusts,  monopolies,  academic  freedom. 

Bendemann  (bSn'-de-mdn),  Eduard,  German  ptunter 
of  the  Dvisseldorf  school,  was  born  at  Berlin  in 
1811.  From  1859  until  1867  he  was  director  of 
the  Dvisseldorf  academy.  His  chief  works  are 
"  The  Lamentation  of  the  Jews,"  in  the  museum  at 
Cologne,  and  "Jeremiah  on  the  Ruinsof  Babylon," 
in  the  national  gallery,  Berlin.     He  died  in  1889. 

Benedek  {bd'-ne-dSk),  Ludwlg  von,  Austrian  general, 
bom  at  Odenburg,  in  Hungary,  1804.  After 
having  served  with  great  distinction  in  the 
campaign  of  1848,  against  the  Italians,  in  the  war 
against  the  Hungarian  patriots  in  1849,  and  the 
war  of  Italian  independence  in  1859,  he  obtained 
in  1866  the  command  of  the  Austrian  army 
against  Prussia,  and  lost  the  decisive  battle  of 
Sadowa  on  July  3d.     Died,  1881. 

Benedict,  Saint,  one  of  the  originators  of  monastic 
institutions  in  the  West,  was  bom  at  Nursia,  in 
Italy,  480.  Early  in  life  he  retired  into  a  desert 
and  spent  three  years  in  a  cavern.  Being  dis- 
covered, his  sanctity  drew  to  him  such  numbers 
of  people  that  he  founded  twelve  convents.  In 
529  he  went  to  Monte  Cassino,  built  a  monastery 
on  the  site  of  the  temple  of  Apollo,  gave  rise  to 
the  Benedictine  order,  and  died  in  543. 

Benedict  XIII.,  Pope,  son  of  the  duke  of  Gravina, 
a  Neapolitan  nobleman,  was  bom  in  1649,  and 
was  raised  to  the  papal  chair  in  1724.  He  was 
pious,  virtuous,  and  liberal;  but,  unfortunately, 
placed  too  much  confidence  in  Cardinal  Coscia, 
his  minister,  who  shamefully  oppressed  the  people. 
A  fruitless  attempt  which  he  made  to  reconcile 
the  Roman,  Greek,  Lutheran,  and  Calvinist 
churches,  bears  testimony  to  his  tolerant  spirit. 
His  theological  works  form  three  folio  volumes. 
He  died  in  1730. 

Benedict  XIV,,  Prospero  Lambertini,  the  most 
worthy  to  be  remembered  of  all  the  pontiffs  so 
named,  was  born  at  Bologna  in  1675:  began  his 
pontificate  with  several  wise  and  popular  reforms ; 
revived  the  academy  of  Bologna;  executed 
several  public,  works  in  Rome ;  caused  the  best 
English  and  French  books  to  be  translated  into 
Italian,  and  in  various  ways  gave  encourage- 
ment to  literature  and  science.     Died,  1758. 

Benedict,  Sir  Julius,  German  composer,  was  bom 
at  Stuttgart,  Wiirttemberg,  1804,  died  at  London, 
1885;  studied  under  Weber.  From  1835  on  be 
resided  in  England;  accompanied  Jenny  Lind 
to  the  United  States  in  1850.  His  operas  mclude 
The  Gipsey's  Warning;  The  Brides  of  Venice; 
The  Crusaders;  The  Lily  of  Killamey.  He  also 
wrote  the  cantatas  Undine,  Richard  Caeur  de 
Lion,  and  the  oratorios  St.  Cecilia  «md  St.  Ptier. 

Beneke  (ba'-ne-ki),  Friedrich  Eduard,  German  phi- 
losopher, was  bom  at  Berlin  in  1798,  studied 


there  and  at  Halle,  and  in  1820  bccui  to  leotur* 
St  Berbn;  his  lectures  were  sooo^«rdle(«l  by 
the  government  ss  favoring  BninufMintan 
For  three  years  he  tauiiit  •tOAttiiigMi,  but  in 
1827  his  lectures  at  Benin  were  again  permitted, 
and  in  1832,  on  Hegel's  death,  ha  was  ^pointed 
extraordinary  professor  of  phUosopby.  In  1854 
he  disapnearoif ;  in  1856  his  body  wa»  found  in 
the  canal  at  CliarlotUntburg.  His  chief  work  was 
in  empirical  psychology. 

Benjamin,  Park,  journalist  and  poet,  was  bom  at 
Demcrara,  British  Guiana,  1809;  graduated  at 
Trinity  college,  Hartford ;  practiced  law  In  Boa- 
ton  in  1832,  and  was  an  editor  of  the  N«%9  Eng- 
land Magazine.  In  1837  he  removed  to  New 
York  and  became  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Amwi' 
can  Monthly  Magaxiru,  and  two  years  later 
assisted  HorsM:e  Greeley  in  editing  TH»  Ntm 
Yorker.  In  1840  ho  was  one  of  the  editors  of 
the  New  World,  retiring  in  1844.  He  wrote  many 
poems,  essays,  reviews,  etc.  Died  at  New  York 
m  1864. 

Benjamin,  Samuel  Greene  Wheeler,  author,  artist, 
I  was  bom  at  Argos,  Greece,  1837;  graduated 
from  Williams  college,  1850;  assistant  librarian 
New  York  state  library,  1861-64;  sent  two 
companies  of  cavalry  to  war;  served  in  hos- 
pitaLs;  read  law;  studied  art;  at  sea  several 
years  mastering  seamanship;  first  United  States 
minister  to  Persia,  1883-85;  art  editor.  Ameri- 
can department  Magazine  of  Ari^  also  New  York 
Mail.  Sent  Crimean  war  manne  drawings  to 
London  Illustrated  News,  1854;  opened  studio 
in  Boston  as  artist  in  oil  and  water  colors,  1870. 
Author :  Constantinople,  Isle  of  Pearls  and  Other 
Poems;  The  Turk  and  the  Greek;  The  Choice  oj 
Paris;  A  Romance  of  the  Troad;  Contemporary 
Art  in  Europe;  What  is  Art t  Art  in  America; 
World's  Paradises;  Troy,  Its  Legend,  Literature 
and  Topography;  Persia  arid  the  Peraiana;  The 
Story  of  Persia. 

Bennett,  James  Gordon,  American  journalist;  was 
born  in  Scotland  in  1795  and  di^  in  1872.  He 
studied  for  the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood  but 
never  took  orders.  In  1819  emigrated  to  Amer- 
ica, and  after  having  taught  school  in  Halifax 
and  been  a  proof-reader  m  Boston,  became  a 
journalist  in  New  York;  in  1825  purchased  the 
Sunday  Courier;  subsequently,  1832,  started  the 
Globe,  neither  project  succeeding.  In  1835  he 
issued  the  first  number  of  The  Herald,  a  journal 
which,  through  his  great  ability  and  enterprise, 
soon  commanded  world-wide  attention.  His 
paper  was  the  first  to  publish  the  stock  lists  and 
a  daily  financial  review;  many  other  original 
features  were  afterward  added.  When  steam 
communication  was  opened  with  F^urope,  ha 
crossed  the  Atlantic  and  made  arrangements  for 
correspondence  from  all  countries.  The  first 
speech  ever  reported  in  full  by  the  telegraph  was 
sent  to  The  Herald. 

Bennett,  James  Gordon*  loumalist,  capitalist, 
proprietor  of  New  York  Herald;  was  bom  in 
New  York,  1841,  son  of  journalist  of  same  name: 
educated  by  private  tutors;  inherited  The  HerM 
and  a  large  fortune  in  1872;  for  a  time  issued  a 
London  edition  and  still  publishes  a  Paris  edition 
of  The  Herald;  inau^ratcd  publication  in  Eng- 
land of  storm  warnings  transmitted  from  t& 
United  States;  sent  Henry  M.  Stanley  to  Africa 
to  find  Livingstone,  1874-77;  fitted  out  Jeannette 
polar  expedition,  1879;  established  in  1883  (with 
John  W.  Mackay)  the  Commercial  (llackay- 
Bennett)  cable  company ;  Is  a  prominent  yachts- 
man ;  lives  most  o<^  his  time  in  Paris,  but  haupt 
active  management  of  The  Herald  by  cable. 

Bensm,  Edward  White,  FInglish  prelate'and  primato 
of  all  England,  1882-96,  was  bom  in  1820  and 
died  in  Flintshire,  Wales,  1896;  graduated  at 
Trinity  college,  Cambridge;   taught  for  a  whtts 


562 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


at  Rugby,  was  head  master  of  Wellington  college, 
chancellor  of  Lincoln  cathedral,  and  in  1877  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  Truro.  In  1882,  on 
the  reconunendation  of  Gladstone,  the  crown 
appointed  him  successor  to  Dr.  Tait  in  the 
archbishopric  of  Canterbury.  He  held  this 
high  office  in  the  church  until  his  death.  Author 
of  The  Seven  Gi/ta,  Christ  and  His  Times,  The 
Cathedral,  its  Necessary  Place  in  the  Life  and 
Work  of  the  Church. 

Bentham,  Jeremy,  English  writer  on  ethics  and 
jurisprudence;  born  at  London  in  1748;  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1772.  Turning  from  the 
practice  of  law  to  its  theory,  he  became  the  great- 
est critic  of  legislation  and  government  m  his 
day.  |n  all  his  ethical  and  political  writings 
the  doctrine  of  utility  is  the  leading  and  per- 
vading principle;  and  his  favorite  vehicle  for 
its  expression  is  the  phrase  "the  greatest  happi- 
ness of  the  greatest  number."  which  was  first 
coined  by  Priestley,  though  its  prominence 
In  politics  has  been  due  to  Bentham.  He  lived 
frugally,  but  with  elegance,  in  one  of  his  London 
houses,  and,  employing  young  men  as  secretaries, 
corresponded  and  wrote  daily.  He  died  in 
1832. 

Bentley,  Richard,  English  classical  scholar;  bom 
at  Oulton,  in  Yorkshire,  1602.  In  1676  entered 
St.  John's  college,  Cambridge,  and  on  leaving 
the  university  was  appointed  head-master  of 
the  grammar  school  of  Spalding,  Lincolnshire. 
He  resigned  this  situation  to  become  tutor  to 
the  son  of  Dr.  Stillingfleet.  Bentley  accom- 
panied his  pupil  to  Oxford,  where  he  was  twice 
appointed  to  deliver  the  Boyle  lectures  on  the 
evidences  of  natural  and  revealed  religion. 
In  1690  he  published  his  dissertation  upon  the 
epistles  of  Phalaris,  which  may  be  said  to  have 
commenced  a  new  era  in  scholarship.  In  1700 
he  was  appointed  master  of  Trinity  college, 
Cambridge.     Died,  1742. 

Benton,  Guy  Potter,  educator,  president  univer- 
sity of  Vermont;  was  bom  at  Kenton,  Ohio, 
1865 ;  educated  at  Ohio  normal  university,  Ohio 
Wesleyan  university.  Baker  university,  and 
university  of  Wooster;  A.  M.,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. ; 
assistant  state  superintendent  pubUc  instruction, 
Kansas,  1895-96;  professor  history  and  sociology. 
Baker  university,  1896-99;  president  Upper 
Iowa  university,  1899-1902;  president  Miami 
university,  1902-11.  Lyceum  lecturer  on  many 
subjects  of  an  educational  and  inspirational 
nature. 

Benton,  Thomas  Hart,  American  statesman,  bom 
in  North  Carolina  in  1782,  commenced  legal 
practice  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  in  1811,  and  settled 
at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  in  1815;  was  elected  United 
States  senator  in  1820,  when  he  became  a  promi- 
nent supporter  of  General  Jackson.  Reelected 
in  1826,  be  became  a  noted  advocate  of  the  gold 
and  silver  currency  question,  and  supported 
Jackson  in  the  latter's  antagonism  to  the  United 
States  bank.  He  held  a  seat  in  congress  for  a 
period  of  thirty  years,  during  which  he  voted 
tor  the  annexation  of  Texas,  and  against  the 
doctrines  of  nullification  and  state  rights.  He 
was  author  of  A  Thirty  Years'  View;  or  a  History 
of  the  Working  of  the  American  Government  for 
Thirty  Years,  from  1820  to  1850.     Died,  1858. 

B^ranger  (bd'-rAN'-zha'),  Pierre  Jean  de,  French 
lyric  poet,  bom  in  Paris,   1780,  was  of  humble 

?arentage,  and  became  apprenticed  to  a  printer, 
n  1815  he  began  to  bnng  out  a  collection  of 
national  and  other  songs,  which  created  a  power- 
ful sensation,  and,  owing  to  many  of  them  being 
satires  upon  the  government,  procured  for  their 
author  a  heavy  fine  and  several  months'  im- 
prisonment. His  pK>jems  contributed  in  no 
small  degree  to  the  revolution  of  1830.  In  1833 
a  fifth  series  of  his  lyrics  appeared,  and  in  1848 


he  was  elected  to  the  constituent  asMinbly,  but 
decUned  to  serve.     Died  in  1857.         / 

Beresford  {bir'-is-f6rd).  Lord  Charies  WlUlam  de 
la  Poer,  British  admiral,  was  born  in  Ireland, 
1846;  educated  at  Bayford  school,  Rev.  Mr. 
Foster's,  Stubbington,  Fareham,  Hants.  Entered 
Britannia  as  cadet,  1859;  sub-lieutenant,  1866; 
lieutenant,  1868;  commander,  1875;  captain, 
1882;  rear-admiral,  1897;  naval  A.  D.  C.  to 
the  queen  1896-97;  naval  A.  D.  C.  to  the 
prince  of  Wales  on  his  visit  to  India,  1875-76: 
M.  P.  Waterford,  1874-80-  east  division  of 
Marylebone,  1885-89;  M.  P.  York,  1897-1900; 
commanded  Condor,  bombardment  Alexan- 
dria. 1882;  landed  at  Alexandria  after  bom- 
bardment and  instituted  regular  police  system; 
served  on  Lord  Wolseley's  staff  Nile  expedi- 
tion, 1884-85  ;•  and  subsequently  in  conunand 
of  naval  brieade  at  battles  of  Abu  Klea,  Abu 
Km.  and  Hetemmeh;  a  lord  commissioner 
of  the  admiralty,  1886;  resijped  1888,  on  ques- 
tion of  strength  of  fleet;  visited  China  on  a 
special  mission,  at  request  of  associated  cham- 
bers of  commerce  of  Great  Britain,  1898-09; 
rear-admiral,  Mediterranean,  1900-02;  M.  P. 
Woolwich,  1902;  commanded  channel  squadron, 
1903-05;  admiral,  1906;  visited  Canada,  1900. 
Author:  Life  o^ Nelson  and  his  Times;  numerous 
essays  and  articles  on  naval  matters  and  Egypt ; 
The  Break-up  of  China. 

Bergman  {bin.  -m&n),  Torbem  Olof ,  Swedish  chemist 
and  naturalist,  was  bom  at  Katharinbcrg,  Swe- 
den, 1735;  studied  at  Upsala,  and  in  1761  was 
appointed  adjunct  in  mathematics  and  natural 
pmloeophy;  professor  of  chemistry,  1766; 
wrote  Physical  Description  of  the  Earth,  On  the 
Aerial  And,  and  laid  the  basis  of  crystallography. 
Died,  1784. 

B«rlot  (6a'-r«-d'),  Charles  Aa^st«  de,  Belgian 
composer  and  violinist,  bom  in  Louvain,  1802. 
He  was  a  precocious  and  original  musician, 
remarkable  tor  pure  tone  and  refined  taste. 
In  1836  he  became  the  husband  of  the  famous 
singer,  Malibran.  In  1842  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor in  the  Brussels  conssrvatoire,  but  resided 
ten  years  after  in  consequence  of  failing  eyesight. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  complete  manual  for  the 
violin,  and  of  a  great  number  of  popular  compo- 
sitions for  that  instrument.     Diea,  1870. 

Berkeley,  George,  British  divine  and  philosopher, 
and  bishop  of  Cloyne,  was  bom  in  Ireland  in  1685. 
On  his  return  from  a  visit  to  America  he  was 
raised  to  the  episcopate.  In  philosophy  he  is  an 
idealist,  and  his  doctrines  are  the  natural  reaction 
against  the  prevalent  materialism  of  his  age. 
His  most  important  works  are  the  Principles  of 
Human  Knowledge,  MinxUe  Philosopher,  and 
Theory  of  Vision.     Died,  1753. 

Berkeley,  Sir  William,  governor  of  the  colony  of 
V'irginia,  was  born  at  London,  England,  1610. 
He  was  appointed  governor  of  Virginia  in  1641, 
but  resiened  in  1651,  upon  the  accession  of 
Cromwell.  He  remained  in  the  colony,  however, 
and  in  1660  was  chosen  governor  by  the  general 
assembly.  Years  later  he  lost  the  favor  of  the 
people  by  faiUng  to  protect  them  from  the 
Indians^  and  a  rebellion  against  him  led  by 
Nathamel  Bacon  almost  succeeded,  but  failed 
in  consequence  of  the  sudden  death  of  the  leader. 
Berkeley  was  recalled  in  1676.  He  was  the 
author  of  A  Discourse  and  View  of  Virginia,  and 
a  drama  called  The  Lost  Lady.     Died,  1677. 

Berlicbingen  {hir'-liK.-lng-en),  G5ts  or  Gottfried 
Ton,  German  knight,  was  bom  in  1480.  He 
took  part  in  the  war  of  the  peasants  against  the 
nobles,  and  was  sentenced  by  Maximilian  I.  to 
pay  a  heavy  fine.  He  was  afterward  mortally 
wounded  in  defending  his  castle  against  imperial 
troops.  He  wore  an  artificial  hand  which  re- 
placed one  lost  in  battle,  and  was  sumamed  the 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


Mt 


"Iron  Hand."  Goethe  made  his  achievements 
the  subject  of  one  of  his  best  dramas.  He  died 
in  1562. 

Berliner  {bir-le'-nir),  Emile,  inventor,  was  bom  at 
Hanover,  Germany,  1851;  educated  public 
school,  Hanover;  bamson  school,  Wolfenbiittel. 
He  came  to  the  United  States  1870,  and  pursued 
a  mercantile  career  until  1878;  began  scientific 
experimental  work,  1876;  invented  the  loose 
contact  telephone  transmitter  and  use  of 
induction  coil  connected  therewith,  1877;  dis- 
covered receiving  action  of  loose  contacts,  1877: 
the  first  20,000  telephone  transmitters  ever  usea 
passed  through  his  hands  while  chief  instrument 
insj)ector  of  the  Bell  telephone  company  in 
Boston,  1879;  invented  the  gramophone,  1887, 
the  first  talking-machine  which  utilized  a  groove 
of  even  depth  and  varying  direction,  and  in 
which  the  record  groove  not  only  vibrates 
but  also  propels  the  reproducing  stylus;  also 
invented  and  perfected  the  present  method  of 
duplicating  disc  records;  planned  the  milk 
conference  of  1907  at  Washington.  He  has 
published  Conclusions  dealing  with  philosophical 
and  reUgious  problems;  also  a  number  of 
scientific  papers  before  societies  and  in  litera- 
ture. 

Serlioz  {b&r'-le-ds').  Hector,  French  composer,  of 
remarkable  but  eccentric  genius,  was  born  at  La 
C6te  St.  Andr6,  1803.  and  died  in  1869.  His 
best  productions  are  the  symphonies  Harold  and 
Romeo  and  Jvliet.  He  was  chief  of  the  romantic 
•school  of  music. 

Bernard  {Jbh^-ndr'\  Claude,  French  physiologist, 
bom  near  Villefranche,  1813;  studied  medicine 
at  Paris,  and  in  1841  became  assistant  at  the 
College  de  France  to  Magendie,  with  whom  he 
worked  until  his  own  appointment  in  1854  to  the 
chair  of  general  physiology,  and  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  1855  as  professor  of  experimental 
physiology.  He  was  elected  to  the  academy  in 
1869,  and  died  at  Paris,  1878.  His  earliest 
researches  were  on  the  action  of  the  secretions  of 
the  alimentary  canal,  the  pancreatic  juice,  the 
connection  between  the  liver  and  the  nervous  sys- 
tem, etc.,  for  which  he  received  prizes  from  the 
acaaemy.  Later  researches  were  on  the  changes 
of  temperature  of  the  blood,  the  oxygen  in 
arterial  and  in  venous  blood,  the  opium  alka- 
loids, curarine,  and  the  sympathetic  nerves. 
His  Lemons  de  Physiologie  Exptrimentale  is  still 
a  standard  work. 

Bernard  (ber'-ndrd  or .  bSr-nard'),  Saint,  of  Clair- 
vaux,  was  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Fontaines, 
near  Dijon,  in  Burgundy,  1091;  in  1113  entered 
the  Cistercian  monastery  of  Citeaux,  and  in  1115 
became  the  first  abbot  of  the  newly-founded 
monastery  of  Clairvaux,  in  Champagne,  where 
he  died,  1153.  He  was  canonized  m  1174.  His 
studious,  ascetic  life  and  stirring  eloquence  made 
him  the  oracle  of  Christendom ;  he  founded  more 
than  seventy  monasteries;  and  the  "mellifluous 
doctor"  is  regarded  by  the  Catholic  church  as 
the  last  of  the  fathers.  He  drew  up  the  statutes 
of  the  Knights  Templars  in  1128;  secured  the 
recognition  of  Pope  Innocent  II. ;  and  it  was  his 
glowing  eloquence  at  the  council  of  Vezelay  in 
1146  that  kindled  the  enthusiasm  of  France  for 
the  second  crusade.  The  influence  of  St.  Ber- 
nard as  a  spiritual  teacher  through  his  fervid 
piety  and  living  grasp  of  Christian  doctrine  was  a 
wholesome  antidote  to  the  dry  and  cold  scholas- 
ticism of  the  age.  Yet  he  showed  a  harsh 
severity  toward  Abdlard  and  others  whose 
views  he  disapproved.  His  writings  consist  of 
more  than  400  epistles,  340  sermons,  and  twelve 
distinct  theological  treatises.  He  was  one  of 
the  greatest  of  the  Latin  hymn-writers,  many 
modem  hymns  being  based  on  his  Jesu  Dvlcxt 
Memoria. 


Bemardln  de  St.  Plem  (Mr'-n^lr'><idN'  dl  cOh'- 
pydr'),  Jacouea  Henri.  Frrnoh  writer,  Um  adiniMd 
author  of  Paxd  and  Virginin,  Siudit*  ^  Ntttun^ 
etc.,  was  born  at  Havre  in  1737.  He  w»  an 
engmecr  in  Hussla  and  France,  1767-71,  MttUnc 
in  Paris  the  latter  year.  He  then  beeame  pn>- 
fcssor  of  nioruls  at  the  normal  school  and  a  OMin* 
ber  of  the  institute.     Died.  1814. 

Bernhardt,  Boslne  Sarah,  lamoua  French  trafie 
actress,  was  born  at  Paris  In  1845.  Her  parante 
were  Jews,  but  slic  was  educated  in  Grandchamp 
convent  at  Versailles.  She  made  her  first  ap- 
pearance on  the  stage  in  1862,  at  the  Th^Atre 
Frangais,  but  at  first  attracted  little  notice. 
In  1867  her  playing  the  part  Mario  de  Ncuberg 
in  Victor  Hugo  s  Tiuy  lilas  made  her  famouji. 
The  war  of  1870-71  interrupted  her  career,  and 
for  a  while  she  became  a  nurae.  She  then  woo 
a  position  in  the  ThdAtre  Frangais,  the  troupe 
of  which  she  accompanied  in  1879  to  London, 
where  her  triumphs  were  repeated  in  succeeding 
years,  and  where  she  married  M.  Damala,  who 
died  in  1889.  She  broke  her  contract  with  the 
Frangais  in  1880,  and  has  since  been  touring 
with  great  success  in  America,  and  in  all  the 
principal  countries  of  Europe.  She  now  directs 
<a  theater  of  her  own  in  Paris.  She  is  also  a 
painter  and  sculptor.  Her  memoirs  were  pub- 
lished by  Heinemann  in  1907. 

Bernini  {bSr-ne'-^),  Giovanni  LorenBo,  known  as 
the  Cavalier  Bernini,  was  bom  in  Naples  in 
1598.  He  was  eminent  as  a  painter,  an  architect, 
and  a  sculptor;  and  his  merit  entitled  him  to  the 
rewards  which  he  had  the  good  fortune  to  receive 
from  Louis  XIV.  His  "Apollo  and  Daphne," 
produced  from  a  single  block,  when  he  was  but 
eighteen  years  of  age,  was  considered  a  master- 
piece, but  his  finest  works  are  found  in  the 
colonnade  at  Rome.     He  died  in  1680. 

Bernoulli  (b^-ruf&'^i),  Daniel,  Swiss  mathema* 
tician  and  physicist,  was  bom  at  Groningen  in 
1700;  died  at  Basel  in  1782.  He  was  the  son  of 
John,  and  Uke  his  father  devoted  himself  to 
medicine  as  well  as  to  mathematics.  The  family 
reputation  early  helped  him  to  the  professor- 
ship of  mathematics  at  St.  Petersburg,  which 
he  held  for  several  years.  J'rom  there,  however, 
he  went  to  Basel,  much  against  the  will  of  the 
czar.  At  Basel  he  occupied  in  succession  the 
chairs  of  anatomy  and  botany,  and  of  experi- 
mental and  speculative  philolsophy.  He  Pub- 
lished various  works  between  1730  and  1766. 

Bernoulli,  James  B.,  was  bom  at  Basel  in  1664, 
where  he  also  died,  1705.  He  devoted  his  life 
to  the  study  of  mathematics  of  which  he  became 
professor  in  the  university  of  Basel.  Among 
his  first  works  were  A  Method  of  Teaching  Math^ 
tnatics  to  the  Blind,  and  Universal  Tables  on 
Dialling.  These  were  followed  by  Conamen 
Novi  Systematis  Comelarum,  an  essay  on  comets, 
and  an  essay  De  Gravitate  /Etheria.  Among  his 
triumphs  are  to  be  recorded  his  solution  of 
Leibnitz's  problem  of  the  isochronous  cunre^ 
his  determination  of  the  catenary,  and  investi- 
gation of  the  properties  of  isoperimetrical  figures. 
At  his  request,  a  logarithmic  spiral  was  engraved 
on  his  tomb,  with  the  motto  Eadem  mvtata 
resurgo. 

Bemonlll,  John  B„  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
bom  at  Basel,  1667.  He  and  James  were  the 
first  two  foreigners  honored  by  the  academy 
of  sciences  at  Paris.  John  devoted  himself  to 
chemical  as  well  as  to  mathematical  science. 
In  1694  he  became  a  doctor  of  medicine,  and 
soon  after  professor  of  mathematics  at  Groningen, 
whence  he  removed  only  to  suooeed  his  brother 
James  in  the  university  of  Basel.  His  forte 
was  pure  mathematics,  in  which  he  had  no  supe- 
rior m  Europe  in  his  day.  He  died  in  1748. 
Among  liis  achievemoits  are  the  determinstina 


564 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


of  the  "line  of  swiftest  descent,"  and  the  inven- 
tion of  the  "exponential  calculus." 

BerosuB  (bSr-d'sHa),  an  eminent  Babylonian  his- 
torian, wa«  bom  in  the  third  century  B.  C. ;  was 
a  priest  in  the  temple  of  Belus,  and  wrote,  in 
Greek,  upon  history  and  astronomy.  His  writ- 
ings are  said  to  have  strongly  corroborated 
various  parts  of  scripture. 

Bert  (b&r),  Paul,  French  physiologist  and  repub- 
lican anti-religious  statesman,  was  bom  at 
Auxerre,  1833,  and  died  at  Tongkin^,  1886. 
He  was  minister  of  public  instruction  in  Gam- 
betta's  cabinet,  1881-82;  governor-resident  of 
Tont^uin,  1886,  and  wrote  extensively  on  both 
physiology  and  anatomy. 

Berthelot  lbir't'4d'),  Pierre  Eugtoe  Marcellin, 
French  chemist,  was  bom  at  Paris,  1827,  and  in 
186t)  became  professor  of  organic  chemistry  in 
the  Ecole  de  Pharmacie;  in  1865  in  the  Collie 
de  France;  in  1876  inspector-general  of  higher 
education;  in  1886-87  minister  of  public  instruc- 
tion, and  in  1889  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
Academic  des  Sciences.  He  did  very  impor- 
tant work  in  synthetic  chemistry,  and  wrote  a 
history  of  alchemy.  In  1895-96  he  was  minister 
for  foreign  affairs.     He  died  in  1907. 

Berthler  {blr'-tya'),  Louis  Alexandre,  prince  of 
Neuchfltel  and  Wagram,  and  marshal  of  the 
French  empire,  was  born  at  Versailles,  1753. 
He  entered  the  army  in  1770,  and  fought  with 
Lafayette  in  the  American  revolutionary  war. 
He  accompanied  Napoleon  to  Egypt  as  chief 
of  the  staff.  In  the  revolution  of  1799  he  be- 
came war  minister.  Berthier  was  Napoleon's 
proxy  in  the  marriage  of  Maria  Louisa,  at  Vienna, 
1810.  In  the  campaigns  of  1812,  1813,  and  1814 
be  was  constantly  by  the  emperor's  side,  and 
acted  both  as  chief  of  staff  and  as  quartermaster- 
general.  On  the  return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba 
he  retired  to  Bamberg,  in  Bavaria,  where  his 
mind  became  deranged.     Died,  1815. 

BertiUon  (blh^'-te'-ydN'),  Alphonse,  French  anthro- 
pologist ;  head  of  identification  department  in  the 
prefecture  of  police  of  Paris;  bora  at  Paris, 
1853 ;  founded  his  system  of  mensuration,  known 
as  the  "Bertillon  system,"  in  1880.  Author: 
Ethnographic  Moderne,  les  Races  Saurnxgea, 
L' Anmropometrie  Judiciarie  a  Paris  en  1889; 
la  Photographie  Judiciaire;  De  la  Reeonstitution 
du  Signalement  Anthropometriqtte  au  moyen  des 
Vetements;  Identification  Anihropometrique;  La 
comparison  des  ecritures  et  l'identifi,cation  graph' 
ique. 

Berwick,  James  Flti-James,  Duke  of,  was  bom  in 
1670,  at  Moulins,  France,  and  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  Hungary,  Ireland,  and  Flanders. 
In  1704  he  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  French 
troops  in  Spain;  in  the  following  year  he  was 
opposed  to  the  Languedocian  insurgents;  and 
in  1706,  being  then  a  field  marshal,  was  again  at 
the  head  of  the  army  in  Spain  and  gained  the 
battle  of  Almansa.  In  four  subsequent  cam- 
paigns he  successfully  defended  Dauphin^  against 
the  attempts  of  the  duke  of  Savoy.  His  last 
service  in  the  succession  war  was  the  reduction 
of  Barcelona.  In  1734  he  was  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  French  army  on  the  Rhine,  and  was  killed 
at  the  siege  of  Philippsburg.  He  is  the  author 
of  his  own  Memoirs. 

Berzelius  {bSr-ze'-ll-us),  J5ns  Jakob,  Swedish  chem- 
ist, was  born  at  Westerlosa,  in  East  Gothland. 
Sweden,  1779;  died,  1848.  He  was  perpetual 
secretary  of  the  academy  of  sciences  at  Stock- 
holm, and  also  a  baron  and  senator  of  the  king- 
dom, the  former  dignity  having  been  granted 
to  him  in  recognition  of  his  scientific  discoveries. 
He  was  the  author  of  what  is  known  as  the 
dualistic  (or  binary)  theory  of  the  chemical 
constitution  of  compounds,  and  devised  the 
form  of  symbolic  notation  now  employed.     He 


determined  with  great  care  and  accuracy  the 
combining  weights  of  a  number  of  elements, 
and  thus  placed  Dalton's  atomic  theory  on  a 
firm  quantitative  basis.  His  reputation  was 
world-wide,  and  his  accurate  investigations 
exerted  very  great  influence  on  the  development 
of  scientific  chemistry. 

Besant  (bit'-ant  or  bis'-ant),  Annie,  president 
British  theosophical  society;  author  and 
lecturer  on  religious,  philosophical,  and  scientific 
subjects ;  was  bom  in  London  in  1847 ;  daughter 
of  William  Page  Wood.  She  was  educated 
privately  in  EnglEuid,  Germany,  France.  Joined 
the  national  secular  society,  1874;  worked  in 
the  free  thought  and  radical  movements  led 
by  Charles  Bradlaugh,  M.  P  ;  was  co-editor 
with  him  of  the  National  Reformer;  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  London  school  board,  1887-90,  but 
refused  reelection;  joined  the  theosophical 
society  in  1889.  became  a  devoted  pupil  of  Mme. 
Blavatsky,  and  has  traveled  to  all  parts  of  the 
globe  in  its  service.  Founded  in  1898  the  Central 
Hindu  college  at  Benares;  1904,  the  Central 
Hindu  girls  school,  Benares;  is  working  to 
found  the  university  of  India.  Author:  Rein- 
canuUion;  Seven  Principles  of  Man;  Death 
and  After;  In  the  Outer  Court;  Karma;  Man 
and  His  Bodies;  *  Four  Great  Religions;  The 
Ancient  Wisdom;  Three  Paths  to  Union  vnUi 
God;  Evolution  of  Life  and  Form;  The  Religious 
Problem  in  India;  The  Pedigree  of  Man;  Theoso- 
phy  and  the  New  Psychology;  The  Wisdom  of 
the  Upanishats;  editor  of  the  Theosophist,  and 
of  the  Central  Hindu  College  Magazine. 

Beaant  (bi-sdnf\  Sir  Waiter,  English  novelist,  was 
bom  at  Portsmouth,  England,  1836.  He  studied 
at  King's  college,  London,  and  at  Christ's  col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  having  abandoned  the 
Idea  of  taking  orders,  was  appointed  to  a  pro- 
fessorship in  Mauritius.  Ill-health  compelling 
him  to  resign  this  post,  he  returned  to  England 
and  devoted  himself  to  literature.  His  first 
work,  Studies  in  French  Poetry,  appeared  in  1868 ; 
and  in  1871  he  entered  into  a  literarj*  partnership 
with  James  Rice,  a  native  of  Northampton,  and 
editor  of  Once  a  Week.  Together  thev  produced 
Readynumey  Mortiboy;  My  Little  Oirl;  With 
Harp  and  Crown;  This  Son  of  Vulcan;  The 
Golden  Butterfly;  The  Monks  of  Thelema;  Bv 
Cdia's  Arbour;  The  Chaplain  of  the  Fleet,  and 
The  Seamy  Side;  thereafter  Sir  Walter  wrote 
AU  Sorts  and  Conditions  of  Men;  All  in  a  Garden 
Fair;  Dorothy  Forster;  Children  of  Gibeon; 
Armord  of  Lyonesse;  The  Ivory  Gate;  Beyond 
the  Dreams  of  Avarice;  The  Master  Craftsman; 
etc.     Knighted  in  1895,  he  died  in  1901. 

Bessel  {bls'-el),  Friedrlch  Wilbelm,  German 
astronomer,  was  born  at  Minden,  Prussia,  1784, 
died  at  Konigsberg,  1846.  He  attracted  the 
attention  of  Olbers  by  his  computation  of  the 
orbit  of  the  comet  of  1607  from  observations 
which  had  just  been  discovered,  and  was  offered 
the  position  of  assistant  in  Schroter's  observa- 
torv ;  appointed  director  of  the  new  observatory 
at  Ikonigsberg,  where  the  rest  of  his  active  life 
was  pa^ed.  His  Fundamenta  Astronomia  and 
Tainuce  Regiomontance  are  still  the  models  on 
which  all  such  work  is  done.  His  investigations 
into  the  length  of  the  seconds-pendulum  and 
that  of  standards  of  length  were  of  the  highest 
importance.  His  triangulation  of  the  Pleiades, 
his  cometary  investigations,  and  many  others 
were  all  of  the  highest  order  of  accuracy. 

Bessemer  Q>ls'-e-mir),  Sir  Henry,  English  engi- 
neer and  inventor,  bom  at  Charlton,  England, 
in  1813;  of  his  many  inventions  the  chief  is  the 
process  named  after  him,  of  converting  pig-iron 
into  steel  at  once  by  blowing  a  blast  of  air  through 
the  iron  while  in  fusion  until  everything  extrane- 
ous is  expelled,  and  only  a  definite  quantity  of 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


505 


carbon  is  left  in  combination,  a  process  which 
has  revolutionized  the  iron  and  steel  trade  all 
over  the  world,  leading,  as  has  been  calculated, 
to  the  production  of  thirty  times  as  much  steel 
as  before  and  at  one-fifth  of  the  cost  per  ton. 
He  was  knighted  in  1879,  and  died  in  1898. 

Bessey,  Charles  Edwin,  scientist,  professor  of 
botany  in  the  university  of  Nebraska  since  1884 ; 
bom  on  a  farm  in  Milton,  Ohio,  1845;  graduate 
of  Michigan  agricultural  college,  1869;  studied 
with  Dr.  Asa  Gray  at  Harvard,  1872-73  and 
1875-76;  Ph.  D.,  university  of  Iowa;  LL.  D., 
Iowa  college;  professor  of  botany  in  Iowa 
agricultural  college,  1870-84;  acting  president, 
1882 ;  acting  chancellor  of  university  of  Nebraska, 
1888-91, 1899-1900  and  1907.  Botanical  editor  of 
American  Naturalist,  1880-97,  of  Science  since 
1897.  Author:  Tfie  Essentials  of  Botany; 
Botany  for  High  Schools  and  Colleges;  Elemen- 
tary Botanical  Exercises;  Elementary  Botany; 
Plant  Migration  Stiuiies,  and  many  scientific 
papers  and  reviews.  Edited  McNab's  Mor- 
phology, Physiology,  and  Classification  of  Plants. 

Bethmann-HoUweg  (bdf-m&n  hM'-van.),  Dr.  Theo- 
bald von,  statesman,  philosopher,  imperial 
chancellor  of  the  German  empire,  was  bom  at 
Hohenfinow,  near  Berlin,  Prussia,  in  1856; 
of  Jewish  lineage;  educated  at  the  university  of 
Bonn;  elected  to  the  Reichstag  in  1890;  president 
of  the  province  of  Brandenburg,  1901 ;  named 
imperial  chancellor  in  succession  to  Prince  von 
Bulow,  1909. 

Beast  {hoist),  Frederick  Ferdinand,  Count,  German 
statesman,  was  bom  at  Dresden  in  1809.  He 
devoted  himself  to  poUtics  and  was  employed  by 
his  government  in  different  services  in  Berlin, 
Paris,  and  London.  In  1849  he  was  made 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  Saxony.  He 
opposed  Prussia,  and  after  the  battle  of  Sadowa 
entered  the  service  of  Austria,  where  he  was 
made  chancellor  in  1867.  He  completely  reor- 
ganized the  Austrian  empire,  and  the  present 
constitution  was  his  work.  He  was  Austrian 
ambassador  at  London,  1871—78,  and  acted  in  the 
same  capacity  at  Paris,  1878-82.  He  died  in  1886. 

Beveridge,  Albert  Jeremiah,  lawyer,  writer,  United 
States  senator  from  Indiana,  1899-1911:  bom 
on  a  farm  on  border  of  Adams  and  Highland 
counties,  Ohio,  1862;  family  moved  to  Illinois 
after  war;  from  age  of  twelve  led  a  life  of 
privations;  plowboy  at  twelve,  railroad  laborer 
at  fourteen,  logger  and  teamster  at  fifteen, 
then  attended  high  school;  graduated  from 
De  Pauw  university,  Indiana,  1885;  read 
law  in  oflBce  of  Senator  McDonald,  became 
managing  clerk;  admitted  to  bar  and  was 
associated  with  McDonald  &  Butler  until  he 
began  practice  for  himself ;  identified  with  many 
important  cases;  elected  to  the  United  States 
senate,  1899;  reelected  in  1905;  well  known  as 
orator  and  republican  campaign  speaker. 
Author:  The  Russian  Advance,  The  Young  Man 
and  the  World. 

Beza  (fte'-zd),  Th£odore,  Genevese  reformer,  was 
bom  at  Vezelay,  Burgundy,  1519,  and  studied 
Greek  and  law"  at  Orleans.  He  first  became 
known  as  a  writer  of  witty  verses,  settled  with 
brilliant  prospects  at  Paris,  and  lived  for  a  time 
in  fashionable  dissipation.  In  1549-59  was 
Greek  professor  at  Lausanne,  published  a  drama 
on  the  Sacrifice  of  Abraham,  and  lectured  on  the 
Bible.  In  1559  he  was  appointed  a  theological 
professor  and  president  of  the  college  at  Geneva, 
and  became  Calvin's  ablest  coadjutor.  During 
the  French  civil  war  he  was  chaplain  to  Cond6, 
and  after  his  capture  attached  himself  to  Coligny. 
In  1563  he  once  more  returned  to  Geneva,  and  on 
Calvin's  death  the  care  of  the  Genevese  church 
fell  upon  his  shoulders.  He  presided  over  the 
synods  of  French  reformers  held  at  La  Rochelle 


in  1571  and  at  Nimes  In  1572.  In  1574  h*  wm 
sent  by  Cond6  on  •  miarion  to  th*  eoart  of  tbo 
palatinate;  and  in  1586  maaaured  hlmaalf  wttb 
the  WiirttoinhiTg  divines.     He  died  In  1005. 

BIchat  (he'-ahd'),  Marlr  Fr»n«oU  XaTl•^  oeiebntod 
French  physician  and  anatomist,  was  bocn  at 
Thoirette  (Jura),  1771.  He  passed  the  fiist 
veara  of  his  medical  study  under  the  diraetlon  of 
his  father,  who  was  also  a  physioian.  Altar 
spending  two  years  at  Lyons,  be  repaired  to  Paris 
in  1793,  and  attended  at  the  H6tel-Dieu  the 
clinical  lectures  of  Desault,  who,  l>eing  soon 
attracted  by  the  superior  intelligence  evinced  by 
Bichat,  took  him  as  his  assistant  in  hia  surgical 
practice  and  in  preparing  his  lectures  and  works. 
After  the  death  of  his  patron  in  1705,  Bichat 
showed  his  gratitude  by  uuhlishins  in  1707  two 
volumes  entitled  (Euvrca  C hirurgicaie*  dt  DtaauU. 
setting  forth  the  great  surgeon's  doctrines  and 
methods  of  treatment.  He  then  devoted  liimsslf 
to  lecturing  on  anatomy,  physiology,  and  surgefT; 
and  established  with  several  of  his  friends  La 
Sociite  Midicale  d' Emulation,  through  the  medium 
of  which  he  gave  to  the  world  many  highly  origi- 
nal and  important  memoirs,  notably  tliono  on  tna 
tissues  of  the  human  body.  He  was  nominated 
physician  of  the  H6tel-Dieu  in  1700,  and  died  in 
1802,  his  premature  death  being  hastened  in 
great  part  by  his  incessant  labors.  His  three 
great  works  are  the  Traiti  dea  Membranea,  in 
which  he  classifies  the  different  kinds  of  tissues. 
maintaining  that  all  are  merely  differential 
forms  of  the  same  elementary  tissue;  the 
Recherches  Physiologiquea  aur  la  Vie  rf  la  Mart,  a 
work  rich  in  new  discoveries  and  original  ideas, 
in  which  he  defines  life  to  be  the  "sum-total  of 
the  functions  which  resist  death " ;  and  the 
Traiti  d'Anatomie  Ginirale,  in  which  he  sum- 
marizes his  now  generally  received  principles, 
applying  them  in  the  same  systematic  manner 
to  the  various  departments  of  biology. 

Biddle,  A.  J.  Drexel,  author,  explorer,  and  lecturer; 
bom  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1874.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Heidelberg,  Germany.  Lived  in  Madeira 
islands,  studying  conditions  there;  returned  to 
the  United  States  in  1891;  joined  staff  of  PhiU- 
delphia  Public  Ledger;  two  years  later  he  severed 
connection  with  the  Ledger,  and  contributed  to 
magazines  and  humorous  joumab;  revived 
Philadelphia  Sunday  Graphic  in  1895  anti  became 
its  editor;  head  of  publishing  house  of  Drexel 
Biddle,  in  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  San 
Francisco,  189&-1904.  Author:  A  Dual  MU; 
All  Around  Athletics;  An  Allegory  and  Three 
Essays;  The  Froagy  Fairy  Book;  The  SMond 
Froggy  Fairy  Book;  SharUytown  SkHehee;  Word 
for  Word  and  Letter  for  Letter;  The  Flowera  of 
Life;  The  Madeira  lalanda;  The  Land  of  the 
Wine.  * 

Biddle,  John,  the  founder  of  English  Unitarianlsm, 
bom  in  1615,  at  Wotton-under-Edge,  in  Gloueea- 
tershire.  Having  embraced  certain  opinions  in 
regard  to  the  personality  of  the  Holy  Spirit  at 
variance  with  those  held  by  the  majority  of 
Christians,  he  was  thrown  into  jail  in  1646. 
Twice  during  the  commonwealth  he  suffered  for 
his  creed,  and  even  the  protector  himself,  in  ordCT 
to  save  Biddle's  life,  was  compelled  to  banish 
him  to  one  of  the  Scilly  isles.  Three  years  of 
imprisonment  having  elapsed,  he  was  pwrmlttad 
to  return,  and  continued  to  preach  In  London 
until  1662,  when  he  was  again  committed  to 
jail,  where  he  died  in  September  of  the  sama 

year.  l,^__ 

Biddle,  Nicholas,  American  oommander,  was  born 
at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1750,  and  took  a  conspicu- 
ous part  m  the  revolutionary  war.  th"^°* 
the  action  of  his  ship,  the  Rarvdd,jh,  with  the 
British  ship,  YarmotUh,  in  1778,  the  former  waa 
blown  up  and  he  was  killed. 


o6o 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Blela  (be'-lA),  WUhelm  von,  German  astronomer  and 
military  officer,  was  bom  near  Stolber^,  Germany, 
1782.  He  i8  chiefly  noted  for  his  discovery,  in 
1826,  of  the  comet  named  for  him.     Died,  1856. 

Blerce,  Ambrose,  author,  journalist;  bom  in  Ohio 
in  1842;  served  as  line  officer  during  civil  war; 
brevetted  major  for  distinguished  services ;  went 
to  California,  1866;  went  to  London,  1872,  con- 
tributing to  Fun  fables,  purporting  to  be  trans- 
lations from  Zambri,  the  Parsee,  tSterward  pub- 
lished in  volume  Cobwebs  from  an  Empty  Skull; 
returned  to  California  and  contributed  to  Over- 
land Monthly,  edited  Argonaut  and  Wasp;  for 
many  years  contributed  to  "Prattle"  columns  in 
San  Francisco  Examiner.  Author:  Cobwebs 
from  an  Empty  SktiU;  The  Monk  and  the  Hang- 
man's Daughter  (with  Dr.  A.  Danziger);  Black 
Beetles  in  Amber;  Can  Such  Things  Bet  In  the 
Midst  of  Life;  Fantastic  Fables;  Shapes  of  Clay, 
and  The  Cynic's  Word  Book. 

Blerstadt  (ber'-stiU),  Albert,  landscape  painter; 
bom  near  Diisseldorf.  Germany,  1830.  Came  in 
infancy  to  New  Betiford,  Mass.;  studied  four 
years  in  Europe,  1853-57;  made  repeated  visits 
to  the  West  and  to  Europe;  specialty  is  pictures 
of  scenes  in  Rocky  mountains,  Sierras,  and 
Switzerland ;  was  member  of  national  academy ; 
was  awarded  many  foreign  medals  and  the 
crosses  of  the  legion  of  honor  and  St.  Stanislaus. 
Died,  1902. 

Blgelow,  John,  author  and  diplomat,  was  bom  at 
Maiden,  N.  Y.,  1817;  graduated  from  Union 
college,  1835;  LL.  D.,  Umon  and  Racine  colleges, 
1886,  college  of  city  of  New  York,  1889; 
admitted  to  bar;  one  of  the  editors  New  York 
Evening  Post,  1849-61 ;  consul  at  Paris,  France, 
1861-64;  United  States  minister  to  France, 
1864-67 ;  secretary  of  state.  New  York,  1875-77. 
Was  executor  and  trustee  of  Samuel  J.  Tilden, 
president  board  of  trustees  New  York  public 
library,  Astor,  Lenox  and  Tilden  foundations, 
trustee  Metropolitan  museum  of  art.  Author: 
France  and  Hereditary  Monarchy;  Wrings  and 
Speeches  of  Samuel  J.  Tilden;  The  Life  of  Ben- 
jamin Franklin;  Life  of  WiUiam  Cullen  Bryant; 
The  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  and  the 
Electoral   Commission;    and    The   Useful  Life,  a 

■    Crown  to  the  Simple  Life.     Died,  1911. 

BiKelow,  Melville  Madison,  lawyer,  author,  some 
time  dean  Boston  university  law  school;  bom 
at  Eaton  Rapids,  Mich.,  1846;  graduated  from 
university  of  Michigan,  A.  B.,  1866,  LL.  B.,  1868; 
Harvard,  Ph.  D.,  1879;  LL.  D.,  Northwestem 
universitjr,  1896.  Author:  The  Law  of  Estoppel; 
Leading  Case*  in  the  Law  of  Torts;  The  Law 
of  Torts;  History  of  English  Procedure;  The  Law 
of  Fraud  on  its  Civil  Side;  The  Law  of  Bills, 
Notes  and  Cheques;  The  Law  of  Wills;  Central- 
itctiion  and  the  Law. 

Blgelow,  Poultney,  author,  journalist;  bom  in  New 
York,  1855;  graduated  from  Yale,  1879;  Colum- 
bia law  school,  1882;  admitted  to  New  York 
bar,  1882,  but  after  a  few  years  gave  up  law 
practice  for  journalism.  Went  around  the  world 
in  sailing  ship,  1875-76;  visited  shores  of  New 
Guinea;  wrecked  on  Japan  coast;  has  three 
times  circumnavigated  the  world  and  studied 
tropical  colonization  in  nearly  every  colony  of 
the  world;  has  lectured  at  principal  universities 
on  modem  history  and  colonial  administration; 
was  correspondent  for  London  Times  during 
Spanish- American  war.  Author:  The  German 
Emperor  and  his  Eastern  Neighbors;  Paddles  and 
Politics  Down  the  Danube;  The  Borderland  of  Czar 
and  Kaiser;  History  of  the  German  Struggle  for 
Liberty,  4  vols. ;  White  Man's  Africa;  Children 
of  the  Nations.  Most  of  these  have  been  trans- 
lated into  German  or  French. 

BUUhks,  John  Shaw,  surgeon,  librarian;  was  bom 
in  Switzerland  county,  Indiana,  1839 ;    graduated 


from  Miami  university,  1857:  M.  D.,  Ohlo^ 
medical  college;  LL.  D.,  Edinburgh,  1884, 
Harvard,  1886,  Budapest  1896,  Yale,  1901, 
Johns  Hopkins,  1902;  M.  D.,  Munich,  1889, 
Dublin,  1892;  D.  C.  L.,  Oxford,  1889.  Demon- 
strator anatomy,  medical  college  of  Ohio, 
1860-61 ;  served  in  army  as  assistant  surgeon  and 
major  surgeon,  reaching  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel 
and  deputy  surgeon;  later  medical  insf)ector 
army  of^  Potomac ;  after  war  in  various  branches 
of  service,  taking  charge  of  surgeon-general's 
library.  Charge  of  vit^  and  social  statistics, 
11th  census;  director  of  hygiene,  university  of 
Pennsylvania,  1893-^;  director  New  York 
public  hbrary,  1896-1913,  Astor,  Lenox  and 
Tilden  foundations.  Was  menilxjr  many  Ameri- 
can and  foreign  scientific  societies;  exteunive 
writer  on  medical  and  sanitary  subjects.  Author : 
Principle*  of  Ventilation  and  Heating;  Index 
Catalogue  of  the  Library  of  the  Surgeon-General'* 
Office,  Uniied  States  Army,  16  vols.;  National 
Medvcal  Dictionary;  and  many  other  works. 
Died,  1913. 

**BIUlncs,  Josh."     See  Shaw,  Henry  W. 

BillincB,  WllUam,  American  composer,  was  bom  at 
Boston,  Mass.,  1746;  died  there  in  1800.  H& 
gave  up  the  trade  of  a  tanner  to  teach  music, 
and  did  much  to  introduce  into  New  Englana 
the  spiritual  style  of  church  music.  So  far  as 
known,  he  was  the  first  American  composer  of 
music.  He  published  The  Singing-Master's 
Assistant,  etc. 

Blnet  (bi'-ni'),  Alfred,  French  psychologist;  bom 
at  Nice,  France,  1857.  He  was  one  of  the  editors 
of   L'Annie  Psychologique,    and   director   of    the 

eiychological  laboratory  at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris. 
18  works  include  many  themes  in  physiological 
psychology.     Died,  1911. 

Blnney,  Horftc«,  distinguished  lawj'er,  was  bom  at 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1780;  for  many  years  he  was 
at  the  head  of  the  Pennsylvania  bar;  director  in 
the  United  States  bank,  and  trustee  to  wind  up 
its  affairs.  He  was  a  member  of  congress  in 
1833-35,  but  held  no  other  political  office  One 
of  his  great  cases  was  the  defense  of  the  city  of 
Philadelphia  against  the  suit  of  certain  heirs  of 
Stephen  Girard.  He  wrote  The  Leaders  of  th* 
Old  Bar  of  PhUadelphia,  The  Privilege  of  the  Writ 
of  Habeas  Corpus  Under  the  Constitution,  and 
many  valuable  unpublished  papers.     Died,  1875. 

Blot  (W-d'  or  b'yd'),  Jean  BapUste,  French  astrono- 
mer, optician,  and  natural  philosopher,  was  bom 
at  Pans,  1774.  He  is  especially  celebrated  for 
his  researches  in  the  circular  polarization  of 
Ught.     Died,  1862. 

Blrrell  (bir'-il),  Rt.  Hon.  Augustine,  chief  secre- 
tary to  the  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland  since 
1907;  M.  P.  North  Bristol  since  1906;  chancery 
barrister  and  author;  was  bom  near  Liverpool, 
1850;  graduated  at  Cambridge,  1872;  LL.  D. 
St.  Andrews;  barrister,  1875;  bencher  Inner 
Temple,  1903;  Quain  professor  of  law,  Uni- 
versity college,  London,  1896-99;  M.  P.  Fife- 
shire  W.,  1889-1900.  Author:  Obiter  Dicta; 
Lt/e  of  Charlotte  Bronti;  Res  Judicatae;  Men, 
Women,  and  Books;  Lectures  on  the  DiUie*  and 
Liabiline*  of  Trustees;  editor  of  Boswdl's  Life 
of  Johnson;  CMecUd  Essays;  Miscellanies; 
William  Haditt;  In  the  Name  of  the  Bodleian,  etc. 

Bishop,  Sir  Henry  Rowley,  English  composer,  was 
bom  at  London,  1786;  early  devoted  nimself  to 
the  composition  of  dramatic  music,  and  in  1809 
produced  his  Circassian  Bride,  which  was  a  great 
success.  In  1810  he  became  director  of  music 
at  Covent  Garden  theater,  and  produced  many 
operas  during  this  time,  including  The  Lady  of 
the  Lake,  Guy  Mannering,  and  The  Slave.  In 
1825  he  broke  his  connection  with  Covent  Garden 
to  go  to  Drury  Lane,  and  he  was  succeeded  at 
the  former  theater  by  Weber.     It  was  in  rivalry 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


M7 


with  Weber's  Oberon  that  Bishop  produced  the 
unsuccessful  Aladdin.  In  1840  his  last  dramatic 
piece,  The  Fortunate  Isles,  was  produced  at  Covent 
Garden  in  honor  of  the  queen's  wedding ;  in  1842 
he  was  knighted;  and  in  1848  became  professor 
of  music  at  Oxford.  He  wrote  the  familiar 
melodv  to  John  Howard  Payne's  "Home,  Sweet 
Home."     Died,  1855. 

BIsmarck-ScIiSnhausen,  von  (fon  bW-mitrkshen'- 
hou'-zen).  Otto  Eduard  Leopold.  See  page 
611. 

Blspham  (bls'-pam),  David  S.,  operatic  baritone, 
was  bom  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1857;  educated 
at  Haverford  college,  Pa.;  made  d^but  as  the 
Due  de  Longueville  in  T?ie  Basoche,  given  by 
the  royal  English  opera,  1891 ;  since  then  with 
the  royal  opera,  Covent  Garden,  and  Metropoli- 
tan opera  company,  New  York,  singing  principal 
r61es  in  German,  French,  and  ItaUan. 

Bispham,  George  Tucker,  lawyer,  author;  bom 
at  Philadelphia,  1838;  graduate  of  university 
of  Pennsylvania,  1858;  law  department,  same, 
1862;  admitted  to  bar,  1861;  later  admitted  to 
bar  of  United  States  supreme  court.  One  of 
solicitors  of  Pennsylvania  railroad  company; 
sohcitor  of  Philadelphia  saving  fund  society, 
Girard  trust  company,  and  other  corporations; 
professor  of  ec^uity,  jurisprudence,  law  depart- 
ment, university  of  Pennsylvania.  Author: 
Principles  of  Equity,  and  other  books  on  law. 
Died,  1906. 

Blssell,  George  Edwin,  sculptor;  bom  at  New 
Preston,  Conn.,  1839;  educated  at  Northville, 
Conn.,  academy,  and  the  "Gunnery,"  Washing- 
ton, Conn.;  taught  school;  clerked  in  store  at 
Waterbury,  Comi. ;  served  private,  1862-63, 
in  23d  Connecticut  volunteers,  19th  corps,  de- 
partment of  the  gulf;  acting  assistant  pay- 
master. United  States  navy,  1863-65;  attached 
to  United  States  ship  Mary  Sanford,  South 
Atlantic  squadron.  In  marble  business  with 
father  and  brother  at  Poughkeepsie,  New  York, 
1866;  began  career  as  sculptor  there;  studied 
art,  Paris,  Rome,  and  Florence,  1875-76;  had 
studio  in  Paris  at  different  times,  for  about  six 
years,  between  1884-96;  executed  portrait 
statue  of  General  Horatio  Gates  on  Saratoga 
battle  monument ;  Chancellor  John  Watts  and 
Colonel  Abraham  de  Peyster,  New  York;  Abra- 
ham Lincoln,  Edinburgh,  Scotland;  relief, 
Burns  and  Highland  Mary,  Ayr,  Scotland; 
Chancellor  James  Kent,  congressional  library, 
Washington;  President  Arthur,  New  York; 
group  "  The  Navy,"  colonnade  navy  arch.  New 
York ;  statue  "  Hospitality,"  Pan-American  ex- 
position, Buffalo,  N.  Y. ;  bronze  statues,  "  Science 
and  Music,"  St.  Louis  exposition;  statue  of  Lin- 
coln, Clermont,  Iowa,  etc. 

Bitter,  Karl  Theodore  Francis,  sculptor,  was  bom 
at  Vienna,  Austria,  1867 ;  educated  in  gymnasium 
there;  came  to  United  States,  1889;  won  prize 
in  competition  for  Astor  memorial  gates,  Tnnity 
church,  New  York;  executed  sculpture  on 
administration  and  manufactures  buildings, 
'  World's  Columbian  exposition;  residences  of  C. 
P.  Huntington " and  Cornelius  Vanderbilt^  etc.; 
silver  medal,  Paris  exposition,  1900.  Director 
of  sculpture  at  the  Pan-American  exposition, 
Buffalo,  1901;  gold  medal  Pan-American  expo- 
sition, 1901,  Philadelphia,  1902,  St.  Louis 
exposition,  1904 ;  chief  of  department  of  sculp- 
ture, St.  Louis  exposition,  1904. 

Bizet  (be'-zS'),  Georges,  French  composer,  was 
bom  at  Paris,  1838,  died  in  1875;  studied  at 
the  conservatoire  under  Hal^vy,  and  in  Italy. 
His  best-known  works  are  Les  Pecheurs  de  Perles, 
La  Jolie  Fille  de  Perth,  L'Arlisienne,  DjamUeh, 
the  overture  Patrie,  and  Carmen.  Much  was 
expected  from  this  highly  gifted  musician  when  l 
his  untimely  death  occurred.  I 


BJOmaon  Oyytrn'tikn),  BJOmstjmM.  Nonf«giM 
poet,  novelist,  dnunatiat,WM  bom  in  OstofdaUo  In 
^^^j  In. early  Ufe  an  historical  dnma  of  his 
called  Valborg,  was  accepted  by  tha  royal 
theater,  but  ito  author  withdrew  the  piece.  In 
1856  the  international  studente*  reunion  at 
Upsala  stimulated  him  again  to  »n  effort  (o 
produce  a  national  poetry,  free  from  foreign 
influences.  He  began  with  5ynn4M  &)(baMm, 
a  story  of  peasant  life,  which  wee  followed  by 
Apie  and  many  other  pieces.  In  1868  he  K*«^»»«« 
director  of  the  theater  at  Bergen,  and  produced 
quickly  two  dramas,  McUrm  Slaaen*  and  HalU 
Hulda,  both  treating  of  national  Bubjecte.  Mttrit 
Stuart  and  Sigurd  SUnU>e  are  both  weU-kaown 
plays,  and  he  wrote,  besides  his  dramas,  a  series 
of  folk  plays,  an  epic,  and  much  beautiful  lyric 
poetry.  After  1882  he  lived  for  many  years  In 
Paris,  Tyrol,  and  Rome,  spending  most  of  bis 
summers  on  his  fann  in  Norway.  Received 
Nobel  prize  for  literature  in  1903.     Died,  1910. 

Black,  Frank  Swett,  lawyer,  governor;  was  bom  in 
Limington,  Maine,  1853 ;  graduated  at  Dartmouth, 
1875;  LL.  D..  1898;  admitted  to  bar.  1879; 
was  editor  Johnstown,  N.  Y.,  Journal;  later 
reporter  Troy^  N.  Y.,  Whig;  clerk  In  registry 
department,  Troy  post  office;  admitted  to  bar, 
1879;  member  of  congress,  1895-97;  governor 
of  New  York,  1897-99;  practiced  law.  New 
York  city,  1898-1912.     Died,  1913. 

Black  Hawk,  American  Indian,  chief  of  the  Sacs 
and  Foxes,  who  waged  war  tor  the  recovery  of 
the  tribal  lands  1832,  occasioning  what  is  known 
as  the  "Black  Hawk  war";  bom  in  1767,  died 
in  1838. 

Black,  John  Charles,  lawyer,  was  bom  at  Lexing- 
ton, Miss.,  1839;  educated  in  common  schools, 
Danville,  111.,  and  at  Wabash  college,  Crawforda- 
ville,  Ind.;  M.  A.,  Wabash;  LL.  D.,  Knox  col- 
lege. Served  in  civil  war,  1861-65;  private 
to  colonel  and  brevetted  brigadier-general  United 
States  volunteers;  commissioner  pensions.  United 
States,  1885-89;  member  of  congress  at  large 
from  IlUnois,  1893-95;  United  States  attorney, 
northern  district,  1895-99;  commander-in-chief, 
G.  A.  R.,  1903-04;  commander  Illinois  cnni- 
mandery,  military  order  loyal  legion;  president 
United  States  civil  service  commission  since 
1904. 

Black,  Joseph,  eminent  British  chemist,  was  bom 
in  1728  at  Bordeaux,  France.  Between  1760 
and  1763  he  evolved  the  theory  of  "latent  heat" 
on  which  his  scientific  fame  chiefly  rests,  and 
which  formal  the  immediate  preliminary  to  the 
next  great  stride  in  discovery  by  his  pupil  and 
assistant,  James  Watt.     Died,   1799. 

Black,  William,  British  novelist,  was  bom  at  Olas- 
gow,  1841;  studied  art  with  the  view  of  beoocn- 
ing  a  landscape-painter.  Instead,  howevw,  he 
adopted  journalism,  having  written  for  the  GIos- 
gow  Weekly  Citizen  prior  to  his  removal  to  Lon- 
don in  1864.  During  the  Prusso-Austrian  war 
of  1866  he  was  war  correspondent  for  the  Mom' 
ing  Star;  and  in  a  novel,  Love  or  Marriage,  he 
utilized  some  of  his  experiences,  /n  SUk  Attir* 
and  Kilmeny  were  fairlv  successful:  but  it  was 
A  Daughter  of  Heth  that  eetablished  his  reputa- 
tion. Later  novels  were  The  Strange  Adwen- 
tures  of  a  Phaeton;  A  Prineeea  of  ThvU,  best  per- 
haps of  all  his  many  romances;  Madcap  VtaUl, 
Madeod  of  Dare,  Briteia,  Wild  Edin,  etc.  In 
1870-74  he  was  assistant-editor  of  the  DaUg 
News.     He  died  at  Brighton  in  1806. 

Blackburn,  Joseph  CUy  Styles,  lawyer,  legislator, 
was  bom  in  Woodford  countjr,  Ky..  1838; 
graduated  from  Centre  college,  Danville,  Ky., 
1857;  admitted  to  bar,  1868;  practiced  In 
Chicago  until  civil  war  broke  out;  served  in 
confederate  army;  after  war  practiced  law  In 
Kentucky;       member      Kentucky     legislature, 


MS 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


1871-76;  member  of  congress,  1876-85;  United 
States  senator,  1885-97;  reelected,  1901-07; 
member  of  the  isthmian  canal  commission, 
1907-10. 

Blackie,  John  Stuart,  Scotch  philosopher,  was  bom 
at  Glasgow  in  1809;  studicKl  to  be  a  lawyer,  but 
devoted  himself  largely  to  Uterary  pursuits. 
He  studied  German,  executed  a  metncal  transla- 
tion of  Goethe's  Faust,  part  I.;  filled  the  chair 
of  humanity  in  Aberdeen,  and  afterward, 
1852-82,  that  of  Greek  in  Edinburgh;  was  a 
zealous  educational  reformer;  took  an  active 
interest  in  everything  affecting  the  welfare  and 
honor  of  Scotland;  founded  a  Celtic  chair  in 
Edinburgh  university;  spoke  and  wrote  much 
in  his  day  on  manifold  subjects.  Among  his 
works,  which  are  numerous,  are  Sdf-CuUxtre, 
Four  Phases  of  Morals,  Lays  of  the  Highlands, 
and  a  translation  of  iiOschylus.     He  died  m  1895. 

Blackmore,  Richard  DoddrldRe,  British  novelist.was 
born  at  Loiigworth,  Berkshire,  in  1825,  and  edu- 
cated at  Exeter  college,  Oxford.  He  graduated 
in  1847,  afterward  studied  law,  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  at  the  Middle  Temple  in  1852,  and  prac- 
ticed for  a  time  as  a  conveyancer.  Poems  by 
Melanter  was  the  first  of  several  volumes  of  verse ; 
of  his  novels  the  earliest  were  Clara  Vattghan 
and  Cradock  NoweU,  but  his  first  distinct  success 
was  Lorna  Doone,  a  Romance  of  Exmoor,  which 
reached  many  editions.  Blackmore's  other 
novels,  several  of  which  reveal  his  love  of  garden- 
ing, are :  The  Maid  of  Sker,  perhaps  his  second- 
best  story;  Alice  Lorraine;  Cripps  the  Carrier; 
Erema;  Mary  Anerley;  Christowal,  A  Dartmoor 
Tale;  Tommy  Upmore;  Springhaven;  Perlycross, 
and  Dariel.     He  died  in  1900. 

Blackstone,  Sir  William,  celebrated  English  jurist, 
was  bom  at  London,  in  1723.  He  was  a  judge, 
a  member  of  parliament,  and  author  of  the  well- 
known  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  England. 
At  the  bar,  after  seven  years'  practice,  his  pros- 
pects were  so  indifferent  that  he  retired  to  Oxford 
on  his  fellowship,  and  there  gave  public  lectures 
on  English  law.  Their  succe^js  is  supposed  to 
have  suggested  to  Viner  the  propriety  of  estab- 
lishing a  professorship  of  law  in  the  univer- 
sity, to  which  office  Blackstone  was  elected, 
bemg  the  first  Vinerian  lecturer,  in  1758.  Subse- 
ouently,  having  married,  he  vacated  his  fellow- 
snip  and  was  appointed  principal  of  New-Inn 
hall.  That  oflQce,  with  his  Vinerian  professor- 
ship, he  resigned  in  1766.  In  1770  he  became 
one  of  the  judges  of  the  common  pleas.  Died, 
1780. 

Blackwell,  Elizabeth,  physician,  writer;  was  bom 
in  Bristol,  England,  1821 ;  emigrated  to  the 
United  States  in  1832;  educated  in  private 
schools  in  Bristol  and  New  York;  taught  school 
in  Kentucky  and  the  Carolinaa;  sought  admis- 
sion to  several  medical  colleges,  but  was  refused 
until  she  entered  the  medical  school  at  Geneva, 
N.  Y.,  1847.  First  woman  in  the  United  States 
to  receive  the  degree  of  M.  D.  Established 
practice  in  New  York,  1851;  founded  a  hos- 
pital and  in  1867,  with  her  sister,  Dr.  Emily 
Blackwell,  organized  Woman's  medical  college 
of  New  York  infirmary;  lectured  in  England, 
1858-59;  registered  as  a  physician  in  England, 
1859,  and  after  1869  practiced  in  London  and 
Hastings.  Author:  Pnysical  Education  of  Girls; 
Religion  of  Health;  Counsel  to  Parents  on  Moral 
Education;  Pioneer  Work  in  Opening  the  Medical 
Profession  to  Women;  The  Human  Element  in  Sex; 
Decay  of  Municipal  Representative  Institutions; 
Scientific  Method  m  Biology,  etc.     Died,  1910. 

Blaine,  James  Gillespie,  American  statesman,  was 
bom  at  Brownsville,  Pa.,  1830.  At  seventeen 
he  entered  Washington  college.  Pa.,  and  after 
graduating  taught  school  at  Blue  Lick  Springs, 
Ky.     In   1854  he  went  to  Maine  to  engage  in 


journalism,  which  he  relinquished  four  years 
later  for  a  seat  in  the  legislature.  He  served 
there  until  1862,  when  he  was  elected  to  congress 
and  remained  there  eighteen  years.  He  was 
balloted  on  for  the  presidency  at  the  convention 
of  1876,  and  received  351  votes  out  of  a  total  of 
754.  He  was  then  appointed  United  States 
senator  to  fill  an  unexpired  term,  and  four  years 
later  was  again  a  candidate  for  the  presidency. 
President  Garfield  appointed  him  secretary  of 
state,  which  office  he  held  until  after  the  deatk 
of  the  president.  He  resigned  from  the  cabinet 
in  1881.  In  1884  he  received  the  republican 
nomination  for  president,  and  was  defeated  by 
Grover  Cleveland.  In  1889  he  again  became 
secretary  of  state,  in  the  cabinet  of  President 
Harrison.  He  is  the  author  of  Twenty  Years  of 
Congress  and  Political  Discussions.  He  died  in 
1893. 

Blake.,  liUie  Devereux,  lecturer,  author;  was  bora 
at  Ilahigh,  N.  C.  1835;  educated  at  Miss 
Apthorp's  school,  New  Haven,  Conn.;  after- 
ward took  Yale  course  with  tutors  at  home; 
married  first  in  1855  to  Frank  G.  Q.  Umsted. 
who  died  in  1859;  second,  1866,  to  Grenfill 
Blake,  who  died  in  1896.  Active  in  woman 
sufiTrage  movement  since  1869;  for  eleven  years 
president  of  New  York  state  woman  suffrage 
association ;  founded,  1900,  and  ever  since  presi- 
dent of  national  legislative  league.  Author: 
Southwold;  Rockford;  Fettered  for  Life;  Woman's 
Place  To-day  and  A  Daring  Experiment. 

Blake,  Robert,  English  admiral,  who.  more  than 
any  other,  contributed  to  render  England  mis- 
tress of  tne  sea,  was  born  at  Bridgewater,  in 
Somersetshire,  1599.  In  1649,  in  conjunction 
with  two  other  officers  of  equal  rank,  he  was 
appointed  "general  of  the  sea."  This  was 
Blake's  true  sphere,  and  in  it  he  soon  exhibited 
transcendent  ability.  After  destroying,  with 
the  exception  of  two  vessels,  the  sauadron  of 
Prince  Rupert,  which  had  sought  safety  in  the 
Tagus  in  1651,  Blake  forced  the  royalists  to  sur- 
render Guernsey,  Jersey,  and  the  Scilly  isles. 
In  1652  he  was  made  sole  admiral  of  the  fleet 
for  nine  months,  and  during  this  year  he  fought 
four  engagements  with  Dutch  fleets  under  Tromp, 
Ruyter,  and  DeWitt.  In  the  first,  on  May  19tL, 
the  Dutch  retreated  under  cover  of  darkness, 
with  the  loss  of  one  man-of-war  captured  and 
another  sunk.  In  the  next  engagement  a 
squadron  of  twelve  ships  was  captured;  and  in 
the  third,  on  September  28th,  three  Dutch  ves- 
sels were  destroyed,  and  the  rear-admiral  taken. 
In  1654  Blake  was  apf>ointed  by  Cromwell  to 
command  an  English  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean, 
where  he  soon  made  the  British  flag  respected 
by  Dutch,  Spanish,  and  French  alike.  He  next 
sailed  to  Algiers  and  Tripoli,  landed,  and  set  free 
all  the  English  who  were  detained  as  slaves. 
He  concluded  alliances  highly  favorable  to 
England  with  Venice  and  Tuscany.  In  1657  he 
defeated  the  Spaniards  at  Santa  Cruz,  one  of  the 
most  daring  actions  in  his  memorable  career. 
Died,  1657. 

Blake,  William,  English  artist  and  poet,  was  bom 
at  London,  1757.  After  studying  art  for  some 
years,  he  began  to  paint  in  water  colors  and  to 
engrave  illustrations  for  magazines.  At  the 
same  time  he  wrote  poetry  which  showed  great 
power  and  beauty.  Poetical  Sketches,  Songs  of 
Experience,  and  Songs  of  Innocence,  are  among 
his  best  works.  Most  of  his  other  poems  are 
valuable  chiefly  because  of  the  wonaerful  way 
he  had  of  illustrating  and  printing  them  in  vari- 
ous colors,  which  he  said  had  been  revealed  to 
him.  Among  these  quaint  and  now  rare  editions 
are  Books  of  Prophecies,  Gates  of  Paradise,  Vision 
of  the  Daughters  of  Albion,  and  America.  During 
his  life  his  genius  was  little  recognized,  but  many 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


861 


now  believe  that  England  has  not  produced  his 
8up>erior  in  force  and  originality.  Ue  died  at 
London  in  1827. 

Blanc  (bl&Ji),  Jean  Joseph  Louis,  French  historian 
and  socialist  writer,  was  born  at  Madrid,  1811, 
started  as  a  journalist;  founded  the  Revxie  du 
Prodis,  and  published  separately  in  1840,  Organ- 
ization of  L(A>or,  which  had  already  appeared  in 
the  Revue,  a  work  which  gained  the  favor  of 
the  working  classes;  was  member  of  the  provis- 
ional government  of  1848,  and  eventually  of 
the  national  assembly;  threatened  with  im- 
peachment, fled  to  England;  returned  to  France 
on  the  fall  of  the  empire,  and  was  elected  to 
the  chamber  of  deputies  in  1871.  Blanc  wrote 
an  elaborate  and  well-written  history  of  the 
French  revolution.     Died  at  Cannes,  1882. 

Blanche  of  Castile,  queen  of  Louis  VIII.  of  France, 
and  daughter  of  Alphonso  IX.,  king  of  Castile, 
was  bom  about  1187.  On  the  death  of  her  hus- 
band, in  1226,  she  was  declared  regent  of  France, 
in  which  capacity  she  displayed  great  energy 
and  address.  After  carrying  on  the  government 
during  the  absence  of  her  son,  Louis  IX.,  in  the 
holy  land,  she  died  in  1252. 

Blanchet  {hl&^'-sha'),  Hon.  Jean,  jurist,  puisne- 
judge  of  the  court  of  king's  bench,  the  highest 
court  of  the  province  of  Quebec,  since  1891; 
was  bom  in  1843;  educated  at  seminary  of 
Nicolet,  near  Three  Rivers;  LL.  D.,  Laval 
university,  Quebec,  1891 ;  admitted  to  the  bar, 
1863;  made  a  Q.  C.  by  the  provincial  govern- 
ment, 1876 ;  and  by  the  marquis  of  Lome,  1880 ; 
elected  batonnier  of  the  Quebec  section  of  the 
bar,  1889;  reelected,  1890-91;  elected  batonnier 
general  of  the  province,  1891;  elected  M.  P. 
for  the  county  of  Beance,  in  the  Quebec  assem- 
bly, 1881,  1882,  1886,  1890;  provincial  secretary 
in  the  Mousseau  and  Ross  administration; 
leader  of  the  opposition  to  Mercier,  1890-91 ; 
was  one  of  the  commissioners  selected  in  1887 
to  revise  the  statute  law  of  the  province;  was 
for  many  years  president  of  the  Asbestos  mining 
and  manufacturing  company  of  Canada,  and  of 
the  Artisans'  permanent  building  society. 

Blanqui  (Jbl&^'-ke'),  ImvAs  Auguste,  French  socialist, 
was  bom  at  Pug6t-Th6niers,  France,  1805,  and 
made  himself  conspicuous  by  his  passionate  advo- 
cacy of  the  most  extreme  political  opinions.  He 
was  one  of  the  foremost  fighters  in  all  the  French 
revolutions  of  the  century,  and  for  his  share  in 
the  commune  was  sentenced  in  1872  to  transpor- 
tation to  New  Caledonia,  a  sentence  commuted 
to  hfe  imprisonment,  from  which  he  was  released 
in  1879.  He  died  in  1881,  having  spent  thirty- 
seven  years  of  his  life  in  prison. 

Blashfleld,  Edwin  Rowland,  artist,  was  bom  in 
New  York,  1848;  educated  in  Boston  Latin 
school;  studied  at  Paris^  1867,  under  L6on 
Bonnat,  also  receiving  advice  from  G6r6me  and 
Chapu;  exhibited  at  Paris  salon,  yearly,  1874- 
79,  1881,  1891,  1892;  also  several  years  at  royal 
academy,  London;  returned  to  United  States 
in  1881 ;  has  exhibited  genre  picture«,  portraits, 
and  decorations.  Among  his  paintings  are 
"Christmas  Bells,"  and  "Angel  with  the  Flam- 
ing Sword."  Decorated  one  of  the  domes  of  the 
manufactures  building.  World's  Columbian  ex- 
position; ColUs  P.  Huntington's  drawing  room, 
and  great  central  dome,  library  of  congress. 
Has  lectured  on  art  at  Columbia,  Harvard,  Yale, 
etc.  Co-author:  lUdian  Cities;  co-editor:  Va- 
sari's  Lives  of  the  Painters. 

Blauvelt  Q)l6'-vUt'\  Ulllan  Evans,  prima  donna 
soprano;  was  bom  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1874; 
educated  in  public  schools ;  began  musical  educa- 
tion at  five,  violin  study  at  seven;  played  violin 
in  public  seven  years,  while  attending  school: 
at  fifteen  began  vocal  education  at  National 
conservatory    of    music.    New    York;     studied 


under  M.  JaoquM  Bouhy  In  New  York.  Mkd  Paris. 
Sang  in  concert*  in  France  and  Belgium,  later  lo 
Moscow,  with  philharmonic  society ;  made  dAbut 
in  opera  at  Th^&tre  de  la  Monnale,  BruMels,  in 
Mirelle;  returned  to  the  Uniti'^l  State*,  da0am 
in  concerts,  oratorios,  and  recitals  under  SSldC 
Thomas,  Damroech,  etc.:  sans  before  Quae* 
Margherita  in  Italy,  1898;  before  Queen  VIo. 
tona  in  1899;  sang  at  Handel  festival,  CryMal 
Palace,  London,  1900;  annual  toura  in  Europe 
and  America  since  1898;  received  decoration 
of  order  of  St.  CeciUa  at  Rome,  1901  (only 
woman  ever  so  honoretl) ;  marriexl  William  F. 
Pendleton,  of  New  York,  1899.  In  1903  appearad 
at  royal  Covent  Garden,  London,  in  r6lee  Mar* 
guerite,  in  Faiut;  Micaela,  In  Carmen;  Ju- 
Uette,  in  Romeo  and  JulietU;  Zcrlino,  in  D<m 
Giovanni. 

Blavatslcy  (bla-viUs'-kl),  Madame  Helena  Petrovmm. 
Russian  theosophist,  was  bom  in  Russia  in  1831. 
She  was  of  noble  descent  and  married  a  Ruaaian 
councillor  of  state,  from  whom  she  separated 
early  in  her  married  life.  She  visited  Thibet, 
where  she  claims  she  received  the  theosophlcal 
doctrines  connected  with  her  name.  From  1878 
to  1879  she  was  a  resident  of  New  York,  becama 
a  naturalized  American  citizen,  and  founded 
the  theosophical  society.  She  shortly  pub- 
lished lais  Unveiled.  Her  other  writings  include 
The  Key  to  Theosophy,  The  Secret  Doctrine,  The 
Voice  of  Silence  ,  etc.    She  died  in  London  in  1891. 

Blennerbassett  {blSn'-er-h&s'-it),  Herman,  noted  for 
his  connection  with  Aaron  Burr's  conspiracy,  was 
bom  in  England  about  1764 ;  of  Irish  descent;  be- 
coming unpopular  in  Ireland,  he  sold  his  Irish 
estates  for  a  sum  exceeding  $100,000  and  came  to 
America.  He  bought  an  island  of  170  acres  in  the 
Ohio  river  near  Parkersburg,  W.  Va.,  on  which 
he  built  a  fine  mansion  and  adorned  it  with  all 
the  comforts  and  refinements  which  culture 
could  suggest  and  wealth  supply.  Many  visitors 
enjoyed  his  hospitality,  and  among  them  Aaron 
Burr,  still  bitter  because  of  his  political  defeat. 
Burr  filled  Blennerhassett's  mind  with  plans  of 
forming  an  empire  in  Mexico,  for  which  he 
made  extensive  preparations.  When  Burr  was 
arrested  and  brought  to  trial,  Blennerbassett 
was  also  arrested,  but  on  the  acquittal  of  Burr 
he  was  released.  He  died  on  the  island  of 
Guernsey  in  1831. 

Bliss,  Cornelius  Newton,  merchant,  politician,  was 
bom  at  Fall  River,  Mass.,  1833;  clerk  in  com- 
mission house,  Boston ;  in  1866  member  of  J.  8. 
&  E.  Wright  &  Co.,  Boston;  later  moved  to  New 
York  to  take  charge  there,  firm  becoming  Bliss, 
Fabyan  &  Co.,  dry  goods  commission  merchants, 
1881.  Was  member  Pan-American  conference; 
was  president  protective  tariff  league ;  chairman 
New  York  republican  state  committee,  1887-88; 
treasurer  republican  national  committee,  180^ 
1904;  decHned  to  be  a  candidate  for  governor 
of  New  York,  1886  and  1891 :  secretary  oT 
the  interior,  In  cabinet  of  President  McKinley, 
1897-99.  Was  tmstee  American  surety  company, 
Central  trust  company;  director  Home  uiMir- 
ance  company,  Fourth  national  bank,  American 
cotton  company.  Was  ex-president  New  Yorit 
hospital,  vice-president  chamber  of  commaree 
and  member  executive  committee  national  dvlc 
federation.     Died,  1911. 

Blok  (blok),  Petrus  Johannes,  Dutch  historian; 
was  bom  at  Helder,  Holland,  1865:  studied  at 
Levden  and  became  profeesor  at  Oroningen  In 
1884:  later  occupied  a  similar  chair  at  L^dsn; 
was  Instructor  ol  Queen  Wilhelmlna  In  history. 
He  has  written  History  of  the  People  of  the  Nether- 
lands, and  a  number  of  other  works  on  the  social 
and  political  history  of  his  country. 

BkMmfleld,  Maurice,  philologist,  professor  Sanskrit 
^nA  comparative  philology  Johns  Hopkins;   was 


570 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


bom  at  Bielitz,  Austria,  1855 ;  studied  at  Chicago 
tiniversity;  graduated  from  Funnan  university, 
8.  C. ;  A.  M.,  1877;  Ph.  D.,  Johns  Hopkins,  1879 ; 
LL.  D.,  Princeton,  1896.  Edited  for  first  time 
from  original  Sanskrit  MSS.  the  Sutra  of  Kanaka; 
translated  the  AUuirva-V eda  in  the  sacred  books 
of  the  East  (edited  by  Max  Miiller) ;  author  of 
The  Atharva-Veda  and  the  Gopatiia-Bralimana; 
edited  with  Professor  Richard  Garbe,  of  the 
university  of  Tiibingen,  the  Kashmirian,  or  Paip- 
•palada-V eda,  1901.  Contributor  to  numerous 
learned  journals  and  reviews  on  subjects  con- 
nected with  history,  religion,  mythology  and 
literature  of  ancient  India;  on  Sanskrit,  Greek, 
Latin,  and  comparative  grammar;  on  etlmology 
and  science  of  religions.  Author:  Cerberus,  tfie 
Dog  of  Hades;  A  Concordance  of  the  Vedas. 
Vice-president  and  president  American  oriental 
society,  1905-11.  Member  German  oriental 
society,  American  philological  association,  Amer- 
ican philosophical  society;  hon.  member  royal 
Bohemian  society,   Prague. 

Bloomfleld,  Robert,  English  pastoral  poet,  was 
born  in  1706,  at  Honington,  Suffolk,  where  his 
father  was  a  poor  tailor.  He  worked  first  as  a 
farm-servant,  then  as  a  shoe-maker  in  London, 
and,  after  unsuccessful  efforts  in  various  occupa- 
tions, died  at  ShefTord,  in  Betlfordshire,  1823, 
deprived  of  memory  and  almost  of  reason.  His 
chief  works  are  The  Farmer's  Boy  (composed  in 
a  London  garret).  Rural  Tales,  and  Wild  Flowers. 
They  are  admirable  for  their  charming  artless- 
ness,  fidelity  to  nature,  and  fresh,  honest  flavor 
of  ru<»t,icity. 

BloBBom,  Henry  Martyn,  Jr^  author,  dramatist, 
was  bom  at  St.  Louis.,  Mo.,  1866;  educated  at 
Stoddard  school,  St.  Louis;  afterward  engaged 
in  insurance  business.  Author:  The  Documents 
in  Evidence;  Oieckers  —  A  Hard  Luck  Story; 
The  Brother  of  Chuck  McGann.  Plays:  Checkers; 
The  Yankee  Consul;  Mile.  Modiste,  a  comic 
opera;  The  Red  Mill,  a  musical  comedy,  Miss 
Philura  and  The  Slim  Princess. 

Blouet  (bU}&'-i'),  Paul«  better  known  as  "Max 
O'Rell,"  French  author,  writer,  and  lecturer, 
was  bom  in  Brittany,  France,  in  1848;  was 
educated  in  Paris;  served  in  the  Franco-Ger- 
man war  and  against  the  commune,  being 
severely  wounded;  in  1873  went  to  England  as 
a  newspaper  correspondent;  was  French  master 
at  St.  Paul's  school,  1876-84,  and  for  many 
years  lectured  and  acted  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
United  States,  and  colonies.  He  is  the  author 
of  John  Bull  and  his  Island;  The  Dear  Neigh- 
bors; A  Frenchman  in  America;  John  Bull  & 
Co.;  Jacques  Bonhomme;  Jonathan  and  His 
Continent,  etc.      Died,  1903. 

Blewits  (Uo'-vUs),  Henri  Georges  Adolphe  Opper  de 
journalist,  was  bom  of  Jewish  ancestry  at  Blowitz, 
m  Bohemia,  1825;  during  1849-60  was  a  German 
teacher  in  various  French  schools;  in  1871-1902, 
Paris  corresjKjndent  of  the  Times,  and  originator 
of  the  "interview."  He  was  made  oflBcer  of  the 
legion  of  honor  in  1878.     Died,  1903. 

BIQcher  (Wu'-Kgr),  Gebhard  L«berecht  von,  Prussian 
field  marshal  and  prince  of  Wahlstadt,  was  bom 
at  Rostock,  Germany,  1742;  first  entered  the 
Swedish,  but  soon  passed  to  the  Prussian  army, 
in  which  he  served  during  the  seven  years'  war. 
He  went  through  the  Polish  campai^  of  1772, 
and  gained  rapid  promotion  during  the  struggle 
with  the  French  invaders  begun  in  1792.  In  the 
campaign  of  1814  Bliicher  held  high  command, 
and  though  defeated  by  Naj)oleon,  he  beat 
Marshal  Marmont  and  entered  Paris  with  the 
allies.  In  the  Waterloo  campaign  he  commanded 
the  Prussian  army  in  Belgium,  and  was  severely 
defeated  by  Napoleon  at  Ligny.  However,  by 
out-manoeuvring  Grouchy,  he  was  able  to  arrive 
at  Waterloo  in  time  to  decide  the  victory  for  the 


allies  and  pursue  the  routed  French  army.  He 
then  retired  from  active  service  and  died  1819. 

Blumenbach  (b^'-r»en-6dK),  Johann  Friedricb, 
German  uaturaUst  and  ethnologist,  was  bom  at 
Gothainl752;  studied  at  Jena ;  became  professor 
at  Gottingen,  an  office  he  filled  for  nearly  sixty 
years.  His  works  gave  a  great  impulse  to  scientific 
research  in  all  directions;  the  chief  were  InstUu- 
tiones  Physiologicce;  Manvud  of  Natural  History; 
Manual  of  Comparative  Arvatoiny  and  Physiology. 
He  made  craniology  a  special  study ;  was  a  great 
advocate  of  religious  liberty.  He  was  the  first 
to  classify  the  human  species  as  Caucasian, 
Mongolian,  African,  American,  and  Malay.  Died, 
1840. 

Blumenthal  {bUJb'-men-tal),  Leonhardt,  Count  Ton« 
Prussian  general,  was  born  in  1810,  died  in  1900. 
He  was  chief  of  the  general  staff  of  the  Prussian 
army  in  1849;  promoted  to  lieutenant-general 
in  1866  for  distinguished  service  in  the  war  with 
Austria;  was  chief  of  staff  in  the  Franco-Pnissian 
war;  and  became  general  field-marshal  in  1888. 
He  was  a  very  able  strategist. 

Bluntachll  {bUXmtsh'-ii),  Johann  Kaspar,  jurist, 
economist,  was  bom  at  Zurich  in  1808;  in  1833 
became  professor  in  its  newly-founded  university. 
In  1848  he  went  to  Munich  as  professor  of  civil 
and  international  law;  in  1861  removed  to 
Heidelberg.  Among  his  works  were  AUgem^nea 
Staatsrecht,  on  which  his  reputation  chiefly  rests, 
and  Deutsche*  Privairecht.  He  died  at  Karlsruhe 
in  1881. 

BIytbe,  Smmod  George,  writer,  journalist;  was 
bom  at  Geneseo,  N.  Y.,  1868;  educated  at 
Geneseo  state  normal  school;  managing-editor 
of  Buffalo  Express,  1893-96;  editor-in-chief  of 
Buffalo  Enquirer  and  Courier,  1897-98 ;  in  charge 
of  Uterary  bureau,  republican  state  committee, 
campaign  of  1898 ;  managine-iKlitor  Cosmopolitan 
Magazine,  1899;  chief  Washington  correspondent 
New  York  World,  1900-€7;  connected  with 
Saturday  Evening  Post  since  1907;  chairman 
standing  committee  of  Washington  correspond- 
ents, 1906-07.     President  of  Gridiron  club,  1907. 

BoabdU  {bd'-Ob-dil'),  properly  Abu-Abdallah,  the 
last  Moorish  king  of  Granada,  dethroned  his 
father,  Abu-1-Hasan  in  1481,  and  two  years  later 
was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  the  Cas- 
tilians  near  Lucena.  He  was  set  free  on  condi- 
tion of  paying  tribute,  and  returned  to  Granada 
to  struggle  with  his  father  and  with  his  uncle 
for  the  Uirone.  The  fall  of  Malaga  was  but  the 
prelude  to  the  siege  of  the  capital  itself,  which 
was  finally  starved  out  in  1491,  in  spite  of  the 
reckless  courage  of  the  Moors  and  of  Boabdil, 
whose  weak  and  vacillating  nature  fell  from  him 
in  the  hour  of  battle.  The  spot  from  which  he 
looked  his  last  on  Granada,  after  giving  up  to 
Ferdinand  the  keys  of  the  city,  still  bears  the 
name  of  d  ultimo  sospiro  del  Moro,  "the  last  sigh 
of  the  Moor."  Boaodil  soon  crossed  to  Africa 
and  flung  away  his  life  in  battle.  He  died  in 
1536. 

Boatwright,  Frederic  WUUam,  educator,  president 
Richmond  college  since  1895;  bom  at  White 
Sulphur  Springs,  W.  Va.,  1868;  graduated  from 
Richmond  college,  M.  A.,  1888;  LL.  D.,  Mercer, 
1896;  studied  in  Halle,  Leipzig,  and  Paris, 
1889-90,  1892;  professor  modem  languages, 
Richmond  college,  since  1890.  Author:  Syllabi 
French  and  German  Literatures. 

Bobadllla  (bo-va-del'-ya),  Francisco,  was  sent  in 
1500  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  to  investigate 
the  work  of  Columbus  in  Hispaniola.  He  put 
Columbus  in  chains  and  sent  him  to  Spain,  but 
was  recalled  and  Columbus  reinstated.  Boba- 
dilla  was  drowned  on  the  return  voyage  in  1502. 

Boccaccio  (bok-ka'-cho),  Giovanni,  Italian  racon- 
teur, the  author  of  the  Decamerone,  was  bom 
probably  in  Paris  in   1313.     He  styled  himself 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


971 


Da  Certaldo,  from  the  Italian  village  from  which 
his  family  sprang.  From  an  early  period  he 
displayed  a  love  for  poetry.  In  1360  he  formed 
an  intimate  friendship  with  Petrarch,  and, 
following  his  fnend's  example,  collected  many 
books  and  copied  rare  MSS.  which  he  could  not 
afford  to  buy.  It  is  said  that  he  was  the  first 
Italian  who  ever  procured  from  Greece  a  copy 
of  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey.  He  also  wrote 
a  genealogy  of  the  gods  in  fifteen  books.  But 
not  only  was  Boccaccio  one  of  the  most  learned 
men  of  his  time,  he  was  also  one  of  the  most 
enlightened  in  his  scholarship.  He  helped  to 
give  a  freer  direction  and  a  greater  expansive- 
ness  to  knowledge,  stimulated  his  contemporaries 
to  the  study  of  Greek,  smd  wished  to  substitute 
the  wisdom  of  antiquity  for  the  unprofitable 
scholasticism  that  prevailed.  While  in  Naples, 
about  1334,  he  fell  passionately  in  love  with  a 
young  woman,  called  by  him  Fiammetta,  who 
was  generally  supposed  to  be  a  daughter  of  King 
Robert.  His  passion  was  returned,  and  to 
gratify  her  he  wrote  II  FUocopo,  a  prose-romance, 
and  afterward.  La  Teseide,  the  first  attempt  at 
romantic  epic  poetry,  of  which  Boccaccio  may 
be  considered  the  inventor.  In  1340  he  returned 
to  Florence,  but  in  1344  went  back  to  Naples, 
where  he  wrote  his  Amoroso  Fiammetta.  He 
composed  his  famous  Decamerone  in  Naples,  to 
please  Joanna,  the  daughter  and  successor  of 
King  Robert.  It  consists  of  100  stories,  ten  of 
which  are  told  each  day  by  seven  ladies  and 
three  gentlemen,  who  had  fled  from  Florence 
during  the  frightful  plague  of  1348,  to  a  country 
villa,  and  who  try  to  banish  fear  by  abandoning 
every  moment  to  gayety.  In  abundance  of 
incident  it  is  almost  inexhaustible,  though  many 
of  the  stories  are  taken  from  older  collections 
of  Contes  et  Fabliaux.  It  is,  however,  unfor- 
tunately steeped  in  impurity.  Petrarch  s  death 
deeply  affected  him,  and  he  died  the  year  after, 
1375. 

BScklin  (6?lfc'-ien),  Arnold,  Swiss  painter  of  romantic 
subjects,  was  bom  at  Basel,  Switzerland,  1827. 
His  principal  pictures  are  the  "Sea  Idyl,"  "A 
Nymph  and  Fauns,"  and  several  landscapes. 
In  a  certain  element  of  fancy,  fantastic  and 
weird  rather  than  truly  imaginative,  Bocklin 
excels  all  his  contemporaries.  He  is  seen  at 
his  best  at  Munich.     Died  at  Fiesole,  Italy,  1901. 

Bode  (ho'-de),  Johann  Elert,  German  astronomer, 
was  bom  at  Hamburg,  1747;  at  the  age  of  eight- 
een he  calculated  an  eclipse  of  the  sun.  The 
next  year  he  wrote  on  the  solar  eclipse  of  August 
5th,  and  an  elementary  treatise  on  astronomy 
which  was  especially  successful.  In  1776  he 
commenced  the  Astronomical  Year  Book,  which 
is  still  continued.  But  his  fame  rests  chiefly 
on  the  Uranographia,  pubHshed  in  1801,  in 
which  he  gives  observations  on  17,240  stars,  or 
12,000  more  than  can  be  found  in  any  previous 
charts.  He  reproduced  the  statement  of  the 
relations  of  the  planetary  distances,  previously 
made  known  by  Titus  of  Wittenberg,  but  after- 
ward called  "Bode's  law."  He  died  at  Berlin 
in  1826. 

Bodenstedt  (bd'-den-slMt),  Friedrlch  Martin  von, 
German  poet,  author,  journalist,  was  bom  at 
Peine,  Hanover,  1819,  and  died  at  Wiesbaden, 
1892,  having  Uved  at  Moscow,  traveled  in  the 
Crimea,  Turkey,  Greece,  and  Asia  Minor,  edited 
the  Weser  Zeitung,  filled  the  chairs  of  Slav  lan- 
guages and  Old  Enghsh  at  Munich,  and  been 
director  of  the  Meiningen  court  theater.  Boden- 
stedt published  many  translations  from  the 
Russian,  English  (Shakespeare),  and  Persian, 
and  several  volumes  of  poetry,  including  dramas 
and  romances.  His  most  popular  work  is  the 
Lieder  des  Mirza  Schaffy,  feigned  to  be  a  trans- 
lation from  the  Tartar. 


Bodln  (bd'-<idN')«  Jmh,  French  publicUt  Mid  eoooo- 
mist,  was  bom  at  AngerB  in  1680.  and  di«d  of 
the  plague  at  Lniin,  1600.  Aooordmg  to  Bodin's 
greatest  work.  Lea  Six  IAvtm  ds  la  R&publiqu; 
property  and  the  family  form  the  baate  of  aodety, 
and  a  Umited  monarchy  is  the  best  poHibM 
form  of  govemment.  Hb  MMhoduB  ad  FaeiUm 
Historiarum  Cognitionem  is  by  tome  wrltMa 
deemed  the  foundation  of  the  true  philosophy 
of  history. 

Bodley,  Sir  ThomaB«  the  restorer  of  the  library 
originally  established  at  Oxford  by  Humphrey, 
duke  of  Gloucester,  now  called  the  BodleiMi 
library,  was  bora  in  1545.  Ilia  family  being 
forced  to  flee  from  England  during  the  perseeu- 
tions  of  Marv,  he  settled  at  (Jeneva.  On  the 
accession  of  I^lizabeth  he  returned  to  England, 
and  completed  his  studies  at  Oxford,  took  the 
degree  oi  M.  A.,  and  was  afterward  elected  a 
proctor.  After  being  some  time  abroad  he 
was  employed  by  the  queen  in  diplomatic  mi»- 
sions  to  Denmark,  France,  and  Holland,  and 
returned  to  Oxford  in  1597,  devoting  himself 
to  the  extension  of  the  librar\'.     Dietl,  1613. 

Boehm  (bSm),  Sir  Joseph  Edgar,  Ilungarian-Eng* 
lish  sculptor,  was  bom  at  Vienna,  1834 ;  educated 
1848-51  in  England,  and  finally  settled  there 
in  1862.  In  1867  he  executed  a  colossal  statue 
of  the  queen;  of  his  seated  statue  of  Thomas 
Carlyle,  enthusiastically  praised  by  Ruskin,  a 
replica  was  erected  at  Chelsea.  His  other  most 
important  works  are  busts  of  Ruskin,  Gladstone, 
Huxley,  Lord  Wolseley;  figures  of  Dean  Stanley 
and  Sir  Francis  Drake;  and  equestrian  statues 
of  Lord  Northbrook  at  Calcutta,  and  of  Prince 
Albert  at  Windsor.  Boehm  became  an  A.  R.  A. 
in  1878,  sculptor-in-ordinary  to  the  queen  in 
1881,  an  R.  A.  in  1882,  and  a  baronet  in  1889. 
On  December  12,  1890,  the  princess  Louise 
found  him  sitting  dead  in  his  studio. 

Boehme,  Jakob,  German  theosophist  and  mystic, 
was  bom  of  poor  parents  at  Altseidonberg  near 
Gorlitz,  in  upper  Lusatia,  in  1575,  and  in  boy- 
hood herded  cattle.  He  afterward  worked 
industriously  as  a  shoemaker,  but  from  his 
youth  up  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  meditation 
on  divine  things.  About  1612  he  published 
Aurora,  containing  revelations  and  meditations 
upon  God,  man,  and  nature,  and  showing  a 
remarkable  knowledge  of  scripture  and  of  the 
writings  of  alchemists.  It  was  condemned  by 
the  ecclesiastical  authorities  of  Gorlits  and  he 
suS'ered  much  persecution,  though  he  w"  »* 
last  protected  by  the  Saxon  court.  The  dif- 
ficulties of  the  great  problems  of  philosophy 
and  religion  are  rather  conceaiwi  than  explained 
under  a  cloud  of  mystical  language  and  a  system 
of  triads,  suggested  by  the  Christian  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity.     He  died  at  Goriits  in  1624. 

Boehm  von  Bawerk  (6*m  fdn  b&'-virk),  Eugen* 
Austrian  political  economist,  was  bom  at  Briinn, 
Austria,  1851.  He  was  educated  at  the  uni- 
versities at  Vienna,  Heidelberg.  Leipsig,  and 
Jena  In  1884  was  appointed  professor  at 
Innsbmck;  at  intervals  from  1889  to  1904  was 
minister  of  finance.  His  chief  work  is  Capital 
and  Interest.  ^     ,r^         ,,_,  ..  x 

Boerhaave,  (Dutch,  h6l>r'-ha-ve),  (Eng.,  fcfcj'-Mr). 
Hermann,  the  most  celebrated  physician  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  was  bom  near  Leyden, 
Holland,  1668.  In  1689  he  was  made  doctor 
of  philosophy,  and  in  1690  began  the  study  of 
medicine,  reading  carefully  Hippocrates  among 
the  ancients,  and  Sydenham  among  the  moderns. 
He  gained  his  doctor's  degree  at  Harderwijk, 
1693,  and  retumed  to  Leyden,  where  in  1<01 
he  was  appointed  lecturer  on  the  theory  of 
medicine.  To  combine  practice  with  theory, 
he  caused  a  hospital  to  be  opened,  where  he 
gave  clinical  instructions  to  his  pupils.    Though 


572 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


so  industrious  in  his  own  profession,  he  under- 
took in  1718,  after  Lemort's  deatii,  the  pro- 
fessorship of  chemistry,  and  published  in  1724 
his  ElemerUa  Chemiae,  a  work  which  did  much 
to  render  this  science  clear  and  intelligible,  and 
although  now  entirely  superseded  by  more 
advanced  researches,  one  that  will  always  occupy 
a  high  place  in  the  history  of  chemistry.  Peter 
the  Great  of  Russia  visited  him  at  Leyden,  and 
it  is  even  said  that  a  Chinese  mandarin  sent  him 
a  letter,  addressed  "Herr  Jioerhaave,  Celebrated 
Physician,  Europe."  His  fame  rests  principally 
on  his  Institutionea  Medica,  and  Aphoriami  ae 
Cognoacendis  et  Curandia  Morbia.  He  was  a 
member  of  many  learned  academies.  Died  at 
'  Leyden,  1738. 

Boethlus  (bo-e'-thl-ua),  Aniclus  Manilas  Torquatus 
Severtnus,  Roman  philosopher,  bom  about  475, 
was  profoundly  learned,  and  filled  the  highest 
offices  under  the  government  of  Theodoric  the 
Goth.  Three  times  consul,  he  was  long  the 
oracle  of  his  sovereign  and  the  idol  of  the  people ; 
but  his  strict  integrity  and  inflexible  justice 
incited  enemies  to  whose  machinations  be  at 
last  fell  a  victim.  Falsely  accused  of  a  treason- 
able correspondence  with  the  court  of  Constanti- 
nople, he  was  executed  about  525,  after  a  long  and 
rigorous  imprisonment.  His  Conaolationa  of 
Philosophy,  written  in  prison,  abounds  in  the 
loftiest  sentiments  clothed  in  the  most  fascinating 
language. 

Bolleau-Desprtaux  (hwQ,'46'-d&'-pra'-6'),  Nicholas, 
French  poet  and  critic,  was  bom  at  Paris  in  1036. 
His  first  work  was  a  satire.  Adieu  of  a  Poet  to  the 
city  of  Paria.  He  was  a  friend  of  Molifere, 
LaFontaine,  and  Racine,  and  was  pensioned  by 
the  king.  His  Art  of  Poetry  is  considered  very 
fine.  He  did  much  as  a  critic  to  purify  and 
refine  the  French  lan^age,  and  has  had  a  great 
influence  on  French  literature.  He  was  ma<ie  a 
member  of  the  French  academy.  He  died  at 
Paris  in  1711. 

Bolto  (bd'-i-td),  Arrlgo,  Italian  composer  and  poet, 
was  bom  in  1842  at  Padua,  and  studied  at  the 
Milan  conservatory.  His  first  important  work 
is  the  Wagnerian  opera  Mefiatofde,  which,  at 
first  an  acknowledged  failure,  has  since  steadily 
grown  in  popularity.  Other  operas  are  Ero  e 
licandro,  Nerone,  Oda  all'  Arte.  He  writes  his 
own  librettos,  and  has  published  several  songs, 
lyrical  dramas,  and  novels,  besides  the  following 
cantatas :  Le  4  Juin;  Le  Sorelle  d' Italia;  Libretti 
Otello;  Falstaff;  La  Gioconda;  Amleto;  Ero  e 
Leandro  and  Nero. 

Bok,  Edward  William,  editor  of  The  Ladiea^  Home 
Journal  since  1889;  vice-president  of  the  Curtis 
publishing  company;  born  in  Helder,  Holland, 
1863 ;  came  to  the  United  States  at  the  age  of 
six;  educated  at  Brooklyn  public  schools ;  stenog- 

..  rapher  with  Western  Union  telegraph  company; 
Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  1884-85;  Scribner's,  1885-88. 
Author:  The  Young  Man  in  Buaineaa,  and  St*c- 
ceaatcard. 

Boker  (bo'-kir),  George  Henry,  American  poet  and 
dramatist,  was  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1823, 
and  died  there  in  1890.  He  wrote  several  plays, 
which  were  successful  on  the  stage,  among  them 
Ccdaynoa,  a  tragedy,  and  Franceaca  da  Rimini. 
His  war  poems,  written  during  the  civil  war, 
were  published  in  a  volume  entitled  Poema  of  the 
War.  He  was  appointed  minister  to  Constan- 
tinople, and  after  four  years  was  transferred  to 
St.  Petersburg.  In  1882  he  published  a  volume 
of  verse.  The  Book  of  the  Dead. 

Boleyn  (bd&Z'-ln),  Anne,  queen  of  England  and 
daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  Boleyn,  subsequently 
earl  of  Wiltshire  and  Ormond;  was  bom  about 
1507  and  was  brought  up  at  the  French  court. 
She  became  maid  of  honor  to  Queen  Catharine 
of  England.     King  Henry  VIII.  was  attracted 


by  her  beauty,  had  his  marriage  with  Catharine 
declared  void,  and  was  married  privately  to  Anne. 
She  soon  lost  his  favor,  and  on  a  charge  of  un- 
faithfulness was  tried,  condemned,  and  l^headed, 
1536.     She  was  the  mother  of  Queen  Eliiabeth. 

Bolingbroke  (bdl'-in'^dbk),  Henry  St.  John,  Vis- 
count, English  statesman,  was  bom  in  Battersea 
in  1678.  Having  studiea  at  Oxford,  he  entered 
parliament  in  1701,  and  in  1704  became  secre- 
tary for  war.  He  afterward  became  secretary  of 
state  for  foreign  affairs,  and  negotiated  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht.  In  1712  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage.  On  the  accession  of  George  I.  he 
was  impeached  of  high  treason,  when  he  fled  from 
the  country,  and  became  secretary  of  state  to  the 
first  pretender.  He  was  attainted  and  his  estate 
seized;  but  in  1723  he  was  permitted  to  return. 
His  estates  were  restored,  but  he  was  not  allowed 
to  sit  in  parliament.  He  wrote  against  the 
ministn'',  and  his  productions  were  admired  for 
their  eloquence  and  vigor.  He  again  withdrew 
to  France  in  1735,  but  returned  to  England  on 
the  death  of  his  father,  and  died  in  1751. 

Bolivar  (bdl'-l-vdr),  Simon,  South  American  states- 
man, founder  and  first  president  of  the  republic 
of  Colombia,  known  as  "the  liberator  of  South 
America."  Bom  in  Venezuela,  1783,  he  was 
educated  in  Madrid,  and  traveled  in  Europ>e  and 
the  United  States.  When  the  revolt  against  the 
Spanish  yoke  broke  out  in  Venezuela,  he  joined  it, 
but  had  to  fly.  In  1813  he  returned,  and,  gather- 
ing a  force  together,  defeated  General  Monte- 
verde  at  Cartlcas.  The  tide  then  turned  and 
Bolivar  fled  to  Jamaica,  but  he  shortly  returned, 
and  after  varying  fortune  in  1819  won  the  battle 
of  Boiaca,  resulting  in  the  inauguration  of  the 
republic  of  Venezuela  in  the  same  year,  to  which 
was  afterward  united  New  Granada.  In  1822 
Bolivar  went  to  help  the  Peruvians  in  their 
struggle  for  liberty,  and  was  given  the  chief 
command.  After  a  long  campaign  he  won  the 
great  battle  of  Ayacucho.  Upper  Peru  was 
constituted  a  separate  republic  with  the  title  of 
Bolivia.  As  president  of  Colombia  he  had  to 
endure  much  factious  hostility;  but  though  he 
tendered  his  resignation  more  than  once  it  was 
never  accepted,  the  supreme  power  being  con- 
firmed in  him  in  1828.     Died,  1830. 

BoUes  ibdlz),  Albert  Sidney,  author,  econombt,  was 
bom  at  Montville,  Conn.,  1846;  admitted  to 
Connecticut  bar  and  engaged  in  practice;  elected 
judge  of  the  probate  court  for  district  of  Norwich, 
Conn.,  1870;  editor  Norwich  Btdletin,  and  later 
editor  Banker^  Magazine;  was  professor  of 
mercantile  law  and  banking,  Wharton  school  of 
finance  and  economy,  university  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, four  and  one-half  years;  chief  bureau 
industrial  statistics.  Pa.,  eight  years;  was 
lecturer,  university  of  Pennsylvania,  now  at 
Haverford  college.  Author:  Financial  History 
of  the  United  Staiea;  Practical  Banking;  Barm 
Officera;  Bank  Collectiona;  The  Judicial  Inter- 
pretation of  the  National  Bank  Act;  Industrial 
History  of  the  United  States;  The  Conflict  Be- 
tween Labor  and  Capital;  The  Hiatory  of  Penn- 
sylvania; Money,  Bankirig,  and  Finance. 

Bolton,  Sarah  Knowles,  author;  bom  at  Farming- 
ton,  Conn.,  1841;  daughter  of  John  Segar  and 
Mary  Elizabeth  (Miller)  Knowles;  spent  two 
years  in  Europe  studying  literary  and  educational 
matters,  and  what  employers  are  doing  to  help 
their  workmen-  married  Charles  E.  Bolton  in 
1866,  who  diea  in  1901.  Was  for  three  years 
associate  editor  The  Congregationalist.  Author: 
Orlean  Lamar  and  Other  Poema;  The  Preaent 
Problem  (a  short  novel);  How  Succesa  is  Won; 
Poor  Boya  Who  Became  Famous;  Girla  Who 
Became  Famoua;  Social  Studiea  in  England; 
Storiea  from  Life  (fiction);  From  Heart  and 
Nature,  poems  (with  her  son,  Charles  K.  Bolton) ; 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


673 


A  Country  Idyl  and  Other  Stories  (fiction); 
Every  Day  Living;  Our  Devoted  Friend^  the  Dog, 
and  many  biographical  books  dealing  with 
famous  men  and  women. 
Bonaparte,  Charles  Joseph,  lawyer,  ex-eecretary 
of  the  navy,  and  ex-attorney  general,  United 
States,  was  born  in  Baltimore,  1851-  grandson 
of  Jerome  Bonaparte,  king  of  Westphalia; 
graduate  of  Harvard  in  1871,  Harvard  law 
school  in  1874;  since  then  in  law  practice  in 
Baltimore;  prominent  in  reform  movements; 
republican  presidential  elector  from  Maryland, 
1904;  memoer  council  of  national  civil  service 
reform    league;     president    of    national    munici- 

?al  league;  member  United  States  board  of 
ndian  commissioners,  1902-04 ;  overseer  at  Har- 
vard, 1891-1903,  trustee  Catholic  university 
of  America  since  1904;  awarded  Laetare  medal 
by  university  of  Notre  Dame,  1903;  was  secre- 
tary of  the  navy,  1905-06;  attorney-general 
of  United  States,  1906-09. 
Bonaparte,  Charles  Lucien  Jules  Laurent,  prince 
of  Canino  and  Musignano,  Lucien's  eldest  son 
by  his  second  marriage,  was  bom  at  Paris  in 
1803.  He  never  exhibited  any  inclination  for 
political  life,  preferring  the  more  quiet  pursuits 
of  literature  and  science.  He  acquired  a  con- 
siderable reputation  as  a  naturalist,  and  espe- 
cially as  a  writer  on  ornithology.  Died,  1857. 
Bonaparte,  J6r6me,  youngest  brother  of  Napoleon 
I.,  was  born  at  Ajaccio  in  1784.  He  served  as 
naval  lieutenant  in  the  expedition  to  Hayti. 
When  war  broke  out  between  France  and  Eng- 
land in  1803,  J6r6me  was  cruising  off  the  West 
Indies,  but  he  was  soon  compelled  to  take  refuge 
in  the  port  of  New  York.  While  in  the  United 
States  he  married,  in  1803,  Elizabeth  Patterson, 
of  Baltimore,  who  died  in  1879.  Subsequently 
he  was  employed  by  Napoleon  in  the  liberation 
of  Genoese  prisoners  who  had  been  captured 
by  the  dey  of  Algiers.  In  the  war  with  Prussia 
he  commanded,  in  concert  with  General  Van- 
damme,  the  10th  corps  in  Silesia,  and  in  1807 
was  made  king  cf  Westphalia.  After  his  brother's 
abdication  he  left  Paris,  1814,  and  visited  Switzer- 
land and  Austria,  but  ultimately  settled  in 
Florence.  His  request  to  be  allowed  to  return 
to    France    was    rejected,    but    was    afterward 

f ranted.  He  was  appointed  governor  of  the 
nvalides  in  1848,  and  in  1850  was  made  a 
French  marshal.  In  1852  provision  was  made 
by  the  French  chambers,  in  default  of  issue  of 
Napoleon  III.,  by  which  the  right  of  succession 
was  confirmed  to  J6r6me  and  his  heirs.  Died, 
1860. 
Bonaparte,  Joseph,  eldest  brother  of  Napoleon  I., 
was  born  at  Corte,  in  Corsica,  1768,  and  was 
educated  at  Autun.  On  the  death  of  his  father 
he  returned  to  Corsica,  exerted  himself  to  sup- 
port the  younger  members  of  the  family,  and 
removed  with  them  to  Marseilles  in  1793.  In 
1797  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  council 
of  five  hundred,  and  in  the  same  year  was 
sent  as  ambassador  from  the  republic  to  Rome. 
In  1800,  having  proved  his  ability  in  several 
oflBces  of  state,  he  was  chosen  by  the  first  consul 
as  plenipotentiary  to  conclude  a  treaty  of  friend- 
ship with  the  United  States.  After  the  corona- 
tion of  Napoleon,  Joseph  was  made  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  army  of  Naples;  in  1805,  ruler 
of  the  Two  Sicilies;  and  in  1806,  king  of  Naples. 
In  1808  he  was  summarily  transferred  by  his 
brother  to  the  throne  of  Spain,  and  Murat  took 
his  place  as  king  of  Naples.  For  Joseph  this 
was  no  favorable  change;  he  found  himself 
unprepared  to  cope  with  the  Spanish  insurgents, 
and  after  the  defeat  of  the  French  at  Vittoria 
he  returned  to  his  estate  at  Morfontaine,  in 
France.  After  the  battle  of  Waterloo  he  accom- 
panied   Napoleon    to    Rochefort,    whence    they 


intended  to  nail  separately  for  the  United  Stat«*. 
He  died  in  Flon-nce  in  1844. 

Bonaparte,  Josephine  (wife  of  Napoleon  I.).  8m 
Josephine. 

Bonaparte,  Louis,  brother  of  Napoleon  I..  wa« 
born  in  1778.  After  riains  from  nonur  to  Doaor 
he  was  nominally  made  king  of  Holland,  being 
little  more  than  a  governor  subordinate  tohS 
brother.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  fault* 
of  his  reign,  it  is  liiphly  to  his  credit  that  although 
a  foreigner  he  administered  the  affairs  of  to* 
kingdom  in  the  interest  of  his  people.  He  re- 
fused to  accept  the  tendered  crown  of  Spain,  and 
did  not  enrich  himself  by  his  reign.  After  the 
restoration  of  the  house  of  Orange,  Louis  con- 
sidered himself  free  from  all  responsibility. 
and  returned  to  Paris,  1814.  On  the  escape  of 
his  Son,  Louis  Napoleon,  from  the  prison  of  Ilam, 
Louis  was  removed  as  an  invidid  to  Leghorn. 
Died,  1846. 

Bonaparte,    Lucien,    brother    of    Napoleon,    and 

Erince  of  Canino,  was  bom  in  1775;  received 
is  education  in  the  college  of  Autun.  Rising 
gradually  from  one  oflice  to  another,  he  waa 
elected  deputy  for  the  department  of  Liamone, 
and  in  the  council  of  five  nundred  Bp>oke  against 
the  squandering  of  state  property,  and  formed 
a  party  favorable  to  the  views  of  his  brotiier 
Napoleon.  Shortly  before  the  18th  Brumaire 
he  was  elected  president  of  the  council  of  five 
hundred,  and  was  the  hero  of  that  day.  A* 
ambassador  to  Madrid,  1800,  he  contrived  to 
gain  the  confidence  of  King  Charles  ly.  and  bis 
favorite,  Godoy.  It  is  said  that  for  his  service* 
in  the  treaty  of  peace  concludetl  between  Spain 
and  Portugal,  1801,  he  received  5,000,000  franc*. 
His  opposition  to  Napoleon's  progress  toward 
monarchy  involved  the  brothers  in  many  ouarreU. 
In  1810  he  sailed  for  America,  but  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  English,  was  taken  to  England, 
and  after  a  debate  in  parliament  was  declared  a 

Erisoner,  but  treated  with  distinction.  After 
is  brother's  downfall  he  returned  to  Rome. 
Died,  1840. 

Bonaparte,  Napoleon.     See  Napoleon  I.,  page  485. 

Bonaparte,  Napoleon  Eugtoe  Louis  Jean  Joseph* 
son  of  Napoleon  III.  and  of  the  empress  Eugenie, 
born  in  1856;  was  educated  under  his  father** 
care  at  Paris  and  Versailles.  On  the  outbreak 
of  war  with  Prussia,  1870,  he  went  with  th* 
emperor  to  the  front,  and  was  present  at  th* 
battle  of  Gravelotte.  On  the  abdication  of 
Napoleon  III.,  and  on  the  declaration  cf  a  repub- 
lic in  France,  the  youth  and  his  mother  took 
refuge  at  Chiselhurst,  England.  Soon  after  be 
entered  the  military  school  at  Woolwich  arsenal 
to  complete  his  studies,  and  was  graduated 
with  high  honors.  When  the  Zulu  war  in  South 
Africa  commenced,  the  young  man  volunteered 
his  services  to  the  British  government  and  wa* 
killed  in  1879. 

Bonaparte,  Napoleon  Joseph  Charles  Paul,  nick- 
named Plon-Plon,  son  of  Jdr6me  Bonaparte  and 
Sophia  Dorothea,  was  bom  in  1822;  married, 
1859,  Princess  Clotilde  of  Sardinia.  Bv  virtu* 
of  the  decree  of  the  French  senate.  1852,  Na^ 
poleon  Joseph  became  in  1879,  on  the  death  of 
Prince  Napoleon,  son  of  the  emperor,  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  Uonapartist  claim  to  the  French 
throne.  From  early  manhood  be  wa*  an  advo- 
cate of  a  popular  form  of  government.  Died, 
1891. 

Bonar  {b6n'-ar),  Horatius,  hymn-writer,  wa*  bom  at 
Edinburgh  in  1808;  from  the  high  school  paa*ed 
to  the  university,  and  became  minister  at  Kel*o 
Free  church,  1837-66,  and  then  at  Edinbuijrii. 
He  edited  the  Christian  Treasury  and  other 
magazines,  and  published  some  forty  religloa* 
works,  but  is  bwt  known  as  the  author  of  Hymns 
of  Faith  and  Hope.     He  died  in  1889. 


574 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Bonar,  James,  author,  economist,  was  bora  at 
Collace,  Perthshire,  Scotland,  1852;  educated 
at  Glasgow  university;  Leipzig  and  Tubingen; 
Balliol  college,  Oxford.  Lecturer  in  east  Lon- 
don, 1877-8W;  junior  examiner  in  H.  M.  civil 
service  commission,  1881 ;  senior  examiner, 
1895;  deputy  master  of  Canadian  branch  of 
royal  mint,  1907.  Author:  Beck's  Biblical 
Psychologi/;  Parson  Malthua;  Malthus  and  his 
Work;  liicardo's  Letters  to  Malthus;  Philoso- 
phy and  Political  Economy;  Political  Economy; 
contributions  to  Craik's  Prose  Authors,  Pal- 
grave's  Dictionary  of  Political  Economy,  Conrad's 
Handwdrttrbuch  der  Staataivissenschaften,  and 
Encyclopcedia  Britannica. 

Bonaventura    (bd'-7ui-v^n-M0'-rd),    Saint,    cardinal, 
surnained  the  "seraphic  doctor,"  his  real  name 
John  of  P'idenza,  was  born  in  Tuscany  in  1221: 
entered  Franciscan   order;    was  chosen  general 
of  the  order  and  papal  legate  at  the  council  of 
Lyons  in  1274,  during  the  session  of  which  he 
died;   was  a  mystic  in  theology;   ascribed  knowl-  | 
edge  of  the  truth  to  union  with  God,  such  as  I 
existed  between  man  and  his  Maker  prior  to  the  | 
fall,  a  state  which  could  be  removed  only  by  a 
life   of   purity   and    prayer;     his   writings   were : 
admired  by  Luther.  I 

Bond,  Ut.  Hon.  Sir  Robert,  premier  and  colonial  j 
secretary  of  Newfoundland  since  1900,  was  bom 
in  1857;    was  educated  for  the  bar  but  entered  I 
politics    before    being    admitted ;     entered    the  | 
legislature,  1882;     elected  speaker  of  the  assem- I 
blv,  1884;     an   executive   councillor,   with  port-: 
folio  of   colonial  secretary,  1889-97:    appointed  , 
a  delegate  to  British   government    dv  the  gov-  | 
emment    of     Newfoundland     on     the     French  j 
treaties  question,  1890 ;    in  the  same  year  the  j 
British    government    app>ointed    him    to    assist  | 
Lord    Pauncefote   in    negotiating   a  reciprocity 
treaty    with    the    United    States,    and    he    was 
mainly    instrumental    in    completing    what    is 
known    as    the    Bond-Blaine    convention;     ap- 
pointed chairman  of  the  deputation  sent  by  the 
government      to      the     "Ottawa     conference," 
1895  j    special  delegate  to  conference  on  French 
treaties   in    Downing  street,   1901;    recipient  of 
the    freedom  of    the    city  of    Edinburgh,    1902; 
in   the    same   year   was    authorized    by    British 
government    to    reopen    negotiations    with    the 
United  States  for  reciprocal  trade  between  that 
country   and    Newfoundland,    and   succeeded   in 
concluding  the  treaty  known  as  the  Hay-Bond 
treaty;     assisted     in     drafting    regulations    for 
carrying    out    Anglo-French    convention,    1904; 
hon.  LL.  D.,  Edinburgh. 

Bonet-Maury  (bo'-nd'  mo^-re'),  Amy-Gaston, 
theologian,  author,  educator,  vice-dean  of 
Protestant  school  of  divinitv  of  Paris;  was 
born  1842;  educated  Lyc6e  ilenry  IV.,  Paris; 
schools  of  divinity  Geneva  and  Strassburg; 
served  as  Presbyterian  minister  in  the  Walloon 
churches  of  Netherland,  1868-72;  called  back 
to  France  after  the  disasters  of  his  country 
in  1870-71,  he  served  as  Protestant  minister  at 
Beauvais,  where  he  erected  the  first  church,  and 
at  St.  Denis ;  lecturer  in  church  history  at  Prot- 
estant school  of  divinity  of  Paris,  1879;  for 
twenty  years  took  a  large  share  in  aJl  endeavors 
made  to  improve  in  France  primary  education  as 
librarian  of  the  Mus^e  Pedagogique,  and  to 
advance  the  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the 
Huguenots.  French  delegate  at  congress  of 
health  and  education,  London,  1884;  the 
parliament  of  religions,  Chicago,  1893;  the 
congress  of  religious  sciences  at  Stockholm, 
1897,  and  of  free  religious  thinkers  at  Paris, 
1900,  London  1901,  Basel  1903,  and  Boston 
1907;  corresponding  member  of  the  Institut  de 
France,  1908.  He  has  written  many  books  on 
religion  and  education. 


Bonheur  (bo'-nir'),  Marie  Bosalle  (more  commonly 
called  Rosa),  French  artist,  was  born  in  Bordeaux 
in  1822.  Her  first  master  was  her  own  father. 
Raymond  Bonheur,  an  artist  of  merit,  who  died 
in  1853.  In  1841  she  contributed  for  the  first 
time  two  small  pictures  to  the  French  exhibition, 
"Two  Rabbits,"  and  "Goats  and  Sheep,"  fol- 
lowed by  a  succession  of  highly  finished  compo- 
sitions, the  year  1849  producing  what  some 
consider  her  finest  picture,  "Tillage  in  Nivemais," 
which  has  been  placed  in  the  collection  of  the 
Luxembourg.  In  1853  her  famous  "Horse 
Fair"  was  the  principal  attraction  of  the  Paris 
exhibition,  and  m  18G5  she  sent  to  the  Universal 
exhibition  at  Paris  a  new  landscape  of  large 
dimensions,  "Hay-making  Season  in  Auvergne." 
From  1849  she  directed  the  gratuitous  school  of 
desi^  for  young  girls.  During  the  siege  of 
Pans,  1870-71,  ner  studio  and  residence  at 
Fontainebleau  were  spared  and  respected  by 
special  order  of  the  crown  prince  of  Prussia. 
Her  picture  of  the  "Horse  Fair"  came  into  the 
possession  of  the  late  A.  T.  Stewart,  of  New 
York,  and  at  the  sale  of  his  pictures  in  1887  was 
bought  for  $55,500  by  Cornelius  Vanderbilt,  and 
by  bum  presented  to  the  Metropolitan  museum, 
New  York.     Died,  1899. 

Boniface  (bdn'-^/da).  Saint,  was  bom  at  Crediton,  in 
Devonshire,  680.  He  was  one  of  the  most  noted 
saints  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  generally 
styled  "the  apostle  of  Germany."  His  real  name 
was  Winfrid,  and  he  devoted  himself  early  to 
the  monastic  life.  For  many  years  he  en^a^ed 
with  much  success  in  preaching  and  establishing 
churches  in  Germany,  but  was  finally  killed  by 
a  mob  of  armed  pagans  at  Dokkum,  in  West 
Friesland.  He  was  appointed  archbishop  of 
Mainz  by  Pope  Gregory  II.,  and  held  the  arch- 
bishopric until  754.     Died,  755. 

Boniface  VIII^  previously  Benedetto  Gaetano,  a 
native  of  Ana!gni,  was  born  about  1228,  and 
elected  pope  in  1294.  He  failed  in  his  attempts 
to  assert  a  feudal  superiority  over  Sicily,  and  to 
exercise  his  papal  authority  in  the  disputes 
between  France  and  England.  Philip  "the  fair" 
of  France,  maintained  the  independence  of  the 
kingdom,  disregarding  even  the  sentence  of 
excommunication  to  which  the  pope  proceeded. 
Philip,  at  last,  with  the  aid  of  Italian  enemies  of 
Boniface,  maide  him  prisoner  at  Anagni,  to 
which  he  had  fied ;  and,  although  he  was  hberated 
by  the  people  of  Anagni  after  two  days'  imprison- 
ment, he  daed  within  about  a  month,  1303. 

Bonnat  (bo'-nd'),  L6on  Joseph  Florentln,  French 
painter,  was  born  at  Bayonne,  1833,  and  studied 
at  Madrid,  in  Paris,  and  in  Italy.  He  became 
famous  for  religious  pictures,  and  latterly  is  best 
known  as  a  great  portrait  painter.  His  portraits 
of  Thiers  and  Victor  Hugo  are  much  esteemed. 
He  is  a  member  of  the  institute. 

Bonner,  Edmund,  English  prelate,  bishop  of  Lon- 
don, was  bom  about  1500.  The  reputation 
he  gained  at  Oxford  by  his  knowledge  of  the 
canon  law  recommended  him  to  the  notice  of 
Wolsey,  who  promoted  him  to  several  offices  in 
the  church.  After  the  fall  of  Wolsey,  Bonner 
took  an  active  share  in  the  work  of  the  reforma- 
tion, and  received  due  promotion  from  Henry 
VIII.  In  1533  he  was  deputed  to  appear  before 
the  pope  at  Marseilles,  to  appeal  for  the  excom- 
municated monarch  to  a  general  council.  In 
1540  he  was  made  bishop  of  London.  The 
death  of  Henry  cooled  his  Protestant  zealj  and 
having  given  proofs  of  his  lukewarmness  in  the 
cause  of  the  reformation,  he  was  at  length,  in 
1549,  committed  to  the  Marshalsea,  and  deprived 
of  his  bishopric.  The  accession  of  Queen  Mary 
restored  him  to  office,  and  gave  him  the  oppor- 
t\mity  of  revenge.  As  vicegerent  and  presiaent 
of  the  convocation  he  was  the  principal  agent  in 


THROUGHOUT  THE   WORLD 


676 


that  bloody  persecution  which  has  made  the 
reign  of  Mary  infamous.  After  the  accession  of 
Elizabeth  he  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  suprem- 
acy. He  was  accordingly  deposed  from  his 
bishopric  and  shut  up  in  the  Marshalsea,  where 
he  died  in  1569. 

Bonnet  (bo'-nS'),  Charles,  French  naturalist  and 
philosopher,  was  born  at  Geneva,  1720.  His 
Recherches  sur  I'  Usage  dea  FeuUles  dea  Plantea, 
published  in  1754,  contained  the  result  of  much 
observation  on  important  points  of  vegetable 
physiology.  He  published  several  works  on 
psychology,  in  which  materialistic  views  decid- 
edly prevail ;  but  in  his  Id6es  sur  I'Etai  Futur  de^ 
Etres  Vivants,  ou  Paling&nisie  Philosophique,  he 
endeavored  to  demonstrate  the  reasonableness 
of  the  Christian  revelation,  and  maintained  the 
future  life  of  all  living  creatures,  and  the  perfec- 
tion of  their  faculties  in  a  future  state.  His 
Considerations  sur  les  Corps  Organises  is  devoted 
to  an  examination  of  the  theories  of  generation. 
He  was  for  some  years  a  member  of  the  great 
council  of  his  native  city.     Died,  1793. 

Bonntvard,  de  (di  bo'-ne'-v&r'),  Francois,  French 
historian  and  hero  of  Byron's  Prisoner  of  Chillon; 
was  born  near  Geneva,  1496;  educated  at  Turin, 
and  became  prior  of  St.  Victor,  near  Geneva, 
1510,  at  the  age  of  fourteen  years.  An  ardent 
republican,  he  took  sides  with  the  Genevese 
against  Duke  Charles  III.  of  Savoy.  Having 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  robbers  who  delivered 
him  into  the  power  of  the  duke  of  Savoy,  he  was 
imprisoned  in  1530  in  the  castle  of  Chillon.  The 
Genevese  aided  by  the  Bernese  effected  his 
liberation  in  1536.  The  last  four  years  he  had 
spent  in  horrid  dungeons,  where,  by  his  monoto- 
nous and  perpetual  walking,  he  had  worn  a  deep 
channel  into  the  rock  that  formed  the  floor  of  his 
wretched  abode.  On  his  return  to  Geneva  he 
enjoyed  the  honors  due  to  his  patriotism,  and 
was  made  one  of  the  council  of  two  hundred. 
He  wrote  a  history  of  Geneva  and  other  works, 
and  has  sometimes  been  called  the  "Rabelais  of 
Geneva."     He  died  about  1570. 

Boone,  Daniel,  American  hunter  and  pioneer,  was 
born  in  Bucks  county.  Pa.,  1735.  His  father, 
a  farmer,  moved  to  North  Carolina  when  Daniel 
was  eighteen  years  old.  The  boy  had  but  little 
education,  but  he  knew  the  woods  and  Indian  life. 
When  thirty-four  years  old  he  went  with  five 
others  into  the  wilds  of  Kentucky.  He  had 
many  adventures  and  fights  with  the  savages, 
and  was  captured  by  them,  but  escaped;  in 
1775  he  moved  his  own  and  five  other  families 
there  from  North  Carolina.  He  built  a  fort  on 
the  Kentucky  river  which  he  named  Boones- 
borough.  The  Indians  attacked  the  fort  several 
times,  but  were  driven  off.  In  1778  they  caught 
Boone  while  away  from  the  fort  and  carried  him 
to  Detroit,  where  one  of  them  adopted  him  as  a 
son.  Hearing  of  a  plan  to  attack  Boonesbor- 
ough  he  ran  away,  and,  reaching  his  fort,  made 
ready  and  defended  it  with  about  fifty  men 
against  a  large  force  of  Canadians  and  Indians. 
He  lived  there  until  1792.  In  1795  he  went  to 
Missouri,  where  he  died  in  1820. 

Booth,  Ballington,  general-in-chief  and  president 
Volunteers  of  America,  was  bom  at  Brighouse, 
England,  1859 ;  son  of  Rev.  William  and  Catherine 
Booth.  Commander  Salvation  Army,  Australia, 
1885-87;  United  States,  1887-96;  founded, 
1896,  the  Volunteers  of  America  (incorporated 
November  6,  1896),  a  religious  philanthropic 
organization.  Ordained  presbyter,  Chicago,  1896 ; 
married  Sept.,  1886,  Maud  Charlesworth,  who  is 
also  active  in  Volunteers  of  America.  Writer, 
public  speaker,  philanthropist. 

Booth,  Edwin  Thomas,  American  actor,  son  of 
Junius  Brutus  Booth,  was  bom  in  Baltimore, 
Md.,  1833;  appeared  first  on  the  stage  in  1849,  in  I 


Rtehard  III.  He  speedily  roM  in  hk  nrofwiiuii, 
visited  England  and  the  continent  of  Buropo  in 
1861,  1880,  and  1883,  and  met  with  enthuai- 
astic  receptions.  From  1886  to  1891  be 
appeared  with  Lawrence  Barrett.  Hie  laat 
appearance  was  in  Hamlet  in  1891.  He  opened 
Booth's  theater  in  New  York,  1869,  and  did 
more  than  any  other  individual  to  keep  the  tone 
of  dramatic  art  up  to  a  moral  and  literary 
standard.     Died,  1893. 

Booth,  Junius  Brutus,  actor,  was  bom  in  F-nglmd 
in  1796;  first  appeared  on  the  stage  in  1813,  in 
the  Honeymoon,  and  within  four  yean  became 
famous  in  London  as  Richard  III.  Hie  Amerleaa 
career  was  a  triumph,  yet  marred  by  intemper- 
ance.    He  died  in  1852. 

Booth,  Maud  Balllngton  (nie  Charlesworth),  wife 
of  Ballington  Booth,  general-in-clilef.  Volunteer* 
of  America,  was  born  in  1865.  Author:  Branded; 
Look  Up  and  Hope;  Sleepy  Time  Storiea;  LiahU 
o/Childland;  After  Prison— What t  The  Curat 
of  Septic  Soul  Treatment;  Wanted  —  Antiaeptie 
Christians;  Twilight  Fairy  Tales. 

Booth-Tucker,  Frederic  St.  GeorKe  de  Lautour, 
commander  of  Salvation  Army  in  the  United 
States;  was  bom  at  Monghyr,  Bengal,  India, 
1853 ;  educated  at  Cheltenham  college,  England ; 
passed  Indian  civil  service  examinations,  1874; 
studied  in  London  until  1876;  appointed  to 
Punjab  and  held  positions  of  assistant  commis- 
sioner, magistrate,  and  treasury  officer ;  resigned 
to  join  Salvation  Army,  1881 ;  inaugurated  Salva- 
tion Army  work  in  India,  1882;  had  charge 
there  until  1891;  secretary  for  international 
work.  Salvation  Army,  London,  1891-96;  from 
1896  to  1904  in  charge  of  Unitetl  States ;  married 
in  1888  Emma  Moss,  daughter  of  General  William 
Booth,  of  Salvation  Army;  she  died  in  railway 
accident  in  1903.  Adopted  name  of  Booth- 
Tucker.  Author:  The  Life  of  Catherine  Booth; 
Life  of  General  William  Booth;  In  Darkest  India 
and  the  Way  Out;  Favorite  Songs  of  the  Salvation 
Army;  Monograph  for  the  Paria  Expoaition  on 
the  Work  of  the  Salvation  Army  in  the  United 
States,  etc. 

Booth,  William,  general  and  commander-in-chief 
of  Salvation  Army,  and  director  of  its  social 
institutions  for  destitute,  vicious,  and  criminal 
classes,  was  bom  in  Nottingham,  England,  1829. 
He  was  converted  among  the  Wesleyans,  became 
a  miiuster  of  the  Methodist  New  Connection  in 
1852;  resigned  in  1861;  began  evangelistic 
work,  and  in  1865  organized  the  Christian 
mission  in  the  densely  ixjpulated  east  end  of 
London.  Out  of  this  grew  the  Salvation 
Army,  whose  ramifications  spread  throughout 
the  world.  He  is  the  author  of  Orders  and 
Regulations  for  Oflicera  and  Soldiers;  Letters  to 
my  Soldiers;  Religion  for  Every  Day;  Salvation 
Soldiery  Visions;  In  Darkest  England  and  tha 
Way  Out,  and  numerous  other  books  and  pam- 
phlets. Publications:  newsjiapors  entitled  War 
Cry,  Young  Soldier,  Social  Gazette,  and  Bands- 
man and  Songster,  with  a  joint  weekly  circulation 
of  nearly  a  million  copies  in  twenty-one  languages ; 
monthhes  with  a  circulation  of  140,000.  He 
five  times  visited  the  Unite<l  States  and  Canada, 
three  times  Australasia  and  South  Africa,  twice 
India,  once  Japan,  and  several  times  almost 
every  country  in  Europe.     Died,  1912. 

Bopp  (Wp),  Prans,  celebrated  German  philologist 
and  Sanskrit  scholar,  was  bom  at  Mains,  1791: 
was  professor  of  oriental  literature  and  general 
philology  at  Berlin;  his  greatest  work,  A  Com- 
parative Grammar  o^f  Sanskrit,  Zend,  Greek,  Latin, 
Lithuanian,  Old  Slavic,  Gothic,  and  German; 
translated  portions  of  the  Mahabharata.  He  was 
in  1842  nuide  a  knight  of  the  newly  erected 
French  Ordre  du  Merit*,  and  in  1857  foreign 
associate  of  the  French  institute.     Died,  1867. 


176 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Borah,  WllUam  Edgar,  lawyer,  United  States 
senator,  was  bom  in  1865,  in  Wayne  county, 
111.;  educated  in  the  common  schools  of  Wayne 
county,  at  the  Southern  Illinois  academy, 
Enfield,  111.,  and  at  the  Kansas  state  university, 
Lawrence;  was  admitted  to  practice  law  in  1889 
at  Lyons,  Kan. ;  removed  to  Bois6,  Idaho,  and 
devoted  his  entire  time  since  then  exclusively  to 
practice  of  law,  until  elected  to  the  United  States 
senate  in  1907.     Reelected  for  term  1913-19. 

Borden,  Sir  Frederick  William,  Canadian  minister 
of  militia  and  defense,  1896-1911 ;  M.P. ;  wasborn 
in  1847 ;  educated  at  university  of  King's  college. 
Windsor,  Nova  Scotia,  B.  A.;  Harvard  medical 
school.  Boston,  Mass.,  M.  D.  Be^an  practice  of 
medicme,  1868;  appointed  assistant  surgeon 
68th  battalion  King's  county  militis^  1869: 
now  surgeon  lieutenant-colonel  and  hon.  colonel 
of  Canadian  army  medical  corps;  first  elected 
to  house  of  commons,  1874;  represented  same 
riding  (King's  N.  S.)  continuously,  except  during 
the  years  1883-86  inclusive,  until  1911,  having 
been  elected  ten  times  and  defeated  once. 

Borden,  Robert  Laird,  lawyer,  legislator,  was  bom 
at  Grand  Prd,  Nova  Scotia,  1854;  educated  at 
Acacia  Villa  academy,  Horton.  Began  the 
study  of  law,  1874:  admitted  to  bar,  1878; 
Q.  C.,  1891.  Has  had  an  extensive  practice 
in  the  supreme  court  of  Nova  Scotia  and  in 
the  supreme  court  of  Canada,  and  has  been 
engaged  in  several  cases  before  the  judicial  com- 
mittee of  the  privy  council;  president  of  Nova 
Scotia  barristers'  society,  1893-1904;  hon.  D. 
C.  L.,  Queen's  university,  Ontario,  1903;  LL.D., 
St.  Franijois  Xavier  university,  1905;  mem- 
ber for  the  city  and  county  of  Halifax,  1896- 
1900;  member  for  Carlton,  1905;  member  for  city 
and  county  of  Halifax,  1908-12;  took  a  leading 
part  in  many  important  debates  between  1896 
and  1900:  in  1901,  upon  the  resignation  of  Sir 
Charles  'Tupper,  elected  leader  of  conservative 
party  in  tne  Dominion  house  of  commons. 
Elected  premier  of  Canada,  1911. 

Borden,  William  CUne,  surgeon,  educator;  was 
bom  at  Watertown,  N.  Y.,  1858;  educated 
Adams,  N.  Y.,  collegiate  institute;  graduated 
medical  department  Columbian  university, 
Washington,  1883;  appointed  assistant  surgeon 
United  States  army,  1883,  captain,  1888; 
major  and  brigade  surgeon  United  States  volun- 
teers, 1898;  major  and  surgeon  United  States 
army,  1901-  during  Spanish-American  war 
commanded  United  States  army  general  hospi- 
tal. Key  West,  Fla. ;  afterward  transferred  to 
command  army  general  hospital,  Washington. 
Professor  military  surgery,  army  medical  school ; 
professor  surgery,  Washington  jxtst-graduate 
medical  school;  professor  of  surgical  pathology 
and  military  surgery,  medical  department,  George- 
town university ;  now  dean  medical  department, 
George  Washington  university.  Author:  Use 
of  the  Rdntgen  Kay  by  the  Medical  Department 
of  the  United  States  in  the  War  with  Spain;  also 
various  medical  monographs  and  articles.  _ 

Borghese  (bor-gd'sd),  Marie  Pauline,  princess, 
originally  Bonaparte,  sister  of  Napoleon,  was 
bom  in  1780,  at  Ajaccio.  Her  first  husband  was 
General  Leclerc,  and  after  his  death  in  1802  she 
married  the  prince  Camillo  Borghese.  With 
Napoleon,  who  loved  her  tenderly,  she  had  many 
disputes  and  as  many  reconciUations ;  for  if  he 
was  capricious,  she  was  also  proud.  Before  the 
battle  of  Waterloo  she  placed  all  her  diamonds, 
which  were  of  great  value,  at  his  disposal;  ana 
they  were  in  his  carriage,  which  was  taken  in 
that  battle,  and  exhibited  in  London.  She 
lived  afterward,  separated  from  her  husband, 
at  Rome,  where  her  house  was  the  center  of 
refined  and  fashionable  society.  She  died  at 
Florence  in  1825. 


Borgia  (bdr'-ja),  Cesare,  Italian  master  of  state- 
craft of  great  but  evil  fame,  was  bom  in  1476, 
the  fourth  son  of  Pope  Alexander  VI.,  by  Rosa 
Vanozza,  was  created  a  cardinal,  though  he 
divested  himself  of  the  office  in  later  years  to 
suit  his  purposes.  He  compassed  the  death  of 
his  brotner,  Giovanni,  who  was  the  duke  of 
Gandia,  in  order  to  gain  complete  ascendancy  in 
the  papal  government;  and  in  1498,  having  been 
sent  as  nuncio  to  Louis  XII.  of  P>ance,  he  was 
created  duke  of  Valentinois  and  married  the 
daughter  of  Jean  d'Albret,  king  of  Navarre. 
After  accompanying  Louis  XII. 's  Italian  cam- 
paign, he  conceived  the  idea  of  a  kingdom  in 
central  Italy,  and  by  force,  treachery,  and  mur- 
der he  had  nearly  succeeded  in  obtaining  ascend- 
ancy throughout  the  Roman  states,  when  the 
death  of  his  father  deprived  him  of  his  great 
source  of  power.  He  was  sent  in  1504  a  prisoner 
to  Spain  by  Pope  Julius  II.,  but  escaped  and 
joincKl  the  king  of  Navarre's  army  against 
Castile.     In  this  campaign  he  was  killed  in  1507. 

Boncla,  Lucresla,  sister  of  the  preceding,  and  like 
him  the  poasessor  of  an  infamous  reputation, 
was  bom  in  1480.  Her  father  compelled  her 
twice  to  marriage  and  divorce  before  sne  became 
the  wife  of  the  duke  of  Bisceglia.  After  her 
third  husband  had  been  murdered  by  Cesare 
Borgia,  she  married  Alfonso  of  Este,  and  passed 
her  life  in  the  court  of  Ferrara,  cultivating 
literature  and  art.     Died,  1519. 

Borgiom,  John  Gutson  de  la  Mothe  ("Gutzon 
Borglum"),  sculptor,  painter,  bom  in  Idaho. 
1867;  educated  at  public  schools,  Fremont  and 
Omaha,  Neb.,  and  St.  Mary's  college,  Kansas; 
studied  art  in  San  Francisco;  went  to  Paris, 
1890,  worked  and  studied  in  Acaddmie  Julien 
and  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts.  Exhibited  as  painter 
and  sculptor  in  Paris  salon ;  in  Spain,  1892 ;  in  Cali- 
fornia, 1893-94 ;  retumed  East,  and  in  1896  went 
to  London,  remaining  there  and  in  Paris  until  1901 ; 
in  New  York  since  1902.  Exhibited  in  London  and 
Paris,  1896-1901;  held  successful  "one-man" 
exhibition  in  London;  received  gold  medal 
sculpture  at  Louisiana  Purchase  exposition; 
sculptor  for  work  on  cathedral  of  St.  John  the 
Divine,  New  York.  Work  includes,  in  painting, 
figures  and  animals,  portraits  and  mural  painting; 
in  sculpture  figures  and  horses  and  groups  in 
bronze ;  executed  the  gargoyles  on  the  Princeton 
dormitory,  class  of  1879. 

Borglum,  Solon  Hannibal,  sculptor,  was  bom  at 
Ogden,  Utah,  1868;  pupil  in  Cincinnati  art 
scnool  and  under  I^ouis  Rebisso  and  Fr6miet, 
Paris.  Has  made  special  study  of  western  life, 
living  among  cowboys  and  Indians;  special 
prize  and  home  scholarship,  Cincinnati  art 
school,  1897;  honorable  mention,  Paris  salon, 
1899;  silver  medal.  Exposition  Universelle,  Paris, 
1900;  silver  medal,  Buffalo  exposition,  1901; 
gold  medal,  St.  Louis  exposition,  1904;  member 
national  sculpture  society. 

Borromeo  (bor-ro-mi'-d).  Carlo,  Count,  cardinal 
and  archbishop  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church, 
who  exercised  great  influence  during  the  pontifi- 
cate of  Pope  Pius  IV.,  was  bom  at  the  castle  of 
Arona,  on  the  Lago  Maggiore,  northern  Italy, 
1538.  His  energy  was  especially  displayed  dur- 
ing the  famine  of  1570,  and  during  the  plague 
in  Milan  in  1576.  Many  supposed  miracles  at  nis 
tomb  led  to  his  being  canonized  in  1610  by  Poj>e 
Paul  V.  Several  memoirs  of  him  have  been 
published.    Died,  1584. 

Borrow,  George,  English  author  and  traveler,  was 
bom  in  Norfolk  in  1803.  His  travels,  as  agent 
for  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  society, 
through  almost  all  countries  of  Europe  and  a 
part  of  Africa,  made  him  familiar  with  many 
modem  languages,  even  to  their  dialectic  pecu- 
liarities.    He    made    the    gypsies    one    of    the 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


677 


principal  subjects  of  his  study.  His  first  Im- 
portant work,  The  Zincali,  or  An  Account  of 
the  Gypsies  in  Spain,  made  a  favorable  impres- 
sion. It  was  followed  by  The  Bible  in  Spain. 
Died,  1881. 
Bory  de  Saint  Vincent  (&d'-r^  dS  ada  v&s'-aits'), 
Jean  Baptlste  George  Marie,  French  traveler  and 
naturalist,  was  born  in  1780  at  Agen,  Lot-et- 
Garonne.  In  1798  he  proceeded,  along  with 
Captain  Baudin,  in  a  scientific  mission  to  New 
Holland,  but  separated  from  him  before  they 
reached  their  destination.  On  his  return  he 
wrote  his  Essai  sur  les  lies  Fortuniea  de  I'antique 
Atlantide,  and  his  Voyage  dans  les  quaire  prin- 
cipales  lies  des  Mers  d' Afrique.  Having  Joined 
the  army,  he  served  at  Ulm  and  Austerfitz,  and 
on  Soult's  staff  in  Spain.  He  served  as  colonel 
at  Waterloo,  and  afterward  had  to  retire  to 
Belgium.  At  Brussels  he  edited,  together  with 
Van  Mons,  the  Annales  des  Sciences  Physiques. 
He  returned  to  France  in  1820,  wrote  for  liberal 

i'oumals,  and  for  Courtin's  Encydopidie,  etc. 
n  1827  appeared  his  U Homme,  Essai  ZoSlogique 
sur  le  Genre  humain.  He  rendered  an  important 
service  to  science  by  editing  the  Dictionnaire 
Classique  de  I'Histoire  Naiurdle.  In  1839  he 
undertook  the  principal  charge  of  the  scientific 
commission  which  the  French  government  sent 
to  Algeria.     He  died  in  1846. 

Bosanquet  (jbd'-saa'-ka'),  Bernard,  educator,  author 
formerly  fellow  of  University  college,  Oxford; 
M.  A..  Oxford;  LL.  D.,  Glasgow;  past  president 
of  Aristotelian  society;  fellow  of  British  acad- 
emy ;  bom  at  Alnwick,  England,  1848 ;  educated 
at  Harrow;  Balliol  college,  Oxford;  lecturer 
University  college,  Oxford,  1871-81 ;  in  London 
occupied  with  authorship  and  university  exten- 
sion lecturing  and  social  work,  especially  in  con- 
nection with  charity  organization  society,  1881- 
97;  then  went  to  live  in  country;  professor 
of  moral  philosophy,  St.  Andrews,  1903-08. 
Author:  Logic,  or  Morphology  of  Knowledge; 
History  of  Aesthetic;  Knowledge  and  Reality; 
Essays  and  Addresses;  Civilization  of  Christen- 
dom.; Essentials  of  Logic;  Aspects  of  Social  Prob- 
lem.; Psychology  of  Moral  Self;  Companion  to 
Pl(Uo's  Republic  for  English  Readers;  Education 
of  the  Young  in  Plato's  Republic;  Philosophical 
Theory  of  the  State;  edited  translation  of  Lotze's 
System  of  Philosophy;  translation  of  Hegel^s 
Aesthetic  (Introduction);  translation  of  Scho- 
mann's  Constitutional  History  of  Athens. 

BoBcawen  (bds'-kd-wSn),  Edward,  the  admiral  "Old 
Dreadnought,"  was  bom  in  Cornwall,  Eng- 
land, 1711,  the  son  of  Viscount  Falmouth.  He 
highly  distinguished  himself  at  the  taking  of 
Porto  Bello,  1739,  at  the  siege  of  Carthagena, 
1741,  and  in  command  of  the  Dreadnought,  in 
1744,  captured  the  French  M6dSe,  with  800 
prisoners.  He  had  an  important  share  in  the 
victory  of  Cape  Finisterre,  1747,  where  he  was 
wounded  in  the  shoulder;  and  in  command  of 
the  East  Indian  expedition  displayed  high 
military  skill  in  the  retreat  from  Pondicherry. 
He  returned  to  England  in  1750.  In  1755  he 
intercepted  the  French  fleet  off  Newfoundland, 
capturing  two  64-gun  ships  and  1,500  men;  in 
1758  he  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  successful 
expedition  against  Cape  Breton.  Boscawen 
crowned  his  career  by  his  signal  victory  over  the 
French  Toulon  fleet  in  Lagos  bay,  1759.  He 
received  the  thanks  of  parliament,  a  pension  of 
3,000  pounds  a  year,  a  seat  in  the  privy  council, 
and  the  command  of  the  marines.  He  died  at 
his  Surrey  seat,  Hatchlands  Park,  1761. 

Bossnet    {bo'-su'-i'),   Jacques    B^nlgne,    a   distin- 

fuished  orator  and  prelate  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
c  church,  was  bom  in  Dijon,  France,  1627; 
bishop  of  Condom  and  of  Meaux,  and  tutor 
to  the  dauphin,  the  son  of  Louis  XlV.     He  was 


the  author  of  aeveral  oontrovenial  worlu,  all  in 
dcfen.se  of  the  Roman  Catholic  doctrine;  but 
his  fame  reata  chiefly  on  his  Sermon*,  which,  of 
their  kind,  are  of  unrivaled  eloquwuM,  thou|^ 
they  are  too  dramatic  for  the  majority  Of  F-m"«h 
readers.  Several  of  his  compodtioiMi,  writt«n  la 
the  first  instance  for  the  um  of  tha  dauphin, 
and  csrM'cially  his  Diacourae  on  Vnivaraal  Hittory, 

Srintcd  in  1G81,  long  retained  a  hisb  reputatioo. 
•led,  1704.  ^^ 

Boswell,  James,  the  biographer  of  Dr.  Samual 
Johnson,  was  bom  in  Eklinburgh,  1740.  He 
showed  early  a  penchant  for  wrilins  and  an 
admiration  for  literary  men.  He  fell  in  with 
Johnson  on  a  visit  to  London  in  1703,  and  con- 
ceived for  him  the  most  devoted  regara :  made  a 
tour  with  him  to  the  Hebrides  In  1773,  the 
Journal  of  which  he  afterward  published:  Milled 
in  London,  and  was  admitted  to  the  English  l>ar; 
succeeded,  in  1782,  to  his  father's  estate,  Auchin- 
leck,  in  Ayrshire,  with  an  income  of  1,600  pounda 
a  year.  J^ohnson  dying  in  1784,  BosweU'a  Ltf*  of 
him  appeared  seven  years  after,  a  work  unique 
in  biography,  and  such  as  no  man  oould  have 
written  who  was  not  a  hcro-worBhipcr  to  the 
backbone.     He  died  in  1795. 

Bosworth,  Joseph,  Anglo-Saxon  scholar,  was  bom 
in  Derbyshire  in  1789,  and  died  at  Oxford  In 
1876,  having  been  professor  of  Anglo-Saxon 
there  from  1858,  and  having  in  1807  given 
10,000  pounds  toward  the  establishment  of  a 
professorship  of  Anglo-Saxon  at  Ceunbridge. 
His  chief  works  were  Elements  of  Anglo-Saxon 
Grammar  and  An  Anglo-Saxon  Dictionary. 

Botha  (bo'-ta),  Rt.  Hon.  Louis,  Boer  soldier, 
statesman,  bora  in  1863  at  Greytown  In  Natal, 
was  a  member  of  the  Transvaal  Volksraad, 
succeeded  Joubert  as  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Boer  forces  during  the  war,  and  in  1907  became 
prime  minister  of  the  Transvaal  colony  under 
the  new  constitution.  In  the  same  year  he 
visited  England,  attended  the  British  colonial 
conference,  and  received  the  Edinburgh  LL.  D. 
and  other  nonors. 

Botta  (bSf-ta),  Carlo  Giuseppe  Gufcllelmo,  Italian 
historian,  was  bom  in  1766;  studied  medicine, 
and  was  imprisoned  in  1792  as  a  revolution- 
ary. He  took  an  active  part  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Piedmont,  set  up  by  Napoleon,  but 
after  the  emperor's  overthrow  he  devoted  him- 
self entirely  to  literature.  He  wrote  The  Hia- 
tory  of  Italy  between  1789  and  1814,  and  a 
History  of  the  American  War  of  JndeperuUnea. 
Died,  1837.  _,  , 

Botta,  Paul  Emlle,  French  archaeologist  and  traveler, 
son  of  preceding,  was  bom  in  1802.  In  1830  he 
went  to  Egypt,  where  he  entered  into  the  service 
of  Mehemet  AU  as  a  physician.  The  Frrach 
government  about  18.33  appointed  him  consul  in 
Alexandria,  from  which  place  he  undertook  a 
journey  to  Arabia,  the  results  of  which  he  gave  to 
the  world  in  a  work  entitled  Relation  d'unVoyoffa 
dana  I'Yhnen,  entrepria  1837,  potxr  la  MuUum  «r 
Hiatoire  NaturMa  da  Porta.  From  Alexandria 
he  was  sent  as  consular  agent  to  Mosul,  where  he 
commenced  a  series  of  discoveriea  which  form  an 
epoch  in  archaeological  science.  In  1846  Botta 
was  appointed  consul  at  Jerusalem,  and  in  1857 
at  Tripoli.  He  returned  to  France  in  1868,  and 
died  at  Achfercs  in  1870.  ,    ,, 

BottlceUI  (bdf-U-cha'-U),  Alessaadro,  Italian 
painter,  was  bom  in  1447.  In  response  to  the 
invitation  of  Pope  Sixtus  IV.,  he  went  to  Rome 
and  executed  some  fine  paintings  for  the  chapel 
of  the  Vatican.  On  returning  to  Florence  ne 
became  a  devoted  follower  of  Savonarola. 
Died,  1515. 

BouKalnville  (IxSd'-gdti'-vel'),  Louis  Antolne  de, 
French  navigator,  was  bom  in  Paris,  1729.  In 
1764  he  went  as  secretary  ol  the  French  enbassy 


678 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


to  London.  In  1756  he  acted  as  aide-de-camp  to 
the  marquis  of  Montcalm,  to  whom  the  defense 
of  Canada  was  intnisted.  He  took  a  voyage 
round  the  world  with  a  frigate  and  a  St.  Malo 
transport,  the  first  which  the  PVench  ever  accom- 
plished, which  he  described  in  his  Voyage  aiUour 
du  monde.     Died,  J814. 

Boughton  {b6'-tii,n),  George  Henry,  artist,  was  bom 
in  England,  1834,  and  brought  to  the  United 
States  when  three  years  old.  He  studied  in 
New  York,  Paris,  and  London,  and  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  National  academy  of  New  York,  and 
an  associate  of  the  royal  academy  after  1879. 
Among  his  paintings  are  "The  Return  of  the 
Mayflower";  "Evangeline";  "Milton  visited 
by  Andrew  Marvell";  "Passing  into  Shade"; 
"Coming  from  Church";  "Cold  Without"; 
"Morning  Prayer";  "The  Scarlet  Letter"; 
"The  Idyl  of  the  Birds";  "Puritans  Goine  to 
Church";  "Clarissa  Harlowe";  etc.  "The  Idyl 
of  the  Birds"  is  generally  considered  his  best 
achievement.     Died,  1905. 

Bouguereau  {h^'-gi^o'),  William  Adolphe,  French 
painter,  was  born  at  La  Rochelle  in  1825.  After 
a  youth  of  hardship  he  succeeded  in  reaching 
Paris,  where  he  obtained  admission  to  the  studio 
of  Picot,  and  later  to  the  Beaux  Arts.  In  185U 
he  gained  the  prix  de  Rome,  and  went  to  Italy 
to  studv.  His  first  success  was  "The  Body  of 
St.  Cecilia  Borne  to  the  Catacombs"  in  the  salon 
of  1854.  From  that  time  his  reputation  was 
made.  He  painted  some  portraits,  but  his  sub- 
jects are  chiefly  ideal,  idyllic,  and  religious.  He 
was  made  a  member  of  the  institute  in  1876. 
Died,  1905. 

Bouillon  (b(}6'-ydN'),  Godfrey  de,  duke  of  lower 
Lorraine,  "a  worthy  representative  of  Charle- 
magne, from  whom  he  was  descended  in  the 
female  line,"  was  born  about  1061.  He  gained 
distinction  in  the  armies  of  the  emperor  Henry 
IV.,  and  was  the  great  leader  of  the  first  cnisade. 
According  to  the  chroniclers,  he  performed  prod- 
igies of  strength  and  valor  against  the  infidels,  and 
was  unanimously  proclaimed  king  of  Jerusalem 
on  its  capture  in  1099,  but  declined  the  title.  At 
Ascalon,  with  20,000  men,  he  defeated  the  sultan 
of  Egypt  with  400,000.  He  then  devoted  himself 
to  organize  his  government,  and  drew  up,  for 
his  courts  of  justice,  the  assizes  of  Jerusalem,  a 
code  of  laws  which  was  the  fullest  embodiment 
of  feudal  jurisprudence.  He  died  in  1100,  and 
was  buried  on  Mount  Calvary.  His  many 
virtues  are  justly  extolled  in  Tasso's  Jerusalem 
Delivered. 

Boulanger  (IxSb'-laji'-zhQ'),  George  Ernest  Jean 
Marie,  French  general  and  politician,  was  bom 
in  1837;  made  colonel  during  the  siege  of  Paris, 
general  of  brigade  in  1880,  and  minister  of  war 
in  1886.  He  achieved  great  popularity,  and 
was  elected  in  1889  deputy  to  the  national  as- 
sembly. A  threat  of  prosecution  drove  him  into 
exile,  and  he  committed  suicide  at  Brussels 
in  1891. 

Boulger  (bol'-jer),  Demetrius  Charles,  British  his- 
torian and  writer,  was  bom  in  London,  1853; 
educated  at  Kensington  grammar  school  and 
private  tuition.  Has  contributed  to  all  the 
leading  journals  on  questions  connected  with 
the  Indian  empire,  China,  Egypt,  and  Turkey 
since  1876;  has  also  closely  studied  military 
questions,  especially  those  connected  with  the 
French  frontiers  and  the  position  of  Belgium; 
founded,  in  conjunction  with  Sir  Lepel  Griffin, 
the  Asiatic  Quarterly  Review,  1885,  and  edited  it 
during  the  first  four  and  a  half  vears  of  its  exist- 
ence. Author:  England  and  Russia  in  Central 
Asia;  The  History  of  China;  General  Gordon's 
Letters  from  the  Crimea;  Central  Asian  Questions; 
Life  of  Gordon;  Story  of  India;  The  Congo  State; 
The   Belgians   at    Waterloo;     India   in   the    19th 


Century;  History  of  Belgium;  Belgian  Life  in 
Town  and  Country;  Belgium  of  the  Belgians. 

Boulton  {hol'-tun),  Matthew,  English  mechanician, 
bom  in  1728  at  Birmingham.  He  founded  the 
famous  Soho  iron  and  steel  plant  near  Birming- 
ham. One  of  his  first  inventions  was  a  new 
mode  of  inlaying  steel.  He  entered  into  part- 
nership with  James  Watt,  who  had  obtained  a 
patent  for  the  great  improvements  in  the  steam 
engine  which  have  immortalized  his  name,  and 
they  established  a  manufactory  of  steam  engines 
in  1769.  They  jointly  contributed  also  to  the 
improvement  of  coining  machinery,  and  so  to 
the  perfection  of  the  coinage  itself.      Died,  1809. 

Bourbald  {IxJirr'-bd'-ki'),  Charles  Denis  Sauter. 
French  general,  bom  at  Pau,  1816,  fought  in  the 
Crimea  and  Italy.  In  1870  he  commanded  the 
imperial  guard  at  Metz;  and  under  Gambetta 
organized  the  army  of  the  North,  and  commanded 
the  army  of  the  Loire.  His  attempt  to  break 
the  Prussian  line  at  Belfort,  though  ably  con- 
ceived, ended  in  disaster*  in  a  series  of  desul- 
tory attacks  on  a  much  inferior  force,  1871, 
he  lost  10,000  men.  In  the  wretched  retreat  to 
Switzerland  that  followed  he  attempted  to 
commit  suicide.  He  retired  in  1881  and  died  in 
1897. 

Bourbon  ({NS>r'-b4$N'),  Charles,  French  general, 
known  as  "the  constable  de  Bourbon,"  was  bom 
1490 ;  for  his  bravery  at  the  battle  of  Marignano 
in  1515  he  was  nuule  constable  of  France.  But 
powerful  enemies  strove  to  undermine  him  in 
the  favor  of  Francis  I. ;  and,  threatened  with  the 
loss  of  some  of  his  lands  and  dignities,  he  re- 
nounced the  service  of  France,  and  concluded  a 
private  alliance  with  the  emperor  Charles  V., 
and  with  Henry  VIII.  of  England.  At  the  head 
of  a  force  of  German  mercenaries  he  joined  the 
Spanish  army  in  Lombardy  in  1523,  ancf,  invading 
France  in  1524,  faile<i  at  the  siege  of  Marseilles. 
Next  year,  however,  he  was  chief  commander  at 
the  great  victory  of  Pavia,  in  which  Francis  I. 
was  taken  prisoner.  But  Charles  V.  distrusted 
him,  though  he  made  him  duke  of  Milan  and 
Spanish  commander  in  northern  Italy.  With 
George  of  Frundsberg  he  led  the  mixed  army 
of  Spanish  and  German  mercenaries  that  stormed 
and  plundered  Rome  in  1527.  Bourbon  was 
struck  down  in  the  fierce  struggle  —  ^  *  bullet 
said  to  have  been  fired  by  Benvenuto  Cellini. 

Bourdaloue  (6<5&r'-dd'-i<»'),  Louis,  great  French 
preacher,  was  bom  at  Bourges,  1632,  where, 
after  being  educated  by  the  Jesuits  for  the 
church,  he  lectured  in  the  academy  for  some 
time  on  humanity,  theological  ethics^  etc.  In 
1669  he  began  to  preach  at  St.  Louis  (Jesuit) 
church,  Paris,  where  Louis  XIV'.  and  his  grand- 
daughter soon  brought  the  court  to  hear  him. 
His  popularity  lasted  many  years.  His  sermons, 
based  chiefly  on  the  texts  of  Isaiah,  St.  Paul, 
and  St.  Augustine,  were  marked  by  profound 
moral  earnestness  and  great  logical  power. 
They  were  delivered  with  shut  eyes,  and  a  sonor- 
ous but  uninflected  voice.  He  advocated  a 
return  to  primitive  evangelicism,  and  spoke 
plainly  about  the  vices  of  the  court.  He  was 
sent  on  a  special  mission  to  Languedoc  on  the 
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  in  1685,  and 
there  is  no  doubt  that  he  was  best  fitted  among 
the  Catholic  clergy  to  secure  a  hearing  from  the 
Huguenots.  His  later  years  were  spent  in  the 
preaching  and  practice  of  charity.  He  died  at 
Paris  in  1704. 

Bourdon  (b<55r'-d(5N').  S^bastlen,  French  painter; 
bom  at  MontpeUier  1616,  died  1671;  studied  in 
Paris  and  Rome.  His  first  great  picture  was  his 
"Martyrdom  of  St.  Peter";  others  include 
"Descent  from  the  Cross,"  "Julius  Csesar  at  the 
Tomb  of  Alexander,"  "Group  of  Merchants,"  etc. 
In  1652-53  he  was  court  painter  in  Sweden. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


sn 


Bourget  (bO^-zM'),  Paul,  French  poet,  critic,  and 
novelist,  member  of  the  French  academy,  was 
born  at  Amiens,  1852.  In  1873  he  first  showed 
his  gifts  as  a  critic,  in  an  article  contributed  to 
the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondea,  followed  by  a  collec- 
tion of  poems.  In  this  volume,  and  in  the  later 
effusion  of  his  verse,  as  well  as  in  his  prose 
Studies,  he  showed  the  characteristics  of  liis 
style  and  thought.  He  has  written  many 
eminently  realistic  and  analytical  books,  chiefly 
studies  of  the  scientific  and  pessimistic  tendencies 
of  the  age.  Among  them  are  the  following: 
Cosmopohs;  Pastels  of  Men;  Antigone  and  Other 
Portraits  of  Women;  Domestic  Dramas;  Outre- 
Mer:  Impressions  of  America;  The  Two  Sisters; 
The  Emigrant,  etc. 

Bourinot  {h^'-rl-no').  Sir  John  George*  Canadian 
author  and  parliamentarian,  was  bom  at  Sydney, 
Nova  Scotia,  in  1837;  educated  at  Trinity 
college,  Toronto;  established  the  Halifax 
Reporter,  and  in  1880  became  clerk  of  the  Domin- 
ion house  of  commons.  His  pubUcations  are 
numerous,  dealing  both  with  the  political  and 
the  constitutional  history  of  the  Canadian 
dominion.  Among  them  are  How  Canada  is 
Governed;  Constitutional  History  of  Canada; 
Parliamentary  Practice  and  Procedure;  History 
of  Canada  (in  the  Story  of  the  Nations  series); 
and  Canada  Under  British  Ride.     Died,  1902. 

Bourne  (Jb<X>rn  or  6<Jm),  Edward  Gaylord,  historian, 
educator,  was  bom  at  Strykersville,  N.  Y.,  1860; 
graduated  at  Yale,  1883 ;  Ph.  D.,  1892;  instmctor 
history  and  lecturer  on  political  science,  Yale, 
1886-88;  instructor  in  history,  Adelbert  college, 
1888-90;  professor  in  history  same,  1890-95; 
professor  in  history,  Yale,  1895-1908.  Author: 
Historical  Introduction  to  the  Philippine  Islands, 
Spain  in  America.  Editor:  Yomtukt's  Napoleon 
I.,  Roscher's  Spanish  Colonial  System.  Editor 
and  translator:  The  Narrative  of  De  Soto,  The 
Voyages  of  Champlain,  Narratives  of  Columbus 
and  Cabot.     Died,  1908. 

Bourne,  Hugh,  founder  of  the  Primitive  Methodists, 
was  born  in  1772  at  Fordhays,  Stoke-upon-Trent, 
England,  and  died  at  Bemersley  in  1852.  His 
zeal  as  a  Wesley  an  preacher  for  large  open-air 
meetings,  carried  on  once  from  6  A.  M.  until 
8  P.  M.,  received  no  countenance  from  the 
leaders  of  the  denomination,  and  in  1808  he 
was  cut  off  from  the  Wesleyan  connection.  But 
he  quickly  gathered  round  him  many  devoted 
adherents,  and  in  1810  a  conunittee  of  ten 
members  was  formed  at  Standley,  near  Bemers- 
ley. The  title  of  Primitive  Methodists  was 
adopted  in  1812;  by  the  people  they  were 
sometimes  called  Ranters.  Bourne  and  his 
brother  founded  the  first  chapel  of  the  body  at 
Tunstall  in  1811.  For  the  greater  part  of  his 
life  he  worked  as  a  carpenter  and  builder,  but 
found  time  to  visit  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  the 
United  States.  He  wrote  a  History  of  the 
Primitive  Methodists. 

Bourne,  Jonathan,  Jr.,  lawyer,  United  States  senator, 
1907-13,  was  bom  at  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  1855; 
entered  Harvard  college  in  1873  and  remained 
until  the  end  of'his  junior  year.  After  traveling 
around  the  world  he  settled  in  Portland,  Oregon, 
1878,  where  he  read  law  and  was  admitted  to 
the  Oregon  bar  in  1881.  He  became  largely 
interested  in  the  mining  interests  of  the  North- 
west; is  president  of  a  number  of  Oregon  cor- 
porations and  of  the  Bourne  cotton  mills  at 
Fall  River,  Mass.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Oregon  legislature  in  1885,  1886,  and  1897. 
He  is  the  author  of   the  parcel  post  bill. 

Boutell,  Henry  Sherman,  lawyer,  member  of  con- 
gress, 1897-1911  ;  was  bom  at  Boston,  Mass.,  1856; 
moved  with  parents  to  Chicago  in  1863;  grad- 
uated from  Northwestern  university,  1874,  and 
from  Harvard  university,  1876 ;    admitted  to  the 


bar,  1879,  and  to  the  supreme  court,  1886 ; 

ber  Illinois  legislature  in  1884,  and  introduced 
bill  passed  1885  that  is  now  basis  of  the 
election  law  of  Illinois.  In  1006  he  pUoed 
Speaker  Cannon  in  nomination  for  the  prnsliTmojr~ 
is  member  of  the  board  of  trustees  of  the  North- 
western  university,  and  in  1904  reoeiTSd  the 
degree  of  LL.  D.  from  that  institution;  was 
elected  to  the  fifty-fifth  congrces  in  1807  to 
fill  the  unexpired  term  of  Eklward  Dean  Cooke, 
deceased,  and  was  twice  reelected.  Appointea 
United  States  minister  to  Portugal,  March,  1911, 
to  Switzerland,  April,  1911. 

Boutwell,  George  Sewall,  legislator,  political  re- 
former, was  bom  at  Brookline,  Mass.,  1818; 
was  self-instructed  after  a  common  school  course. 
He  began  the  study  of  law  at  eighteeOi  but 
never  practiced.  He  was  governor  of  MaMi^ 
chusetts  1852-53;  member  of  congrees  1808-M: 
secretary  of  the  treasury  1869-73;  and  United 
States  senator  from  Massachusetts  1873-77. 
He  wrote  Educational  Topics  and  InatUvtiona, 
and  a  Manual  of  the  United  States  Direct  ana 
Revenue  Tax.     Died  at  Groton,  Mass.,  1905. 

Bowdltch  (bou'-dich),  Charles  Pickering,  trustee, 
archijeological  student;  bom  at  BoHton,  Mass., 
1842;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1863;  director 
Massachusetts  cotton  mills,  Maasacbusetts  miUs 
in  Georgia,  Pepperell  manufacturing  company, 
Saco  water  power  company,  Massachusetts  hos- 
pital life  insurance  company.  Served  in  civil 
war  1863-64;  member  of  many  archaeological, 
historical,  and  other  learned  societies.  Author 
of  ten  pamphlets  on  Central  American  arche- 
ology, and  on  history  of  the  trustees  of  the 
charity  of  Edward  Hopkins. 

Bowdltch,  Henry  Pickering,  physiologist;  bom  at 
Boston,  1840;  graduated  from  Harvard,  1861; 
Harvard  medical  school,  1868;  D.  Sc.,  Cam- 
bridge, England,  1898 ;  LL.  D.,  Edinburgh,  1898, 
Toronto,  1903,  university  of  Pennsylvania,  1904 ; 
lieutenant,  captain,  and  major  United  States 
volunteer  cavalry,  1861-65;  studied  physiology 
in  France  and  Germany,  1868-71;  assistant  pro- 
fessor, 1871-76,  and  professor  physiology,  1876- 
1906,  at  Harvard  medical  school;  trustee 
Boston  public  library^  1895-1902.  Puhli.shed 
many  papers  on  physiological  subjects.  Died, 
1911. 

Bowdltch,  Nathaniel,  American  astronomer,  was 
bom  in  1773  at  Salem,  Mass.  He  showed  at  a 
very  early  age  a  great  inclination  for  mathe> 
matics,  in  which  he  attained  great  proficiengr, 
without  ever  attending  a  university.  His  wonc. 
The  New  American  Practical  Aavigatar,  was 
received  with  great  favor.  He  also  published  an 
admirable  translation  of  La  Place's  Mieamq%i» 
Cdeste,  to  which  he  added  valuable  annotations. 
He  was  later  chosen  professor  of  mathematics 
and  astronomy  in  Harvard  college,  but  declined 
to  enter  the  executive  council  of  the  state.  After- 
ward became  manager  of  the  Massachusetts  life 
insurance  association,  president  of  the  mechanics' 
institute,  and  president  of  the  academy  of  arts 
and  sciences  in  Boston.     Died,  1838. 

Bowell  {bou'-et),  Hon.  Sir  Mackentle,  Canadian 
statesman;  premier  of  Cana<lian  parliament 
1894-95:  was  bom  at  Rickinghall,  Suffolk,  1823; 
removed  to  Canada,  1833,  received  a  common 
school  education,  and  became  editor  and  pro- 
prietor of  the  Belleville  InUUigenetr.  Entered 
Canadian  parliament,  1867 ;  minister  of  euMoms, 
1878-91 ;  minister  of  militia  and  defense.  1801: 
of  trade  and  commerce,  1892-04;  president  of 
privy  council,  1895-96;  elected  to  the  senate, 
1892;  leader  of  the  conservative  opposition  In 
the  senate,  1896-1906. 

Bowen,  Francis,  writer  of  political  economy  and 
philosophy,  was  bom  in  Massachusetts  in  1811; 
graduate   of    Harvard   and   instructor   tbers   ia 


MO 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


political  economy  and  intellectual  philosophy. 
In  1843  he  became  editor  of  the  North  American 
Review.  In  1854  he  succeeded  Dr.  Walker  in 
the  Alford  professorship  of  natural  religion, 
moral  philosophy,  and  civil  polity.  His  works 
include:  Critical  Essay  a  on  the  History  and 
Present  Condition  of  Speculative  Philosophy; 
Princijiles  of  Political  Economy  Applied  to  the 
Condition,  Resources,  and  In«titidions  of  the 
American  People;  an  annotated  edition  of 
Vergil,  and  a  revision  of  Reeves'p  translation  of 
De  Tocqueville's  Democracy  in  America.  Died, 
1890. 

Bowles  (bolt),  Samuel,  journalist,  for  more  than 
thirtv  years  editor  of  the  Springfield  Republican, 
was  bom  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  182G;  died,  1878. 
He  traveled  widely  over  the  United  States  and 
was  always  warmlv  interested  in  political  affairs, 
though  never  holding  office.  As  a  practical 
editor  Bowles  stood  in  the  first  rank,  satisfied 
with  nothing  less  than  the  best  work,  sparing 
neither  his  own  nor  his  subordinates'  strength, 
not  hampered  in  his  work  by  either  fear  or 
friendship.  He  was  an  accomplished  and  fasci- 
nating conversationalist,  cosmopolitan  in  taste, 
and  liberal  in  opinion.  He  wrote  Across  the 
Continent,  Our  New  West,  and  The  Switzerland 
of  America,  which,  with  his  numerous  editorial 
writings,  show  him  a  master  of  clear  and  vigorous 
English. 

Bowne  {boun),  Borden  Parker,  educator,  writer  on 
philosophy;  was  bom  at  Leonardville,  N.  J., 
1847;  A.  B.,  1871,  A.  M.,  1876,  college  of  the  city 
of  New  York;  studied  at  universities  of  Halle, 
Paris,  and  Gottingen,  1873-75;  LL.  D.,  Ohio 
Wesleyan,  1881 ;  assistant  professor  of  modem 
languages,  college  of  the  city  of  New  York,  1875- 
76;  on  staff  New  York  Independent,  1875-76; 
professor  of  philosophy  and  dean  graduate 
school  of  arts  and  sciences,  Boston  universitv, 
1876-1910.  Author:  The  Philosophy  of  Herbert 
Spencer;  Studies  in  Theism;  Metaphysics, 
Introduction  to  Psychological  Theory;  Philosophy 
of  Theism;  The  Principles  of  Ethics;  Theory  of 
Thought  and  Knowledge;  The  Christian  Revela- 
tion; The  Christian  Life;  The  AtonemerU;  The 
Immanence  of  God;  Personalism;  contributed 
philosophical  and  theological  articles  to  reviews 
and  newspapers.      Died,  1910. 

Boyle,  Robert,  physicist,  was  bom  at  Lismore 
castle,  Ireland,  1627;  after  studying  at  Eton, 
and  under  the  rector  of  Stalbridge,  Dorset,  went 
to  the  continent  for  six  vears.  On  his  return  in 
1644  he  found  himself  in  possession,  by  his 
father's  death,  of  the  manor  of  Stalbridge,  where 
he  devoted  himself  to  chemistry  and  natural 
philosophy.  Settling  at  Oxford  in  1654.  he 
experimented  in  pneumatics,  and  improvea  the 
air-pump.  As  a  director  of  the  East  India  com- 
pany he  worked  for  the  propagation  of  Chris- 
tianity in  the  East,  circulated  at  nis  own  expense 
translations  of  the  scriptures,  and  by  bequest 
founded  the  "Boyle  lectures"  in  defense  of 
Christianity.  He  naa  justly  been  termed  the 
true  precursor  of  the  modem  chemist.  He  dis- 
covered "Mariotte's  law"  seven  years  before 
Mariotte.     Died,  1691. 

Bosiaris  (J>6f-sBHres)  (often,  bo-z&r'-ls),  Marcos, 
Greek  patriot  who  distinguished  himself  in  the 
early  part  of  the  struggle  for  Greek  independence, 
was  bom  at  Suli,  in  the  mountains  of  Epirus, 
toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  He 
died  in  battle  while  successfully  leading  a  body 
of  1200  men  against  the  Turco-Albanian  army, 
4,000  strong,  in  1823.  He  was  honored  with  the 
title  of  the  "Leonidas-of  modem  Greece." 

Bracton,  Henry  de,  British  ecclesiastic  and  jurist, 
was  a  "justice  itinerant";  in  1264  he  became 
archdeacon  of  Barnstaple  and  chancellor  of 
Exeter  cathedral,    and   died   in    1268.     His   De 


Legibus  et  Consuetudinibus  Anglice  was  the 
earliest  attempt  at  a  systematic  treatment  of  the 
body  of  English  law. 

Braddock,  Edward,  British  major-general,  was 
born  in  1695;  conmiander  against  the  French  in 
America  in  1755;  with  a  force  of  2,000  British 
regulars  and  provincials,  he  moved  forward  to 
invest  Fort  du  Quesne,  now  Pittsburg,  Pa.;  his 
troops,  in  passing  through  the  deep  forest  ravine, 
fell  into  an  ambuscade  of  Indians,  while  they 
were  attacked  in  the  front  by  the  French,  and 
half  of  them  slain.  The  rest  effected  a  hasty 
retreat  under  Colonel,  afterward  General,  Wash- 
ington, Braddock's  aide-de-camp.  Braddock, 
mortally  wounded,  was  carried  forty  miles  to 
where  the  baggage  had  been  left,  and  there 
died. 

Braddon,  Mary  Elisabeth  (Mrs.  Maxwell),  popular 
English  novelist,  was  born  in  London  in  1837. 
In  1800  she  wrote  a  comedietta  called  The 
Loves  of  Arcadia,  which  was  brought  out  at  the 
Strand  theater.  Her  first  success  came  with  the 
publication,  in  1862,  of  Lady  Audley's  Secret, 
which  instantly  attained  popularity,  and  has 
been  followed  by  niunerous  works  of  the  same 
order,  such  as  Aurora  Floyd;  Eleanor's  Victory; 
Lovds  of  Arden;  Dead  Sea  Fruit;  Weavers  and 
Weft;  The  Cloven  Foot;  Mount  Royal;  Her 
Convict;    During  Her  Maj'estt/s  Pleasure,  etc. 

Bradford,  William,  one  of  the  Pilgrims,  and  second 

fovcrnor  of  Plymouth  colony,  was  bom  in 
Ingland  in  1590,  died  at  Plymouth,  Mass.,  1657. 
He  sailed  from  Leyden,  Iiolland,  in  the  May- 
fUnoer.  One  of  his  first  acts,  as  the  successor  of 
Governor  Carver,  was  to  confirm  the  treaty  with 
Maasaeoit,  just  in  time  to  suppress  a  danserous 
Indian  conspiracy.  Bradford's  name  is  m  the 
second  patent,  which  conferred  upon  him.  his 
"heirs,  associates,  and  assigns,"  the  territory 
named.  He  was  governor,  with  some  brief  inter- 
ruptions, for  thirty-one  years,  but  declined  to 
serve  further.  He  was  the  author  of  a  History 
of  Plymouth  Colony  from  1602  to  1647. 

BradlauKh  (brdd'-U),  Charles,  English  politician, 
was  born  in  London  in  1833;  in  1853  he  enterea 
a  solicitor's  office:  he  then  achieved  a  great 
influence  with  working  men  as  a  radical,  and  an 
antagonist  of  the  Christian  religion.  His  lecturer 
in  the  hall  of  science,  London,  on  social,  political, 
and  religious  questions,  were  very  popular;  and 
in  1860  he  started  the  National  Reformer^  against 
which  a  futile  government  prosecution  was 
instituted.  In  1872  he  published  his  Impeach- 
ment of  the  House  of  Brunswick.  In  1880  he  was 
elected  to  parliament  for  Northampton,  but 
refusing  to  take  the  oath,  he  was  not  allowed  to 
take  his  seat  until  after  the  general  election  of 
1885,  although  he  was  repeatedly  returned  by 
the  constituency.  Afterward  he  earned  a  high 
reputation  in  the  house  of  commons,  and  though 
a  radical,  opposed  the  advocates  of  socialism. 
In  1889  he  visited  India,  his  interest  in  Indian 
affairs  having  always  heea  pronounced.  Died, 
1891. 

Bradley,  James,  distinguished  astronomer,  was 
born  in  Gloucestershire,  England,  in  1693.  About 
the  time  of  his  election  as  member  of  the  royal 
society  he  became,  in  his  twenty-ninth  year, 
Savilian  professor  of  astronomy  at  Oxford;  in 
1727  he  published  his  theory  of  the  aberration  of 
the  fixed  stars,  containing  the  important  discov- 
ery of  the  aberration  of  light.  His  next  discovery 
was  that  the  inclination  of  the  earth's  axis  to  the 
ecliptic  is  not  constant,  a  fact  includinjg  the 
explanation  of  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes 
and  the  nutation  of  the  earth's  axis,  which  dis- 
covery constitutes  a  great  epoch  in  astronomy. 
Latterly  he  became  astronomer-royal  at  Green- 
wich, and  laid  the  foundations  of  modem  astron- 
omy.    He  died  in  1762. 


THROUGHOUT  THE   WORLD 


561 


Bradley,  WUllam  O'Connell,  legislator,  United 
States  senator,  was  bom  in  Garrard  county,  Ky., 
1847;  admitted  to  the  bar,  18C5,  by  special  act 
of  the  legislature,  being  under  twenty-one  years 
of  age:  in  1872  presidential  elector  and  candi- 
date for  congress,  and  again  candidate  for 
congress,  1870;  defeated;  delegate  at  large 
republican  national  conventions,  1880,  84,  88,  92, 
1900,  04.  Four  times  nominated  United  States 
senator;  unsuccessful  candidate  for  governor, 
1887;  appointed  minister  to  Corea,  1889,  and 
declined ;  first  republican  governor  of  Kentucky, 
1895-99;  elected  to  United  States  senate  for 
term,  1909-15. 

Brady,  Cyrus  Townsend,  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  author-  born  at  Allegheny,  Pa., 
1861 ;  graduate  of  United  States  naval  academy, 
1883.  Railroad  service  with  the  Missouri  Pacific 
and  Union  Pacific  roads  for  several  years; 
studied  theology;  ordained  deacon,  1889;  priest. 
1890.  Was  rector  of  Protestant  Episcopal 
churches  in  Missouri  and  Colorado  and  arch- 
deacon of  Kansas  until  1895,  and  archdeacon  of 
Pennsylvania  until  1899;  rector  of  St.  Paul's 
church,  Overbrook,  Philadelphia,  1899-1902, 
resigning  to  engage  in  literaiy  work;  chaplain  of 
1st  Pennsylvania  volunteer  infantry  in  Spanish- 
American  war.  Author:  For  Love  of  Country; 
For  the  Freedom  of  the  Sea;  The  Grip  of  Honor; 
Stephen  Decatur;  Recollections  of  a  Missionary 
in  the  Great  West;  American  Fights  and  Fighters; 
Commodore  Paid  Jones;  Reuben  James;  When 
Blades  are  Oxii  and  Love's  Afield;  Under  Tops' Is 
and  Tents;  Colonial  Fights  and  Fighters;  Hohen- 
zoUem;  Woven  With  the  Ship;  In  the  Wasp's 
Nest;  The  Conquest  of  the  Soxiihwest;  The  Two 
Captains;   etc. 

Brady,  Mrs.  W.  A.     See  George,  Grace. 

Bragg,  Braxton,  American  general,  bom  in  Warren 
county,  N.  C.,  1817,  served  with  distinction 
under  General  Taylor  in  the  Mexican  war,  and 
retired  to  private  life  in  1859.  He  became  a 
brigadier-general  in  the  confederate  army  in 
1861,  and  succeeded  General  Beauregard  in 
command  of  the  army  in  Mississippi,  with  the 
rank  of  general,  May,  1862.  He  fought  against 
General  Buell  a  severe  and  indecisive  battle  at 
Perryville;  against  General  Rosecrans  the 
sanguinary  battle  of  Stone  river;  inflicted  a 
defeat  on  the  army  of  Rosecrans  at  Chicka- 
mauga;  was  defeated  by  General  Grant  at 
Chattanooga,  and,  at  his  own  request,  was 
relieved  of  his  command  and  appointed  chief- 
of-staff  to  Jefferson  Davis.     Died,  1876. 

Brahe  Qara;  Dan.  br&'-i\  Tycho,  Danish  astrono- 
mer, was  bom  at  Knudstrup,  1546;  studied  at 
Copenhagen,  was  sent  by  his  uncle  to  Leipzig  in 
1562  to  attend  the  law  classes;  but  astronomy 
had  greater  attractions  for  him,  and  on  his 
uncle's  death  he  devoted  himself  wholly  to  this 
science.  After  spending  some  years  in  travel, 
he  returned  to  nis  native  country,  and  soon 
obtained  the  patronage  of  the  king,  who  subse- 
quently built  for  his  use  a  commodious  observa- 
tory called  Uraniborg  on  the  island  of  Hven,  in 
the  sound.  On  the  death  of  the  king  in  1588, 
Brahe's  position  was  changed,  and  in  1597  he 
was  forced  to  leave  the  country.  Having  ob- 
tained the  protection  of  Emperor  Rudolph  II., 
he  settled  at  Prague,  where  he  died  in  1601. 
The  great  merit  of  Brahe  as  an  astronomer  lies 
in  the  rare  industry  and  assiduity  with  which 
he  observed  and  recorded  the  position  of  stars 
and  planets,  and  it  was  partlv  due  to  these 
observations  that  Kepler  was  led  to  the  con- 
ception of  his  three  famous  laws. 

Brahms  (br&ms),  Johannes,  German  musical  com- 
poser, was  bom  at  Hamburg,  1833.  Schumann 
early  expressed  the  highest  opinion  of  Brahms's 
genius,  but  for  many  years  he  was  not  appre- 


ciated in  Oermanj.     In  IMl  b*  w«nt  to  VtoDM, 

where  he  acquired  a  high  rapuUtlon,  and  held 
several  imiwrtant  musical  posts.  In  1868  ha 
composed  the  Deuttchea  lUqySmn,  which,  after  th* 
Franco-German  war,  wm  perfonned  khroui^iout 
Germany.  Uia  cotnpositlona  hav*  bean  Tsnr 
highly  valued.     Died,  1897. 

Bramante  {brii-m&n' -ti)  the  auumed  «y»nif  of 
Donato  Lazzari,  celebrated  Italian  arohltoot. 
born  near  Urbino  in  1444.  He  wm  employwl 
at  Rome  by  Popes  Alexander  VI.  and  Julius  11., 
for  the  latter  of  whom  he  planne<i  and  psrtly 
executed,  the  buildings  connecting  tiio  Helvedsrs 
and  the  Vatican,  and  subsequently  draigned  ths 
great  church  of  St.  Peter'Sj  completed  by  MichseU 
angclo.  Bramante  first  mtroduced  Raphael  at 
the  court  of  Rome.     Died,  1514. 

Brande  (br&nd),  William  Thomas,  English  chemist, 
bom  at  London,  1788,  died  in  1800,  having 
become  an  F.  R.  S.  in  1809,  professor  of  chem- 
istry to  the  Apothecaries'  company  in  1812, 
Davy's  successor  at  the  royal  institution  in 
1813,  and  head  of  the  coinage  department  of 
the  mint  in  1854.  He  published  a  Manvud  of 
Chemistry,  a  Dictionary  of  Materia  Alediea,  and 
a  Dictionary  of  Science  and  Art. 

Brandegee,  Frank  Bosworth,  lawyer.  United  States 
senator,  was  bom  at  New  London,  Conn.,  18C4; 
graduated  from  Yale  in  1885;  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1888;  became  a  member  of  the  law 
firm  of  Brandegee,  Kenealy  &  Brennan.  In  1888 
he  was  a  representative  in  the  Connecticut  general 
assembly,  and  for  ten  years  was  corporation 
counsel  of  the  city  of  New  London;  speaker  of 
the  Connecticut  house  of  representatives  in 
1899;  in  1902  he  was  elected  a  representative 
to  the  second  session  of  the  fifty-seventh  con- 
gress to  fill  a  vacancy,  and  was  reelected  to  the 
fifty-eighth  and  fifty-ninth  congresses.  He 
was  elected  United  States  senator  Tor  an  unex- 
pired term  in  1905,  and  reelected  in  1909. 

Brandes  (brin'-dSs),  George,  literary  critic,  was 
bom  of  Jewish  parentage,  1842^  in  Copenhagen, 
where  he  graduated  at  the  umversity  in  1864. 
Several  aesthetic  and  philosophic  books  raised  a 
charge  of  scepticism,  which  was  not  removed 
by  his  lectures  on  The  Great  Tendencies  of  Nine- 
teenth-century Literature.  His  Danish  Poeta  ap- 
peared in  1877 ;  and  the  same  year  he  left  Den- 
mark, and  settled  in  Berlin,  where  he  wrote 
lives  of  Lassalle,  T^ner,  and  Beaconsfield.  A 
lecture  tour  through  Norway  and  Denmaric 
brought  a  powerful  party  to  his  side.  Amonjf 
his  works  are  French  Romanticism;  l/udvig 
Holberg;  Impressions  of  Poland;  Impressions  of 
Russia;  Shakespeare  (translation);  Main  Cur- 
rents of  Nineteenth-century  Literature;  lUeolUo- 
tions  of  My  Childhood  and  Youth,  etc. 

Brandl,  Alois,  professor  of  English  philolofjr  In 
the  university  of  Berlin  since  1895;  bom  at 
Innsbruck,  Tyrol,  1855;  educated  at  Innsbruck: 
Ph.  D.  of  Vienna:  LL.  D.,  Philadelphia;  studied 
in  Berlin  and  London.  Privat-docent  in  ths 
university  of  Vienna,  1881-84;  extraordinary 
professor  in  the  German  university  of  Prague, 
1884-88;  ordinary  professor  in  the  univeraitr 
of  Gottingen,  1888-92;  of  Strassbuiig,  1802-05: 
member  qf  Berlin  .\kademie,  1904.  Autlior  of 
Middle  Enalish  Literature,  Shaktpere,  SchUgd- 
Tieck's  ShaJcespeare,  etc. 

Branner,  John  Casper,  vic»^resident,  1890-1913, 
president  since  1913,  Lelana  Stanford  Jr.  univer- 
sity, Cal.;  associate  editor  Journal  of  Otaloni 
bom  at  New  Market,  Tenn.,  1850:  graduatsd 
from  Cornell  university,  1874;  member  imperial 
geological  commission,  Brazil,  1875-77;  agent 
United  States  department  of  agriculture  in 
Brazil,  1882-83;  geological  survey  of  Pennqrl- 
vania,  188S-85;  professor  of  geology,  unirar- 
sity   of    Indiana,    1885-02;     staU  geologist  of 


£S2 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Arkansas,  1887-93;  director  of  the  Branner- 
Agassiz  expedition  to  Brazil,  1899;  professor 
geology,  1892-1913,  Leland  Stanford  Jr.university; 
president  geological  society  of  America,  1904; 
member  of  the  national  academy  of  sciences, 
Washington;  has  published  numerous  works 
on  the  geology  of  Brazil  and  Arkansas. 

Brant,  Joseph*  Indian  chief  of  the  Mohawk  nation, 
was  bom  in  Ohio  about  1742;  held  a  commission 
in  the  British  service,  and  fought  against  the 
American  colonists  in  the  revolution.  He 
afterward  went  to  England,  where  he  published 
the  Gospel  of  St.  Mark  in  Mohawk.  He  died  in 
1807. 

Brashear  (br&ah'-ir),  John  A^  manufacturer  of 
astronomical  and  physical  instruments;  was 
bom  at  Brownsville,  Pa.,  1840;  jjublic  school 
education;  Sc.  D.,  Western  university  of  Penn- 
sylvania; LL.  D.,  Washington  and  Jefferson 
college,  university  of  Wooster.  Learned  ma- 
chinist's trade;  at  thirty  began  the  construction 
of  astronomical  instruments;  acting  director 
Allegheny  observatory,  1898-1900;  now  acting 
chancellor  Western  university  of  Pennsylvania; 
member  of  many  scientific  societies. 

Brassey,  Thomas,  English  engineer  and  railroad 
contractor,  was  bom  in  1805  at  Baerton,  Cheshire, 
England;  died  in  1870.  After  receiving  an 
ordmary  education  he  was,  at  the  age  of  sixteen 
years,  apprenticed  to  a  surveyor,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  business.  After  building  part  of 
the  Grand  Junction  and  the  London  and  South- 
ampton railroads,  he  contracted,  1840,  in 
partnership  with  another,  to  build  the  railrosul 
from  Paris  to  Rouen.  In  a  few  years  he  held 
under  contract,  in  England  and  France,  some 
ten  railroads,  involving  ^  capital  of  (180,000,000, 
and  employing  75,000  men.  In  partnership 
with  Betts  and  Peto  he  undertook  the  Grand 
Trunk  of  Canada,  1,100  miles  in  length,  including 
the  great  bridge  at  Montreal.  His  army  of  men 
were  employed  in  nearly  every  part  of  Europe, 
South  America,  Australia,  India,  etc.  He 
amassed  great  wealth,  but  continued  to  be 
penerous  to  the  needy,  and  modest  and  simple 
in  his  tastes  and  manners. 

Brassey,  Thomas,  Lord,  English  political  economist 
and  authority  on  seamanship,  was  bom  at 
Stafford  in  1836,  son  of  Thomas  Brassey,  the 
great  contractor;  educated  at  Ru^by  and  at 
Oxford;  he  entered  English  political  Ufe  in 
1865 ;  was  civil  lord  of  the  admiralty  1880-«4 ; 
secretary  to  the  admiralty  1884-85;  governor  of 
Victoria,  Australia,  1895-1900.  He  is  known  as 
an  enthusiastic  yachtsman,  interested  in  the 
British  seamen,  a  writer  on  the  British  navy, 
and  in  1893-95  was  president  of  the  institute 
of  naval  architects.  His  chief  writings  are  a 
treatise  on  Work  and  Wages;  The  Eastern  Qties-  . 
tion;  Foreign  Work  and  British  Wages;  The  \ 
British  Navy  (in  5  vols.),  and  Sixty  Years  of 
Progress. 

Bray,  Frank  Chapin,  editor,  bom  at  Salineville,  | 
Ohio,  1866;  graduated  at  Wesleyan  university. 
Conn.,  1890;  apprenticed  to  printer's  trade, 
1878 ;  worked  at  the  case  and  reporting  to  get 
through  college ;  proof  reader  Hartford  Courant, 
1890;  city  editor,  Middletown  (Conn.)  Herald, 
1891;  managing  editor  Erie  (Pa.)  Morning 
Dispatch,  1892-94;  editor  "Topics  of  the  Day" 
department  of  the  Literary  Dtgest,  New  York, 
1894-99;  editor  The  Chautauguan,  1899;  editor- 
in-chief,  1902,  editor-manager  since  1906,  Chau- 
tauqua press  and  other  pubUcations.  Author: 
Reading  Journey  Throitgh  Chautauqua. 

Brassa  (Jbraif-sa),  Pierre  Savorgnan  de,  explorer, 
was  bom  of  Italian  descent  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  in 
1852.  He  entered  the  French  navy  in  1870 
served  on  the  Gaboon,  and  in  1876-78  explored 
the    Ogowe.      In  1878    the  French  government 


gave  him  100,000  francs  to  explore  the  coiuitry 
north  of  the  Congo,  where  he  secured  vast  grants 
of  land  for  France,  and  founded  several  stations 
—  that  of  Brazzaville  on  the  northern  shore  of 
Stanley  pool.  In  1883  he  returned,  largely 
subsidizea  by  the  French  govemiiient,  and  by 
1886  he  had  established  twenty-six  stations. 
He  continued  to  explore  until  1897,  being  in 
1888-97  governor  of  French  Congo.  He  di^  in 
1905. 

Breckinridge,  John  Cabell,  American  poUtician, 
was  bom  in  Kentucky  in  1821;  entered  congress 
in  1851,  and  in  1856  was  elected  vice-president 
under  Buchanan.  In  1860  he  was  a  candidate 
for  the  presidency  in  the  Southern  interest,  but 
was  defeated  by  Lincoln;  denounced  Lincoln's 
address  as  a  declaration  of  war,  and  was  expelled 
from  the  house  of  representatives.  He  became 
United  States  senator  in  1861,  was  given  a  com- 
mand in  the  confederate  army,  and  rose  to  the 
rank  of  major-general.  In  1865  he  was  confed- 
erate secretary  of  war.     Died,  1875. 

Bremer  {bre'-mkr\,  Frederlka,  Swedish  novelist, 
was  born  in  Finland  in  18U1,  but  was  brought  up 
near  Stockholm,  Sweden.  Her  first  important 
novel.  The  Neighbors,  was  translated  into  German, 
French,  Dutch,  Russian,  and  English,  and  gave 
her  a  wide  fame.  She  traveled  through  many 
countries  and  wrote  descriptions  of  the  people 
for  her  Homes  of  the  New  World,  and  Life  in  the 
Old  World,  and  many  other  works.  She  spent 
two  years  in  the  United  States.  She  has  been 
called  the  "Jane  Austen"  of  Sweden.  Among 
her  best  books  are  The  Diary,  The  President's 
Daughters,  and  Brothers  and  Sisters.     Died,  1865. 

Brent,  Charles  Henry,  Protestant  Episcopal  bishop, 
was  bom  at  Newcastle,  Ontario,  1862 ;  graduated 
from  University  Trimty  college,  Toronto,  1884, 
A.  M.,  1889,  D.  D.,  1901 ;  ordJned  deacon,  1886, 
priest,  1887;  assistant  minister  St.  Paul's 
cathedral,  Buffalo,  1887 ;  St.  John  the  Evangelist, 
Boston,  188H-91 ;  associate  rector  St.  Stephen's, 
Boston,  1901 ;  elected  bv  general  conven- 
tion, 1901.  consecrated  December,  1901,  bishop 
of  the  PhiUppine  islands.  On  editorial  stan 
The  Churchman,  1897-1900;  WilUam  Belden 
Noble  lecturer.  Harvard,  1907.  Author:  With 
God  in  the  World;  The  Consolations  of  the  Cross; 
The  Splendor  of  the  Human  Body;  Adventure  for 
God;  Liberty  and  Other  Sermons;  With  God  in 
Prayer;    A  Glorious  Ministry;   The  Sixth  Sense. 

Breton  (brl-t/is'),  Jules  Adolpbe,  French  painter, 
distinguished  as  the  artist  of  rural  life,  was  bom 
in  1827;  died  1906.  His  reputation  greatly 
increased  after  the  extraordinary  sale  of  one  of 
his  pictures,  "The  First  Communion,"  which 
brought  $45,000]in  1886.  His  pictures  are  much 
admired  for  their  sweet,  pathetic  sentiment. 
He  also  wrote  a  volume  of  p>oems,  and  published 
an  autobiography. 

Breton  de  los  Herreros  (br&-t6n'  da  Ids  Sr^a'-rOs), 
Don  Manuel,  the  most  popular  of  modem  Spanish 
poets,  bom  1796  at  Quel,  in  the  province  of 
Logrono.  As  early  as  his  seventeenth  year  he 
wrote  a  comedy  entitled  A  la  Vej'ez  Viruelas, 
which  in  1824  was  staged  with  great  success. 
Henceforward  he  furnished  theatncal  managers 
with  over  150  pieces,  partly  original,  partly 
adaptations  from  the  older  Spanish  classics,  and 
partly  translations  from  the  Italian  and  French, 
most  of  which  have  been  highly  j>opular.  Died, 
1873. 

Brett,  George  Piatt,  publisher;  president  and 
director  of  the  Macmillan  company.  New  York; 
director  of  the  Macmillan  company  of  Canada, 
ltd.;  bom  at  London  in  1858;  educated  at 
schools  in  London  and  at  college  of  the  city 
of  New  York.  Of  the  Macmillan  company, 
publishers,  since  1879.  Member  of  New  York 
chamber   of    commerce,    American   institute   of 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


668 


archreology,  etc. ;  occasional  contributor  to  mag- 
azines, chiefly  on  professional  topics. 

Brewer,  David  Joslah,  jurist,  associate  justice  of  the 
United  States  supreme  court,  1889-1910,  was  bom 
at  Smyrna,  Asia  Minor,  1837;  was  the  son  of  Rev. 
Josiah  Brewer  and  Emilia  A.  l<^eld,  sister  of 
David  Dudley,  Cyrus  W.,  and  Justice  Stephen  J. 
Field.  He  was  graduated  from  Yale  coUege  in 
1856  and  from  the  Albany  law  school  in  1858; 
established  himself  in  his  profession  at  Leaven- 
worth, Kansas,  in  1859,  where  he  resided  until 
he  removed  to  Washington  to  enter  upon  his 
duties;  in  1861  was  appointed  United  States 
commissioner;  during  1863  and  1864  was  judge 
of  the  probate  and  criminal  courts  of  Leaven- 
worth county;  from  1865  to  1869  was  judge 
of  the  district  court;  in  1869  and  1870  was 
county  attorney  of  Leavenworth;  in  1870  was 
elected  a  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  his 
state,  and  reelected  in  1876  and  1882;  in  1884 
was  appointed  judge  of  the  circuit  court  of  the 
United  States  for  the  eighth  district;  was 
appointed  associate  justice  of  the  United  States 
supreme  court,  1889;  was  president  of  the 
Venezuelan  boundary  commission,  appointed 
by  President  Cleveland,  and  member  of  arbi- 
tration tribunal  to  settle  boundary  between 
British  Guiana  and  Venezuela;  orator  at  bicen- 
tennial, Yale  university,  1901;  president  inter- 
national congress  of  lawyers  and  jurists,  St. 
Louis,  1904;  received  degree  of  LL.  D.  from 
Iowa  college,  Washburn  college,  Yale  univer- 
sity, university  of  Wisconsin,  Wesleyan  univer- 
sity, Middletown,  Conn.,  university  of  Vermont, 
and  Bowdoin  college.  Author:  The  Pew  to  the 
Pulpit;  The  Twentieth  Century  from  Another 
View  Point;  American  Citizenship;  The  United 
States  a  Christian  Nation.     Died,  1910. 

Brewer,  WUllam  Henry,  scientist,  professor  of 
agriculture,  Sheffield  scientific  school,  Yale, 
1864-1903;  born  at  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  1828; 
graduated  at  Yale  (now  Sheffield)  scientific 
school,  1852;  studied  at  Heidelberg,  Munich, 
and  Paris;  professor  of  chemistry  and  geology, 
Washington  college.  Pa.,  1858-60 ;  first  assistant 
on  geological  survey  of  California,  1860-64; 
member  national  academy  of  sciences  since 
1880;  president  Arctic  club  of  America.  He 
served  important  government  commissions,  such 
as  topographical  survey  of  Connecticut,  on 
cereal  production  in  the  United  States  (10th 
census);  United  States  forestry  commission, 
1896 ;  scientific  survey  of  the  Philippine  islands, 
1903;  etc.  Author:  Botany  of  California.  Died, 
1910. 

Brewster,  Sir  David,  British  natural  philosopher 
bom  at  Jedburgh,  Scotland,  1781.  He  was 
educated  for  the  church  of  Scotland,  but  under- 
took the  editorship  of  the  Edinburgh  Encyclo- 
pcedia.  He  invented  the  kaleidoscope  in  1816. 
In  1817,  in  conjunction  with  Professor  Jameson, 
he  estabfished  the  Edinburgh  Philosophical 
Journal;  and  in  1831  he  was  one  of  the  chief 
originators  of  the  British  association  for  the 
advancement  of  science.  In  1819  the  royal 
society  awarded  him  the  Rumford  gold  and 
silver  medals  for  his  discoveries  on  the  p>olariza^ 
tion  of  Ught ;  in  1832  he  was  knighted,  and  had  a 
pension  conferred  upon  him;  in  1849  he  was 
elected  one  of  the  eight  foreign  associates  of  the 
French  institute,  the  highest  scientific  distinc- 
tion in  Europe.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the 
imperial  anci  royal  academies  of  St.  Petersburg, 
Berlin,  Copenhagen,  and  Stockholm;  pre- 
sided over  the  British  association,  and  in  1851 
over  the  peace  congress  held  in  London.  In 
1859  he  was  chosen  vice-chancellor  of  Edin- 
burgh university.     Died,  1868. 

Brian  Borolhme  (bri'-an  bo-rotm'),  or  Brian  Boru 
(ftd-r<S>'),  king  of  Ireland,  was  born  926 ;  ascended 


the  throne  of  both  muaslOTi  —  aivwwlaf  to 
Tipperary  and  Clare  —  In  078.  Soma  Mmm 
afterward  he  became  supreme  nilcr  of  IraUnd. 
King  Brian  supiKtrtod  a  rude  but  princely  wtata 
at  Kincora,  and  he  had  also  aeata  at  Tarm  *»»^ 
Cashel.  The  vigor  of  his  reign  brought  pros- 
perity to  his  country.  He  d«fl«(«d  tEe  Utxtm 
m  upward  of  twenty  pitched  batUfla,  rastrioUng 
their  influence  to  the  four  citiea  of  Dublin,  Wex- 
ford, Waterford,  and  Limerick.  In  the  battle 
of  Clontarf,  1014,  in  which  he  was  killed,  he  gained 
a  signal  victory  over  a  united  army  of  revolted 
natives  and  Danes,  the  power  of  the  latter 
receiving  a  shock  from  which  it  never  recovered. 

Brldgewater,  Duke  of  (Francis  Egerton),  styled  the 
"father  of  British  inland  navigation/'  was  bom 
in  1736,  died  in  1803.  In  175^-00  he  obtained 
acts  of  parliament  for  making  a  navigable  canal 
from  Worsley  to  Salford,  Lancashire,  ai»d  carrying 
it  over  the  Mersey  and  Irwell  navigation  at 
Barton  by  an  aqueduct  thirty-nine  ft?et  above  the 
surface  of  the  water,  and  200  yards  long,  thus 
forming  a  communication  between  his  coal  mines 
at  Worsley  and  Manchester  on  one  level.  In 
this  undertaking  he  was  aided  by  the  skill  of 
James  Brindley,  the  celebrated  engineer.  He 
was  also  a  liberal  promoter  of  the  grand  trunk 
navigation;  and  the  impulse  he  thus  gave  to  the 
internal  navigation  of  England  led  to  the  exten- 
sion of  the  canal  system  throughout  the  king- 
dom. 

Brldgman,  Frederic  Arthur,  artist;  was  bom  at 
Tuskegee,  Ala.,  1847;  apprentice  in  engraving 
department,  American  bank  note  company. 
New  York,  1864-65;  meanwhile  studicxl  in 
Brooklyn  art  school  and  National  academy  of 
design;  pupil  under  J.  L.  Gdr6me  and  at  Ecole 
des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris,  1866-71;  since  1871  has 
had  his  studio  in  Paris;  knight  legion  of  honor, 
1878;  officer  order  of  St.  Michael  of  Bavaria. 
Author:  Winters  in  Algeria;  also,  in  French, 
Anarchy  in  Art;  The  Idol  and  the  Ideal. 

Brlggs,  Charles  Augustus,  clergyman,  theologian, 
was  bom  in  New  York  in  1841-  studied  in  uni- 
versity of  Virginia,  1857-60 ;  Union  theological 
seminary,  1861-63;  university  of  lierlin, 
1866-69.  Pastor  of  Presbyterian  church, 
Roselle,  N.  J.,  1870-74;  professor  of  Hebrew, 
1875-1900,  biblical  theology,  1890-1904,  theologi- 
cal encyclopedia  and  symbolics  since  1904, 
Union  theological  seminary.  Editor  Praby- 
terian  Review,  1880-90;  was  tried  for  heresy  and 
acquitted  by  presbytery  of  New  York,  1892,  but 
suspended  by  general  assembly,  1893,  ordained 
priest  by  Protestant  Episcopal  bishop  of  New 
York,  1900.  Author:  Biblical  Study;  Amtriean 
Presbyterianism;  Meaaianic  Propkeey;  Whitiurt 
A  Theological  Question  for  the  Time*;  The 
Authority  of  Holy  Scripture;  The  Bible,  the 
Church,  and  the  Reason;  The  Meeeiah  of  the 
Apostles;  The  Messiah  of  the  OosptU;  Oenerol 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Holy  Scripture;  The 
Incarnation  of  the  Lord;  New  Ltght  on  the  Life  of 
Jesus;  Ethical  Teachings  of  Jeaua.  Eklltor: 
International  Theological  Library,  Intematumal 
Critical  Commentary. 

Bilggs,  Frank  Obadlah,  United  SUtes  senator, 
was  born  at  Concord,  N.  H.,  1851:  graduated 
from  United  States  military  academy,  1872; 
served  in  United  States  army,  1872-77;  began 
service  with  John  A.  Roebliur's  Sons  company. 
1877,  assistant  treasurer,  188^1913;  mayor  of 
Trenton,  1899-1902;  state  treasurer  of  New 
Jersey,  1902-07;  chairman  republican  state 
committee,  1904-1913;  elected  United  States  sen- 
ator, 1907,  for  term  1907-13;  was  secretanr  New 
Jersey  wire  cloth  company  and  official  of  other 
Roebling  alUed  companies;  was  first  vice-presi- 
dent Norfolk  A  Portsmouth  traction  company, 
directorTrenton  savings  fund  society.  Died.  1013. 


88i 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Brlsffs,  Le  Baron  Bussell,  educator;  was  bom  at 
Salem,  Masa.,  1855;  graduated  from  Harvard, 
1875;  A.  M.,  1882;  hon.  LL.  D.,  Harvard,  1900, 
Western  Reserve,  1906;  assistant  professor 
English,  1886-90,  professor  English  since  1890, 
dean  of  college,  1891-1902,  dean  faculty  of  arts 
and  sciences  since  1902,  Boylston  professor 
rhetoric  and  oratory  since  1904,  Harvard;  presi- 
dent Radcliffe  college  since  1903.  Has  ^ted 
and  annotated  a  number  of  English  classics. 

Bright,  John,  eminent  orator  and  radical  states- 
man, was  born  of  Quaker  parentage,  1811;  he 
entered  his  father's  business  at  the  age  of  sixteen. 
Though  he  had  taken  part  in  the  reform  move- 
ment, he  first  became  prominent  along  with  his 
friend'  Cobden  in  the  anti-corn  law  agitation; 
entered  parliament  for  Durham,  being  after- 
ward returned  from  Manchester,  ancf  losing 
that  seat  through  his  opposition  to  the  Crimean 
war.  In  1857  he  was  returned  for  Birmingham, 
holding  that  seat  until  his  death.  He  joined 
Gladstone's  government  which  disestablished 
the  Irish  church,  but  opposed  his  home  rule 
policy  in  1880,  dying  in  the  unshaken  conviction 
that  it  was  a  fatal  error.     As  a  master  of  really 

Sure  Saxon  English,  in  all  its  power  and  pathoa, 
right  was  never  surpassed,  and  his  Bpeeohes 
are  worthy  of  attentive  study  on  that  account 
alone.     Died,  1889. 

Bright,  Richard,  English  physician,  was  bom  1789, 
died  1858;  educated  at  Edinburgh;  practiced 
with  ^reat  success  in  London.  His  specialty  was 
morbid  anatomy  and  the  connection  between 
morbid  symptoms  and  alterations  of  structure 
of  the  internal  organs.  He  discovered  that  an 
albuminous  condition  of  the  urine,  accompanied 
with  dropsical  effusions,  is  often  dependent  on  a 
peculiar  defeneration  of  the  kidneys,  whence 
the  disease  in  which  these  conditions  occur  was 
called  "Bright's  disease."  His  publications  on 
this  topic  were  made  in  1835-40. 

Brinton,  Daniel  Garrison,  American  ethnologist, 
was  born  at  Thornbury,  Pa.,  1837,  and  died  at 
Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  1899.  He  graduated  from 
Yale  in  1858,  and  from  Jefferson  medical  college 
in  1861,  after  which  he  studied  in  Germany.  He 
entered  the  Union  army  as  a  surgeon  and  rose  to 
the  medical  directorship  of  the  11th  army  corps. 
In  1865  he  settled  in  Philadelphia.  There  he 
undertook  for  a  time  the  professorship  of  ethnol- 
ogy in  the  academy  of  natural  sciences,  and 
in  1886  was  professor  of  American  linguistics 
and  archceology  in  the  university  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. He  wrote  extensively  on  the  ethnology 
and  antiquities  of  the  Indian  tribes  of  America; 
on  the  myths  of  the  new  world,  etc. 

Brisbane,  Arthur,  editor  and  writer  on  present  day 
topics,  was  bom  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  1864;  edu- 
cated American  public  schools,  and  five  years  in 
France  and  Germany.  B^an  newspaper  work 
in  1882,  as  reporter  on  New  York  Sun;  later, 
London  correspondent  for  the  Sun  and  editor  of 
the  Evening  Sun;  seven  years  on  New  York 
World  as  managing  editor  of  different  editions; 
since  1897  editor  New  York  Evening  Journal. 

Bristol,  Frank  MUton,  Methodist  Episcopal  bishop, 
was  bom  in  Orleans  county,  N.Y.,1851 ;  graduated 
Northwestern  university.  Ph.  B.,  1877;  A.  M. ; 
D.  D. ;  pastor  leading  churches  in  Chicago, 
including  Trinity,  Grace,  Wabash  Av.,  and 
First  church,  Evanston,  111.;  subse<juently 
pastor  Metropolitan  M.  E.  church,  Washington, 
D.  C,  of  which  President  McKinley  was  an 
attendant ;  five  times  member  general  conference 
Methodist  Episcopal  church,  and  in  1908  elected 
bishop.  Author:  Providential  Epochs,  The 
Ministry  of  Art,  Shakespeare  and  America,  etc. 

Bristow,  Joseph  Uttle,  journalist,  United  States 
senator,  was  born  in  Wolfe  county,  Ky.,  1861 ; 
graduated  from  Baker  university,  Kansas,  1886 ; 


clerk  of  district  court,  Douglas  county,  K^nt^ww^ 
1886-90:  owned  and  edited  Salina  (Kansas) 
Daily  Republican,  1890-95;  bought  Ottawa 
(Kansas)  Herald.  1895;  private  secretary  to 
Governor  Morrill  (Kansas).  1895-97;  fourth 
assistant  postmaster-general,  1897-1905;  had 
charge  of  investigation  of  Cuban  postal  frauds 
and  reorganization  of  Cuban  postal  service, 
1900;  again  bought  Salina  Daily  Republican- 
Journal,  1903.  Appointed  by  the  president 
special  Panama  railroad  commissioner,  1905; 
elected  United  States  senator  for  the  term 
1909-15. 

Brock,  Sir  Isaac,  British  officer,  was  bom  in  Guem> 
sey  in  1709.  In  the  war  of  1812.  when  an 
American  army,  under  General  Hull,  invaded 
Canada,  the  measures  adopted  by  Brock  were  so 
effectual  that  the  Americans  surrendered  without 
striking  a  blow.  He  did  not  long  enjoy  the  fame 
he  had  won.  He  was  killed  in  the  battle  of 
Queenstown,  Canada,  1812.  There  is  a  monu- 
ment to  his  memory  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
Niagara  river. 

Brockhaus  {brdk'-houa),  Frledrlch  Arnold,  founder 
of  the  famous  publisliing  firm  of  Brockhaus  in 
Lelpsig,  and  original  publisher  of  the  Conversa- 
tiona-Cexikon,  was  born  at  Dortmund  in  1772; 
from  1811  to  1817  he  carried  on  business  in 
Altenburg,  and  finally  moved  to  Leipzig,  where 
he  died,  1823.  The  business  was  afterward 
carried  on  by  his  sons,  Friedrich  and  Heinrich; 
from  1850  by  the  latter  alone,  and  until  1895  by 
Hcinrich-Eduard  and  Hcinrich-Rudolf,  his  sons. 

Brodear,  Hon.  Louis  Philippe,  Canadian  statesman, 
minister  of  marine  and  fisheries  in  the  Dominion 
government  since  1906;  was  born  at  Beloeil,  in 
the  province  of  Quebec,  1862;  educated  at  the 
college  of  St.  Hyacinth  and  Laval  university; 
LL.  D.,  Laval;  admitted  to  the  bar,  1884: 
K.  C,  1899;  editor  of  Le  Soir,  1896;  elected 
to  house  of  commons  for  Rouville,  1891,  1896, 
1900,  1904,  1908;  deputy-speaker  of  the  house  of 
commons,  1896-1900,  speaker,  1900-04-  min- 
ister of  inland  revenue,  1904-06;  at  his  first 
session  as  minister  of  inland  revenue  he  intro- 
duced a  bill  against  the  American  tobacco 
trust,  and  this  legislation  had  the  desired  effect 
of  putting  an  end  to  the  methods  which  the 
tobacco  company  wanted  to  establish  in  Canada ; 
member  of  the  imperial  conferences  of  1907  and 
1911;  one  of  the  ministers  who  negotiated  the 
Franco-Canadian  treaty  of  1907. 

Brontt  (brdn'-M),  Charlotte,  English  authoress,  was 
bom  at  Thornton,  1816,  died  1855;  she  was  the 
eldest  of  the  three  Bronte  sisters.  After  some 
experience  as  a  governess  she  engaged  with  her 
sisters  in  the  writing  of  novels,  and  in  1846 
published  with  them  a  small  volume  of  poems 
under  the  names  of  Currer,  Ellis,  and  Acton  Bell. 
In  1847  she  published  the  well-known  story. 
Jane  Eyre.  Its  success  was  instantaneous  ana 
complete.  Although  adversely  and  severely 
criticised,  it  was  and  is  admitted  to  be  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  of  English  novels.  Her 
second  story,  Shirley,  was  published  in  1849, 
and  her  third  and  last,  Villette,  in  1853.  Another 
story.  The  Professor,  which  had  been  refused  by 
the  publisher  before  Jan«  Eyre  had  made  its 
author  famous,  was  published  after  her  death. 
In  1854  she  married  Rev.  Mr.  Nicholls,  but  soon 
after  her  marriage  died  of  consumption  in  her 
fortieth  year. 

Brooke,  John  Butter,  army  officer,  was  bom  in 
Montgomery  county,  Pa.,  1838;  served  in  the 
United  States  army,  1861-1902,  from  captain 
to  major-general;  retired  by  operation  of  law; 
was  head  of  military  commission  and  governor- 
general  Porto  Rico;  governor-general  of  Cuba 
commanding  division  of  Cuba;  later  command- 
ing department  of  the  East. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


Mi 


Brooke,     Stopford     Augustus,     British     Unitarian 

Treacher  and  man  of  letters,  was  born  near 
tubUn,  1832;  educated  at  Trinity  college  and 
received  degrees  M.  A.  and  LL.  D.  At  various 
times  was  curate  of  St.  Matthew's,  Marylebone, 
and  of  Kensington;  minister  of  St.  James's  chapel, 
York  street,  and  minister  of  Bedford  chapel, 
Bloomsbury.  In  1872  appointed  chaplain  in 
ordinary  to  the  queen.  Has  published  Life  and 
Letters  of  Frederick  W.  Robertson;  Theology  in 
the  English  Poets;  Spirit  of  the  Christian  Life; 
Unity  of  God  and  Man;  The  Early  Life  of  Jesus; 
History  of  English  Literature;  Study  of  Tennyson; 
God  and  Christ;  Jesus  and  Modem  Thouaht; 
Old  Testament  and  Modem  Life;  Life  and  Writ- 
ings of  Milton;  The  Gospel  of  Joy;  Poetry  of 
Robert  Browning. 

Brooks,  Phillips,  preacher  and  orator,  was  bom  at 
Boston,  Mass.,  1835;  graduate  of  Harvard. 
1855;  from  1859  to  1869  rector  of  Episcopal 
churches  in  Philadelphia;  1809-91  rector  of 
Trinity  church,  Boston;  from  1891  to  1893, 
bishop  of  the  diocese  of  Massachusetts.  He  was 
celebrated  as  a  pulpit  orator,  and  as  a  vigorous 
and  independent  thinker.  His  freedom  from  the 
ordinary  sectarian  trammels,  his  liberal  views 
of  doctrine,  with  his  profound  convictions  as  to 
vital  Christian  truths,  and  his  deeply  spiritual, 
yet  intenselj'  practical  preaching  gave  him  great 
popular  power.     He  died  in  1893. 

Brougham  (br^'-am  or  hrSbm),  Henry  Peter,  Lord 
Brougham  and  Vaux,  British  jurist,  philosopher, 
and  statesman,  was  bom  at  Edinburgh,  1778. 
After  graduating  at  Edinburgh  university  he 
was  called  to  the  Scottish  bar,  and  became 
one  of  the  editors  of  the  Edinburgh  Review. 
In  1808  he  joined  the  English  bar,  and  speedily 
acquired  high  reputation  as  an  advocate.  In 
1810  he  entered  parliament,  where  he  became  a 
chief  of  the  liberal  party.  In  1820-21  he  was 
engaged  as  attorney-general  for  Queen  Caroline, 
and  succeeded  in  obtaining  her  acquittal.  In 
1830  he  became  the  acknowledged  champion  of 
parliamentary  reform,  was  called  to  the  house 
of  peers,  and  appointed  lord  high  chancellor 
of  England,  which  office  he  resigned  in  1834. 
He  devoted  the  remainder  of  his  life  almost 
exclusively  to  science  and  literature  at  his 
chateau  at  Cannes,  France.  He  was  one  of  the 
foremost  men  of  his  age  and  country,  and  his 
fame  rests  principally  upon  his  exertions  and 
achievements  in  the  cause  of  popular  education 
and  political  and  legal  reform.     Died,  1868. 

Brown,  Charles  Brockden,  early  American  novelist, 
much  prized  in  his  day,  was  bom  at  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  1771,  and  died  there  in  1810.  His  two  best 
known  stories  are  Wieland,  or  the  Transformation, 
and  Arthur  Mervyn.  His  other  stories  are 
Ormond,  Edgar  Huntley,  Jane  Talbot,  and  Philip 
Stanley.  Early  in  the  last  century  he  brought 
out  semi-annually  for  a  time  The  American 
Register,  a  useful  work  of  literary  and  historic 
reference. 

Brown,  Elmer  Ellsworth,  educator,  chancellor  of 
New  York  university  since  1911;  was  born  at 
Kiantone,  Chautauqua  county,  N.  Y.,  1861 ;  grad- 
uated from  the  Illinois  state  normal  university, 
1881;  university  of  Michigan,  1889.  Studied 
in  German  universities,  1889-90;  Ph.  D.,  uni- 
versity of  Halle-Wittenberg,  Prussia;  principal 
public  schools,  Belvidere,  111.,  1881-84 ;  assistant 
state  secretary  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  Illinois,  1884-87; 
principal  high  school,  Jackson,  Mich.,  1890-91 ; 
acting  assistant  professor  of  science  and  art  of 
teaching,  university  of  Michigan,  1891-92; 
associate  professor,  university  of  California, 
1892-93,  professor  same,  1893-1906,  hon. 
professor  same  since  1906;  United  States  com- 
missioner of  education,  1906-11.  Author: 
The  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools,    Origin  of 


American  Slate  UnivernttM;  hmt  written  mono- 
graphs, papers,  and  reviews  on  eduontion. 

Brown,  Ernest  William,  eduoator,  pfrfuwoi  of 
mathematics,  Yale  university,  aino*  1007;  wm 
born  at  Hull,  England,  1866;  (nuluntod  from 
Christ's  college,  Cainbrid«o;  acboUr,  1884: 
fellow,  1889;  Sc.  D..  F.  R.  8.;  profUwr  o^ 
mathematics,  H»verlord  ooUege,  1801-1007; 
Adama  prise,  Cambridge,  1007.  Author:  7r«a. 
Use  on  the  Lunar  T/iairy;  New  Theory  of  Ut« 
Motion  of  the  Moon;  InsfualtHat  in  tin  Moan'* 
Motxon  Due  to  the  Direct  Action  of  the  Planete; 
and  various  papers  on  the  lunar  theory  and  on 
celestial  mechanics  during  the  last  fourtecQ 
years,  chiefly  in  memoirs  and  proceedlngi  of 
royal  astronomical  society,  London  mstho 
matical  society,  and  American  mathemationl 
society,  and  in  American  Journal  of  MathomaHee. 

Brown,  Ford  Madox,  Kngli.sh  artist,  was  bom  in  1821 
at  Calais,  France,  where  his  parents  were  tempo> 
rarily  residing.  In  1835  he  was  plaoed  in  (be 
academy  at  Bruges,  studied  also  at  Ghent  and 
Antwerp,  and  later  in  Paris;  settled  in  London 
in  184&-46.  He  was  associated  with  Roasetti, 
Millais,  and  the  rest  of  the  pre-Raphaalite 
brotherhood.  Among  his  beat  pictures  are 
the  famous  "King  Lear,"  "The  Last  of  Ehig- 
land,"  and  "Work,"  an  aggregation  of  pictures 
illustrating  the  general  subject  of  labor.  He 
died  in  1893. 

Brown,  Francis,  educator,  was  bom  in  1849; 
Davenport  professor  of  Hebrew  and  the  cognate 
languages,  Union  theological  seminary.  New 
York,  since  1890;  president  of  the  faculty, 
Union  theological  seminary,  since  1908;  grad- 
uated from  Dartmouth  collie,  Union  theological 
seminary,  university  of  Berlin,  Germany. 
Assistant-master,  Ayers'  Latin  school,  Pitts- 
burg, Pa.,  1870-72;  tutor  in  Greek,  Dartmouth 
college,  1872-74;  fellow  of  Union  theological 
seminary,  1877-79;  instructor  in  biblical 
philology,  Union  theological  seminary,  1879-81; 
associate  professor  of  biblical  philology.  Union 
theological  seminary,  1881-90.  Editor  of  L«ior> 
mant's  Beginnings  of  History.  Author  of  Atevri' 
ology:  Its  Use  and  Abuse;  co-author  of  The 
Christian  Point  of  View,  and  A  Hdirew  and 
English  Lexicon  of  the  Old  Tettament;  also  manjr 
articles  and  reviews. 

Brown,  Henry  Billings,  jurist,  associate  justice  of 
the  United  States  supreme  court,  1890-1906: 
bom  at  South  Lee,  Mass.,  1836;  graduate  of 
Yale,  1856;  studied  law  in  private  office;  at- 
tended lectures  at  Yale  and  Harvard  law  schools; 
LL.  D.,  Yale,  1891;  deputy  United  States 
marshal,  1861-63;  assistant  United  States 
attorney  for  eastern  district  of  Michigan,  1863- 
68;  then  for  a  few  months,  to  fill  a  vacancy, 
judge  state  circuit  court  of  Wavne  county: 
practiced  law  in  Detroit  until  1876;  United 
States  judge  for  eastern  district  of  Michigan, 
1875-90;  resigned  from  United  States  suprsms 
court  bench,  1906.  Compiler  of  Brown's  Ad- 
miralty Reports. 

Brown,  Henry  Kirke,  American  sculptor  and 
painter  of  great  versatility;  author  of  ths 
colossal  statue  of  General  Washington  in  Union 
square.  New  York;  "The  Angel  of  the  Resur- 
rection," in  Greenwood  cemetery,  Brooklyn; 
of  Govemor  Clinton,  at  Washington.  He  was 
bom  in  1814,  died  1886. 

Brown,  John,  leader  of  the  Harper's  Ferrv  insur- 
rection, 1859,  designed  to  incite  the  slaves  of 
the  southem  states  to  rebellion,  was  descended 
from  a  Puritan  carpenter,  one  o€  the  AfovAnMr 
emigrants,  and  was  bom  at  Torrington,  Uonn., 
in  1800.  In  1855  he  went  to  Kansas.  After 
the  slavery  agitation  in  that  state  was  srttted 
by  a  genieral  vote,  he  traveled  throu^  ths 
southem  and  eastern  states,  declaiming        '    ' 


£86 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


slavery,  and  endeavoring  to  organize  an  armed 
attack  upon  it.  In  1859,  at  the  head  of  seven- 
teen white  men  and  five  blacks,  he  commenced 
active  hostilities  by  a  descent  upon  Harper's 
Ferry,  where  an  arsenal  was  located  contaming 
from  100,000  to  200,000  stand  of  arms.  The 
arsenal  was  easily  captured,  and  forty  or  fifty 
of  the  principal  inhabitants  were  made  prisoners; 
but  instead  of  retreating  to  the  mountains  with 
arms  and  hostages,  as  his  original  design  had 
been,  Brown  lingered  in  the  town  until  evening, 
by  which  time  1,600  militiamen  had  arrived, 
lie  was  captured,  tried  for  treason,  and  executed 
in  1859. 
Brown,  Norrls,  lawyer,  United  States  senator,  was 
bom  in  1863,  at  Maquoketa,  Iowa;  graduated 
from  Iowa  state  university,  1883,  and  two  years 
later  received  the  degree  of  M.  A. ;  admitted  to 
practice  law  in  Iowa,  1884;  moved  to  Kearney, 
Neb.,  1888,  and  later  to  Omaha,  Neb. ;  served  as 
county  attorney  of  Buffalo  county  from  1892  to 
1896;  deputy  attorney  -  general.  1900-04; 
attorney-general,  1904-06;  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  senate  for  the  term  1907-13. 
Browne,  Charles  Farrar,  American  humorist  and 
satirist,  known  by  the  pseudonym  of  "Artemus 
Warch"  was  born  at  Waterford,  Maine,  1834. 
His  first  literary  effort  was  as  showman  to 
an  imaginary  traveling  menagerie.  He  traveled 
over  America  lecturing,  carrying  with  him  a 
whimsical  panorama  as  affording  texts  for  his 
numerous  jokes,  which  he  took  with  him  to 
London,  and  exhibited  with  the  same  accom- 
paniment with  unbounded  success.  He  spent 
some  time  among  the  Mormons,  and  denned 
their  religion  as  singular,  but  their  wives  plural. 
He  died  in  England  in  1807. 
Browne,  Sir  Thomas,  English  physician  and  author, 
was  born  at  London  in  1605.  After  studying  at 
Winchester,  Oxford,  and  on  the  continent,  he 
settled  as  a  physician  at  Norwich,  where  he 
spent  the  rest  of  his  life.  During  the  civil  wars 
and  the  protectorate  he  remained  in  learned 
seclusion,  indifferent  to  either  party.  He  was 
knighted  in  1671,  and  died  on  his  oirthday  in 
1682.  His  chief  works  are  Rdigio  Medici; 
Pscudodoxia  Epidemica,  or  Inquiry  into  Vulaar 
and  Common  Errors;  Hydriotaphia,  or  the  Urn 
Burial,  emd  Tlie  Garden  of  Cyrus.  De  Quincey 
ranks  Browne  with  Jeremy  Taylor  as  the  richest 
and  most  dazzling  of  rhetoricians. 
Browning,  EUsabeth  Barrett,  English  poet,  was 
born  at  Durham  in  1806,  died  at  Florence,  Italy, 
1861.  Her  first  important  essay  in  authorship 
was  a  translation  of  the  Prometheus  of  ^iischylus 
in  1833.  In  1838  appeared  the  Seraphim,  and 
Other  Poems.  In  1846  she  married  Robert 
Browning.  In  1850  Mrs.  Browning  published 
her  collected  works,  together  with  several  new 
poems.  In  1851  appeared  the  Casa  Guidi 
Windows,  a  poem  wliose  theme  was  the  struggle 
made  by  the  Tuscans  for  freedom  in  1849. 
Aurora  Leigh,  her  longest  production,  was  pub- 
lished in  1856.  Poems  Be/ore  Congress  appeared 
in  1860.  Her  poetry  is  distinguished  by  its 
depth  of  feeling  and  generous  sentiment. 
Browning,  Oscar,  English  historian  and  critic,  was 
born  at  London,  1837;  educated  at  Eton,  and 
King's  college,  Cambridge;  master  at  Eton, 
1860-75;  college  and  umversity  work  at  Cam- 
bridge since  1876.  Author  and  editor:  Modem 
England;  Modem  France;  History  of  Educational 
Theories;  England  and  Napoleon  in  1803; 
History  of  England,  in  4  vols.;  Life  of  George 
Eliot;  Dante:  Ldfe  and  Works;  Goethe:  Life  and 
Works;  Milton's  Tractate  on  EdtuxUion;  The, 
Citizen:  His  Rights  and  Responsibilities;  Gudphs 
and  Ghibellines;  Life  of  Peter  the  Great;  Charles 
XII.  of  Sweden;  Wars  of  the  Nineteenth  Century; 
History   of  Europe,    1814-1843;     Napoleon:    the 


First  Phase;  The  Fall  of  Napoleon;  many  con- 
tributions to  Quarterly,  Edinburgh,  and  other 
reviews. 

Browning,  Bobert.     See  page  118. 

Brown -8£quard  (sd'-kar'),  Edouard,  physiologist, 
was  born  at  Port  Louis,  Mauritius,  1818,  the  son 
of  a  Philadelphia  sea-captain  and  a  lady  called 
S^uard.  He  studied  at  Paris,  graduated  M.  D. 
in  1840,  devoted  himself  to  physiological  research, 
and  received  many  prizes  for  his  experiment* 
on  blood,  muscular  irritability,  animal  heat,  the 
spinal  cord,  and  the  nervous  system.  In  1864 
he  became  professor  of  physiology  at  Harvard; 
in  1869  returned  to  Paris  as  professor  of  pathology 
in  the  school  of  medicine;  in  1873  became  a 
medical  practitioner  in  New  York,  and  in  1878 
succeeded  Claude  Bernard  as  professor  of  experi- 
mental medicine  at  the  College  de  France.  He 
repeatedly  lectured  in  England  also.  He  pub- 
lished lectures  on  Physiology  and  Pathology  of  the 
Nervous  System;  Paralysis  of  the  Lower  Extrem- 
ities; Nervous  Affections;  Dual  Character  of  the 
Brain,  etc.     He  died  in  Paris  in  1894. 

Bruce,  Bobert,  king  of  Scotland,  bom  1274,  did 
homage  for  a  time  to  Edward,  but  joined  the 
national  party  and  became  one  of  a  regency  of 
four,  with  Comyn  for  rival;  stabbed  Comyn  in 
a  quarrel  at  Dumfries,  1306,  and  was  that  same 
year  crowned  king  at  Scone;  was  defeated  by 
an  army  sent  against  him,  and  obliged  to  flee  to 
Rathlin,  Ireland;  returned  and  landed  in  Car- 
rick;  cleared  the  English  out  of  all  the  fortresses 
except  Stirling,  and  in  1314  defeated  the  English 
under  Eklward  II.  at  Bannockburn,  after  which, 
in  1328,  the  independence  of  Scotland  wa« 
acknowledged  as  well  as  Bruce's  right  to  the 
crown.  Suffering  from  leprosy,  Bruce  spent  his 
last  two  years  at  Cardross  castle,  on  the  Clyde, 
where  he  died  in  1329,  in  the  twenty-fourth  year 
of  his  reign. 

Bruce-Joy,  Albert,  British  sculptor,  was  bom  in 
Dublin,  1842;  was  educated  at  King's  college, 
London;  South  Kensington  and  roy^  academy 
schools  of  art.  Pupil  of  Foley;  studied  in 
Rome  three  years;  twice  visited  America. 
Executed  public  statues,  chiefly  colossal,  of 
Gladstone.  Jolm  Bright,  Harvey,  Bishop  Berke- 
ley, Matthew  Arnold,  and  the  archbishop  of 
Canterbury;  busts  of  Lord  Salisbury  and  Mary 
Anderson,  and  the  following  ideal  works:  "The 
Young  Apollo";  "The  Forsaken";  "The  First 
Flight";  "The  Little  Visitor";  "The  Fairy 
Tale";  "Moses  and  Brazen  Serpent";  "Thetis 
and  Achillea";  "The  Pets";  Beatrice"  and 
"Sunshine." 

Brugsch  (brdbKsh)^  Helnrlcb  Karl,  German  Eg>'p- 
tologist,  Prussian  consul  to  Cairo,  was  bom  m 
1827.  He  organized  the  first  Egyptian  univer- 
sity, was  an  eminent  authority  on  EgA'ptian 
archaeology,  and  wrote  many  works  covering 
many  phases  of  that  subject.  He  was  later 
known  oy  his  title  of  Brugsch  Bev.     Died,  1894. 

Brummel,  George  Bryan,  Beau  Brummel,"  wa» 
born  at  London  in  1778;  in  his  day  the  prince  of 
dandies,  was  patronized  by  the  prince  of  Wales, 
afterward  George  IV.;  quarreled  with  the 
prince;  fled  from  his  creditors  to  Calais,  where, 
reduced  to  destitution,  he  lived  some  years  in 
the  same  reckless  fashion.  He  settled  at  length 
in  Caen,  where  he  died  insane  in  1840. 

Brunelleschl  {br6!>'-nU-Vts'-ke\  Flllppo,  great  Italian 
architect,  was  bom  at  Florence  m  1377,  is 
reckoned  the  first  who  established  on  a  sound 
basis  the  theory  of  perspective.  When  still  a 
young  man  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  acquired 
a  profound  knowledge  of  ancient  architecture. 
In  1407  he  returned  to  Florence.  In  1420  it  was 
proposed  to  complete  the  structure  of  the 
cathedral  of  St.  Maria  del  Fiore,  founded  in 
1296,  and  then  only  wanting  a  dome.     The  work 


WILLIAM  JENNINGS   BRYAN 

From  a  fhotografh 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


MO 


waa  intrusted  to  him,  and  finished,  with  the 
exception  of  the  lantern,  with  which  he  intended 
to  crown  the  whole,  but  was  prevented  by  his 
death  in  1446.  Brunelleschi's  dome,  measured 
diametrically,  is  the  largest  in  the  world,  and 
served  as  a  model  to  Michaelangelo  for  that  of 
St.  Peter's. 

Brunhllde  {briin'-held')  (Brunehaut),  daughter  of 
the  Visigothic  king,  Athanagild;  married  King 
Sigebert  of  Austrasia  in  561,  and  was  afterward 
regent  for  her  two  grandsons,  Theodebert  II., 
king  of  Austrasia,  and  Theodoric  II.,  king  of 
Burgundy;  divided  the  government  of  the 
whole  Frankish  world  with  her  rival  Fredegond, 
who  governed  Neustria  for  the  youthful  Clotaire 
II.  On  Fredegond's  death  in  598  she  seized 
Neustria,  and  for  a  while  united  under  her  rule 
the  whole  Merovingian  dominions,  but  was 
overthrown  in  613  by  the  Austrasian  nobles 
under  Clotaire  II.,  and  put  to  death  by  being 
dragged  at  the  heels  of  a  wild  horse. 

Bruno  ijbr^b'-nd),  Giordano,  a  restless  speculative 
thinker,  was  born  at  Nola,  near  Naples,  in  1548, 
was  trained  a  Dominican,  but  doubting  the 
dogmas,  fled  to  Geneva,  whence  Calvinist  suspi- 
cion of  his  scepticism  drove  him  to  Paris,  where 
he  lectured.  Bere  the  zeal  of  the  orthodox 
Aristotelians  forced  him  to  withdraw  to  London 
in  1583,  and  Oxford,  where  he  repeatedly  gave 
lectures.  In  1585  he  was  in  Paris  again,  in  1586 
in  Wittenberg,  in  1588  in  Prague,  then  in  Helm- 
stedt,  Frankfort,  Padua;  and  in  1592  in  Venice 
he  was  arrested  by  the  officers  of  the  inquisition 
and  conveyed  to  Rome  in  1593.  There,  in 
1600,  he  was  burned  as  an  obstinate  heretic. 
Of  his  works  (mostly  written  in  Italian),  the 
most  famous  is  the  Spaccio  della  Bestia  Trion- 
fante. 

Bruno,  Saints  founder  of  the  Carthusian  order,  was 
born  at  Cologne  about  1040;  became  rector  of 
the  cathedral  school  at  Rheims,  but,  oppressed 
by  the  wickedness  of  his  time,  withdrew  m  1084 
to  the  wild  mountain  of  Chartreuse,  near  Gren- 
oble. Here  with  six  friends  he  founded  the 
austere  Carthusians.  In  1094  he  established  a 
second  Carthusian  monastery  at  Delia  Torre  in 
Calabria,  where  he  died,  1101. 

Brush,  George  Jarvls,  mineralogist;  bom  in 
Brooklyn,  1831;  private  school  education; 
studied  chemistry  and  mineralogy  at  New 
Haven;  in  1850,  went  to  Louisville  as  assistant 
to  Prof.  Silliman  in  university  there;  received 
after  examination  newly  created  degree  of 
Ph.  B.,  Yale,  1852;  LL.  D.,  Harvard,  1886. 
Assistant  in  chemistry,  university  of  Virginia, 
1852-53;  studied  in  Europe,  1853-56;  professor 
metallurgy,  1855-71,  Yale  (now  Sheffield) 
scientific  school;  professor  mineralogy  same 
1864-98;  director  Sheffield  scientific  school, 
1872-98;  was  member  of  many  scientific  societies 
at  home  and  abroad.  Wrote  extensively  on 
mineral  topics.     Died,  1912. 

Bratus,  Lucius  Junius,  figures  in  the  history  of 
early  Rome  as  the  hero  who  overturned  the 
monarchial,  and  established  the  republican  form 
of  government.  '  That  his  character  as  a  stem 
old  Roman  hero  might  be  complete,  the  legend 
adds  that  he  sacrificed  to  the  new  republic  his 
own  sons,  detected  in  a  conspiracy  to  restore  the 
monarchy.  He  fell  in  mortal  combat  against 
the  Tarquins  about  507  B.  C.  n  j 

Brutus,  Marcus  Junius,  was  bom  in  85  B.  C,  and 
died  42  B.  C.  He  joined  Pompey  in  his  war 
against  Caesar;  but  after  Pompey's  defeat  he  was 
kindly  treated  by  Caesar,  and  made  governor  of 
Cisalpine  Gaul.  In  44  B.  C,  in  his  eagerness  to 
preserve  the  liberty  of  the  republic  against 
Caesar's  apparent  purpose  of  being  made  emperor, 
he  was  persuaded  by  Caius  Cassius  to  join  a  con- 
spiracy, and  helped  in  his  assassination,  although 


Ca»ar  had  given  him  many  honor*  And  promlwd 
him  others.  The  people,  instead  of  rejoidnc  at 
Ca^sar'ft  death,  were  enraged,  and  Bnitua  fled 
from  Rome.  Soon  after,  he  and  Caaaiua  were 
defeated  at  Philippi  by  Antony  and  Octaviua. 
Feeling  their  cause  was  lout,  Hrutua  flung  himiielf 
upon  his  sword  and  died.  He  waa  an  earnest 
student,  and  something  of  a  philoeopher. 

Bryan,  WiUiam  JenninKa,  cabinet  officer,  editor, 
orator;  bom  in  Salem,  III.,  I860:  earlv 
education  in  public  schools  and  Whipple  aeao- 
emy;  graduate  of  Illinois  college,  J*olcaoiiviU«, 
1881;  Union  college  of  law,  Chicago,  1888. 
Practiced  at  Jacksonville,  III.,  1883-87,  then  a* 
Lincoln,  Neb. ;  member  of  congraaa,  1891-M; 
received  democratic  vote  for  iJnited  States 
senator  in  Nebraska  legislature,  1893;  nomi* 
nated  in  democratic  convention  for  United 
States  senator,  1894,  but  was  defeated  in  legis- 
lature by  John  M.  Thurston;  editor  of  Omaha 
World-Herald,  1894-96;  delegate  to  national 
democratic  convention,  189<5;  wrote  the  "silver 
plank"  in  its  platform,  made  a  notable  ■peeoh. 
and  was  nominated  (or  president  of  Unitea 
States;  traveled  over  18,000  miles  during  cam- 
paign, speaking  at  almost  every  stopping  place; 
received  176  electoral  votes  against  271  for 
William  McKinley.  In  1897-98  he  lectured  on 
bimetallism;  raised  in  May,  1898,  the  3d  regi- 
ment of  Nebraska  volunteer  infantry  for  war 
against  Spain,  becoming  its  colonel.  Nominated 
for  president  in  1900  by  democratic,  populist, 
and  silver  republican  conventions;  he  made  an 
active  canvass,  but  was  again  defeated  by 
William  McKinley;  after  the  election  he  estab- 
lished a  weekly  political  magazine.  The  Com' 
moner.  He  was  again  nominated  for  president 
in  1908,  and,  after  a  notable  campaign,  was 
defeated  by  W.  H.  Taft.  Was  appointed 
secretary  of  state,  1913.  Author:  The  Firat 
BcMle,  Under  Other  Flags,  The  Old  World  and  JU 
Ways,  and  many  articles  in  magazines  and 
newspapers. 

Bryan,  William  Lowe,  educator;  bom  near 
Bloomington,  Ind.,  1860;  graduated  from 
Indiana  university,  1884;  A.  M.  1886;  Ph.  D., 
Clark  university,  1892;  LL.  D.,  Illinois  college, 
1904;  student  universities  Berlin,  1886-87, 
Paris  and  Wiirzburg,  1900-01.  Instructor 
Greek,  1884-85,  professor  philosophy,  1885- 
1902,  vice-president  1893-1902,  president  since 
1902,  university  of  Indiana.  President  Ameri- 
can psychological  association,  1903.  Author 
(with  his  wife):  Plato  the  Teacher:  SeUetion* 
from  Plato,  edited  with  notes  and  introduetioa; 
The  Republic  of  Plato,  with  Studies  for  Teaehert; 
and  many  contributions  on  psychological  sub- 
jects in  current  periodicals. 

Bryant,  WlHIam  Cullen,  poet  and  journalist,  bom 
at  Cumraington,  Hampshire  county,  Mass.,  1794. 
At  the  age  of  ten  he  published  translations  from 
the  Latin  poets;  at  thirteen  he  wrote  a  terse 
and  vigorous  political  px>em  entitled  The  Embargo; 
and  at  eighteen  he  composed  his  Thanatoptia. 
He  established  The  New  York  Review,  to  which 
he  contributed  many  of  his  best  poems.  In 
1826  he  became  principal  editor  of  The  Evening 
Post,  a  leading  paper  of  New  York,  which  he 
conducted  with  manliness  and  purity  of  tone. 
The  first  collected  edition  of  his  poems  appeared 
in  1832.  They  were  soon  after  republished  in 
England,  and  were  regarded  as  the  highert 
effort,  up  to  that  time,  of  the  American  muse. 
In  1842  he  published  The  Fountain,  and  Other 
Poems.  He  visited  Europe  in  1834,  and  several 
times  afterward,  and  records  his  obaervations 
in  Letters  of  a  Traveler  in  Europe  and  America. 
In  1858  appeared  a  new  edition  of  his  poetical 
works  ana  in  1870  a  metrical  translation  of  the 
Iliad,  followed  in  1871  by  that  of  the  Odyuey. 


090 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


He  afterward  collaborated  in  writing  the  History 
of  the  United  States.     Died,  1878. 

Bryce  (bris),  Bt.  Hon.  James,  British  historian, 
diplomat,  statesman,  was  bom  at  Belfast, 
Ireland,  in  1838;  educated  at  Glasgow  univer- 
sity and  Trinity  college,  Oxford;  D.  C.  L., 
LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.;  D.  L.  city  of  Aberdeen: 
member  of  institute  of  France  and  of  the  royal 
academies  of  Turin,  Stockholm,  Naples,  and 
Brussels,  and  of  the  royal  Accademia  of  the 
Lincei  at  Rome,  etc.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,  Lincoln's  Inn,  1867;  regius  professor 
of  civil  law  at  Oxford  university,  1870-93; 
member  of  parliament  for  Tower  hamlets, 
1880-85,  and  for  South  Aberdeen,  1885-1907; 
under-secretary  for  foreign  affairs  for  five 
months  in  1886;  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of 
Lancaster,  1892-94;  president  of  the  board  of 
trade,  1894-95;  chief  secretary  for  Ireland, 
1905-07.  He  was  appointed  ambassador  to 
the  United  States,  1906,  and  reaigned.  1912. 
Appointed,  1913,  member  of  permanent  court  of 
arbitration  at  The  Hague.  He  has  taken  a  deep 
interest  in  the  condition  of  the  eastern  Christians 
and  their  emancipation  from  Turkish  misrule. 
He  strongly  opposed  the  war  in  South  Africa,  and 
the  education  act  of  1902.  Author  of  The  Holy 
Roman  Empire;  Transcaucasia  and  Ararat;  The 
American  Commonwealth;  Impressions  of  South 
Africa;  Studies  in  History  and  Jurisprudence; 
Studies  in  Contemporary  Biography;  etc. 

Bucer  (IxSdf-sSr  or  bu'-ser),  or  ButEer,  Martin, 
German  reformer,  was  born  in  1491  at  Schlett- 
stadt,  in  Alsace;  at  fourteen  entered  the  Domini- 
can order,  and  went  to  Heidelberg  to  study 
theology,  Greek,  and  Hebrew.  In  1521  he 
quitted  the  order,  and  was  appointed  chaplain 
to  the  elector-palatine.  He  married  a  former 
nun  in  1522,  and  next  year  settled  in  Strassburg. 
In  the  disputes  between  Luther  and  Zwingli, 
Bucer  adopted  a  middle  course.  At  the  diet  of 
Augsburg  he  declined  to  subscribe  to  the  pro- 
posed confession  of  faith.  He  was  professor 
of  theologv  at  Cambridge,  England,  after  1549, 
where  he  died,  1551. 

Buchanan  (,bu-k&n'-an  or  bH-kSn'-an),  James, 
fifteenth  president  of  the  United  States,  was 
bom  in  Pennsylvania,  1791 ;  admitted  to  the 
bar,  1812;  member  of  congress,  1821-31; 
minister  to  Russia,  1831-33;  United  States 
senator,  1834-45;  secretary  of  state,  1845-49; 
minister  to  England,  1853-56;  signed  Ostend 
manifesto,  1854;  president,  1857-^51.  In  his 
last  message.  President  Buchanan  censured  the 
northern  people  for  the  imminent  disruption 
of  the  Union,  holding  that  neither  the  executive 
nor  congress  had  power  to  coerce  a  state.  He 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  at  his  home  in 
Lancaster,  Pa.  In  1866  he  wrote  a  book  to 
defend  his  administration.     He  died  in  1868. 

Buchanan,  Robert,  British  poet  and  critic,  was 
bom  in  England,  1841 ;  educated  at  Glasgow 
university.  In  1860  he  published  Undertones,  a 
volume  of  verses:  in  1865  Idylls  and  London 
Poems.  In  1866  he  edited  Wai/side  Posies,  and 
translated  ballads  from  the  Danish.  Among  later 
works  are  Napoleon  Fallen  —  a  lyrical  drama; 
God  and  the  Man;  The  Wandering  Jew;  The 
City  of  Dreams;  The  Shadow  of  the  Sword;  Woman 
ana  the  Man;  Master  Spirits;  A  Mad  Prince; 
St.  Abe  and  His  Seven  Wives.     Died,  1901. 

Buck,  Dudley,  organist,  composer;  bom  Hartford, 
Conn.,  1839;  studied  at  Trinity  college,  then 
Leipzig  conservatory  of  music,  and  at  Dresden 
and  Paris;  for  several  years  organist.  Music 
hall,  Boston;  was  organist  Holy  Trinity  church, 
Brooklyn,  and  director  and  organist  Apollo  club, 
twenty-five  years;  retired,  1903.  Composer  of 
orchestral,  organ,  and  vocal  music.  Among  his 
compositions  are  the  Centennial  Cantata,  Golden 


Legend,  Voyage  of  Columbus,  and  Light  of  Atia. 
Died,  1909. 
Buckingham  (bUk'-lng-am),  George  Villiera, 
Duke  of,  the  favorite  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I. 
of  England,  bom  at  Brooksby,  Leicestershire, 
1592.      In     1623,     while     negotiations    were     in 

Erogress  with  the  Spanish  court  for  a  marriage 
etween  the  infanta  and  the  prince  of  Wales, 
afterward  Charles  I.,  Buckingham  persuaded  the 
latter  to  go  himself  to  Madrid  and  prosecute  his 
suit  in  person.  By  his  advice  James  declared 
war  against  Spain.  On  the  accession  of  Charles 
I.,  in  1625,  Buckingham  nmintained  his  ascend- 
ency at  court,  but  after  the  ill-fated  expedition 
against  Cadiz  he  became  odious  to  the  nation. 
He  was  assassinated  by  a  discontented  subaltern 
officer  named  Felton,  1628. 

Buckle,  Henry  Thomas,  English  historian,  was 
bom  at  Lee,  Kent,  1821,  the  son  of  a  London 
shipowner.  A  sickly  child,  he  was  for  a  very 
short  time  at  an  academy  in  Kentish-Town;  no 
other  school  and  no  university  claims  credit  for 
his  education,  which  yet  was  liberal  in  the 
highest  d^ree.  In  1840  he  found  himself 
master  of  1,500  pounds  a  year;  bv  1850  he  knew 
eighteen  foreign  languages,  and  nad  amassed  a 
library  of  22,000  volumes,  chosen  mostly  to  help 
him  in  a  magnum  onus,  of  which  all  that  was 
ever  published  was  but  a  fragment.  An  Intro- 
duction to  the  History  of  Civilization  in  England. 
His  health  was  shattered  by  the  loss  of  an 
idolized  mother:  and  in  1862,  after  six  months' 
wandering  in  Elgypt  and  Palestine,  he  died  of 
typhoid  fever  at  Damascus. 

Buckley,  James  Monroe,  clergyman,  editor  New 
York  Christian  AdvocaU,  1880-1912;  bom  in 
Rahway,  N.  J.,  1836;  educated  at  Pennington, 
N.  J.,  seminary,  and  one  year  at  Wesleyaa 
university:  M.  A.,  D.  D. ;  LL.  D.,  Emory  and 
Henry  coliege;  studied  theolo^  at  Exeter, 
N.  H.;  joined  New  Hampshire  conference, 
Methodist  Episcopal  church,  1859;  went  to 
Detroit,  1863,  Brooklyn,  1866;  pastor  in 
vicinity  of  New  York  until  1880.  Author: 
OaU  or  wad  Oats;  Faith  Healing;  Christian 
Seitnce  and  Kindred  Phenomena;  Christians  and 
the  Theater;  The  Land  of  the  Czar  and  the  Nihil- 
ist; Travels  in  Three  Continents  —  Europe,  Asia, 
Africa;  History  of  Methodism  in  the  United  States; 
Extemporaneous  Oratory  for  Professional  and 
Amateur  Speakers;  Supposed  Miracles;  The 
Fundamentals  and  Their  Contrasts;   etc. 

Budde  (b<fl>d'-de),  Karl,  theologian,  professor  of 
old  testament  theology,  university  of  Marburg; 
bom  Bensberg,  near  Cologne,  1850;  educated  at 
Bensberg,  in  the  military'  school  to  1863;  at 
Essen  gymnasium  to  1867;  in  the  universities 
of  Bonn,  Berlin,  Utrecht  to  1873 ;  D.  D.,  Giessen, 
1883.  He  served  as  volunteer  in  the  74th 
regiment  of  infantry  in  the  Franco-German  war 
of  1870  during  the  siege  of  Metz;  passed  the 
two  examinations  for  church  service  at  Coblenz 
in  1871  and  1874;  became  privat-docent  of  old 
testament  theology  in  the  university  of  Bonn 
in  1873;  was  inspector  of  the  Evangelisch- 
theologisches  Stift  at  Bonn,  1878-85;  professor 
extraordinarius  in  1879  at  Bonn;  1889  at 
Strassburg,  received  a  call  as  professor  ordinarius 
to  Ziirich,  and  was  promoted  the  same  year  to 
the  professorship  at  Strassburg;  accepted  a  call 
to  Marburg  in  1900.  He  has  published  many 
works  on  historical  and  critical  theology. 

Buddha  (bodd'-d)  (Gautama).     See  page  201. 

Budge,  Ernest  A.  Wallis,  English  archseologist, 
keeper  of  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  antiquities, 
British  museum,  was  born  in  Cornwall,  1857; 
educated  at  Christ's  college,  Cambridge.  Has 
conducted  excavations  at  Aswan  in  Egypt,  at 
Gebel  Barkal,  on  the  island  of  Meroe,  at  Semna 
and  other  sites  in  the  Sudan,  and  at  Nineveh 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


OBI 


•nd  Der  in  Mesopotanxia.  Author  of  Babu- 
lanian  Life  and  History;  Egyptian  Ideas  oj  the 
Future  Life;  Egyptian  Magic;  Easy  Lessons  in 
Egyptian  Hieroglyphics;  The  Egyptian  Hudan,  its 
ifistory  and  Monuments,  2  vols. ;  The  Sarcophami* 
of  Seii  I.;  The  Book  of  the  Kings  of  Egypt,  2  vola. ; 
and  numerous  others  on  orientiu  subjects. 

Buff  on  {bii'-f6n'),  Georges  Louis  Leclerc,  Count 
de,  French  naturalist,  was  born  1707,  died  1788. 
He  was  educated  for  the  law ;  but,  after  travel- 
ing for  a  time,  devoted  himself  to  science.  In 
1739  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  academy 
of  sciences,  and  appointed  director  of  the  royal 
garden.  His  Natural  History,  in  fifteen  volumes. 
IS  written  in  the  finest  literary  style  and  created 
a  great  popular  interest  in  natural  history. 
Rousseau  is  said  to  have  kissed  the  steps  of  the 
pavilion  in  which  the  book  was  written.  He  was 
one  of  the  pioneers  of  the  modern  doctrine  of 
evolution.  The  History  of  Birds,  History  of 
Minerals,  and  Epochs  of  Nature  are  other  works 
of  his  which  are  well  known. 

Bulflnch,  Charles,  American  architect,  was  bom  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  1763.  His  chief  works  are  the 
Massachusetts  state  house,  at  Boston;  McLean 
iiospital,  Somerville;  M.assachusett8  general 
hospital,  Boston;  and  the  west  porticos  of  tho 
capitol  at  Washington.     He  died  1844. 

Pulkeley,  Morgan  Gardner,  ex-United  States  senator, 
was  born  at  East  Haddam,  Conn.,  1838;  edu- 
cated in  the  district  schools  of  his  native  town  and 
at  the  Hartford  high  school;  hon.  M.  A.,  Yale, 
1889.  In  1852  commenced  a  business  life  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.;  in  1862  enlisted  in  the  thir- 
teenth regiment,  national  guard  state  of  New 
York,  and  served  at  Baltimore  and  Suffolk,  Va., 
under  the  command  of  Brigadier-general  Max 
Weber;  returned  to  Hartford  in  1872,  and  at 
once  became  actively  interested  in  its  business 
and  politics-  organized  and  was  the  first  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  bank  of  Hartford,  and 
in  1879  was  chosen  president  of  the  iEtna  life 
insurance  company,  organized  by  his  father; 
governor  of  Connecticut  from  1889  until  1893; 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  senate  for  the 
term  1905-11. 

Bull,  Ole  Bomemann,  famous  violinist;  bom  in 
Bergen,  in  Norway,  1810;  he  secured  great 
triumphs  both  throughout  Europe  and  in 
America  bj^  his  wonderful  playing.  He  lost  all 
his  money  in  a  scheme  to  found  a  colony  of  his 
countrymen  in  Pennsylvania,  and  had  to  take 
again  to  his  violin  to  repair  his  broken  fortunes. 
He  afterward  settled  down  at  Cambridge,  Mass., 
and  had  also  a  summer  residence  in  Norway, 
where  he  died  in  1880. 

Buller  (bddl'-iSr),  Sir  Sedvers,  British  general,  was 
born  in  England  in  1839,  and  as  an  officer  of  the 
60th  rifles  saw  much  service  in  the  China  expedi- 
tion of  1860,  in  the  Red  River  rebellion  in  north- 
western Canada,  in  Ashanti,  and  in  the  KaflBr 
and  Zulu  wars  in  South  Africa.  In  the  Boer 
war,  1899-1901,  he  had  chief  command  of  the 
first  army  corps  sent  from  England  to  South 
Africa.  The  Bo§r  opposition  on  the  Tugela  was 
of  the  most  formidable  character;  after  many 
reverses  he  effected  the  relief  of  Ladysmith. 
He  was  successively  adjutant-general,  lieutenant- 
general,  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  Britfeh 
forces.     Retired,  1901 ;  died,  1908. 

Btilow  (bil'-lo).  Prince  Bemhard  tou,  German 
statesman,  chancellor  of  the  empire  1900-09, 
was  bom  at  Klein-Flottbeck  in  1849.  He 
entered  the  German  foreign  office  in  1873,  and 
acted  as  secretary  of  embassy  in  Rome,  St. 
Petersburg,  and  Vienna,  holding  the  important 
post  of  chargi.  d'affaires  to  Greece  during  the 
Russo-Turkish  war.  At  the  conclusion  of  that 
war  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  secretaries  of  the 
Berlin  congress,  and  after  more  diplomatic  serv- 


ice in  Paris  and  St.  Pet«nl>uig,  h*  wm  «ppoiot«d 
minister  to  RuuinanU  1888,  And  ainh«Mr1nr  to 
Italy,  1893.  During  1807  be  acted  Ml  fonin 
secretary  while  Baroa  too  MMBOhall  was  oo 
leave,  and  waa  at  laat  definitely  appointed  to 
that  office.  In  1S90  be  i!^>nduded  the  tteaty 
with  Spain,  whereby  the  Caroline^  Ma,4f«^  ^^^ 
Pelew  islands  were  ceded  to  Germany,  and  upon 
this  achievement  he  was  created  Count  BQlow. 


In  1900,  on  the  resignation  of  Prinoe  Ho , 

he  succeeded  him  aa  chancellor  of  the  Qennaa 
empire,  prime  minister  and  Tifntatirr  of  foreign 
affairs  of  Prussia,  and,  on  June  6,  1005,  be  wa* 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  prince.  He  reaimad 
the  chancellorship  in  1900,  and  waa  ■uooeede3  by 
Dr.  Bethmann-HoUwc^. 

Billow,  Frledrich  W'Ubelm,  Baron  veil,  Pruadan 
general,  was  born  at  Falkenberg,  1755,  died  ai 
Konigsberg,  1816;  in  1813  commanded  in  the 
first  successful  encounter  with  the  French  at 
Mockern,  and  revived  the  self-confidence  of  the 
army  after  the  adverse  battle  of  Liitsen.  Hia 
victories  over  Oudiuot  and  Ney  at  Groaabeeren 
and  Dennewitz  saved  Berlin;  be  acted  a  con- 
spicuous part  in  the  battle  of  Leipslg.  and,  by 
taking  possession  of  Montmartre,  finished  the 
campaign  of  1814.  The  king  gave  him  an  estate 
worth  30,000  pounds,  and  the  title  of  Graf  von 
Dennewitz.  In  1815  ne  jointxi  Bliicher  by  forced 
marches,  and  headed  the  column  that  first  came 
to  Wellington's  aid  at  Waterloo. 

Bulwer  {bdbl'-w€r\  Edward  George  Earie  Lyttea* 
See  Lytton,  Lord. 

Bulwer,  Sir  Henry  Lytton  Earle,  famous  English 
diplomatist  and  author,  an  elder  brother  of  Lord 
Lytton,  usually  known  as  Sir  Henry  Bulw'er, 
was  bom  1801.  In  1837  he  became  secretary 
of  embassv  at  Constantinople,  where  he  nego- 
tiated and  concluded  a  treaty  which  is  tne 
foundation  of  the  present  conmiercial  sytleai  of 
England  in  the  East.  In  1843  he  waa  made 
minister  plenipotentiary  to  the  court  of  Madrid. 
and  concluded  the  peace  between  Spain  ana 
Morocco  in  the  following  year.  In  1849  he  came 
to  Washington,  where  ne  evinced  equal  art  in 
concluding  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty.  In 
1852  he  was  sent  to  Tuscany  as  envoy  extraordi- 
nary, and  in  1856  was  nominated  by  Lord 
Palmerston  commissioner  at  Bucharut  for 
investigating  the  state  of  the  Danubian  princi- 
palities; died  1872.  Among  his  works  are 
An  AiUumn  in  Greece;  France:  Social,  LiUrary, 
and  Political;  Life  of  Byron  and  Hiatarital 
Characters. 

Bun  sen  {bdbn'-sen).  Baron,  Christian  Karl  Joslas, 
German  statesman  and  scholar,  bom  1791  at 
Korbach,  in  the  principality  of  Waldeck,  died  at 
Bonn,  1860.  In  1841  he  was  sent  on  a  special 
mission  to  London,  to  negotiate  the  erection  of 
an  Anglo-Pmssian  bishopric  in  JerusalenK  and 
was  shortly  afterward  appointed  ambaaaador  at 
the  English  court.  His  views  regarding  the  part 
Prussia  should  act  in  the  Eastern  oueation  not 
being  in  accordance  with  those  of  his  court,  he 
resigned  in  1854.  He  is  known  in  literature  by 
his  Constitution  of  the  Chxtrch  of  ths  Future. 
Christianity  and  Mankind,  God  in  Hxatory,  and 
many  other  works. 

Bunsen,  Robert  Wllhelm,  German  chemist,  was 
bom  at  Gottingen,  1811.  He  was  the  first  to 
produce  magnesium  in  large  quantities,  and  in 
1860  invented  the  magnesium  light,  which  has 
proved  so  important  to  photography.  Hia 
greatest  discovery  waa  that  of  spectrum  analyaia, 
made  in  conjunction  with  Kirchhofif.  Bunaen 
will  always  be  remembered  by  phjnridata  and 
chemists  from  their  constant  use  of  the  photom- 
eter and  gas-bumer,  which  are  such  useful 
adjuncts  to  laboratory  apparatus,  and  which 
bear  the  "Bunsen  burner"  name.     Died,  18B0. 


692 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Bunyan,  John,  English  writer,  was  bom  at  Elstow, 
near  Bedford,  in  1628.  For  some  years  he  fol- 
lowed his  father's  trade,  that  of  a  traveling 
tinker.  After  a  short  service  in  the  parlia- 
mentary army,  he  married  at  the  age  of  nineteen. 
His  marriage  was  followed  by  his  conversion,  or 
religious  "awakening."  In  1655  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Baptist  congregation  at  Bedford, 
and,  subsequently,  its  pastor.  After  the  restora- 
tion, he  was  convicted  under  the  act  against 
conventicles,  1660,  and  thrown  into  Bwiford 
jail,  where  he  remained  for  upward  of  eleven 
years,  supporting  hia  family  by  making  tagged 
laces,  ana  writing  the  Pilgrim's  Frogreaa. 
Through  the  interjKMition  of  Dr.  Barlow,  bishop 
of  Lincoln,  he  was  released  from  prison,  1672, 
becoming  again  pastor  of  the  Beaford  congre- 
gation. This  position  he  held  till  his  death, 
which  took  place,  in  London,  1688.  Of  Bun- 
yan's  other  works,  the  chief  are  his  Grace 
Abounding  to  the  Chief  of  Sinners,  an  autobiog- 
raphv,  and  the  Holy  War,  another  allegory,  very 
inferior,  however,  to  the  PUfjrim'a  Progress. 
He  is  also  the  author  of  a  volume  of  verse, 
entitled  Divine  Emblems. 

Burbank,  Luther,  naturalist,  horticulturist;  bom 
in  Lancaster,  Mass.,  1849;  boyhood  on  farm: 
educated  at  Lancaster  academy ;  always  devoted 
to  study  of  nature,  especially  plant  life.  Moved 
to  Santa  Rosa,  Cal.,  1875;  conducts  Burbank's 
experiment  farms.  Originator  of  the  Burbank 
potato;  gold,  Wickson,  apple,  October  purple, 
chalco,  America,  and  climax  plums;  giant, 
splendor,  sugar,  and  stoneless  prunes;  a  new 
fruit,  the  plumcot;  peachblow,  Burbank,  and 
Santa  Rosa  roses;  gigantic  forms  of  amaryllis, 
tigridia,  the  Shasta  daisy,  giant  and  fragrance 
callas;  various  new  apples,  peaches,  nuts, 
berries,  and  other  valuable  trees,  fruits,  flowers, 
grasses,  grains,  and  vegetables.  Sjiecial  lecturer 
on  evolution  at  Ix'land  Stanford  Jr.  university. 

Burdett-Coutts  {h^r-dW -kiXtts'),  Angela  GeorKtna, 
Baroness,  English  philanthropist,  was  bom  in 
1814,  the  daughter  of  Sir  Francis  Burdett; 
succeeded  in  1837  to  the  great  wealth  of  her 
grandfather,  Thomas  Ckjutts.  The  shoeblack 
brigade,  the  Nova  Scotia  gardens,  model  lodging 
houses,  and  Columbia  market  are  of  her  founda- 
tion. The  poor  and  distressed  at  home  and 
abroad  had  a  constant  benefactress  in  her; 
the  east-end  weavers,  the  Irish  fishermen  of 
Cape  Clear,  the  Turkish  peasantry  after  the 
Russo-Turkish  war  are  among  those  who 
received  her  help.  In  1871  the  queen  made 
Miss  Coutts  a  peeress,  and  in  1881  the  baroness 
married  William  Ashmead-Bartlett.  She  died  in 
1906. 

Burdette  {bUr-dif),  Robert  Jones,  American  jour- 
nalist, humorist,  and  lecturer,  was  bom  in 
Pennsylvania  in  1844.  Served  with  the  47th 
Illinois  volunteers  as  a  private,  in  the  civil  war, 
and  was  for  a  time  connected  with  the  Peoria 
Transcript;  later  became  associate  editor  of  the 
Burlington  (Iowa)  Hawkeye,  and  of  the  Brooklyn 
Eagle;  his  humorous  sketches  won  him  an 
audience  far  and  wide.  He  began  to  lecture  in 
1876,  and  was  licensed  a  minister  of  the  Baptist 
church,  1887;  held  a  pastorate  at  Los  Angeles 
until  1909,  when  he  was  incapacitated  by  an 
accident.  He  is  the  author  of  Hawkeyetems; 
The  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Moustache;  Hawkeyes; 
Life  of  William  Penn;  Innach  Garden;  Sons 
of  Asaph;  Chimes  from  a  Jester's  Bdls;  Smiles 
Yoked  with  Sighs;  etc. 

Burdick,  Francis  Marlon,  lawyer,  educator,  Dwight 
professor  law,  Columbia  university,  since  1891; 
bom  at  De  Ruyter,  N.  Y.,  1845;  graduated  from 
Hamilton  college,  1869;  Hamilton  college  law 
school,  1872;  LL.  D.,  Hamilton  college,  1895; 
practiced  law,  Utica,  N.  Y.,  1872-83;    professor 


law  and  history,  Hamilton  college,  1882-87; 
professor  law,  Cornell  university  school  of  law, 
1887-91.  Mayor  of  Utica,  1882-83;  United 
States  assay  commissioner,  1889.  Author: 
The  Essentials  of  Business  Law;  Cases  on  Torts; 
Cases  on  Sales;  Law  of  Sales;  Law  of  Partnership; 
Cases  on  Partnership.  Editor  department  of 
law,  Johnson's  Universal  Cyclopasdta;  The  Law 
of  Torts. 

Burgess,  Frank  Gelett,  writer,  illustrator;  bom 
Boston,  1866;  graduated  at  Massachusetts 
institute  of  technology,  B.  S.,  1887.  Draughts- 
man with  Southern  Pacific  railway,  1887-90; 
instructor  topographical  drawing,  university  of 
California,  1891-94;  designer,  1894-95,  and 
associate  editor  The  Wave;  editor  Lark  (San 
Francisco),  1895-97;  writer  for  various  maga- 
zines in  New  York,  1897-98;  removed  to  London, 
1898,  to  San  Francisco,  1900,  to  Boston,  1904; 
associate  editor  Rtdgways^  1906.  Author: 
Vivette;  The  Lively  City  o'  Ltgg;  Goops  and  How 
to  Be  "Them;  A  Gage  of  Youth;  Burgess  Nonsense 
Book;  Romance  of  the  Commonplace;  The 
Rubaiyat  of  Omar  Cayenne;  A  Little  Sister  of 
Destiny;  Are  You  a  Bromidet  The  Heart  Line; 
The  Romantic  Mood;  and  short  stories  and 
articles  for  various  English  and  American 
magazines. 

Burcess,  John  William,  educator;  bom  in  Coners- 
viUe.  Tenn.,  1844;  attended  Cumberland  uni- 
versity, Lebanon,  Tenn.;  graduate  of  Amherst, 
1867.  Admitted  to  bar,  Springfield,  Mass., 
1869;  professor  of  English  literature  and  politi- 
cal economy,  Knox  coUeee,  1869-71;  studied 
historv,  public  law  and  political  science,  Gottin- 
gen,  Leipzig,  Berlin,  1871-73;  professor  history 
and  pohtical  science,  Amherst,  1873-76;  pro- 
fessor political  science  and  constitutional  law 
since  1876,  dean  faculty  of  political  science,  1890- 
1912,  Columbia  university;  Roosevelt  pro- 
fessor of  American  history  and  institutions, 
university  of  Berlin,  1906-07.  Author:  Politi- 
cal Science  and  Comparative  Constitutional  Law; 
The  MiddU  Period;  The  CivU  War  and  the  Con- 
stitution; Reconstruction  and  the  Constitution; 
and  frequent  contributor  to  reviews  on  historical, 
political  and  legal  topics. 

Burgojme  (biir-goin'),  John,  British  general,  was 
born  1722;  entered  early  into  the  army;  and  in 
1762  displayed  much  talent  and  enterprise  in 
command  of  a  party  of  the  British  troops  in 
Portugal.  In  the  American  war,  he  led  the  army 
which  was  to  penetrate  from  Canada  into  the 
revolting  provinces.  At  first,  he  was  successful ; 
but  was  ultimatelv  compelled  to  surrender  at 
Saratoga,  1777.  f)isgusted  by  the  conduct  of 
the  ministry  after  his  return,  he  resigned  all  his 
employments.     He  died  in  1792. 

Burke,  Edmund,  British  statesman  and  orator, 
was  bom  at  Dublin  in  1729;  graduated  at 
Trinity  college,  Dublin.  Going  to  London,  he 
attracted  attention  by  his  essays  on  the  Sublime 
and  Beautiful,  and  devoted  himself  to  literature, 
founding  in  1759  The  Annual  Register.  In  1761 
he  became  private  secretary  to  Hamilton,  the 
new  chief  secretary  for  Ireland ;  and  served  Lord 
Rockingham  in  the  same  capacity  when  that 
nobleman  became  prime  minister;  in  1766 
entered  parliament;  his  speeches  on  American 
affairs  created  a  great  sensation  in  the  house 
of  commons.  His  position  in  p>olitical  life  was 
raised  still  higher  by  the  pamphlets  which  he 
wrote  on  current  questions.  Returned  for 
Malton,  he  produced  in  1780  his  great  plan  of 
economical  reform;  and  in  1782  he  became 
paymaster  under  Lord  Rockingham's  govern- 
ment. He  again  took  oflBce  in  the  duke  of 
Portland's  coalition  ministry,  when  he  maide  his 
famous  speech  on  the  India  bill.  In  the  impeach- 
ment of  Warren  Hastings,  Burke  played  a  leading 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


8B3 


part,  his  opening  sp>eech  extending  over  four  days. 
The  outbreak  of  the  French  revolution  was  the 
occasion  of  one  of  his  finest  efforts  of  oratory. 
Burke's  attitude  in  this  matter  severed  his 
friendship  with  Fox,  and  he  seceded  from  the 
whig  party.  In  1794  he  retired  from  parlia- 
mentary life,  though  he  continued  to  produce 
pamphlets  on  political  affairs.  His  other  chief 
works  are  A  Vindication  of  Natural  Society; 
Thoughts  on  the  Causes  of  Present  Discontents; 
Reflections  on  the  Revolution  in  France;  and  some 
Letters.     Died  at  Beaconsfield,  England,  1797. 

Burkett,  Elmer  Jacob,  lawyer,  ex-United  States 
senator,  was  born  in  Mills  county,  Iowa,  on  a 
farm,  1867;  graduated  from  Tabor  college, 
Iowa,  1890;  LL.  B.,  law  department,  university  of 
Nebraska,  in  1893 ;  LL.  M.,  1895 ;  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  at  Lincoln,  1893,  and  has  practiced  law 
there  ever  since;  elected  a  member  of  the  state 
legislature  in  1896;  representative  to  the  fifty- 
sixth,  fifty-seventh,  fifty-eighth,  and  fifty-ninth 
congresses;  and  United  States  senator  for  the 
term  1905-11. 

Burleigh  Q>&r'4l),  William  CecU,  Lord.  See  Cecil, 
WiUiam,  Lord  Burleigh. 

Burleson,  Albert  Sidney,  lawyer,  cabinet  officer, 
was  bom  1863,  at  San  Marcos,  Texas: 
was  educated  at  agricultural  and  mechanical 
college  of  Texas,  Baylor  university,  and  uni- 
versity of  Texas;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1885; 
assistant  city  attorney  of  Austin  1885-90; 
appointed  by  the  governor  of  Tex£is  attorney  of 
the  twenty-sixth  judicial  district  in  1891;  elected 
to  said  office,  1892-96 ;  elected  to  the  fifty-sixth, 
fifty-seventh,  fifty-eighth,  fifty-ninth,  sixtieth, 
sixty-first,  sixty-second  and  sixty-third  congresses. 
Was  appointed  postmaster-general,  1913. 

Burlingame,  Anson,  American  diplomatist;  bom 
in  Chenango  county,  N.  Y.,  1820.  He  was 
elected  member  of  congress  by  the  republicans 
of  the  fifth  district  of  Massachusetts,  in  1854- 
56-58.  In  1861  he  was  sent  as  minister  to 
China,  and  in  1867  appointed  special  Chinese 
envoy  to  the  United  States  and  to  the  great 
powers  of  Europe.  In  1868  he  visited  this 
country  at  the  head  of  a  Chinese  embassy, 
and  concluded  a  liberal  treaty  between  the 
United  States  and  China,  which  was  promptly 
ratified  by  the  Chinese  government.  The 
embassy  afterward  visited  London,  Paris,  Berlin, 
and  lastly  St.  Petersburg,  where  Burlingame 
suddenly  died,  1870. 

Bume-Jones,  Sir  Edward,  English  painter,  was  bora 
of  Welsh  ancestry  at  Birmingham,  England, 
1833.  He  was  educated  at  Exeter  college, 
Oxford,  where  William  Morris,  the  poet,  was  his 
friend.  He  left  without  taking  a  degree,  having 
relinquished  orders  for  art;  and  about  1857, 
submitting  some  pen-drawings  to  Rossetti, 
whose  work  had  powerfully  influenced  him,  he 
received  from  him  encouragement  and  guidance 
in  his  attempts  as  a  painter.  From  the  first  he 
was  a  fascinating  colorist.  About  1870  he  began 
to  be  known  as  an  oil-painter,  and  his  works 
henceforth  are  inspired  by  the  earlier  art  of  the 
Italian  renaissance,  and  show  more  of  grace  and 
less  of  emphasis  than  his  former  paintings. 
Among  his  pictures  are  "The  Davs  of  Creation," 
"The  Beguiling  of  Merlin,"  ""The  Mirror  of 
Venus,"  "Laus  Veneris,"  "Le  Chant  d' Amour," 
"Pan  and  Psyche,"  "The  Golden  Stair,"  "The 
Wheel  of  Fortune,"  "King  Cophetua,"  "The 
Brazen  Tower,"  and  "Briar  Rose."  He  fur- 
nished striking  designs  for  stained  glass,  e.  g. 
at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  became  D.  C.  L. 
of  Oxford  1881,  A.  R.  A.  1885  (resigned  1893), 
and  a  baronet  1894.     He  died.  1898. 

Burnett  {bur-n^tf),  Frances  Hodgson,  author,  play- 
wright; bom  (Frances  Eliza  Hodgson),  Man- 
chester,   England,    1849;     family   moved,    1865, 


to  Knoxvillo,  Tenn.:  began  writing  for  man* 
sines,  1867:  married  Dr.  L.  M.  Bumatt,  1873; 
settled  in  Washington,  1875;  obtained  oivoree, 
1898;  married  seoond  time,  1000,  Stepiiea 
Townesend,  Ensliah  author.  Author  (novvk): 
That  Laaa  o'  Lowrie't;  DMy,  a  Lovt  Story; 
Kathleen;  Surly  Tim  and  Othtr  Stori**; 
Haworth's;  Louisiana;  A  Fair  Barbaruin; 
Through  One  Administration;  LittU  Lord  Faunt- 
leroy;  Editha'a  Burglar;  Sara  Crnpe;  LittU 
Saint  Elizabeth;  Two  LittU  Pilgrim*'  ProgrmM; 
The  Pretty  Sister  of  Josi;  A  Lady  of  Quality; 
His  Grace  of  Ormonde;  The  Captain's  Youngaat; 
In  Connection  vnth  the  De  Willoughby  Claim; 
The  Making  of  a  Marchioness;  The  Little  Vn/airy 
Princess;  A  Little  Princess.  Plays:  LittU  Lord 
Fauntleroy;  Phyllis;  The  Showman'$  Daughttr; 
Esmeralda;  The  First  Oentleman  of  Europt; 
Nixie  (with  Stephen  Townesend):  A  Lady  of 
Qvudity  (with  same)  and  The  Shuttle. 

Burnham,  Daniel  Hudson,  architect;  bom  Hen« 
derson,  N.  Y.,  1846-  remove<i  to  Chicago,  18S6; 
educated  there  and  in  Massachuaetta;  A.  M., 
Harvard,  Yale;  Sc.  D.,  Northwestern  univeraity. 
Studied  architecture  in  Chicago;  was  head  of  firm 
Bumham  &  Root,  1872-91,  D.  H.  Bumham  A  Co., 
1891-1912;  architect  of  the  Rookery,  the  Temple, 
Masonic  temple,  Illinois  trust  Dank,  Great 
Northern  hotel.  First  national  bank,  Railway 
exchange.  Field's  retail  store  and  many  other 
buildings  in  Chicago  and  elsewhere,  including  the 
Mills  building,  San  Francisco;  Ellicott  Square, 
Buffalo;  society  for  savings,  and  First,  Third, 
and  Fourth  national  banks,  Cleveland;  Land 
Title  building,  Philadelphia,  and  new  Wana- 
maker  stores,  Philadelphia  and  New  York; 
chief  architect  and  director  of  works,  World's 
Columbian  exposition,  1890-93;  chairmaa 
national  commission  for  beautifying  Washington 
and  of  commission  for  beautifying  Cleveland, 
Ohio.     Died,  1912. 

Bumham,  Henry  Eben,  lawyer,  ex-United  States 
senator,  was  bom  in  Dunbarton.  N.  H.,  1844; 
graduated  from  Dartmouth  college  in  1865; 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1868,  and  since  that  time 
has  practiced  in  Manchester;  was  judge  of  pro- 
bate for  Hillsboro  county  in  1876-79;  repre- 
sentative in  the  state  legislature  in  1873-74; 
was  a  member  of  the  state  constitutional  con- 
vention of  1889;  is  president  of  the  Mechanics 
savings  bank,  and  member  of  the  lx>ard  of 
directors  of  the  Second  national  bank,  and  of  the 
New  Hampshire  fire  insurance  company, 
Manchester;  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
senate,  1901,  and  reelected  in  1907. 

Bums,  Bt.  Hon.  John,  labor  leader,  president  of 
the  British  local  government  board  since  1905; 
bom  London,  1858;  was  educated  at  Batterse* 
and  at  night  schools;  was  unsuccessful  candidate 
for  parliament  from  the  western  division  of 
Nottingham,  1885;  since  1892  has  represented 
Battersea  in  the  house  of  commons;  member 
of  the  British  cabinet,  1905.  He  has  published 
many  pamphlets,  articles,  and  speeches. 

Bums,  Robert,  Scottish  poet,  was  bom  at  Alloway, 
near  Avr,  Scotland,  1759;  died  at  Dumfries. 
1796.  lie  was  the  son  of  a  small  farmer,  and 
was  brought  up  amidst  indigence  and  adverrity. 
He  received,  however,  the  advantages  of  m 
common  school  education,  though  his  chief 
advances  in  general  knowledge  he  owed  to  the 
books  he  read,  among  which  were  The  Spe<^tor, 
the  works  of  Pope,  and  the  poems  of  Allan  Ram- 
sav;  while  among  the  unprintcd  boolcs  whlcn 
enthralled  him  were  the  songs  and  balla<i«,  ™p^|3J 
of  unknown  authorship,  which  then  circulated 
in  that  part  of  Scotland.  When  sixteen  years  of 
age  he  fell  in  love,  and  his  feelings,  as  he  tells  us, 
at  once  burst  into  song.  His  first  volume  of 
poetry  was  issued  in  1786,  from  the  provrndal 


0D4 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


press  of  Kilmarnock,  &nd  it  at  once  became 
popular.  The  success  of  this  volume,  which  was 
speedily  republished  in  Edinburgh,  induced  him 
to  take  the  farm  of  Ellisland,  near  Dumfries, 
where  he  married  his  "bonny  Jean."  This 
speculation  of  farming  proving  a  failure,  he 
removed  to  Dumfries  in  1791  and,  having  been 
appointed  to  a  position  as  exciseman,  which  had 
been  obtained  for  him  by  a  friend  and  an  admirer 
of  his  genius,  he  subsisted  entirely  upon  his 
income  from  that  office,  which  yielded  only 
about  £70  a  year.  In  1792  he  wrote  about  a 
hundred  songs,  as  accompaniments  to  the 
melodies  of  Scotland;  and  for  these,  which  are 
now  among  the  world's  priceless  possessions,  he 
received  the  sum  of  £5.  Disappointment  now 
embittered  him;  in  his  office,  a  dangerous  one 
to  men  of  his  tendencies,  intemperance  gradually 
gained  upon  him,  while  want  threatened  him; 
and,  in  his  thirty-eighth  year,  he  sank  into  an 
untimely  grave. 

Bumslde,  Ambrose  Everett,  American  general, 
born  at  Liberty,  Indiana,  1824;  served  an 
apprenticeship  to  a  tailor,  but  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1847.  He  left  the  army  as  first- 
lieutenant  in  1852,  but  returned  as  colonel  of 
volunteers  in  1861,  cononumded  a  brigade  at 
Bull  Run,  and  in  February,  1862,  captured 
Roanoke  island.  Having  rendered  important 
services  at  South  mountain  and  Antietam,  he  in 
November  reluctantly  superseded  McClellan. 
In  December,  1862,  he  crossed  the  Rappahan- 
nock, and  attacked  Lee  near  Fredericksburg,  but 
was  repulsed  with  a  loss  of  over  10,(X)0  men.  In 
1803  he  successfully  held  Knoxville,  and  in  1864 
led  a  corps  under  Grant  through  the  battles  of 
the  Wilderness  and  Cold  Harbor.  Resigning  in 
April,  18G5,  he  was  elected  governor  of  Rhode 
Island  (1866-^8),  and  United  States  senator  in 
1875  and  1881.  He  died  at  Bristol,  R.  I., 
1881. 

Burr,  Aaron,  American  statesman,  was  bom  1766, 
di(>d  1836;  he  was  a  lieutenant-colonel  in  the 
revolutionary  war;  attorney-general  of  New 
York  1789;  United  States  senator  1791-97; 
mortally  wounded  Alexander  Hamilton  in  a 
duel  1804;  vice-president  of  United  States 
1801-05;  tried  on  a  charge  of  treason,  1807,  but 
acquitted.  He  was  a  man  of  ^reat  ability,  but 
grossly  immoral  both  in  his  pohtical  and  private 
life. 

Burr,  George  Lincoln,  educator,  librarian-  bom 
Oramel,  N.  Y.,  1857;  graduated  froni  Cornell, 
1881 ;  student  Leipzig,  Sorbonne  and  Ecole  des 
Chartes,  Paris,  and  Ziirich,  1884-«6,  1887-88; 
LL.  D.,  university  of  Wisconsin,  1904;  Litt.  D., 
Western  Reserve,  1905.  Librarian  the  President 
White  library  since  1878;  member  Cornell 
faculty  since  1888;  now  professor  mediseval 
history;  historical  expert  Venezuelan  boundary 
commission.  Writer  on  history  of  superstition 
and  persecution.  Author:  The  Literature  of 
Witchcraft,  The  Fate  of  Dietrich  Flade.  Editor: 
American  Historical  Review,  Century  Historical 
Series. 

Burr,  William  Hubert,  engineer,  professor  civil 
engineering,  Columbia  university,  since  1893; 
bom  Watertown,  Conn.,  1851 ;  graduated 
Rensselaer  polytechnic  institute,  C.  E.,  1872. 
Professor  rational  and  technical  mechanics, 
Rensselaer  polytechnic  institute,  1876-84;  as- 
sistant to  chief  engineer,  and  later  general 
manager.  Phoenix  bridge  company,  1884—91 ;  pro- 
fessor engineering,  Harvard,  1892-93.  Consulting 
engineer  to  department  of  public  works,  1893-95, 
of  parks,  1895-97,  of  docks,  1895-97,  and  now 
department  of  bridges,  and  board  of  water 
supplv,  New  York.  Appointed  by  President 
Cleveland,  1894,  on  board  of  engineers  to  investi- 
gate feasibility  of  proposed  bridge  across  North 


river,  and  in  1896  on  board  to  |^ate  deep  water 
harbor  on  coast  of  southern  California.  Ap- 
pointed, 1899,  by  President  McKinley,  member 
isthmian  canal  commission  to  examine  and 
report  upon  most  feasible  and  practicable  route 
for  an  interoceanic  canal  across  the  Central 
American  isthnaus,  1902;  member  and  chairman 
commission  on  additional  water  supply  of  city 
of  New  York.  Appointed,  1904,  by  President 
Roosevelt,  member  isthmian  canal  commission, 
member  board  consulting  engineers  since  1905; 
consulting  engineer  to  board  of  water  supply. 
New  York.  Awarded  first  place  in  national 
competition,  1900,  for  proposed  memorial  bridge 
across  Potomac  at  Washington.  Author:  Tm 
Stresses  in  Bridge  and  Roof  Trusses;  Elasticity 
and  Resistance  of  the  Materials  of  Engineering; 
Ancient  and  Modem  Engineering  and  the  Isthmian 
Canal;  etc. 
Burritt,  Ellhu,  "the  learned  blacksmith,"  was  bom 
at  New  Britain,  Conn.,  1810.  He  worked  as  a 
blacksmith  in  his  native  place  and  at  Worcester, 
Mass.,  but  devoted  all  his  leisure  to  mathematics 
and  languages  —  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  Arabic, 
and  most  of  the  modem  European  languages. 
He  was  best  known  to  the  world  as  an  earnest 
apostle  of  peace,  through  his  Christian  Citizen 
and  his  travels  over  Europe  and  the  United  States. 
His  chief  works  are  Sparks  from  the  Anvil;  Olive 
Leaves;  Peace  Papers,  and  A  Walk  from  John 
o'  Groats  to  Land  s  End.     He  took  a  prominent 

J  art  in  advocating  an  ocean  penny-postage. 
or  many  years  be  lived  in  England,  in  1866-70 
as  United  States  consul  at  Birmingham.  Be 
died  at  New  Britain,  Conn.,  1879. 

Burroucbs  (bUr'-df),  John,  essayist,  naturalist; 
bomRoxbury,  N.  Y.,  1837;  received  an  academic 
education,  and  taught  school  about  eight  years; 
treasury  clerk,  1864-73;  national  bank  examiner, 
1873-84 ;  since  1874  has  lived  on  a  farm,  devoting 
his  time  to  literature  and  fruit  culture.  Author : 
Notea  on  Walt  Whitman  as  Poet  and  Person; 
Wake  Robin;  Winter  Sunshine;  Birds  and  Poets; 
Locusts  and  Wild  Honey;  Pepacton;  Fresh 
Fields;  Sions  and  Seasons;  indoor  Studies; 
Riverby;  Whitman,  a  Study;  The  Light  of  Day; 
Squirrels  and  other  Fur  Bearers;  Literary  Values; 
Far  and  Near;  Ways  of  Nature;  Bird  and 
Bough. 

Burrows,  Julius  C  ex-United  States  senator,  law- 
yer; bom  in  Northeast,  Erie  county.  Pa.,  1837; 
academic  education;  LL.  D.,  Kalamazoo  college; 
entered  law  practice  j  oflBcer  in  the  Union  army, 
1862-64;  proeecutmg  attorney,  Kalamazoo 
county,  1866-€7;  was  appointed,  1867,  siiper- 
visor  internal  revenue  for  Michigan  and  Wis- 
consin, declined;  tendered  office  of  solicitor  of 
the  treasury  and  declined;  member  of  congress, 
1873-75,  1879-83, 1885-95;  twice  elected  speaker 
pro  tem-  United  States  senator,  1895-99, 
unexpirea  term  of  Francis  B.  Stockbridge. 
deceased;  reelected  for  term  1899-1905,  and 
reelected  for  term  1905-11,  by  imanimoua  vote 
of  the  legislature. 

Burton,  Ernest  De  Witt,  theologian,  critic;  pro- 
fessor of  new  testament  interpretation,  uni- 
versity of  Chicago,  since  1892;  bom  Granville, 
Ohio,  1856 ;  educated  at  Denison  university,  B.  A., 
1876;  Rochester  theological  seminan.',  1879-82; 
university  of  Leipzig,  1887;  university  of 
Berlin,  1894.  Instructor  in  Rochester  theologi- 
cal seminarv,  1882-83;  associate  professor 
1883-86,  professor  1886-92,  of  new  testament 
interpretation  in  the  Newton  theological  insti- 
tution; associate  editor  of  the  Biblical  World, 
1892-1906;  editor-in-chief  since  1906;  editor 
(^ith  others)  of  the  American  Journal  of  Theology 
since  1897.  Author:  Syntax  of  the  Moods  and 
Tenses  in  New  Testament  Greek;  Harmony  of  the 
Gospels  for  Historical  Study  (with  W.  A.  Stevens); 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


N6 


Records  and  Letters  of  the  Apostolic  Age;  Con- 
structive Studies  in  the  Life  oj  Christ  (with  8. 
Mathews);  A  Short  Introduction  to  the  Gospds; 
Principles  of  Literary  Criticism,  and  their  Appli- 
cation to  the  Synoptic  Problem;  Struiies  in  the 
Gospel  of  Mark. 

Barton,  Sir  Richard  Francis,  English  traveler,  was 
born  1821,  at  Barham  House,  Hertfordshire,  and 
educated  in  France  and  England.  In  1842  be 
served  in  Sind  under  Sir  Charles  Napier;  and 
having  mastered  Hindustani,  Persian,  and 
Arabic,  made  (disguised  as  an  Afghan  pilgrim) 
the  daring  journey  described  in  his  Pilgrimage  to 
El  Medinah  and  Mecca.  After  visiting  SomaU- 
land  and  service  in  the  Crimea,  he  in  1856  set  out 
with  Speke  on  the  journey  which  led  to  the 
discovery  of  Lake  Tanganyika,  1858,  and  after- 
ward traveled  in  America.  In  1861  he  waa 
consul  at  Fernando  Po,  and  went  on  a  mission  to 
Dahomey.  He  was  subsequently  consul  at 
Santos  in  Brazil,  at  Damascus,  and  at  Trieste. 
In  1876-78  he  visited  Midian,  and  in  1882 
Guinea;  and  he  was  knighted  in  1886.  He  died 
at  Trieste,  1890.  Among  Burton's  many  works 
are :  First  Footsteps  in  East  Africa;  Lake  Regions 
of  Central  Africa;  City  of  the  Saints;  Wander- 
ings in  West  Africa;  The  Nile  Basin;  Vikram 
and  tlie  Vampire. 

Burton,  Theodore  Elijah,  congressman,  lawyer- 
born  in  Jefferson,  Ohio,  1851 ;  gra^duate  oi 
Oberlin  college,  1872;  admitted  to  bar,  1875; 
since  then  in  practice  at  Cleveland;  member 
congress,  1889-91,  and  1895-1909,  twenty-first 
Ohio  district,  republican;  and  United  States 
senator,  1909-15.  President  of  Grant  family 
association  of  the  United  States.  Author: 
Financial  Crises  and  Periods  of  Industrial  and 
Commercial  Depression,  and  Life  of  John  Sherman. 

Bury  {b^-l),  John  B.,  British  historian;  regius 
professor  of  modem  history,  Cambridge  univer- 
sity since  1902;  was  born  1861;  graduate 
Trinity  college,  Dublin;  M.  A.,  Litt.  D.,  Oxford 
and  Durham ;  LL.  D.,  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Aber- 
deen; professor  of  modem  history  in  Dublin 
university,  1893-1902;  Regius  professor  of 
Greek,  1898.  Author:  History  of  the  Later 
Roman  Empire  from  Arcadius  to  Irene;  Strident' s 
History  of  the  Roman  Empire  from  Atigustus  to 
Marcus  Aurditis;  History  of  Greece  to  Death  of 
Alexander  the  Great;  The  Science  of  History; 
Life  of  St.  Patrick  and  his  place  in  History;  The 
Ancient  Greek  Historians  (Harvard  lectures). 
Editor :  Pindar's  Isthmian  Odes;  Freeman's  His- 
tory of  Federal  Government  in  Greece  and  Italy; 
Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall;  Freeman's  Historical 
Geography  of  Europe. 

Bushnell,  Horace,  theologian,  was  bom  at  New 
Preston,  Conn.,  1802;  graduated,  Yale,  1827,  and 
was  for  some  time  literary  editor  New  York 
Journal  of  Commerce;  ordained  to  the  Congre- 
gational ministry  1833;  preached  at  Hartford, 
1833-59.  His  works  include  God  in  Christ, 
Christ  in  Theology,  Vicarious  Sacrifice,  etc.  Died 
at  Hartford,  1876. 

Butler,  Benjamin  Franklin,  American  politician 
and  general,  was  bom  in  New  Hampshire,  1818, 
studied  law  and  settled  in  Massachusetts,  where 
he  became  recognized  as  the  leading  democrat 
of  New  England.  A  delegate  to  the  Charleston 
and  Baltimore  nominating  conventions,  he  took 
a  leading  part  in  the  movement  which  nominated 
Breckenridge  and  divided  the  party.  He 
promptly  entered  the  service  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  civil  war,  and  had  command  of  the 
departments  of  the  guK  and  of  the  south  Atlan- 
tic, acquiring  no  military  fame  but  great  noto- 
riety for  his  arbitrary  civil  regulations.  Elected 
to  congress  by  the  Massachusetts  republicans 
in  1866  and  1868,  but,  defeated  in  1874,  he 
deserted   that   party,   and   in    1882  was  elected 


governor  by  the  democrat*;  renomlnatod  Ib 
1883,  he  WM  defeated.     Died,  1898. 

Butler,  Joiephf  eminent  ElncUah  divine,  wm  bom 
1692  at  Wantage,  in  Berluhira;  dM  1762.  At 
the  age  of  twenty-two  he  nve  proof  of  hi|^ 
metaphysical  ability  in  a  letter  to  Dr.  Swnuel 
Clarke,  usually  appended  to  that  oeUbrmted 
writer's  worlu.  In  1718  he  wm  appointed 
preacher  at  the  Rolle  chapel,  where  he  prMwhed 
those  remarkable  sermons  which  be  published  in 
1726.  In  1725  he  was  presented  to  the  rich 
benefice  of  Stanhope,  in  the  county  of  Duriuun, 
to  which  he  removed  in  the  following  year.  His 
great  work,  the  Analoay,  the  germs  of  which 
were  contained  in  liis  tnree  sermons,  »»««i  wUeh 
has  entitled  him,  in  the  eyes  of  his  eloquant 
disciple,  Chalmers  to  be  called  "the  BaooD  of 
theology,"  was  published  in  1736. 

Butler,  Nicholas  Murray,  educator;  bom,  Elisa* 
beth  N.  J.,  1862;  graduated.  Columbia,  1882, 
A.  M.  1883,  Ph.  D.  1884:  student  at  Berlin  and 
Paris,  1884-85;  LL.  D.  from  many  institutions; 
Litt.  D.,  university  of  Oxford,  1905;  officier  de 
legion  d'honncur,  1906 ;  assistant  in  philosophy  at 
Columbia  university,  1885-86,  tutor,  18s6-89, 
adjunct  professor,  1^9-90.  dean  faculty  of  phi- 
losophy, 1890,  professor  phi  ioeophy  and  education, 
and  president  since  1902:  also  president  Bar- 
nard college,  teachers  college,  and  college  of 
pharmacy.  Selected  in  1912  by  republican 
national  committee  as  candidate  for  vice-presi- 
dent in  place  of  James  S.  Sherman,  dec^ised. 
Editor  of  the  Educational  Review;  the  Great 
Educators  Series;  the  Teachers'  Profearional 
Library;  the  Columbia  University  Contribution* 
to  Philosophy  and  Education;  co-editor  Interna- 
tionale Pedagogische  Bibliothek.  Author:  The 
Meaning  of  Education;    Philosophy,  etc. 

Butler,  Samuel,  English  satirist,  was  bom  at 
Strensham,  England,  1612;  in  his  seventeenth 
year  became  attached  to  the  household  of  the 
earl  of  Kent,  when  he  frequently  attended 
meetings  at  the  house  of  a  Sir  Samuel  Luke,  a 
strict  Puritan  and  parliamentarian.  The  expe- 
riences of  this  time  furnished  him  with  the 
material  for  his  famous  work,  Hudibrat,  the 
first  part  of  which  appeared  in  1663,  and  achieved 
the  widest  popularity.  Two  other  parts  of  the 
work  appeared  at  intervals,  but  of  Butler's  life 
during  that  time  little  is  known.     Died,  1680. 

Byron,  Lord,  George  Gordon,  English  poet,  was 
bom  in  London,  1788.  In  his  eleventh  year  he 
succeeded  his  grand-uncle,  William,  Lord  Byron, 
and  took  possession  of  Newstead  abbey,  the 
ancient  seat  of  the  family,  situated  a  few  miles 
distant  from  Nottingham.  Byron  wss  placed 
in  a  private  school  at  Dulwicn,  and  afterward 
sent  to  Harrow.  In  1805  he  removed  to  Trinity 
college,  Cambridge,  and  two  yearn  thereafter  his 
first  volume  of  verse,  entitled  Hours  of  IdUnme, 
was  printed  at  Newark.  The  volume  was  fieroehr 
assailed  by  Lord  Brougham  in  the  E^Umrgk 
Review,  and  his  sarcasms  stung  Byron  into 
writing  English  Bards  and  Scotch  R*viMMr». 
In  the  babble  of  praise  that  immediately  arose 
Byron  withdrew  from  England^  Visited  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean,  and  sojourned  in  Turitey 
and  Greece.  On  his  return  in  1812  he  published 
the  first  two  cantos  of  Childe  Harold,  with 
immense  success,  and  was  at  once  anroUed 
among  the  great  poets  of  his  country.  Six 
months'  stay  at  Geneva  produced  the  third  canto 
of  Childe  Harold  and  The  Prisoner  of  Chilian. 
Manfred  and  The  Lament  of  Tauo  were  written 
in  1817.  The  next  year  he  was  at  Venice,  and 
finished  Childe  Harold  there;  and  in  the  ny  and 
witty  Beppo  made  an  experiment  in  the  new 
field  which  he  was  afterward  to  work  so  success- 
fully. During  the  next  three  years  be  pro- 
duced the  first  five  cantos  of  Don  Jwm,  and  a 


596 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


number  of  dramas  of  various  merit,  Cain  and 
Werner  being  opposite  poles.  In  1822  he 
removed  to  Pisa,  and  worked  there  at  Don  Juan, 
which  poem,  with  the  exception  of  The  Vision  of 
Judgment,  occupied  his  pen  almost  up  to  the 
close  of  his  life.  Morally  his  Italian  life  was 
unsatisfactory,  and  his  genius  was  tainted  by  his 
indulgences.  In  the  summer  of  1823  he  sailed 
for  Greece,  to  aid  the  struggle  for  indep>endence 
with  his  influence  and  money.  He  arrived  at 
Missolonghi  on  the  4th  of  January,  1824.  There 
he  found  nothing  but  confusion  and  contending 
chiefs;  but  in  three  months  he  succeeded  in 
evoking  some  kind  of  order  from  the  turbulent 
patriotic  chaos.  His  health,  however,  began  to 
fail.  On  the  9th  of  April  he  was  overtaken  by  a 
shower  while  on  horseback,  and  fever  and 
rheumatism  followed.  Medical  aid  was  pro- 
cured, and  copious  bleeding  recommended;  but 
this  Byron,  with  characteristic  willfulness, 
opposed.  Before  death  he  sank  into  a  state  of 
letnargy.  and  those  who  were  near  heard  him 
murmunng  about  his  wife,  his  sister,  and  his 
child.  After  twenty-four  hours'  insensibilitv, 
he  expired  on  the  evening  of  the  19th  of  April, 
1824.  His  body  was  conveyed  to  England ;  and, 
denied  a  resting-place  in  Westminster  abbey, 
was  interred  in  Hucknall-Torkard  churchyard 
near  Nottingham. 
BystrSm  (bdO'-strem),  Johan  Nlklas,  a  Swedish 
sculptor,  bom  at  Filipstad,  in  the  province  of 
Wermland,  1783,  worked  three  years  under 
Sergell  of  Stockholm,  applying  himself  chiefly  to 
the  study  of  the  antique,  and  gained  the 
academy's  prize  in  1809.  He  proceeded  to 
Rome  the  following  year,  whence  he  soon  sent 
home  his  "Drunken  and  Reposing  Bacchante." 
He  returned  to  Stockholm  in  1815,  and  exhibited 
his  colossal  statue  of  the  prince-royal,  which 
pleased  so  well  that  he  was  commissioned  to 
execute  statues  of  Charles  X.,  XI.,  and  XII.  on 
the  same  scale.  These  were  followed  later  bv 
colossal  statues  of  Charles  XIII.,  Gustavus  Adof- 
phus,  and  Charles  XIV.  He  died  at  Rome,  13th 
March,  1848.  Among  his  other  works  are  his 
"Cupid  depriving  Bacchus  of  his  Attributes," 
"Nymph  going  into  the  Bath,"  "Hercules  at 
the  Breast,"  Apollo  at  the  Lyre, "  "Pandora 
combing  her  Hair  with  a  Book  in  her  Hand,"  a 
statue  of  "Linnaeus,"  etc.  The  works  of 
Bystrom  are  all  natural  and  animated. 

Cabanis  (kd'-bd'-nia'),  Pierre  Jean  Georges,  phy- 
sician and  philosophical  writer,  born  at  Cosnac, 
France,  1757;  attached  himself  to  the  popular 
side  in  the  revolution.  He  furnished  Mirabeau 
with  material  for  his  speeches  on  public  education ; 
and  Mirabeau  died  in  his  arms.  During  the 
terror  he  lived  in  retirement,  and  was  afterward 
a  teacher  in  the  medical  school  at  Paris,  a  member 
of  the  council  of  five  hundred,  then  of  the 
senate.  He  died  near  Meulan,  1808.  His 
chief  work  is  his  once-famous  Rapports  du 
Physique  et  du  Moral  de  I'Homme. 

Cabet  (jKd'-ha')f  £tienne,  French  communist,  was 
bom  at  Dijon,  1788,  and  died  at  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
1856,  having  gone  out  to  Texas  in  1848  to  found  an 
"Icarian  community,"  so  named  after  his  Voyage 
en  Icarie,  a  "philosophical  and  social  romance," 
describing  a  communistic  Utopia. 

Cable,  George  Washington,  author,  was  bom  in 
New  Orleans,  1844;  educated  in  public  schools; 
M.  A.,  Yale,  Litt.  D.,  Yale,  Bowdoin ;  served  fourth 
Mississippi  cavalry,  Confederate  States  army, 
1863-65:  clerk  in  cotton  factor's  office;  for  a 
time  reporter  on  New  Orleans  Picayune,  1865-79 ; 
wrote  stories  for  Scrihner's  Monthly;  since  1879 
devoted  to  literature.  Author:  Old  Creole  Days; 
The  Grandissimes;  Madame  Ddphine;  The  Creoles 
of  Loiiisiana;     Dr.    Sevier;     The   Silent     South; 


Bonaventure;  The  Negro  Question;  Strange  True 
Stories  of  Louisiana;  John  March,  Southerner; 
Strong  Hearts;  The  Cavalier;  Bylaw  HUl.  Founded, 
1887.  the  home-culture  clubs  —  a  system  of 
small  clubs  designed  to  promote  more  cordial 
relations  between  divergent  ranks  of  society. 

Cabot  {kdb'-iU\  George,  American  shipmaster, 
afterward  merchant,  was  bom  1751,  died  1823. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  state 
constitutional  convention,  and  of  that  which 
ratified  the  federal  constitution;  U.  8.  ssnator 
1791-96;  a  federalist  and  friend  of  Washington 
and  Hamiltoa.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Maa- 
sachusetts  council  1808,  and  president  of  the 
Hartford  convention,  1814. 

Cabot,  John*  bom  1450(7) ;  Cabot,  Sebastian,  bom 
1474,  two  Venetians,  father  and  son,  were  both 
celebrated  navigators  and  discoverers.  John, 
the  father,  whose  business  coini>elled  him  to 
reside  much  in  Bristol,  England,  was  appointed 
by  Henry  VII.,  1496,  to  the  command  of  a 
squadron  of  five  vessels  on  a  voyage  of  discovery 
in  the  Atlantic  ocean.  In  this  expedition  he 
was  accompanied  by  his  sons  Ludovico,  Sebas- 
tian, and  Sanzio.  In  June,  1497,  the  coast  of 
Labrador  was  sighted.  The  merit  of  this  dis- 
covery has  been  generally  ascribed  to  the  naviga- 
tor's second  son,  Sebastian,  the  most  scientific  of 
the  family ;  but  an  extract  from  a  chart  preserved 
by  Hakluyt  mentions  the  father  before  the  son. 
John  probably  died  1498;  Sebastian  died  1557. 

Caedraon  (kdd'-miin),  the  father  of  English  song, 
was  the  first  Anglo-Saxon  who  composed  in  hia 
own  language  ot  whom  there  are  any  remains. 
The  date  of  his  birth  is  unknown,  but  his  death 
occurred  about  680  A.  D.  He  was  ori^nally  a 
cow-herd,  attached  to  the  monastery  of  AVhitby, 
and  according  to  a  legend  was  commanded  in  a 
dream  to  sing  "the  beginning  of  created  things." 
He  accordingly  produced  metrical  paraphrases 
of  Genesis  and  other  parts  of  the  Bible. 

Caesalplnus  (sis' -&l-pl' -nils),  Andreas,  Italian 
physiologist;  bom  at  Arezzo  1519;  was  professor 
of  medicine  and  botany  at  Pisa,  physician  to 
Pope  Clement  VIII.,  and  published  several  medi- 
cal works.  His  most  important  service  to  science 
was  his  great  work  On  Plants.  He  developed 
several  new  ideas  on  the  circulation  of  the  blood 
which  are  now  well  recognized.     Died,  1603. 

Caesar,  Cains  Julius.     See  page  425. 

Cagllarl  (kOl'-yH-re),  Paolo  Veronese,  an  Italian 
painter  of  great  eminence,  was  bom  at  Verona  in 
1528.  He  had  for  contemporaries  both  Titian 
and  Tintoretto,  and  was  held  in  eaual  admira- 
tion with  these  famous  painters.  Tne  church  of 
San  Sebastiano,  in  Venice,  contains  many  of  his 
productions,  which  are  reckoned  the  most  impor- 
tant of  his  earlier  period  —  i.  e.,  the  period  before 
he  visited  Rome,  when  he  first  became  acauainted 
with  the  masterpieces  of  Raphael  and  Michael- 
angelo.  The  influence  of  the  Roman  school  on  his 
style  was  so  happy  that  on  his  return  he  received 
the  honor  of  kmghthood  from  the  doge.  He  died 
in  1588.  The  most  celebrated  of  his  productions 
are  the  "Marriage  Feast  at  Cana  of  Galilee," 
"The  Calling  of  St.  Andrew  to  the  Apostleship," 
"The  Feast  of  Simon,"  and  the  "Presentation 
of  the  Family  of  Darius  to  Alexander." 

Calne,  Thomas  Henry  Hall,  British  novelist  and 
dramatist;  bom  in  1853,  of  Manx  and  Cumber- 
land parentage;  was  educated  at  schoob  in  Isle 
of  Man  and  Liverpool ;  brought  up  as  an  architect, 
never  practiced,  but  wrote  for  Builder,  The 
Building  News,  etc.;  became  a  journalist,  and 
was  for  six  years  an  editorial  writer  on  Liverpool 
Mercury.  Went  to  London  at  invitation  of 
D.  G.  Rossetti ;  lived  with  poet-painter  until  his 
death;  wrote  for  Athenceum,  Academy,  etc.; 
published  Sonnets  of  Three  Centuries,  Recollec- 
tions of  Rossetti;    Life  of  Coleridge;    Gobvuba  of 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


607 


Criticism.  Hia  first  novel  Was  the  Shadow  of  a 
Crime,  which  he  followed  with  Son  of  Hagar;  his 
success  came  with  The  Deemster;  afterward  pub- 
lished The  Bondman;  The  Scapegoat;  The  Afanx- 
man;  The  Christian;  The  Eternal  City;  The 
Prodigal  Son,  and  The  White  Christ.  The 
Deemster  was  dramatized  in  1889,  The  Manxman 
in  1895,  The  Christian  in  1898;  The  EterruU  City 
was  produced  simultaneously  in  the  United 
States  and  at  His  Majesty's  tKeater,  London,  in 
1902 ;  The  Prodigal  Son  at  Drury  Lane,  1905,  and 
The  Bondman  at  same  theatre,  1906;  a  new 
version  of  The  Christian  at  the  Lyceum  in  1907, 
and  Pete  (with  Louis  N.  Parker)  at  the  Lyceum 
in  1908.  Published  in  1908  My  Story,  an  autobio- 
graphical narrative  of  the  earlier  years  of  his 
literary  life.  He  is  justice  of  the  peace  in  the 
Isle  of  Man,  where,  in  1901,  he  was  returned  by  a 
large  majority  to  the  house  of  Keys  for  Ramsey; 
edited  for  her  majesty.  Queen's  Christmas  Carol, 
on  behalf  of  Queen's  fund. 

Calrd  {kdrd),  Edward,  Scottish  philosopher,  was 
bom  at  Greenock,  Scotland,  1835;  educated  at 
Glasgow  university;  Balliol  college,  Oxford; 
LL.  D.,  St.  Andrews,  1883;  Glasgow,  1894; 
D.  C.  L.,  Oxford,  1891;  D.  Lit.,  Cambridge, 
1898;  D.  Lit..  Wales,  1902;  fellow  and  tutor 
of  Merton  college,  Oxford,  1864-66;  professor 
of  moral  philosophy,  Glasgow  university,  1866- 
93;  master  of  Balliol  college,  Oxford,  1893- 
1907;  resigned.  Author:  Philosophy  of  Kant; 
Hegel,  in  Blackwood's  series ;  Critical  Philosophy 
of  Emmanuel  Kant;  The  Religion  and  Social 
Philosophy  of  Comte;  Essays  on  Literature  and 
Philosophy;  The  Evolution  of  Religion  (Gifford 
lectures  at  St.  Andrews,  1891-92);  The  Evolu- 
tion of  Theology  in  the  Greek  Philosophers  (Gifford 
lectures  at  Glasgow,  1901-02) ;  Lay  Sermons  and 
Addresses,  delivered  in  the  hall  of  Balliol  college, 
Oxford.     Died,  190». 

Caird,  John,  Scottish  preacher,  bom  at  Greenock, 
in  1820;  studied  at  Glasgow,  and  became  min- 
ister at  Newton-upon-Ayr  (1845),  Edinburgh 
(1847),  Errol  in  Perthshire  (1849),  and  Glasgow 
(1857).  His  Religion  in  Common  Life,  preached 
before  the  queen  at  Crathie  in  1855,  quickly 
carried  his  fame  throughout  the  Protestant 
"world;  Dean  Stanley  said  it  was  the  greatest 
single  sermon  of  the  century.  He  received  the 
degree  of  D.  D.  in  1860,  was  appointed  professor 
of  divinitv  in  1862,  and  was  pnncipal  of  Glasgow 
university,  1873-98.  He  died,  1898.  He  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  Sermons;  An  Introduction  to 
the  Philosophy  of  Religion,  which  revealed  a 
strong  neo-Hegelian  learning;    Spinoza;    etc. 

Calmes  (Jc&rm),  John  Elliot,  British  economist, 
was  bom  at  Castle  Bellingham,  Ireland,  1823; 
studied  at  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  where  he 
graduated  B.  A.  in  1848.  In  1856  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  political  economy  at 
DubUn,  in  1859  at  Queen's  college,  Galway,  and 
in  1866  at  University  college,  London.  An 
accident  in  the  hunting-field  in  1860  led  to  a 
breakdown  in  health;  and,  having  resigned  his 
chair  in  1872,  he  died  at  Blackheath,  1875.  His 
ten  works  include  Character  and  Logical  Method 
of  Political  Economy,  The  Slave  Power,  Essays 
on  Political  Economy  and  Some  Leading  Prin- 
ciples of  Political  Economy.  Caimes  may  be 
regarded  as  a  disciple  of  Mill,  though  differing 
from  him  on  many  points;  he  is  second  only  to 
him  among  recent  English  economists. 

Caius  Gracchus  (kd'-yHs  gr&k'^&s).     See  Gracchus. 

Cajetan  {k&j'-e-t&n).  Cardinal,  properly  Jacopo 
Thomas  de  Vio,  bom  at  Gaeta,  Italy,  1469;  in 
1508  became  general  of  the  Dominicans,  in  1517 
cardinal,  in  1519  bishop  of  Gaeta,  and  in  1523 
legate  to  Hungary.  In  1518  he  sought  to  induce 
Luther  to  recant  at  Augsburg.  He  died  at 
Home,  1534. 


CaXAtrtn  {k6l'-dir-dn)  de  U  Barea«  Pedro,  Spanish 
dramatist,  and  one  of  the  greatest  of  all  time, 
was  born  at  Madrid  in  1600,  and  wan  educated 
at  the  university  of  Salamanca.  At  fourteen 
he  wrote  his  first  drama.  He  entered  the  army 
and  served  several  campaigns  in  Italy  and  in 
Flanders,  gaining  a  knowledge  of  men  and 
things  which  he  afterward  mi^e  uae  of  in  his 
plavs.  He  became  a  priest  and  royal  chaplain, 
and  died  in  1681,  still  working  at  his  literary 
labors.  He  wrote  about  500  dramas.  Among 
his  greatest  works  are:  The  Constant  Princt, 
Love  is  No  Joke,  Life  is  a  Dream,  and  The  Physi- 
cian of  His  Own  Honor.  In  later  life  he  wrote 
many  religious  plays.  His  imagination  waa 
brilliant  and  his  writings  abound  in  beautiful 
passages. 

Calderon,  Ignacio,  diplomat;  was  bom  at  La  Pas, 
Bolivia,  1848;  graduate  university  of  La  Pax,  in 
which,  at  nineteen,  he  became  teacher  of  history 
for  one  year;  secretary  of  Bolivian  legation  at 
Rome,  1868-70;  then  became  sujjcrvisor  of 
pubUc  instruction  in  Bolivia,  and  afterward  first 
secretary  of  Bolivian  legation  at  Lima,  Peru; 
resigned  to  come  to  United  States,  1876.  Trav- 
eled through  United  States,  and  for  a  time  acted 
as  consul-general  of  Bohvia  at  New  York; 
returned  to  BoUvia,  1886,  to  manage  affairs  of 
large  importing  and  exporting  company ;  selected, 
1889,  as  president  Banco  Hipotecario,  a  large 
financial  institution  of  La  Paz;  secretary  of  the 
treasury  of  BoUvia,  1900,  by  appointment  of 
President  Pando;  minister  from  Bolivia  to 
United  States  since  March,  1904. 

Calderwood  (kdl'-dSr-tvdOd),  Henry,  British  phi- 
losopher and  educator,  was  bom  at  Peebles  in 
1830;  from  1856  to  1868  was  minister  of  Grey- 
friars,  Glasgow,  and  then  became  professor  of 
moral  philosophy  at  Edinburgh.  He  was  the 
author  of  The  Philosophy  of  the  Infinite;  Moral 
Philosophy;  Mind  and  Brain;  Evolxition  and 
Man;  Vocahvlary  of  Philosophy;  David  Hume; 
etc.     He  died  in  Edinburgh,  1897. 

Calhoun  {kdl-hSbn'),  John  Caldwell,  American 
statesman  of  Irish  Presbyterian  descent,  was 
born  in  Abbeville  county.  South  Carolina,  1782; 
graduated  at  Yale,  1804,  and  became  a  successful 
lawyer.  He  was  elected  to  congress,  1811;  in 
congress  he  supported  the  measures  which  led 
to  the  war  of  1812-15  with  Great  Britain,  and 
promoted  the  protective  tariff.  In  1817  he 
entered  Monroe's  cabinet  as  secretary  of  w 
and  did  good  work  in  reorganizing  the  war 
department.  He  was  vice-president  under  John 
Q.  Adams  (1825-29),  and  then  under  Jackson. 
In  1829  he  declared  that  a  state  can  nullify 
unconstitutional  laws;  and  his  Address  to  the 
People  of  South  Carolina  in  1831  set  forth  his 
theory  of  state  rights.  On  the  passing  by 
South  CaroUna  in  1832  of  the  nullification  ordi- 
nance he  resigned  the  vice-presidency,  and 
entered  the  United  States  senate,  becoming  • 
leader  of  the  states-rights  movement,  and  • 
champion  of  the  interests  of  the  slave-holding 
states.  In  1844,  as  secretary  of  state,  he  signed 
a  treaty  annexing  Texas;  but  once  more  in  the 
senate,  he  strenuously  opposed  the  war  of 
1846-47  with  Mexico.  He  aied  at  Washington, 
1850.  Henry  Clay,  Daniel  Webster,  »nd  Cal- 
houn were  "the  great  triumvirate"  of  American 
political  orators. 

Calhoun,  Patrick,  lawyer,  traction  magnate;  was 
bom  at  Fort  Hill.  S.  C,  1856;  educated  in 
private  schools;  admitted  to  Georgia  bar,  1875, 
Missouri  bar,  1876;  practiced  at  Atlanta,  Ga., 
1878-94;  prominent  in  consolidation  of  railway 
and  traction  interests,  notably  the  Central  rail- 
road of  Georgia,  Richmond  <fe  Danville,  and 
Richmond  &  West  Point  terminal  railway  and 
Warehouse    company,    for    all    of    which    warn 


M8 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


coimeel,  1889-92;  has  since  devoted  attention 
chiefly  to  consolidation  and  development  of 
street  railways,  taking  active  part  in  the  con- 
solidation of  street  railway  systems  in  Pittsburgh, 
Bt.  Louis,  Baltimore,  and  San  Francisco.  Di- 
rector Philadelphia  coinpany,  United  railways  of 
Pittsburgh,  president  United  railroads  of  San 
Francisco,  United  Railways  investment  company 
of  San  Francisco,  Houston  oil  company  of  Texas, 
Calhoun  Falls  investment  company,  and  Calhoun 
mills;  owner  of  Euclid  Heights,  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
and  largely  interested  in  real  estate  in  South 
Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Texas. 
Caligula  lkd4lff-^QUd),  Caius  Caesar  Augrustas 
GennanicuB,  Roman  emperor,  37—41  A.  D.,  the 
youngest  son  of  Germanicus  (nephew  of  Tiberius) 
by  Agrippina,  was  bom  12  A.  D.,  at  Antium, 
and  was  educated  in  the  camp,  where  the  soldiers 

fave  him  the  by-name  Caligula,  from  the  half 
oots  (caligje)  which  he  wore.  On  the  death 
of  his  brother  Drusus,  he  was  made  augur  in  his 
stead;  and  on  the  death  of  Tiberius.  37  A.  D., 
who,  it  was  suspected,  had  received  foul  play 
at  his  hands,  it  was  found  that  he  had  been 
appointed  co-heir  along  with  the  grandson  of 
Tjberius,  but  the  senate  and  the  people  allowed 
Caligula  supreme  and  sole  authority.  He  was, 
to  appearance,  lavishly  generous  and  merciful, 
pardoning  even  those  who  had  been  the  instru- 
ments of  cruelty  against  his  own  family,  but  in 
reality  he  was  a  spendthrift  and  barbarously 
cruel.     Died,  41  A.  D. 

Callicrates,  a  Greek  architect,  who  lived  at  Athens 
in  the  eighty-fourth  Olympiad,  was,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Ictinus,  the  artist  who  constructed  the 
famous  Parthenon,  the  sculptures  and  decorations 
of  which  were  the  work  of  Phidias. 

Calllmachus  (ka4lTn'-d-kiis),  a  native  of  Corinth, 
flourished  about  the  j'ear  B.  C.  540,  and  was 
celebrated  as  an  architect,  sculptor,  and  painter. 
To  him  is  ascribed  the  invention  of  the  Corinthian 
order,  the  idea  of  which  is  said  to  have  been 
suggested  to  him  by  seeing  the  foliage  of  an 
acanthus  encircling  a  basket,  on  the  top  of  which 
was  a  tile. 

Calv£  (falZ'-ra'),  Emma  de  Roquer,  soprano  opera- 
singer,  of  Franco-Spanish  origin,  was  born  in 
France  in  1866.  In  1882  she  made  her  ddbut  at 
Brussels  in  Gounod's  Faust,  and  since  then  her 
career  has  been  one  long  triumph.  Her  chief 
successes  have  been  rfiles  m  Cavalieria  Rusticana, 
in  L'Amico  Fritz,  and  in  Carmen.  She  has  made 
successful  tours  through  most  of  the  capitals  of 
Europe,  as  well  as  through  the  chief  cities  of  the 
United  States. 

Calvert,  George,  Lord  Baltimore.  See  Baltimore, 
George  Calvert. 

Calvin,  Jolm.     See  page  241. 

Cambac^rds  {k&a'-bd'sa'-rls^),  Jean  Jacques,  duke 
of  Parma,  French  statesman  and  jurist,  was  bom 
in  Montpellier  in  1753.  He  was  brought  up  to 
the  legal  profession,  and  became  president  of  the 
French  convention  in  1792.  He  voted  for  pro- 
nouncing Louis  XVI.  guilty,  but  denied  the  right 
of  the  convention  to  proceed  to  the  last  extremity, 
and  wished  that  the  unfortunate  monarch  might 
be  detained  in  prison,  and  put  to  death  only  in 
case  of  invasion.  He  was  afterward  president 
of  the  committee  of  public  safety,  and  of  the 
council  of  five  hundred.  When  Napoleon 
Bonaparte  was  named  first,  Cambac^r^s  was  made 
second  consul.  During  the  hundred  days  after 
Bonaparte's  return,  he  was  president  of  the 
chamber  of  peers.  He  left  France  when  the 
Bourbons  were  a  second  time  restored,  but  was 
permitted  to  return.  His  Projet  de  Code  Civil 
formed  the  basis  of  the  Code  Napoleon.  Died, 
1824. 

Cambyses  (k&m-bi'sez),  second  king  of  the  Medes 
and    Persians,    succeeded    his    father,  Cyrus,  in 


529  B.  C.  He  put  his  brother  Smerdis  to  death, 
and  in  527  or  525  invaded  and  conquered  Egypt. 
He  meditated  further  conquests,  but  the  Tyrian 
mariners  refused  to  serve  against  Carthage;  an 
army  sent  to  seize  the  temple  of  Ammon  perished 
in  the  desert ;  and  one  which  he  led  in  person  to 
Nubia  purchased  some  conquests  dearly  at  the 
price  of  myriads  of  lives.  lie  had  given  himself 
up  to  drunkenness  and  hideous  cruelties,  when 
news  came,  in  522,  that  Gaumata,  a  Magian,  had 
assumed  Smerdis's  character,  and  usurped  the 
Persian  throne.  Cambyses  marched  against 
him  from  Egypt,  but  died  in  Syria  from  an  acci- 
dental wound. 

Cameron  {kdm'-ir-iin),  Simon,  American  poUtician- 
bom  Lancaster  county,  Pa.,  1799;  learned 
printing  and  became  editor  of  a  democratic 
paper  at  Harrisburg,  Pa.^  acquired  a  large 
fortune  in  banking,  mining,  railroads,  etc.; 
elected  United  States  senator  1845,  and  again 
1856;  secretary  of  war  under  Lincoln,  1861-62; 
minister  to  Russia  1862-63 ;  again  United  States 
senator  1866-77  when  he  resigned,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son.     Died,  1889. 

CamiUus  (kd-mU'-Cs),  Marcus  Furlus,  a  famous 
patrician  of  early  Rome:  took  Veil,  a  rival 
town,  after  a  ten  years  siege;  retired  into 
voluntary  exile  at  Ardea  on  account  of  the 
envy  of  his  enemies  in  Rome ;  recalled  from  exile, 
saved  Rome  from  destruction  by  the  Gaub  under 
Brennus,  was  five  times  elected  dictator,  and 
gained  a  succession  of  victories  over  rival  Italian 
tribes;  died  at  eighty  of  the  plague,  in  365  B.  C. 
lamented  by  the  whole  nation,  and  remembered 
for  geiieratfons  after  as  one  of  the  noblest  heroic 
figures  in  Roman  history. 

CamoSnB  {kdm'-6-ina).  Lull  de,  the  epic  poet  of 
Portugal,  born  1524  at  Lisbon,  and  studied  the 
ancient  classics  at  Coimbra.  He  sailed  for  India 
1553.  Offended  by  certain  abuses  of  the  Portu- 
guese authorities  in  India,  he  ventured  to  expoise 
them  in  a  satire  entitled  Disparates  na  India, 
"  Follies  in  India,"  in  which  he  treated  even  the 
viceroy  with  ridicule.  For  this  offense  he  was 
banished,  1556,  to  Macao,  where  he  lived  several 
years,  and  was  engaged  in  writing  his  principal 
Os  Lxisiadas  till  recalled.  He  dedicated  The 
Liiaiad  to  the  young  king,  Sebastian,  who  granted 
him  a  small  pension  (about  S20),  and  permission 
to  remain  at  the  court  of  Lisbon ;  died  in  poverty 
and  obscurity  in  the  hospital  at  Lisbon,  1580. 

Camp,  Walter,  writer  on  athletic  subjects;  bom  at 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  1859;  graduated  at  Yale. 
1880;  has  been  active  in  the  management  oi 
Yale's  athletics ;  member  Yale  university  council ; 
president,  treasurer,  and  general  manager  of  New 
Haven  clock  company:  treasurer  and  trustee 
Hopkins  grammar  school.  Author:  Book  o/ Col- 
lege Sports;  American  Football;  Football  Facts 
and  Figures;  Football;  Yale,  Her  Campus,  Class- 
Room.  and  Athletics;  Drives  and  Puts  (with 
Lillian  Brooks).  Editor-in-chief  Library  Young 
People.  Contributor  to  leading  magazines  and 
the  "sporting  column"  in  Collier's  Weekly. 

Campbell,  Alexander,  American  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Shane's  castle,  Ireland,  1788.  Attended 
Glasgow  university;  came  to  the  United  States, 
and  served  as  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  church  in 
Washington  county.  Pa.  •  later  became  a 
Baptist;  in  1810  he  adopted  the  Bible  as  the  sole 
recognized  creed  of  his  church,  and  in  1827 
founded  the  "Disciples  of  Christ,"  a  sect  that 
grew  rapidly,  especially  in  Virginia,  Tennessee, 
and  Kentucky,  and  now  numbers  over  half  a 
million  members.  His  followers  are  also  known 
as  "Christians,"  "Church  of  Christ,"  and  "Camp- 
belUtes."  In  1841  Campbell  founded  and  became 
the  first  president  of  Bethany  college,  West  Vir- 
ginia. He  also  founded  and  edited  the  denomina- 
tional organ  of  his  church.     He  died  1866. 


THROUGHOUT  THE   WORLD 


W9 


Campbell,  Archibald.     See  Argyll. 

Campbell,  Hon.  Archibald,  Canadian  capitalist, 
was  bom  at  Ridgetown,  Ontario,  1846;  «Hlucate<l 
at  high  school  and  collegiate  institution  of  the 
county.  Owned  large  flouring  mills  at  Chatham, 
Ontario;  represented  Kent  county  in  the  house 
of  commons,  1887-1900;  chairman  of  banking 
and  commerce  committee;  sold  out  in  Chatham, 
1892,  and  moved  to  West  Toronto  where  he 
built  the  large  Queen  City  flouring  mills;  elected 
member  of  parliament  for  West  York,  1901 
and  1907;  chairman  of  the  railway  and  trans- 
portation committee;  elected  to  Dominion 
senate,  1907 ;  president  Central  railway  company 
of  Canada,  Campbell  milling  company  of  Can- 
ada, and  Grand  and  Construction  company  of 
Ontario. 

Campbell,  Sir  Colin,  Lord  Clyde,  British  general, 
was  bom  in  Glasgow,  1792.  His  father  was  a 
cabinetmaker  named  John  Macliver.  In  1808  he 
entered  the  army  as  an  ensign,  taking,  to  please 
an  uncle,  the  name  of  Campbell.  He  distin- 
guished himself  greatly  in  the  wars  in  the  Penin- 
sula, the  United  States,  China,  India,  and  the 
Crimean  war.  He  reached  the  summit  of  his 
fame  in  1857,  when,  as  commander  of  the  forces 
in  India,  he  finally  crushed  the  Sepoy  mutiny 
and  saved  the  English  empire  in  India.  In  1858 
he  was  created  a  peer  under  the  title  of  Baron 
Clyde,  while  the  East  India  company  granted 
him  an  annuity  of  2,000  pounds.  He  returned 
from  India  to  England  in  1860,  and  died  1863. 

Campbell,  Sirs.  Patrick  (Beatrice  Stella  Tanner), 
actress;  born.  Forest  House,  Kensington  Gar- 
dens; youngest  daughter  of  John  Tanner  and 
Louisa  Romanini;  married  Patrick  Campbell 
(killed  in  South  Africa,  1900),  third  son  of 
Patrick  Campbell,  Stranraer,  N.  B.,  1884. 
Educated  at  Sussex  Gardens,  Brighton;  Belsize 
Gardens,  Hampstead;  one  year  at  Paris,  private 
tuition  —  language,  music.  Scholarship,  Guild- 
hall school  of  music.  Joined  dramatic  club, 
"Anomalies,"  West  Norwood,  1886-87;  toured 
with  Green's  company,  1888 ;  Bandman  Palmer's 
company,  1889;  Ben  Greet's  company,  1890-91; 
played  engagements  at  the  Adelphi,  St.  James's, 
Haymarket,  Garrick,  Lyceum,  and  other  Lon- 
don theaters. 

Campbell,  Thomas,  a  distinguished  British  poet, 
born  in  Glasgow,  1777.  He  wrote  The  Pleasures 
of  Hope.  The  poem  was  published  in  1799,  and 
went  through  four  editions  in  a  twelvemonth. 
He  died  at  Boulogne  in  1844,  and  was  buried  in 
Westminster  abbey.  Gertrude  of  Wyoming  and 
the  short  poem.  The  Last  Man,  are  well  known; 
but  it  is  for  his  war  lyrics  that  Campbell  will  be 
most  remembered,  such  as  Hoherdinden,  Ye 
Mariners  of  England,  and  The  Battle  of  the  Baltic. 

Campbell-Bannerman,  Rt.  Hon.  Sir  Henry,  former 
prime  minister  of  Great  Britain,  was  bom  in 
1836.  Educated  at  Glasgow  university  and 
Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  B.  A.,  1858;  M.  A., 
1861;  financial  secretary  in  war  office,  1871-74 
and  1880-82;  secretary  admiralty,  1882-84; 
chief  secretary  of^Ireland,  1884-85;  secretary  for 
war,  1886  and  1892-95;  chosen  leader  of  the 
liberal  opposition  in  succession  to  Sir  William 
Harcourt,  February,  1899.  Notwithstanding  the 
differences  between  liberal  imperialists  and 
other  liberals  over  the  Boer  war,  a  unanimous 
vote  of  confidence  in  his  leadersfciip  was  carried 
at  a  meeting  of  the  liberal  party  held  at  the 
Reform  club,  July,  1901.  A^ain  received  the 
solid  support  of  the  liberal  party  in  the  house 
in  1903,  1904,  and  1905.  On  the  resignation  of 
the  Balfour  administration  in  December,  1905, 
he  was  summoned  by  the  king  and  formed  a 
liberal  cabinet  himself  becoming  first  lord  of 
the  treasiuy  and  prime  minister;    the  general 


election  which  followed  gare  him  •  trameadoua 
majority.     Died  in  office,  1908. 

CanlsiuB  {k&-ni'~Bi-^\  Petnu,  Dutch  Jesuit  mii^ 
sioimry  and  scholar,  was  bom  at  Nimeguen, 
Netherlands,  1621.  He  was  the  first  provinciai 
of  the  Jesuits  in  Germany,  distinguished  himself 
at  the  council  of  Trent,  1645,  and  was  appointed 
court  preacher  to  Ferdinand  I.  He  wrote 
Summa  Doctrinee  Christiana.     Died,   1597. 

Canning,  George,  British  statesman  and  orator, 
bom  in  London,  1770.  He  entered  the  bouse 
of  commons  for  Newport,  isle  of  Wight,  in  1793, 
as  the  prot6g6  and  supporter  of  the  minister, 
Pitt.  In  1796  he  was  appointed  an  under- 
secretary of  state.  In  1801  Pitt  resigned  office, 
and  Canning  joined  the  opposition  against  tb* 
Addington  ministry.  When  Pitt  again  became 
premier,  in  1804,  Canning  was  made  treasurer 
of  the  navy,  an  office  which  he  held  until  Pitt's 
death,  in  1806.  When  the  Portland  ministry 
was  formed,  in  1807,  Canning  was  appointed 
minister  of  foreign  affairs.  In  1812  his  eloquence 
was  enlisted  in  favor  of  Catholic  emancipation. 
He  arranged  the  relations  of  Brazil  and  Portugal ; 
drew  the  French  cabinet  into  agreement  with 
the  British  respecting  Spanish-American  affsirs: 
was  the  first  to  recognize  the  free  states  of 
Spanish  America;  promoted  the  treaty  com- 
bining England,  France,  and  Russia  for  a  settle- 
ment of  the  affairs  of  Greece,  which  was  signed 
July  6,  1827;  protected  Portugal  from  Spanish 
invasion;  contended  earnestly  for  CathoUc 
emancipation,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the 
repeal  of  the  corn-laws.     Died,  1827. 

Cannon,  Joseph  Gm  lawyer,  former  speaker  of  the 
United  States  house  of  representatives;  bom  in 
Guilford,  N.  C,  1836;  admitted  to  Illinois  bar; 
state's  attorney,  Vermilion  county.  111.,  1861— 
68;  member  of  congress,  1873-91,  and  again  in 
1893-1903,  12th  Illinois  district,  and  1903-13, 
18th  district;  chairman  of  committee  on  appro- 
priations, 55th,  56th,  and  57th  congresses; 
speaker  of  5Sth,  59th,  60th,  and  61st  congresses. 

Canova  {ka-^nd'-vii),  Antonio,  Italian  sculptor,  was 
bom,  1757,  at  the  Venetian  village  of  Possagno, 
and  studied  at  Venice  and  Rome.  His  "Theseus,' 
1782,  was  greeted  as  well  worthy  to  vie  with 
classic  art,  and  he  was  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  a  new  school.  His  "Cupid  and  Psyche"  was 
produced  soon  after  he  had  completed  in  1787 
the  monument  of  Pope  Clement  XIV.  Other 
works  were  a  "Winged  Cupid,"  "Venus  and 
Adonis,"  a  "Psyche  holding  a  Butterfly," 
"Penitent  Magdalen,"  and  "Perseus  with  the 
head  of  the  Medusa,"  a  second  famous  papal 
monument,  and  one  at  Vienna  to  an  archduchess. 
In  1802  he  was  appointed  by  Pius  VII.  curator  of 
works  of  art,  and  was  called  to  Paris  to  model  a 
colossal  statue  of  Napoleon.  In  1815  the  pope 
sent  him  again  to  Paris  to  recover  the  works  of 
art  taken  there,  and  he  visited  England.  Created 
marquis  of  Ischia,  he  died  in  Vemce,  1822. 

C&novas  del  Castillo  {kd'^no-vHis  dU  kA»-Ul'-y8), 
Antonio,  Spanish  conservative  statesman  and 
historian,  bom  at  Malaga,  1828,  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  cortes  in  1854,  and  was  premier 
1875-81,  1884-85,  1890-92,  and  from  1895  till 
the  8th  of  August,  1897,  when,  at  the  bath  of 
Santa  Agueda,  Vittoria,  he  was  shot  by  an 
anarchist  in  the  presence  of  his  wife. 
Canrobert  (kas'^d'-Mr'),  Francois  Certain,  marshal 
of  France,  bom  1809.  After  many  yesxs  of 
effective  service  in  the  East,  in  the  Crimea, 
and  in  Italy,  when  war  was  declared  by  Fraooe 
against  Prussia,  in  1870,  he  was  one  of  the  generals 
in  command  at  Wcerth,  where  the  French  were 
defeated.  He  was  shut  up  in  Meta  with  B»- 
zaine,  and  was  a  prisoner  in  Germany  from  the 
capitulation  of  that  fortress  to  the  conclusion  of 
peace;  senator  1876.     Died,  1895. 


000 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Canterbury,  Archbishop  ot»  See  Davidson,  Rev. 
Kandall  Thomas. 

Cantii  {kHn-UX>'),  Cesare,  modem  Italian  author, 
was  bom,  1805,  at  Brivio,  in  northern  Italy,  ana 
waa  educated  at  Sondrio,  where  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  belles-lettres.  Having  been  impris- 
oned for  the  offense  of  expressing  liberal  tend- 
encies in  an  historicalwork  on  Lombardy,  he  spent 
his  leisure  hours  in  describing  the  sorrows  of  a 
prisoner  in  the  form  of  an  historical  romance. 
His  great  work  is  the  Storia  Universale  (35  vols., 
1837-1842^,  His  History  of  Italian  Literature 
appeared  m  1851 ;  History  of  tlie  Last  Hundred 
Years,  1852;  History  of  the  Italians,  1859;  and 
Milano,  Storia  del  Popdo,  1871.     Died,  1895. 

Canute  (kd-niW),  or  Cnut  {k'ndSt),  a  king  of  Eng- 
land who  succeeded  to  the  rulership  of  the  Danes 
ih  the  north  of  England  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  Swein  or  Sweyn,  was  born  995.  On  the 
death  of  Ethelred  he  shared  the  sovereignty  with 
Edmund  Ironside,  who  ruled  over  the  south  of 
England.  The  sudden  decease  or  assassination 
of  Edmund  made  Canute  sole  ruler  in  1017,  and 
he  continued  to  reign  until  his  death  in  1035. 
Canute  superseded  his  brother  Harold  as  king 
of  Denmark ;  and  in  1028  extended  his  dominion 
over  Norway  —  becoming  one  of  the  most 
powerful  princes  of  Europe. 

Capet  (kd'-p&t),  Hugh.     See  Hugh  Capet. 

Capo  D'lstrla  (ka'-po  dea'-trc-ii.),  John,  Count  of,  a 
Greek,  who  gained  distinction  as  a  diplomat,  was 
born  at  Corfu  in  1776.  His  father  was  a  physi- 
cian, and  became  governor  of  the  seven  Ionian 
islands  when  they  were  occupied  by  Russia. 
John,  who  had  studied  medicine  at  Venice, 
entered  the  service  of  Russia;  and  in  1813,  in 
consideration  of  his  meritorious  labors,  the 
emperor  Alexander  made  him  minister  for  foreign 
affairs.  In  1827  he  was  made  president  of  the 
new  Greek  government,  where  he  fell  by  the 
hand  of  an  assassin  in  1831. 

Caprlvl  (kd-pre'-ve).  Count  Georg  Leo  von,  Ger- 
man general,  statesman,  and  chancellor,  was  born 
in  1831,  and  died  in  1899.  He  entered  the  army 
in  his  18th  year,  won  rapid  promotion,  and  served 
with  distinction  in  the  campaigns  of  1864  and 
1866.  In  1882  he  was  given  command  of  the 
30th  division  of  the  imperial  army  at  Metz;  for 
a  time  was  also  at  the  head  of  the  German  sidmi- 
ralty,  and  reorganized  the  navy;  was  subse- 
quently given  command  of  the  10th  or  Hano- 
verian army  corps,  the  finest  in  the  German 
army.  In  1890,  on  the  fall  of  Bismarck,  Emperor 
William  made  him  chancellor  and  minister  for 
foreign  affairs.  In  1894,  owing  to  friction  with 
Count  Eulenberg  over  the  agrarian  malcontents, 
he  resigned  office,  and  retired. 

Caracalla  {kSr'-d-kdl'-d)  (properly  Marcus  Aurelius 
Antoninus  Bassianus),  Roman  emperor,  the  son 
of  the  emperor  Septimius  Severus,  bom  at 
Lyons,  188  A.  D.  He  was  playfully  named  by 
his  father  Caracalla,  from  his  long-hooded  tunic. 
After  his  father's  death,  211  A.  D.,  he  ascended 
the  throne  as  co-regent  with  his  brother,  Publius 
Septimius  Antoninus  Geta,  whom  he  afterward 
caused  to  be  murdered.  Having  bribed  the 
pretorians  to  make  him  sole  emperor,  Caracalla 
next  directed  his  cruelty  against  all  the  friends 
and  adherents  of  Geta,  of  whom  20,000  of  both 
sexes  —  including  the  great  jurist  Papinianus  — 
were  put  to  death.  In  his  famous  constitution 
he  bestowed  Roman  citizenship  on  all  his  free 
subjects  not  citizens  —  but  simply  in  order  to 
levy  a  greater  amount  of  taxes  on  releases  Eind 
heritages,  which  were  paid  only  by  citizens.  He 
W£is  assassinated,  at  the  instigation  of  Macrinus, . 
prefect  of  the  pretorians,  by  one  of  his  veterans 
named  Martialis,  217  A.  D. 

Caraccl  (kd-r&'-cfie),  or  Carraccl,  Agostino,  Italian 
painter,  was  bom  in  Bologna  in  1558,  l^came  a 


disciple  of  his  cousin  Ludovico,  but  he  was  too 
versatile  to  devote  himself  closely  to  any  subject, 
though  his  "Conununion  of  St.  Jerome,"  still  at 
Bologna,  is  an  admirable  work.  He  dabbled  in 
poetry  and  literature,  and  was  a  really  great 
engraver  on  copper.  His  brother's  jealousy  is 
said  to  have  anven  him  from  Rome  (where 
they  did  the  frescoes  in  the  Famese  palace) 
to  Parma,  where  he  died,  1602. 

Caraccl,  Annlbale,  was  born  in  Bologna  in  1560, 
died,  1609 ;  was  bred  a  tailor,  but  rapidly  became 
a  great  painter  under  his  cousin,  and  soon  out- 
stripped both  him  and  his  brother.  The  influence 
of  Corregj^io  and  of  Raphael  largely  moulded  his 
style.  His  fame  reached  Rome,  where  he  was 
employed  to  fresco  the  Famese  palace.  He  was 
buried  close  to  Raphael  in  the  Pantheon.  His 
most  celebrated  easel-picture  is  the  "Three 
Maries." 

Caraccl,  Ludovico,  Italian  painter,  the  son  of  a 
butcher,  was  bom  at  Bologna  in  1555,  died,  1619; 
studied  at  Venice  and  Parma,  and,  with  his  two 
cousins,  established  in  Bologna  an  "eclectic" 
school  of  painting.  Some  of  his  finest  works  are 
preser^'ed  at  Bologna  —  among  others,  the 
"Madonna  and  Child  Throned,"  Madonna  and 
Child  Standing,"  the  "Transfiguration,"  and  the 
"Nativity  of  St.  John  the  Baptist." 

Cardan  (kar'-ddn),  Jerome,  Italian  mathematician, 
naturalist,  physician,  and  philosopher,  was  born 
at  Pavia,  1501;  graduated  in  medicine  at  Padua; 
and  was  professor  of  mathematics  at  Milan.  He 
subscuucntly  jjracticed  medicine  and  gradually 
gainea  a  high  reputation.  In  1559  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Pavia,  later  at  Bologna;  and 
there  in  1570  we  find  him  in  prison  for  heresy  or 
debt,  or  both.  Having  regained  his  liberty  in 
1571,  he  went  to  Rome,  where  Gregory  XII.  pen- 
sioned him.  He  died  in  Rome,  1576,  a  few  weeks 
after  finishing  his  candid  autobiography,  De 
Propria  Vita.  He  wrote  over  a  hundred 
treatises  on  physics,  mathematics,  astronomy, 
astrologv,  rhetoric,  history,  ethics,  dialectics, 
naturalhistory,  music,  and  medicine. 

Cardigan  {kdr'-dUgan),  James  Thomas  BnidenelU 
Earl  of,  was  born  1797;  died  1868;  sat  in  the 
bouse  of  commons  from  1818  to  1837,  when  he 
succeeded  his  father  as  seventh  earl.  He  entered 
the  army  in  1824,  and  rapidly  bought  himself 
into  the  command  of  the  15th  hussars,  which  he 
resigned  in  1833,  on  the  acquittal  of  an  officer 
whom  he  had  illegally  put  under  arrest.  From 
1836  to  1847  he  commanded  the  11th  hussars, 
on  which  he  spent  10,000  pounds  a  year,  and 
which  he  made  the  crack  regiment  in  the  service. 
He  was  unpopular  with  his  officers,  and  his 
treatment  of  them  brought  about  a  duel  with 
Captain  Harvey  Tucket t,  for  which  in  1841 
Cardigan  was  tried  before  the  house  of  lords, 
but  escaped  through  a  legal  quibble.  He  com- 
manded a  cavalry  brigade  under  Lord  Lucan  in 
the  Crimea,  andi  led  the  "Six  Hundred"  at 
Balaklava.  He  was  inspector-general  of  cavalry 
1855-60. 

Carduccl  (kdr-d^f-chi),  Giosui,  Italian  poet,  was 
born,  a  physician's  son,  at  Valdicastello,  in  the 
province  of  Pisa,  in  1836,  and  died  in  1907.  In 
1861  he  became  professor  of  Itahan  literature  at 
Bologna,  in  1876  was  returned  to  the  Italian 
parliament  as  a  repubUcan,  and  in  1890  was 
nominated  a  senator.  A  complete  edition  of 
his  poems  in  twenty  volumes  appeared  at  Bologna 
in  1889  et  seq.     Awarded  Nobel  prize,  1906. 

Carew,  Mrs.  James.     See  Terry,  Ellen. 

Carey  (ka'-ri),  Henry  Charles,  political  economist, 
was  bom  at  Philadelphia,  1793.  In  1836  he 
published  an  essay  on  the  Rate  of  Wages,  which 
was  expanded  into  the  Principles  of  Political 
Economy.  In  1838  he  pubUshed  The  Credit 
System  of  France,  Great  Britain,  and  the  VniUd 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


601 


States;  and  in  1848  The  Past,  the  Present,  and 
the  Future,  a  work  market!  by  great  vigor  and 
originality.  In  1853  appeared  the  Letters  on  the 
International  Cojn/right;  in  1858,  Principles  of 
Social  Science;  in  1867,  Review  of  the  Decade 
1857-67 ;  and,  in  1873,  The  Unity  of  Law.  He 
was  originally  a  free-trader,  but  was  later 
recognized  as  the  head  of  a  new  school  of  political 
economy.     Died,  1879. 

Carey.  James  F^  socialist  leader;  born  Haverhill, 
Mass.,  1867;  educated  at  Haverhill  public 
schools;  learned  shoemaking  trade:  joined 
international  boot  and  shoemakers  union; 
chairman  convention  at  Boston,  1895,  which 
amalgamated  three  national  organizations  of 
shoemakers  into  one  union;  one  of  three  leaders 
in  unemployed  Eigitation  on  Boston  common, 
1894;  appointed  by  governor  a  commissioner 
of  the  unemployed,  but  was  not  confirmed; 
first  socialist  elected  to  political  office  in  New 
England;  president  Haverhill  common  council; 
member  Massachusetts  house  of  representatives; 
elected  1898,  1899,  1900,  1901,  1902,  last  four 
elections  over  combination  of  democratic  and 
republican  parties. 

Carhart,  Henry  Smith,  scientist,  professor  physics, 
1886-1909,  emeritus  professor  since  1909,  uni- 
versity of  Michigan;  born  at  Coeymans,  N.  Y., 
1844;  graduated  from  Wesleyan  university, 
Middletown,  Conn.,  1869;  LL.  D.,  1893;  later 
studied  at  Yale,  Harvard,  and  Berlin.  Pro- 
fessor of  physics  and  chemistry,  Northwestern 
university,  1872-86;  president  of  board  of 
judges,  department  of  electricity.  World's 
Columbian  exposition,  1893;  member  of  inter- 
national jury  of  awards,  Paris  exposition  of  elec- 
tricity, 1881;  member  of  jury  of  awards,  Pan- 
American  exposition,  1901 ;  president  of  American 
electrochemical  society,  1904-05;  vice-president 
of  St.  Louis  international  electrical  congress, 
and  one  of  official  delegates  for  tlie  United 
States,  1904;  accompanied  the  British  associa- 
tion for  the  advancement  of  science  to  South 
Africa  as  a  guest,  1905;  member  of  preliminary 
conference  on  electrical  units  and  standards, 
Berlin,  1905,  and  United  States  delegate  to  the 
official  congress  on  same  subject,  London,  1908. 
Author :  Primary  Batteries;  Elements  of  Physics 
(with  H.  N.  Chute);  University  Physics;  Elec- 
trical Measurements  (with  G.  W.  Patterson); 
High  School  Physics  (with  H.  N.  Chute). 

Carle,  Richard,  actor,  playwright;  born  at  Somer- 
ville,  Mass.,  1871;  received  a  high  school  educa- 
tion, Somerville,  Mass.  Began  stage  career. 
Bijou  theater.  New  York,  1891;  played  in 
The  Spring  Chicken,  Mayor  of  Tokio,  etc.  Author : 
(plays)  Mam'seUe  Awkins;  The  Storks;  The 
Tenderfoot;  The  Mayor  of  Tokio,  and  adapter  of 
The  Spring  Chicken  and  Mary's  Lamb. 

Carleton  (Jcarl'-tun),  Will,  author,  lecturer;  bom 
at  Hudson,  Mich.,  1845;  graduated  at  Hillsdale 
college,  B.  S.,  1869;  A.  M.;  Litt.  D.  In 
newspaper  work,  Hillsdale,  Detroit,  Chicago, 
Boston,  and  New  York;  became  known  as  a  poet; 
lectured  •  and  gave  author's  readings  through 
the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  continental 
Europe;  was  editor  of  Every  Where,  Brooklyn, 
an  illustrated  magazine.  Author :  Farm  Ballads; 
Farm  Legends;  Farm  Festivals;  City  Ballads; 
City  Legends;  City  Festivals;  Rhymes  of  Our 
Planet;  The  Old  Infant  and  Similar  Stories; 
Young  Folks'  Centennial  Rhymes;  Songs  of  Two 
Centuries  (poems);  Poems  for  Young  Americans; 
In  Old  School  Days;  Drifted  In.     Died,  1912. 

Carlisle  {kar4ir),  John  Griffin,  lawyer;  bom  in 
Campbell  county,  Kentucky,  1835;  common 
school  education;  admitted  to  Kentucky  bar, 
1858;  several  terms  in  Kentucky  legislature; 
■tate  senator,  1866-71;  delegate  at  large, 
national    democratic    convention,     1868;      lieu- 


tenant-governor of  Kentucky,  1871-76;  member 
of  congress,  1877-91  rapcaker,  1883-89);  noted 
low  tariff  advocate:  United  States  senator  from 
Kentucky,  1890-93;  secretary  of  treasury  of 
United  States,  1893-97;  democrat;  affiliated 
with  national  (gold  standard)  democrats,  1896; 
after  1897  in  law  practice.  New  York.  Vice- 
president  of  anti-imperialist  league.     Died,  1910. 

Carlyie,  Thomas.     See  page  103. 

Carman  (kiir'-man),  William  Bliss,  journalist,  poet, 
was  born  at  Fredericton,  New  Brunswick, 
Canada,  1861.  Graduate  of  university  of  New 
Bmnswick,  B.  A.,  1881-  Edinburgh  and  Har- 
vard. Office  editor,  the  Independent,  New  York, 
1890-92.  Author:  Low  Tide  on  Grand  Prt; 
Behind  the  Arras;  A  Seamark;  Ballads  of  Loat 
Haven;  Sonas  from  Vagabondia  (with  Richard 
Hovey);  Afore  Songs  from  Vagabondia  (with 
Richard  Hovey);  By  the  Aurelian  Wall;  A 
Winter  Holiday;  Last  Songs  of  Vagabondia; 
Christmas  Eve  at  St.  Kavin'a;  Ode  on  the  Corona- 
tion; Pipes  of  Pan. 

Carnarvon  (kdr-n&r'-v&n).  Earl  of  (Henry  Howard 
Molyneux  Herbert),  born  in  London,  Eng., 
1831 ;  appointed  governor  of  Carnarvon  castle 
in  1854.  In  1858  he  became  under-sccrotary 
of  state  for  the  colonies  in  the  administration 
of  the  earl  of  Derby,  and  in  1859  visited 
the  East.  The  feuds  of  the  tribes  in  the 
Lebanon  had  broken  out  in  a  massacre  of  the 
Christians,  and  Carnarvon  gave  the  world  the 
benefit  of  his  investigations  in  an  interesting 
work,  the  Druses  of  the  Lebanon.  He  was  author 
of  the  British  North  America  act,  passed  by  both 
houses  of  parliament  in  1867,  whereby  the 
Dominion  oi  Canada  was  formed.     Died,  1890. 

Carnegie  (k&r-n^g'-l),  Andrew,  capitalist,  manu- 
facturer, philanthropist,  author;  born  in  Dun- 
fermline, Fifeshire,  Scotland,  1835:  came  with 
family  to  United  States,  1848,  settling  in  Pitts- 
burgh; first  work  was  as  weaver's  assistant  in 
cotton  factory,  Allegheny,  Pa. ;  became  telegraph 
messenger  boy  in  Pittsburgh  office  of  Ohio  tele- 
graph company,  1851;  learned  telegraphy, 
entered  employ  of  Pennsylvania  railroad,  and 
became  telegraph  operator,  advancing  by  pro- 
motions until  he  became  superintendent  of 
Pittsburgh  division  of  Pennsylvania  system; 
joined  WoodrufiF,  inventor  of  the  sleeping  car, 
m  organizing  Woodruff  sleeping  car  com- 
pany, gaining  through  it  nucleus  of  his  fortune; 
careful  investments  in  oil  lands  increased  his 
means;  during  civil  war  served  as  superin- 
tendent of  military  railways  and  government 
telegraph  lines  in  the  East.  After  the  war  he 
developed  iron  works  of  various  kinds  and 
established,  at  Pittsburgh,  Keystone  bridge  works 
and  Union  iron  works.  Introtiuced  into  this 
country  Bessemer  process  of  making  steel,  1868; 
was  principal  owner  a  few  years  later  of  Home- 
stead and  Edgar  Thomson  steel  works,  and 
other  large  plants,  as  head  of  firms  of  Carnegie, 
Phipps  &  Company  and  Carnegie  Bros.  &  Com- 
pany; interests  were  consolidated,  1899,  in  the 
Carnegie  steel  company,  which,  in  1901,  was 
merged  in  the  United  States  steel  corporation, 
when  he  retired  from  business;  married,  1887, 
Louise  Whitfield,  of  New  York.  Has  given 
libraries  to  many  towns  and  cities  in  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain,  and  large  siuns  in 
other  benefactions,  including  $10,(XX),000  to 
Camegie  institute,  Pittsburgh,  $5,200,000  to  New 
York  for  the  establishment  of  branch  libraries; 
$22,000,000  to  Camegie  institution,  Washington; 
$10,000,000  to  Scotch  universities;  $5,000,000 
to  fund  for  benefit  of  employees  of  Carnegie  steel 
company;  $1,000,000  to  St.  Louis  public 
librarv,  etc.,  total  benefactions  exceeding 
$175,000,000,  including  over  $50,000,000  for 
over     2,200    municipal    library    buildings,    and 


602 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


$15,000,000  for  college  professors'  pension  fund 
in  United  States,  Canada,  and  Newfoundland. 
Author:  An  American  Four-in-Hand  in  Britain; 
Round  the  World;  Triumphant  Democracy;  The 
Gospel  of  Wealth;  Empire  of  Buainesa;  and  The 
Life  of  James  Watt.  Lord  rector  of  St.  Andrew's 
university,  1903;    LL.  D.,  1905. 

Camot  (kd.r'-nd'),  Laiare  Nicolas  Marguerite,  was 
bom  in  1753  at  Nolay,  Burgundy,  France.  In 
1791  he  became  a  member  of  the  legislative 
assembly,  and  in  the  convention  voted  for  the 
death  of  Louis  XVI.  After  taking  conunand  of 
the  army  of  the  north,  and  gaining  the  victory 
of  Wattignies,  he  was  elected  mto  the  committee 
of  public  safety,  was  intrusted  with  the  chief 
direction  of  military  affairs,  and  greatly  contrib- 
uted to  the  successes  of  the  French  army.  Though 
he  endeavored  to  restrict  the  power  of  Robes- 
pierre, he  was  accused,  with  others,  after  the 
reign  of  terror,  but  the  charge  was  dismissed. 
In  1797,  having  opposed  the  extreme  measures 
of  Barras,  his  colleague  in  the  directory,  Camot, 
suspected  royalist,  was  sentenced  to  deportation. 
He  escaped  into  Germany,  wrote  his  defense, 
which  conduced  to  the  overthrow  of  his  col- 
leagues in  1799.  On  his  return  to  Paris,  he 
was  made  minister  of  war,    1800;  died,  1823. 

Camot,  Marie  Francois  Sadi,  French  statesman, 
was  born  at  Limoges,  France,  1837.  He  was 
educated  as  an  engineer,  and  introduced  several 
improvements  in  railroad  and  bridge  building. 
He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  assembly  in 
1871,  was  twice  a  cabinet  officer,  and  upon  the 
resignation  of  President  Gr6vy  was  chosen 
president  of  the  French  republic,  1887.  He  was 
assassinated  by  an  anarchist,  1894. 

Camot,  Nicholas  Leonard  Sadi,  son  of  Nicolas, 
founder  of  thermo-dynamics,  was  bom  at  Paris, 
1796,  died  1832;  in  his  Reflexions  sur  la  Puissance 
du  Feu,  he  enunciates  the  principle  of  reversi- 
bility, considered  most  important  contribution 
to  physical  science  since  time  of  Newton. 

Carpaccio  (kar-piU'-cho),  Vlttore,  an  early  Venetian 
painter,  was  born  in  Istria,  about  1450,  and  was 
influenced  by  the  Vivarini  and  Gentile  Bellini. 
He  is  noted  for  rich  coloring  and  accurate  per- 
spective, boundless  invention,  powerful  delinea- 
tion of  character,  and  love  of  varied  incident. 
In  1510  he  executed  for  San  Giobbe  his  master- 
piece, the  "Presentation  in  the  Temple,"  now 
in  the  Accademia.  His  later  works  show  a 
marked  decline  in  power.     Died  about  1522. 

Carpenter,  Franic  George,  journalist,  traveler, 
author;  born  in  Mansfield,  Ohio,  1855;  graduate 
of  Wooster  university,  1877.  Began  newspaper 
work  as  legislative  corresp>ondent  for  Cleveland 
Leader,  at  Columbus,  1879;  spent  1881  in 
European  and  Egyptian  travel;  Washington 
correspondent  for  Cleveland  Leader,  1882; 
correspondent  for  American  press  association, 
1884;  also,  1887,  correspondent  for  New  York 
World;  trip  round  the  world  for  newspaper 
sjTidicate  and  Cosmopolitan  magazine,  1888-89; 
newspaper  tour  to  Mexico,  1891 ;  to  Russia, 
Germany,  and  England,  1892;  to  China.  Japan, 
and  Corea,  1894;  spent  1898  in  South  America, 
25,000  miles  of  travel;  spent  1900  in  PhiUppines, 
China,  Java,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand;  made 
newspaper  tour,  1902,  to  investigate  American 
"commercial  invasion"  in  England,  France, 
Germany,  Russia,  Holland,  Belgium,  Norway, 
Sweden,  Denmark.  Author:  Carpenter's  Geo- 
graphical Readers — Asia;  North  America;  South 
America;  Europe;  Australia,  Our  Colonies  and 
Other  Islands  of  the  Seas;  Africa;  Through  Asia 
With  the  Children;  Through  North  America  With 
the  Children;  South  America  —  Social,  Industrial, 
and  Political;  Foods,  or  How  the  World  is  Fed. 
Has  written  many  axticlea  in  leading  American 
journals  and  magazines. 


Carpenter,  J.  Estlln,  theological  writer,  principal 
of  Manchester  college,  Oxford;  bom  1844; 
second  son  of  Wm.  B.  Carpenter,  C.  B.,  M.  D., 
F.  R.  S.,  etc. ;  educated  at  University  College 
school,  London;  University  and  Manchester 
New  colleges.  M.  A.,  London;  Litt.  D.,  Oxford: 
D.  D.,  Glasgow.  Minister  of  Oakfield  Road 
church,  Clifton,  1866-69;  Mill  Hill  chapel, 
Leeds,  1869-75;  lecturer  in  Manchester  college, 
London,  and  Oxford,  1875-1906.  Editor  of 
Ewald's  History  of  Israel;  translator  of  Tide's 
Outlines  of  the  History  of  Reliaion;  author  of  the 
Life  and  Work  of  Mary  Carpenter;  Life  in 
Palestine;  The  First  Three  Gospels,  Their  Origin 
and  Rdations;  The  Bible  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century;  James  Martineau,  Theologian  and 
Teacher;  joint-editor  with  Professor  Rhys  Davids 
of  the  Digha  Nikaya,  and  the  Sumangala  Vilasini; 
joint-editor  with  Rev.  G.  Harford-Battersby  of 
The  Hexateuch  according  to  the  revised  version; 
joint-author  (with  Rev.  P.  H.  Wicksteed)  of 
Studies  in   Theology;    and   otlier    works. 

Carpenter,  William  Benjamin,  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  physiologists  and  writers  on  physi- 
ology of  moclem  times;  was  born  at  Exetez* 
1813,  died  at  London,  1885.  Graduate  of  Edin- 
burgh univereity;  M.  D.,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  8.  He 
took  a  chief  part  in  the  government  expeditions 
which  were  sent  out  in  1868-69-70  for  deep  sea 
exploration  in  the  north  Atlantic.  Among  his 
publications  may  be  mentioned  Zodlogy  and  the 
Instincts  of  Animals;  The  Microscope  and  Its 
Revelations;  a  work  on  Comparative  Physiology 
and  The  Principles  of  Mental  Physiology. 

Carpenter,  Bt.  Bev.  William  Boyd,  bishop  of 
Ripon,  born  at  Liverpool,  1841;  educated  at 
Royal  Institution  school,  Liverpool,  St.  Catha- 
rine's college,  Cambridge;  D.  D.,  D.  C.  L. ; 
Hulsean  lecturer,  Cambridge,  1878;  Bampton 
lecturer,  Oxford,  1887;  pastoral  lecturer  on 
theology,  Cambridge,  1895;  Noble  lecturer, 
Harvard,  1904.  Curate  of  All  Saints,  Maidstone, 
1864-66;  St.  Paul's,  Clapham,  1866-67;  Holy 
Trinity  Lee,  1867-70;  vicar  of  St.  James's, 
Holloway,  1870-79;  vicar  of  Christ  church, 
Lancaster  Gate,  1879-84;  canon  of  Windsor, 
1882-84;  hon.  chaplain  to  the  queen,  1879-83; 
chaplain-in-ordinary,  1883-84.  Author:  Com- 
mentary on  Revelation;  Thoughts  on  Prayer; 
Witness  of  Heart  to  Christ  (Hulsean  lectures) ; 
Permanent  Elements  of  Religion  (Bampton  lec- 
tures); Lectures  on  Preaching;  Christian  Reunion; 
The  Great  Charter  of  Christ;  Truth  in  Tale; 
Twilight  Dreams;  A  Popular  History  of  the 
Church  of  England;  The  Religious  Smrit  xn  the 
Poets;  Introduction  to  Study  of  the  Bible;  Witness 
to  the  Influence  of  Christ. 

Carr,  Gene,  caricaturist,  illustrator;  was  bom  in 
New  York,  1881 ;  educated  in  public  schools  of 
New  York;  never  studied  art.  Employed  on 
New  York  Recorder,  1894,  later  on  New  York 
Herald,  Philadelphia  Times,  New  York  Journal 
and  New  York  World  since  1903.  Creator  of 
comic  series,  Lady  Bountiful,  Phyllis,  Romeo, 
All  the  Comforts  of  Home,  and  the  Prodigal  Son. 

Carrel,  Alexis,  surgeon;  bom  in  France,  1873;  L. 
B.,  university  of  Lyons,  France,  1890,  Sc.  B., 
1891,  M.  D.,  1900.  Came  to  America,  1905;  in 
charge  of  laboratory  at  McGill  university,  later 
at  university  of  Chicago.  Associate  member, 
Rockefeller  institute  for  medical  research,  since 
1909.  His  researches  in  medicine  during  late 
years  have  demonstrated  that  life  in  tissues  may 
be  prolonged  after  removal  from  the  body. 
Received  Nobel  prize  for  medicine,  1912. 

Carr&re,  John  Merven,  architect;  bom  of  American 
parents  in  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil^l858;  educated 
m  Switzerland;  graduate  of  Ecole  des  Beaux 
Arts,  Paris,  1882 ;  partner  with  Thomas  Hastings 
in  firm,  Carrdre  &    Hastings,   after   1884.     The 


THROUGHOUT  THE   WORLD 


008 


firm  were  architects  of  the  Ponce  de  Leon  and 

Alcazar  hotels,  St.  Augustine,  Fla.,  the  New  York 
public  library,  academy  of  design,  and  many 
otker  noted  buildings.  Fellow,  American  insti- 
tute of  architects.      Died,  1911. 

Carroll,  Charles,  of  Carrollton,  American  patriot, 
bom  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  1737.  When  tne  war 
of  the  revolution  be^an  he  was  the  richest  man 
in  the  English  colonies;  but  though  he  had  so 
much  to  lose,  he  made  the  most  daring  speeches 
and  helped  the  patriot  cause  in  every  way.  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  congress,  1776,  and 
was  among  the  first  signers  of  the  declaration  of 
independence.  When  he  wrote  his  name, 
"Charles  Carroll,"  some  one  said:  "There  are 
many  Charles  Carrolls,  and  the  British  will  not 
know  which  one  it  is."  He  at  once  added  to  his 
name  "of  Carrollton,"  and  was  ever  afterward 
known  by  that  title.  He  outlived  all  the  other 
signers  of  the  declaration  of  independence,  and 
died  when  ninety-five  years  old,  1832. 

Carroll,  Lewis,  the  pseudonym  of  Rev.  Charles 
Lutwidge  Dodgson,  English  humorist  and 
author,  bom  in  1832;  graduate  of  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  1854 ;  took  orders  in  the  church, 
1861;  lecturer  at  Oxford,  1855-81;  wrote 
Alice  in  Wonderland,  Through  the  Looking-glass, 
The  Hunting  of  the  Snark,  Rhyme  and  Reason, 
A  Tangled  Tale,  Sylvie  and  Bruno,  and  other 
works.     Died,  1898. 

Carson,  Christopher,  popularly  known  as  Kit 
Carson,  an  American  frontiersman,  bom  in 
Kentucky  in  1809.  He  was  successively  a 
saddler's  apprentice,  trapper,  hunter,  guide  in 
P'r^mont's  explorations,  heutenant  in  the  rifle 
corps  of  the  army,  and  Indian  agent.  During 
the  civil  war  he  rendered  important  services  in 
the  territories,  and  was  brevetted  brigadier- 
general.     Died  in  Colorado,  1868. 

Carson,  Rt.  Hon.  Sir  Edward  Henry,  British 
lawyer,  statesman;  M.  P.  for  Dublin  university 
since  1892;  Q.  C,  English  bar,  1894;  Irish, 
1889;  bencher  of  King's  Inn,  Dublin;  bencher 
of  Middle  Temple,  1900;  was  bora  1854;  edu- 
cated at  Portarlington  school;  Trinity  college, 
DubUn,  M.  A.,  LL.  D.  Solicitor-general  for 
Ireland,  1892 ;  solicitor-general  of  Great  Britain, 
1900-06. 

Carson,  Hampton  Lawrence,  lawyer,  author;  born 
at  Philadelphia,  1852 ;  graduate  of  university  of 
Pennsylvania,  1871,  A.  M.,  1874,  LL.  B.,  1874; 
LL.  D.,  Lafayette,  1898,  Western  university  of 
Pennsylvania,  1904,  university  of  Pennsylvania, 
1906; "  admitted  to  bar,  1874.  Has  made  many 
addresses  on  legal,  historical,  constitutional, 
and  political  subjects.  Professor  of  law,  uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  1895-1901 ;  attorney- 
general,  Pennsylvania,  1903-07.  Author:  Law  of 
Criminal  Conspiracies  as  Found  in  American 
Cases;  History  of  the  One  Hundredth  Anniversary 
of  the  Promulgation  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  StcUes;  History  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
the  United  States;  also  many  papers  in  law 
journals. 

Carson,  Howard  Adams,  civil  engineer;  bom  at 
Westfield,  Mass.,  1842;  B.  S.,  Massachusetts 
institute  technology,  1869;  A.  M.,  Harvard, 
1906.  In  charge  of  sewer  construction,  Provi- 
dence, 1873;  principal  superintendent  of  con- 
struction of  Boston  main  drainage,  1878;  de- 
signed, 1887,  and  later  was  chief  engineer  of 
extensive  sewerage  systems  for  Massachusetts,  a 
combined  system  for  about  twenty  cities  and 
towns,  with  numerous  siphons  under  tidal 
estuaries  and  an  outlet,  1,800  feet,  into  the  sea 
from  Deer  island;  chief  engineer  of  Boston 
transit  commission,  1894-1909,  building  the 
Boston  subway,  the  East  Boston  tunnel  and  the 
Washington  street  tunnel;  has  been  consulting 
engineer  in  various  parts  of  the  country.    Author 


of  annual  reports  as  chief  engineer  of  Boston 
transit  commission,  1804-1904,  and  other 
engineering  reports. 

Carter,  James  Coolidge,  an  American  lawyer  of 
note,  was  born  at  Lancaster,  Mass.,  in  1827, 
and  was  graduated  from  Harvard,  I860.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  commission  that  devised  a 
form  of  municipal  adminiMtration  for  cities  in 
New  York  state,  1875,  and  also  of  the  consti- 
tutional commission  of  1888.  He  published  a 
pamphlet  opposing  the  cotiification  of  the  com- 
mon law  of  New  York  state  in  188.^.  President 
Harrison  appointed  him  one  of  the  counsel  to 
represent  the  United  States  before  the  Bering 
sea  tribunal  which  met  at  Paris  in  1893.  He 
died,  1905. 

Carter,  Thomas  Henry,  lawyer.  United  States 
senator,  was  bom  in  Scioto  county,  Ohio,  1854; 
received  a  common  school  education  in  Illinois; 
was  engaged  in  farming,  railroading,  and  school- 
teaching  for  a  number  of  years;  studied  law 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar;  in  1882  moved 
from  Burlington,  Iowa,  to  Helena,  Mont.;  was 
elected  delegate  from  the  territory  of  Montana  to 
the  fifty-first  congress,  and  upon  the  admiasion  of 
the  state  was  elected  its  first  representative  in  con- 
gress; commissioner  of  United  States  general 
land  office,  1891-92,  when  he  was  elected 
chairman  of  the  republican  national  committee: 
in  January,  1895,  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  senate  by  the  legislature  of  Montana  for 
the  term,  1895-1901;  appointed  by  President 
McKinley  a  member  of  the  board  of  commis- 
sioners of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  exposition; 
again  elected  to  the  United  States  senate  for  the 
term,  1905-11.     Died,  1911. 

Cartier  (kar'-tyd').  Sir  George  £tienne,  Canadian 
statesman,,  bom  at  St.  Antoine,  Canada,  in 
1814.  He  was  deeply  involved  in  the  rebellion 
of  1837.  In  1848  he  was  elected  to  the  house 
of  assembly,  in  1856  was  appointed  provincial 
secretary,  and  soon  became  attorney-general.  In 
1857  he  became  leader  of  the  lower  Canada 
section  of  the  government,  and  in  1858,  premier; 
and  he  held  a  cabinet  office  for  several  years 
afterward.  He  was  prominent  in  numerous 
governmental  reforms.     Died  at  London,   1873. 

Cartier,  Jacques,  French  explorer,  was  born  1494. 
Employed  by  Francis  I.  to  make  explorations 
on  the  North  American  coast,  in  three  successive 
expeditions,  1534-50;  he  completed  the  dis- 
covery and  colonization  of  Canaaa.  Died  about 
1557. 

Cartwright,  Edmund,  inventor  of  the  power-loom, 
was  born  at  Marnham,  England,  1743.  Edu- 
cated at  Wakefield  and  University  college, 
Oxford,  he  became  rector  of  Goadby-Marwood, 
Leicestershire,  1779,  where  he  made  improve- 
ments in  agriculture.  A  visit  in  1784  to  Ark- 
wright's  cotton-spinning  mills  resulted  in  his 
power-loom.  Attempts  to  employ  it  at  Don- 
caster  and  Manchester  met  with  fierce  opposition ; 
it  was  not  till  the  nineteenth  century  that  it 
came  into  practical  use.  Cartwright  also  took 
out  patents  for  combing  wool  and  various  other 
inventions;  he  even  joined  Robert  Fulton  in 
his  efforts  toward  steam  navigation.  All  these 
labors  brought  him  no  direct  gain,  but  in  1809 
the  government  made  hini  a  grant  of  10,000 
pounds.     He  died  at  Hastings,  1823. 

Cartwright,  Bt.  Hon.  Sir  BIchard  John«  Canadian 
statesman;  minister  of  trade  and  commerce  for 
Canada  and  member  of  parliament  for  South 
Oxford,  1896-1912;  bom  Kingston,  Ontario, 
1835;  educated  at  Trinity  college,  DubUn. 
Became  president  of  the  Commercial  bank  of 
Canada;  was  president,  director,  or  trustee  of 
several  commercial  and  financial  corporations; 
elected  to  parliament  of  Old  Canada  for  Lennox 
and  Addington,   1863,  and  continued  to  sit  for 


604 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


that  constituency  until  1867;  from  confedera- 
tion down  to  1878,  represented  Lennox  in  house 
of  commonB;  defeated  in  Lennox,  1878;  was 
returned  for  Centre  Huron  at  bye-election  on 
resignation  of  H.  Horton;  contested  Centre 
Wellington,  1882;  elected  S.  Huron,  1883; 
S.  Oxford,  1887,  1891,  1896;  finance  minister, 
1873-78;  chief  financial  critic,  and  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  opposition  in  parliament,  1879-96; 
Acting-premier  and  leader  m  the  house  of  com- 
mons, 1897 ;  commissioner  to  Washington,  1897. 
to  promote  better  relations  between  Canada  ana 
the  United  States-  proposed  a  joint  commission, 
and  represented  Canada  on  the  Anglo-American 
joint  high  commission  when  it  sat  at  Quebec  in 
the  summer  of  1898,  and  Washington  in  the 
winter  of  1898-99;  Acting-premier  during  Sir 
Wilfred  Laurier's  absence  at  colonial  conference, 
1907.     Died,  1912. 

Carus  (k&'-rdba),  Paul,  philosophical  writer,  editor 
of  The  Open  Court  and  The  Monist;  bom  at 
Ilsenburg,  Germany,  1852;  graduate  of  univer- 
sity of  Tubingen,  Ph.  D.,  1876.  Author:  The 
Ethical  Problem;  Fundamental  Problems;  The 
Soul  of  Man;  Primer  of  Philosophy;  Truth  in 
Fiction;  Monism  and  Meliorism;  The  Religion 
of  Science;  The  Philosophy  of  tfie  Tool;  Our  Need 
qf  Philosophy;  Science,  a  Religious  Revelation; 
The  Gospel  of  Buddha;  Karma;  Nirvana;  Lao- 
tze's  Too  Teh  King;  Homilies  of  Science;  The 
Idea  of  God;  Buddhism  and  its  Christian  Critics; 
The  History  of  the  Devil;  Whence  and  Whither; 
Eros  and  Psyche;  Goethe  and  Schiller's  Xenions; 
The  Crown  of  Thorns;  The  Chiefs  Daughter; 
Godioard;  Sacred  Tunes  for  the  Consecration  of 
Life;  Kant's  Prolegomena;  The  Canon  of  Reason 
and  Virtue;  Kant  and  Spencer;  The  Nature  of 
the  State;  Chinese  Philosophy;  The  Age  of 
Christ;  The  Surd  of  Metaphysics;  History  of  the 
Cross;  Greek  Mythology;  Our  Children;  Chinese 
Tho7ight;  Chinese  Life  and  Customs;  The  Rise 
of  Man;  The  Story  of  Samson. 

Caruso  (M-r<55'-«o),  Enrtro,  great  Italian  tenor,  was 
born  at  Naples  in  1874;  began  life  as  an  engineer 
with  no  thought  of  singing  until  a  friend  assured 
him  that  there  was  a  fortune  in  his  voice;  he 
studied  for  some  time,  and  made  a  first  appear- 
ance in  opera,  some  few  years  ago,  in  his  native 
city,  Naples.  His  success  was  immediate,  and  he 
now  sings  at  all  the  greatest  opera  houses  in  the 
worldj  commanding  fees  of  thousands  of  dollars 
per  night.  Principal  rdles:  Edgardo  in  Lucia; 
Des  Grieux  in  Manon  Leseaut;  J'Pagliaeci;  the 
Duke  in  Rigoletto;  Lohengrin,  etc. 

Carver,  John,  the  first  governor  of  Plymouth 
colony,  was  born  in  England,  about  1575.  He 
was  one  of  the  Pilgrims  who  came  over  in  the 
Mayflower,  and  was  chosen  governor  soon 
after  landing.  He  assisted  in  settling  his  people 
in  their  new  homes,  but  died  within  four  months, 
April,  1621. 

Cary,  Alice,  American  poet  and  prose  writer,  was 
bom  in  1820;  commenced  writing  at  eighteen. 
In  connection  with  her  sister  Phoebe  she  pub- 
lished her  first  volume  in  1850,  and  from  that 
time  till  her  death,  which  took  place  in  1871. 
continued  to  pour  forth  stories,  poems,  ana 
sketches. 

Cary,  Henry  Francis,  translator  of  Dante,  was  bom 
at  Gibraltar,  1772.  He  was  educated  at  Rugby, 
Sutton-Coldfield,  and  Birmingham,  in  1790 
entered  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  in  1796  took 
holy  orders.  In  1805  he  published  a  translation 
of  the  Inferno,  in  1814  of  the  whole  Divina 
Commedia,  a  translation  remarkable  for  fidelity, 
force,  ajid  expressiveness.  He  afterward  trans- 
lated Pindar's  Odes  and  Aristophanes'  Birds,  and 
wrote  memoirs  in  continuation  of  Johnson's 
Lives  of  the  Poets.  Assistant  librarian  in  the 
British  museum  1826-37.     He  died  in  1844,  and 


was  buried  in  Westminster  abbey  beside  Samuel 
Johnson. 

Cary,  Pbcebe,  American  poet,  sister  of  Alice  Cary, 
bom  near  Cincinnati,  1824.  She  wrote  about  a 
third  of  the  Poems  of  Alice  and  Phabe  Carv,  and 
other  poems.  Her  death  quickly  followed  that 
of  her  sister,  in  1871. 

Casablanca  (ka'-za-hydng'-k&),  Louis,  French 
naval  officer,  bom  in  Bastia  about  1755;  in  1798 
was  captain  of  the  fiagship  L'Orient  in  the  expe- 
dition to  Egypt.  He  was  mortally  wounded  at 
the  battle  of  the  Nile,  August  1,  1798;  the  ship 
caught  fire,  his  ten  year  old  son  would  not  leave 
him,  and  both  were  floating  on  the  wreck  of  the 
ship's  mast  when  the  final  explosion  took  place. 

Casaubon  {kd-sd'-bUn;  Fr.,  kd'-zo'-bdN'),  Isaac* 
scholar  and  critic,  bom  1559  at  Geneva, 
where,  in  1582,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the 
Greek  language.  Subsequently  he  held  profes- 
sorships at  Montpellier  1596,  and  at  Paris  1598, 
but  the  death  of  Henry  IV.  rendered  his  position 
very  insecure,  and  he  therefore  gladly  accepted 
the  oCTer  to  visit  England.  King  James  received 
him  with  distinction,  and  appointed  him  some 
time  after  prebendary  of  Canterbury  and  West- 
minster.    Died  in  London  1614. 

Casimlr-Perler  (kd'-ti'-mir'  pd'-ryfl').  Jean  Paul 
Pierre,  French  statesman,  was  bom  at  Paris 
1847;  served  with  distinction  at  the  siege  of 
Paris  1871 ;  entered  the  legislative  chamber 
1874,  and  served  both  as  vice-president  and 
president  of  that  bod^;  became  premier  of 
France  1893,  and  president  in  1894;  resigned 
1895.     Died.  1907. 

Cass,  Lewis,  American  statesman,  bom  at  Exeter, 
New  Hampsliire,  1782,  admittea  to  the  Ohio  bar 
in  1802,  rose  to  be  general  in  the  war  of  1812. 
He  was  then  for  eighteen  years  governor  of 
Michigan,  which  under  his  skillful  administration 
became  a  settled  state.  In  1831-36  he  was 
secretary  of  war,  and  in  1836—42  minister  at 
Paris.  He  twice  failed  for  nomination  to  the 
presidency,  sat  in  the  United  States  senate 
1845-57,  and  was  secretary  of  state  in  1857-60. 
He  died  at  Detroit,  1866.  He  went  wholly  with 
the  slave-holding  party,  advocating  an  extension 
of  territory'  with  a  view  to  extending  the  ramifi- 
cations of  slavery. 

Cassini  (kAs-se'^ne),  Giovanni  Domcnico,  Italian 
astronomer  and  savant,  bom  at  Perinaldo,  near 
Nice,  1625,  died  1712.  In  1650  he  was  appointed 
to  the  astronomical  chair  in  the  university  of 
Bologna.  His  first  work  related  to  the  comet  of 
1652. 

Cassini,  Jacques,  son  of  the  preceding,  bom  at 
Paris,  1677.  In  1694  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  academy  of  sciences.  On  the  death  of 
his  father  he  succeeded  to  the  charge  of  the 
observatory  at  Paris,  and  died  1756.  As  an 
observer  Cassini  was  eminently  successful.  He 
determined  the  periods  of  rotation  of  all  the 
satellites  of  Saturn  then  known,  the  inclination 
of  the  planetary  orbits,  the  obliquity  of  the 
ecliptic  very  nearly,  the  length  of  the  year, 
etc. 

Cassius  (k&sh'-'His),  or  in  full,  Caius  Cassias 
Longlnus,  Roman  general  and  politician,  was 
quaestor  to  Crassus  in  the  Parthian  war,  54  B.  C, 
saved  the  credit  of  Roman  arms  after  the  com- 
mander's disastrous  defeat  and  death,  and  as 
tribune  of  the  people,  in  49  B.  C,  attached 
himself  to  Pompey.  After  Pbarsalia  he  was 
taken  prisoner  and  pardoned  bv  Csesar.  In  44 
B.  C.  as  praetor  he  attached  to  himself  the  aris- 
tocrats who  resented  Cesar's  supremacy,  and 
won  over  Brutus;  and  in  the  same  year  Cssar 
was  murdered.  But  popular  feeling  blazed  out, 
and  Mark  Antony  seized  his  opportunity. 
Cassius  fled  to  the  East,  united  his  forces  with 
those  of  Brutus,  and  at  Philippi,  being  routed. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


606 


compelled  his  freedman  Pindarus  to  kill  him, 
42B.C. 

Casson,  Herbert  Newton,  editor,  socialistic  writer, 
bom  at  Ontario,  Canada,  1869;  graduate  of 
Victoria  college;  became  Methodist  minister; 
had  church  at  Owen  Sound,  Ontario;  became  a 
socialist;  in  1893  gave  up  ministry;  went  to 
Boston  and  with  Morrison  I.  Swift  organized  the 
unemployed,  and  at  head  of  10,000  men  marched 
to  state  house  demanding  relief.  Founded  first 
labor  church  in  America,  at  Lynn,  Mass.,  1894 ; 
editor  of  Tlie  Coming  Nation,  Ruskin,  Tenn.. 
1898 ;  moved  to  New  York,  1899,  and  on  editorial 
staff  of  New  York  World  till  1904;  associate 
editor  of  Boyce's  Weekly;  on  staff  of  Munsey's 
Magazine,  1905-06 ;  doing  independent  work  for 
a  number  of  magazines,  and  lecturing  since  1906. 
Author:  Tfie  Red  Light;  Crime  of  Credvlity; 
Organized  Self-Help;  The  Romance  of  Steel;  also 
many  socialist  tracts. 

Castelar  {kas'-ta-lar'),  EmiUo,  Spanish  orator, 
statesman,  and  writer,  was  bom  at  Cadiz,  1832; 
was  for  some  years  professor  of  history  and 
philosophy  in  the  university  at  Madrid-  took 
part  in  several  political  uprisings  and  helped  to 
bring  about  the  downfall  of  King  Amadeus  in 
1873.  Castelar  became  dictator,  but,  when 
Alphonso  XII.  became  king,  he  fled  across  the 
frontier.  He  returned  to  Spain  in  1876,  and 
devoted  himself  more  to  literature  than  to 
political  and  social  questions.     He  died  in  1899. 

Castlereagh  {kds'l-ra',  kds"l-rd),  Robert  Stewart, 
Lord,  British  statesman,  eldest  son  of  the  marquis 
of  Londonderry;  was  bom  in  1769.  At  an  early 
period  he  entered  into  public  life,  and  was 
appointed  keeper  of  the  signet,  or  privy  seal,  in 
Ireland,  in  1797;  president  of  tne  board  of 
control  in  1802;  and  secretary  of  war  in  1805. 
A  difference  having  arisen  between  him  and 
his  colleague.  Canning,  a  duel  was  the  conse- 
quence, and  both  quitted  oflSce.  During  Lord 
Liverpool's  administration.  Lord  Castlereagh 
again  became  a  member  of  the  government  as 
foreign  secretaryj  and  concluded  the  treaty  of 
Paris  in  1814.  He  remained  in  office  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life,  which  was  closed  by  suicide 
in  1822. 

Catharine  I.,  empress  of  Russia;  bom  about  1685; 
was  the  outcast  infant  of  a  Livonian  peasant- 

firl,  and  was  brought  up  in  the  family  of  the 
'rotestant  minister  of  Marienburg.  In  1701  she 
married  a  Swedish  dragoon,  who  soon  afterward 
went  with  his  regiment  to  Riga,  and  never 
returned.  After  the  capture  of  Marienburg  by 
the  Russians,  Catharine  became  the  mistress 
first  of  General  Bauer,  with  whom  she  lived  at 
Moscow,  secondly  of  Prince  Menschikoff,  and, 
finally,  of  Peter  the  Great,  who  married  her 
privately  near  Warsaw  in  1711,  and  publicly  the 
next  year  at  St.  Petersburg.  She  then  embraced 
the  Greek  religion,  and  took  the  name  of  Catha- 
rine. On  the  death  of  Peter  in  1725,  she  was 
proclaimed  czarina.  Her  death  was  the  result 
of  intemperance.  Died,  1727. 
Catharine  11^  empress  of  Russia;  bom  in  1729; 
the  princess  Sophia  Augusta,  daughter  of  the 
prince  of  Anhalt-Zerbst,  on  her  marriage  in 
1745,  with  Peter,  nephew  and  heir  of  the  empress 
Elizabeth,  assumed  the  name  of  Catharine 
Alexievna.  Her  refinement  and  love  of  study 
contrasted  with  her  husband's  vulgarity  and 
intemperance;  neglected  by  him,  she  ingratiated 
herself  with  some  of  the  nobles;  her  intrigues 
were  discovered  by  Peter,  and,  on  ascending  the 
throne  in  1762,  he  threatened  to  repudiate  her, 
whereupon  she  imprisoned  him  and  had  him 
strangled.  The  subsequent  murder  of  Ivan,  the 
next  heir,  left  Catharine  in  undisputed  possession 
of  the  throne.  As  empress  she  seized  the  Crimea, 
and  took  part  in  the  dismemberment  of  Poland. 


She  promoted  the  welfare  of  Runia  by  eneourac- 
ing  fiterature  and  commerce,  but  her  rdgn  waa 
sullied  by  disgraceful  amoum.     Died,  1796. 

Catharine,  Saint,  of  Siena,  is  a  saint  belonginc  to 
the  fourteenth  century,  bom  about  1347.  She 
was  said  to  have  been  favored  with  extraordinaiy 
revelations,  and  the  wounds  of  Christ  were 
believed  to  have  been  impressed  upon  her  body. 
She  wrote  many  devotional  letters,  poenais,  etc., 
which  are  held  in  high  favor  by  members  of  tb« 
Roman  Catholic  church.     Die<L  1380. 

Catharine  of  Aragon,  oueen  of  England ;  bom  in 
1485;  daughter  of  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  and 
Isabella  of  Castile;  first  married  Arthur,  prinoe 
of  Wales,  and  subsequently  his  brother,  after- 
ward Henry  VIII.  She  was  beautiful  and  vir- 
tuous, yet  the  king  in  1627  sought  a  divorce  on 
the  ground  that  tne  marriage  was  uncanonical. 
After  much  temporizing  on  the  part  of  the  pope, 
the  marriage  was  in  1533  pronounced  invalid  ty 
Cranmer,  archbishop  of  Canterbury',  and  his 
sentence  was  ratified  by  act  of  parliament. 
Catharine  spent  the  final  years  of  ner  life  in 
Kimbolton  castle.     Died,  1636. 

Catharine  de'Medici  (da.Tn6'-di-che),  bom  in  1519; 
great  granddaughter  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent, 
niece  of  Pope  Clement  VII.,  and  queen  to  Henry 
II.  of  France,  acted  as  regent  during  the  minority 
of  her  second  son,  Charles  IX. ;  her  ix)licy  waa 
to  play  off  the  parties  of  the  Guises  and  the 
Cond^  against  one  another.  She  instigated  the 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew.     Died,  1689. 

Catharine  Parr,  bom  in  1512;  daughter  of  Sir 
Thomas  Parr;  was  married  first  to  Kdward  Bor- 
ough, second  to  Lord  Latimer,  and  in  1543  be- 
came the  sixth  and  last  wife  of  Henry  VIII.  She 
was  learned  in  theology  and  a  zealous  Protestant, 
and,  according  to  Foxe,  on  one  occasion  only 
escaped  death  as  a  heretic  by  timely  submission 
to  the  king.  She  survived  Henry,  and  in  1647 
married  Lord  Seymour  of  Sudeley,  who  waa 
accused  of  hastenmg  her  death  (in  child-birth), 
by  poisoning.     Died,  1548. 

Catiline  (JcAf-irlin),  Lucius  Serious,  Roman  poli- 
tician, bom  about  the  year  108  B.  C,  died  62 
B.  C.  During  his  youth  he  attached  himself  to 
the  party  of  Sulla.  His  bodily  constitution, 
which  was  capable  of  enduring  any  amount  of 
labor,  fatigue,  and  hardship,  allied  to  a  mind 
which  could  stoop  to  every  baseness  and  feared 
no  crime,  fitted  him  to  take  the  lead  in  the 
conspiracy  wliich  has  made  his  name  infamous 
to  aU  ages.  In  the  year  68  B.  C.  he  waa  elected 
pretor;  in  67  B.  C.  governor  of  Africa;  and  in 
66  B.  C.  he  desired  to  stand  for  the  consulship, 
but  was  disqualified  on  account  of  the  accusa- 
tions brought  against  him  of  maladministration 
in  his  province.  His  political  conspiracies  were 
frustrated  by  Cicero,  and  he  fled  from  Rome 
and  took  refuge  with  Manlius,  who  was  in  com- 
mand of  the  army  in  Etruria.  In  62  B.  C.  the 
army  of  the  senate  encountered  that  of  Catiline 
near  Pistoia,  and  i^ter  a  desperate  battle,  in 
which  Catihne  displayed  almost  superhuman 
courage,  he  was  defeated  and  slain. 

Catlin,  George,  ethnologist,  was  bom  at  Wilkea- 
barre.  Pa.,  1796;  studied  law,  but  soon  turned 
to  drawing  and  painting.  During  1832-40  be 
was  studying  the  Indians  of  the  far  West,  every- 
where paintmg  portraits  and  pictures  illustrative 
of  life  and  manners,  now  in  the  national  museum 
at  Washington.  He  spent  eight  years  in  Europe 
with  a  far  west  show;  traveled,  1852-57,  In 
South  and  Central  America;  and  again  lived  in 
Europe  until  1871.  He  died  in  1872.  Hisworika 
include  Manners,  Customa,  and  Condition  of  the 
North  American  Indians,  The  North  American  Fort' 
folio,  and  Last  Rambles  in  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Cato,  Marcus  Porctus,  sumamed  Censorius  and 
Sapiens,  afterward  known  as  Cato  Priscua,  or 


«06 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Cato  Major  —  to  distinguish  him  from  Cato  of 
Utica  —  bom  at  Tusculum  in  234  B.  C.  Induced 
by  Lucius  Valerius  Flaccus  to  remove  to  Rome 
when  that  city  waa  in  a  transition  epoch  from 
severe  frugality  to  the  luxury  and  licentiousness 
of  Grecian  manners,  Cato  severely  denounced  the 
degeneracy  of  the  Philohellenic  party,  and  set  for 
Rome  a  pattern  of  sterner  and  purer  character. 
In  184  B.  C.  he  was  elected  censor,  and  discharged 
so  rigorously  the  duties  of  his  office  that  the 
epithet  Cenaoriua,  formerly  applied  to  all  persons 
in  the  same  station,  was  made  his  permanent 
surname.  Many  of  his  acts  were  highly  com- 
mendable. He  repaired  the  water-courses,  paved 
the  reservoirs,  cleansed  the  drains,  raised  the 
rents  paid  by  the  publicans  for  the  farming  of 
the  taxes,  and  diminished  the  contract  prices 
paid  by  the  state  to  the  undertakers  of  public 
works.  In  the  year  175  B.  C.  he  was  sent  to 
Carthage  to  negotiate  on  the  differences  between 
the  Carthaginians  and  the  Numidian  king, 
Masinissa;  but  having  been  offended  by  the 
Carthaginians  he  returned  to  Rome,  where,  ever 
afteryiard,  he  described  Carthage  as  the  most 
formidable  rival  of  the  empire,  and  concluded 
all  his  addresses  in  the  senate-house  —  what- 
ever the  immediate  subject  might  be  —  with  the 
well-known  words :  "Ceterum  cenaeo,  Carthaginem 
esse  ddendam."  ("For  the  rest,  I  vote  that 
Carthage  must  be  destroyed.")  Cato  died  149  B.C. 

Cato,  Marcus  Porclus,  named  Cato  the  "younger," 
or  Cato  Uticensis,  bom  95  B.C.  From  Macedonia, 
where  he  was  military  tribune  in  67  B.  C,  he 
went  to  Pergamus  in  search  of  the  stoic  philoso- 
pher, Athenodorus,  whom  he  brought  bacK  to  his 
canap,  and  whom  he  induced  to  proceed  with  him 
to  Rome.  He  quitted  the  questorship  at  the 
appointed  time  amid  general  applause.  In  63 
B.  0.  he  was  elected  tribune,  and  also  delivered 
his  famous  speech  on  the  Catiline  conspiracy,  in 
which  he  denounced  Cajsar  as  an  accomplice  of 
that  political  desperado,  and  determined  the 
sentence  of  the  senate.   Died  46  B.  C. 

Catt,  Carrie  Chapman,  suffragist,  president  inter- 
national woman  suffrage  alliance;  bom  Ripon, 
Wis.;  daughter  of  Lucius  and  Maria  (Clinton) 
Lane;  educated  at  state  industrial  college  of 
Iowa;  took  sp>ecial  course  in  law;  was  principal 
of  high  school  and  general  superintendent  of 
schools.  Mason  City.  la. ;  married  first,  1884,  Leo 
Chapman,  who  died  1886;  second,  1890,  George 
W.  Catt,  who  died  1905.  State  lecturer  and 
organizer,  Iowa  woman  suffrage  association. 
1890-92;  since  then  in  service  of  national 
American  woman  suffrage  association  and 
international  alliance.  Has  lectured  in  nearly 
every  state;  worked  for  suffrage  in  successful 
campaigns  in  Colorado  and  Idaho;  aided  in 
movement  which  secured  clause  in  Louisiana 
constitution  giving  tax-paving  women  right  to 
vote  on  all  questions  submitted  to  the  taxpayers. 

Cattell  {k&-tW),  James  McKeen,  educator,  psy- 
chologist, professor  of  psychology,  Columbia, 
since  1891;  bora  Easton,  Pa.,  1860;  graduate  of 
Lafayette  college,  1880,  A.  M.,  1883;  Ph.  D., 
Leipzig,  1886 ;  student  Gottingen,  Leipzig,  Paris, 
Geneva,  1880-82;  fellow  Johns  Hopkins,  1882-83; 
student  and  assistant  university  of  Leipzig, 
1883-86;  lecturer  university  of  Cambridge, 
1888;  professor  psychology,  university  of  Penn- 
sylvania, 1888-91.  Member  of  manv  scientific 
societies.  Editor  of  Science,  The  Popular  Science 
Monthly,  The  American  Naturalist,  and  American 
Men  of  Science. 

Cahillus  {kd-tiU'-iis),  Calus  Talerins,  celebrated 
Roman  lyric  and  elegiac  poet,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  bom  at  Verona,  Italy,  B.  C.  87,  and  to 
have  died  about  B.  C.  64;  associated  with  the 
best  wits  in  Rome;  fell  in  love  with  Clodia,  a 


patrician  lady,  who  waa  the  inspiration,  both  in 
peace  and  war,    of   many  of   his   effusions,    and 
whom  he  addresses  as  Lesbia.     The  death  of  a 
brother    affected    him    deeply,     and    waa     the 
occasion  of  the  production  of    one  of   the  most 
pathetic  elegies  ever  penned ;     in  the  civic  strife 
of    the  time  he  sided  with  the  senate,    and    op- 
posed Csesar  to  the  length  of  directing  against 
him  a  coarse  lamp>oon. 
Cauchy  (kd'-she'),  Augustln  Louis,  French  mathe- 
matician,   the    founder    with    Bolzano    of    the 
theory   of  functions,  was   bora   in   Paris,    1789. 
His  Mimoire  sur  la  Thiorie  des  Ondes  helped  to 
establish    the    undulatory    theory    of    light ;     at 
Prague,  where  he  resided  aa  tutor  to  the  Comte 
de  Chambord,  he  published  his  M6moire  star  la 
Dispersion  de  la  Lumiire.     He  was  professor  of 
aatronomv   at   Paris,    1848-52,   but   refused   the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  Napoleon  III.     A  reissue  of 
his   works,    in    twenty-six    volumes,    was    com- 
menced by  the  French  academy  in  1882.      Died. 
1857. 
Caulalncourt     {k6'4&ii'-k4X>r'),    Armand    Augustin 
Louis  de,  duke  of  Vicenza,  French  statesman,  was 
bom   1772;    waa  made  a  general  of  division  in 
1805,  and  shortly  after  created  duke  of  Vicenza. 
Faithful  to  the  laat  to  Napoleon,  he  was  minister 
for  foreign  affairs  in  1813,  and  during  the  hundred 
days  resumed  the  office,  receiving    a  peerage  of 
France,  of  which  he  was  deprived  after  the  resto- 
ration.    When     Napoleon     abdicated,    Caulaln- 
court used  his  influence  with  Alexander  to  obtain 
the    most    favorable    conditions    for    the    fallen 
emperor,  and,  chiefly  through  his  intervention, 
the  island  of  Elba  was  ceded  to  Napoleon.     On 
the  second  restoration  be  retired  into  private  life. 
Died  in  Paris.  1827. 
CaTalgnac  {kd'-vin'-ydk'\  Louis  Eugtoe,  French 
general,  bom  in  Paris,  1802.     Bred  a  soldier,  he 
served  in  the  Morea,   and  afterward  in  Algeria, 
whither  he  was  sent  in  1832,  into  honorable  exile 
for  free  speech  in  favor  of  repubUcan  institutions. 
Here  he  won  great  distinction  by  his  energy  and 
intrepidity,   and  was  made  governor-general  in 
1848,  when  in  view  of  revolutionary  dangers  he 
was  called  to  Paris,  and  became  minister  of  war. 
As  military  dictator  he  quelled  the  formidable 
insurrection  of  June,  after  a  most  obstinate  three 
days'   contest.     He  was   the  candidate  for  the 
presidency  of  the  republic  against  Louis  Napoleon. 
On  the  coup  d'itat  of   December,  1851,  he  waa 
arrested  but  soon  released ;  and,  though  he  refused 
to  give  his  adhesion  to  the  empire,  he  was  per- 
mitted to  reside  in  France.     He  died  1857. 
Cavendish  {kHiZ-en^ish),  Henry,  English  chemist 
and  physicist,  waa  bom  at  Nice,  France,  1731, 
died  1810.     His  most  important  work  included 
the  discovery  of  the  composition  of  water,  the 
composition  of  nitric  acid,  and  the  determination 
of  the  mean  density  of  the  earth.     Since  the  dis- 
covery of  argon  by  Rayleigh  and  Ramsay,  it  has 
become  evident  that  Cavendish  in  his  studies  on 
the  composition  of  air,  had,  at  that  early  date, 
isolated  argon,  without  knowing  it.     He  wt«  a 
man  of  large  wealth. 
Cayour  (fai'-wJ&r'),  Count  Camlllo  Benso  dl,  dis- 
tinguished ItaUan  statesman  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  the  descendant  of  a  noble  and  wealthy 
family  of  Piedmont,  was  born  at  Turin,   1810. 
He  was  educated  for  a  military  career,  but  his 
liberal  tendencies  being  likely  to  prove  an  insu- 
p)erable  barrier  to  his  promotion,  he  retired  during 
the  stirring  events  of  1830-31,  and  devoted  him- 
self to  agriculture,  in  which  he  introduced  great 
improvements.     He  was  the  first  to  use  guano 
in  Piedmont ;    and,  at  his  instigation,  a  national 
agricultural     society     was     formed.     During     a 
residence  in  England  he  made  himself  intimately 
acquainted  with  the  political  organization  of  the 
country,  and  also  with  its  industrial  institutions; 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


607 


knowledge  of  which  he  made  good  uae  on  his 
return  to  his  country  in  1842.  In  conjunction 
with  Count  Cesare  Balbo,  he  in  1847  established 
a  political  daily  journal,  in  which  he  advocated 
the  interests  of  the  middle  classes,  a  representa- 
tive system  somewhat  after  the  pattern  of  the 
English  constitution,  as  opposed  alike  to  absolu- 
tism on  the  one  hand,  and  mob  rule  on  the  other. 
On  his  suggestion  the  king  was  petitioned  for  a 
constitution,  which  was  granted  in  February, 
1848.  As  a  member  of  the  chamber  of  deputies, 
during  the  stonny  period  which  succeeded 
Charles  Albert's  declaration  of  war  against 
Austria,  Cavour  strenuously  opposed  the  ultra- 
democrats,  and  counselled  an  alliance  with 
England  as  the  surest  guarantee  for  the  success 
of  the  Italian  arms.  In  the  Marquis  d'Azeglio's 
ministry,  formed  soon  after  the  fatal  battle  of 
Novara,  Cavour  was  successively  minister  of 
agriculture  and  commerce,  minister  of  marine, 
and  minister  of  finance;  and  in  1852  he  was 
appointed  to  succeed  D'Azeglio  as  premier. 
From  this  time  until  his  resignation  in  1859,  in 
consequence  of  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of 
Villafranca,  Cavour  was  the  originator  aa  well  as 
the  director  of  the  Sardinian  policy.  Taking 
upon  himself  at  different  times,  in  addition  to  the 
premiership,  the  duties  of  the  ministers  of  finance, 
commerce,  and  agriculture,  and  latterly  of  home 
and  foreign  affairs,  he  greatly  improved  the 
financial  condition  of  the  country,  introduced 
free  trade,  consolidated  constitutionalism,  weak- 
ened clerical  influence,  and  made  Sardinia  a 
power  of  some  account  in  Europe,  by  bringing  it 
mto  alliance  with  England  and  France  against 
Russia.  The  dispatches,  which  Cavour  penned 
in  reply  to  those  of  Austria  prior  to  the  outbreak 
of  the  Italian  war,  are  universally  acknowledged 
as  masterpieces  of  astute  diplomacy.  In  1860 
he  was  again  called  upon  to  preside  over  the 
Sardinian  government,  the  duties  of  foreign 
minister  likewise  devolving  upon  him,  and  tem- 
porarily those  of  the  minister  of  the  interior  also. 
He  continued  to  direct  the  Sardinian  policy  until 
his  death,  1861.  His  last  words  were,  "Brothers 
brothers,  the  free  church  in  the  free  state." 

Caxton,  William,  the  founder  of  English  printing, 
was  bom  in  1422.  During  a  residence  in  Flan- 
ders he  acquired  the  new  typographic  art,  and 
on  his  return  set  up  a  press  in  the  almonry,  West- 
minster, where  he  brought  out  the  first  printed 
book  seen  in  England,  the  History  of  Troy.  Died, 
1491. 

Cayley  (fca'-Zl),  Arthur,  English  mathematician, 
was  bom  at  Richmond,  Surrey,  1821.  He  was 
educated  at  King's  college,  London,  and  Trinity 
college,  Cambridge.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1849,  and  established  a 
practice  as  a  conveyancer.  In  1863  he  was 
elected  first  Sadlerian  professor  of  pure  mathe- 
matics at  Cambridge,  and  in  1875  a  fellow  of 
Trinity.  He  was  president  of  the  royal  astro- 
nomical society,  1872-73,  and  of  the  British 
association  in  1883,  where  his  address  on  the 
ultimate  possibilities  of  mathematics  attracted 
much  attention.  His  chief  book  is  an  Elementary 
Treatise  on  Elliptic  Functions;  a  ten  volume 
edition  of  his  Mathematical  Papers  was  begun  in 
1889.     He  died  at  Cambridge,  1895. 

CecU  {s^s'-U  or  sls'-U),  William,  Lord  Burieigh, 
English  statesman,  was  born  at  Bourne,  Lincoln- 
shire, 1620.  Entering  Gray's  Inn  at  the  age  of 
twenty-one  he  devoted  himself  assiduously  to 
the  study  of  law.  History,  genealogy,  and  the- 
ology also  formed  part  of  his  studies,  and  his 
knowledge  of  the  last  recommended  him  to  the 
notice  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  presented  him  with 
an  office  in  the  common  pleas;  in  1547  appointed 
him  master  of  requests,  and  in  the  following  year 
hie  talents  procured  for  him  the  office  of  secretary 


of  state.  When  Queen  Mary  aacended  the  thronoL 
Cecil,  being  a  Protestant,  resigned  hla  offida) 
employment,  but  as  a  private  gentleman  In 
maintained  good  relations  with  the  Ronuui 
Catholic  party,  and  was  one  of  the  few  eminent 
Protestants  who  escaped  In  purse  and  person 
during  that  reign.  Ehzabeth  creaUnl  him  Baron 
Burleigh  in  1571.  and  conferred  on  him  the  order 
of  the  garter,  when  he  was  also  made  lord  hig^ 
treasurer.      Died,  1598. 

Cecilia  (se-«iZ'-{-d),  Saint,  a  Roman  lady  of  high 
descent,  of  the  second  or  third  century,  who 
suffered  martyrdom  for  her  faith.  From  her 
skill  in  singine  she  is  the  chosen  patroness  of 
musicians,  anof  especially  of  sacre<i  muslo.  St. 
Cecilia's  day,  November  22d,  is  annually  oel»> 
brated  in  England  by  a  musical  festival. 

Cellini  {chU-le'-ni),  Benvenuto,  Italian  gold- 
worker,  sculptor,  founder,  and  medailleur,  was 
bom  at  Florence  in  1500.  and  first  displayed  skill 
as  a  chaser  and  gold-worker.  At  an  early  pteriod, 
having  been  banished  from  Florence  in  conse- 
quence of  a  duel,  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  was 
employed  by  many  distinguished  patrons  of  art, 
but  afterward  waa  allowed  to  return  to  Florence. 
Another  affray  compelled  him  to  fly  to  Rome  a 
second  time,  where  he  secured  the  favor  of 
Clement  VII.  He  accompanied  Cardinal  Ferrara 
to  France,  and  entered  tne  service  of  Francis  I. 
He  executed  several  fine  works  in  metal  and 
marble  —  among  them  the  celebrated  bronze 
group  of  "Perseus  with  the  Head  of  Medusa," 
now  in  the  market-place  in  Florence.  He  died 
in  1571. 

Celsius  (sW-sl-iis),  Anders,  Swedish  astronomer, 
the  constructor  in  1742  of  the  centigrade 
thermometer,  was  born  at  Upsala,  1701. 
He  was  the  grandson  of  Magnus  Celsius,  astrono- 
mer and  decipherer  of  the  Helsing  runes,  and 
nephew  of  Olof  Celsius,  professor  of  theology. 
He  became  in  1730  professor  of  astronomy  at 
Upsala,  where  in  1740  a  splendid  observatory 
was  erected  for  him.     Died,  1744. 

Celsus  (s^'-siis),  an  Epicurean  philosopher,  but 
tinged  with  Platonism,  lived  in  the  second  cen- 
tury after  Christ,  and  wrote,  after  150  A.  D.,  the 
Logos  Alethes.  The  book  itself  has  perished,  but 
considerable  fragments  have  been  preserved  as 
quotations  given  by  Origen,  in  his  answer. 
Contra  Celsum,  in  eight  books.  These  are  very 
interesting,  as  showing  the  views  of  a  heathen 
philosopher  in  regard  to  Christianity.  He 
reproached  Christians  with  their  party  d.visions 
and  ever-varying  opinions,  and  chareed  them 
with  having  willfully  altered  their  sacred  writings. 

CencI  {chht'-che),  Beatrice,  a  noble  Roman  lady, 
whose  tragic  fate  has  served  as  the  theme  of  one 
of  Shelley  s  best  tragedies,  lived  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  She  became  the  victim  of  her  father. 
Count  Francesco  Cenci,  a  notorious  libertine. 
Failing  in  her  appeal  for  protection  from  Pope 
Clement  VIII.,  she,  it  has  been  said,  conspired 
with  other  members  of  her  family  to  murder  the 
count.  When  brought  to  trial  on  this  charge, 
she  asserted  her  innocence,  but  was,  neverthe- 
less, put  to  death,  along  with  her  relatives,  in 
1599.  The  fine  portrait  of  Beatrice,  by  Guido 
Reni,  in  the  Barberini  gallery,  Rome,  is  well 
known. 

Cervantes  (sSr-vdn'-tez).     See  page  43. 

Cesnola  (chas-nd'-ld).  Count  l-uigl  Palma  dl* 
archffiologist,  waa  bom  near  Turin,  1832.  He 
served  with  the  Sardinian  contingent  in  the 
Crimean  war,  went  to  New  York  in  1860,  and 
fought  in  the  civil  war.  Appointed  American 
consul  at  Cyprus  in  1865,  he  commenced  a  series 
of  excavations;  his  splendid  collection  of  statue^ 
lamps,  vases,  inscriptions,  etc.,  waa  purchased 
by  the  Metropolitan  museum.  New  York,  in  1873, 
of  which  he  became  director  in  1879.     He  wrote 


608 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Cyprus,  its  ancient  Cities,  Tombs,  and  Temples. 
Died,  1904. 
Chaffee  (ch&f'-e),  Adna  Romanza,  American 
general ;  bom  in  Orwell,  Ohio,  1842 ;  educated  in 
public  schools.  Entered  army,  1861,  and  served 
throughout  the  civil  war,  and  against  the  Indians 
in  the  West  at  various  period  from  1866-90. 
Appointed  brigadier-general,  United  States  volun- 
teers, 1898;  commanded  brigade,  Santiago  cam- 
§aign,  1898;  promoted  major-general.  United 
tates  volunteers,  1898;  chief  of  staCF  division  of 
Cuba,  December,  1898,  to  Mav,  1900.  Honorably 
discharged  as  major-general,  1899.  Appointed 
brigadier-general    of    United   States   volunteers, 

1899.  Assigned  to  the  command  of  United  States 
forces  for  the  relief  of  United  States  legation, 
Peking,  1900 ;  arrived  at  Peking,  China,  Au^st 
14,  1900;  promoted  to  major-general  of  Umted 
States  volunteers,  1900;  promoted  to  major- 
general  of  United  States  army,  1901.  Assigned 
to  command  division  of  the  Philippines  and 
appointed  military  governor,  1901;  relieved, 
1902,  and  assigned  to  command  department  of 
the  East;  detailed  to  general  staff  corps,  1903, 
and  assigned  to  duty  as  assistant  to  chief  of  staff, 
Wa.shiiigton;  promoted  to  lieutenant-general  of 
United  States  army,  1904,  and  chief  of  staff  until 
his  retirement  in  1906. 

Cbafln,  Eugene  W.,  temperance  advocate;  bom 
East  Troy,  Wis.,  1852;  educated  at  public 
schools;  graduate  of  law  department  of  univer- 
sity of  Wisconsin.  Practiced  law,  Waukesha, 
1876-1900;  active  as  speaker  and  organizer  in 
temperance  and  prohibition  movements;  was 
superintendent  of  Washingtonian  Home,  Chicago, 
1901-04;  grand  chief  templar  of  Wisconsin 
Good  Templars,  1886-90;  prohibition  candidate 
for  congress,  Wisconsin,  1882,  Chicago,  1902; 
for  attorney-general,  Wisconsin,  1886,  1900; 
for  governor  of  Wisconsin,  1898,  and  for  attomey- 

feneral,  Illinois,  1904.  Grand  chief  templar, 
llinois  Good  Templars,  1904-05.  Prohibition 
candidate  for  president  1908.  Author:  Voters' 
Handbook,  Lives  of  the  Presidents,  Presidential- 
Cabinet  History  Cards. 

Chalmers  (ch&'-mirz,  chd'-mirz),  Thomas,  Scottish 
divine,  was  bom  in  Fife,  1780;  educated  at  St. 
Andrews,  and  ordained  to  preach  at  nineteen; 
taught  mathematics  after  his  ordination.  In 
1815  he  became  a  minister  at  Glasgow,  and  at 
once  attracted  attention  by  his  eloquence.  He 
was  subsequently  professor  of  moral  philosophy 
at  St.  Andrews,  1823,  and  of  theology  at  Edin- 
burgh, 1828.  On  the  disruption  of  the  church 
of  Scotland  in  1843,  he  joined  the  Free  church 
party,  and  became  moderator  of  its  assembly 
and  principal  of  its  college.  His  writings  em- 
brace a  wide  range  of  subjects,  including  natural 
science  and  political  economy.     Died,  1847. 

Chamberlain  {chdm'-b6r4ln),  George  Earle,  lawyer. 
United  States  senator;  bom  near  Natchez,  Miss., 
1854;  graduate  of  Washington  and  Lee  uni- 
versity, B.  A.,  LL.  B.,  1876.  Went  to  Oregon, 
1876;  elected  to  legislature,  1880;  district 
attorney  third  judicial  district,  1884-86;  ap- 
pointed attorney-general,  Oregon,  1891 ;  elected 
to  same  position,  1892,  and  served  until  1895; 
elected  district  attorney,  fourth  judicial  district, 

1900,  for  four  year  term;  elected  governor  of 
Oregon  for  terms,  1903-07,  1907-11;  elected 
United  States  senator  for  the  term  1909-15. 

Chamberlain,  Rt.  Hon.  Joseph,  British  statesman, 
was  born  in  London,  1836;  educated  in  private 
school  and  University  college,  London;  LL.  D., 
Cambridge,  D.  C.  L.,  Oxford;  joined  the  firm  of 
Nettlefold,  screw  makers  of  Birmingham;  was 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  defeated  unsectarian 
candidates  for  the  school  board  of  Birmingham  in 
1870,  but  in  1873  he  was  elected  chairman,  and 
was  abo  a  member  of  the  town  council  (mayor, 


1873).  On  the  death  of  his  father  he  retired  from 
the  firm,  in  order  to  devote  all  his  energies  to 
public  life.  To  him  was  due  the  transfer  of  the 
gas  and  water  works  to  the  borough  authorities, 
and  he  was  the  author  of  the  improvement 
scheme  which  has  entirely  transformed  the  face  of 
central  Birmingham.  In  1876  he  entered  parlia- 
ment and  took  his  seat  with  the  radicals ;  presi- 
dent of  board  of  trade,  with  cabinet  rank, 
1880-85,  and  passed  a  patent  bill  and  a  bank- 
ruptcy bill;  president  of  local  government 
board  in  1885,  until  his  divergence  of  views  on 
the  Irish  policy  of  Gladstone  caused  his  resig- 
nation, 1886;  chief  commissioner  to  the  con- 
ference at  Washington  for  the  settlement  of  the 
di.spute  between  the  United  States  and  Canada 
on  the  fisheries  question.  Married  Miss  Endicott, 
November  15,  1888.  In  1895  took  office  under 
Lord  Salisbury  as  colonial  secretary.  The  nego- 
tiations with  the  Transvaal,  which  ended  in  war, 
occupied  him  fully  during  1899,  and  his  South 
African  policy  was  one  of  the  main  controversial 
features  of  the  general  election  of  1900  and  during 
1901.  He  had  charge  in  1900  of  the  measure  for 
the  constitution  of  the  Australian  commonwealth. 
In  1902  he  was  presented  with  an  address  by  the 
city  of  London  corp>oration.  He  presided  over 
the  1902  colonial  conference.  In  1902  he  visited 
South  Africa,  and  on  his  return  received  an 
address  from  the  lord  mayor  and  corporation  of 
London,  1903.  In  1903  he  launched,  at  Birming- 
ham, his  scheme  for  the  revision  of  the  fiscal 
policy  of  the  country  and. the  adoption  of  a  policy 
of  preferential  tariffs,  and  in  September,  bcheving 
that  policy  to  be  at  that  time  unacceptable  to  the 
majority  in  the  constituencies,  he  resigned  in 
order  to  be  free  to  devote  himself  to  explaining 
and  popularizing  his  proposals.  He  b^an  his 
campaign  for  this  purpose  at  Glasgow  in  1903, 
and  the  tariff  commission  was  afterward  ap- 
pointed on  his  initiative.  His  70th  birthday 
and  completion  of  thirtv  years'  service  as  member 
of  parliament  for  Birmingham  were  celebrated  on 
July  7,  1906. 

Chamberlln,  Thomas  Chrowder,  geologist;  bom 
Mattoon,  111.,  1843;  graduate  of  Beloit  college, 
1866;  Ph.  D.,  universities  of  Michigan  and  Wis- 
consin, 1882;  LL.  D.,  university  of  Michigan, 
Beloit  college,  and  Columbian,  1887,  university 
of  Wisconsin,  1904;  Sc.  D.,  university  of  Illinois. 
1905.  Professor  natural  science,  state  normal 
school,  Whitewater,  Wis.,  1869-73;  professor 
geology,  Beloit,  1873-82;  president  university  of 
Wisconsin,  1887-92;  professor  and  head  depart- 
ment of  geology  and  director  Walker  museum, 
university  of  Chicago,  since  1892.  Assistant 
state  geologist,  Wisconsin,  1873-76.  chief  geolo- 
gist, Wisconsin,  1876-82;  studied  glaciers  of 
Switzerland,  1878;  United  States  geologist  in 
charge  of  glacial  di\'ision  since  1882;  geologist 
Peary  relief  expedition,  1894 ;  consulting  geolo- 
gist. Wisconsin  geological  survey.  Author: 
Geology  of  Wisconsin ;  General  Treatise  on  Geology 
(with  R.  D.  Salisbury),  etc.  Editor  of  The 
Journal  of  Geology. 

Chambers,  Robert,  Scottish  publisher,  was  bom  in 
Peebles,  1802,  began  business  as  a  bookseller  in 
Edinburgh  in  1818  and  gave  his  leisure  to  literary 
composition.  In  1824  he  produced  the  Tradi- 
tions of  Edinburgh;  and  between  1822  and  1834 
he  wrote  twenty-five  volumes.  The  success  of 
the  Journal  was  materially  promoted  by  his 
essays  and  his  literary  insight.  In  1844  he  pub- 
lished anonymously  the  Vestiges  of  Creation, 
which  prepared  the  way  for  Darwin's  Origin  of 
Species.  He  received  the  degree  of  LL.  D.  from 
St.  Andrews  in  1863.  The  labor  of  preparing  the 
Book  of  Days  broke  his  health,  and  he  died  at  St. 
Andrews,  1871.  Other  works  by  Robert  are 
Popular  Rhymes  of  Scotland;    a  History  of  the 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


000 


Rebdlioni  in  Scotland;  Life  of  James  I.;  Scottish 
Ballads  and  Songs;  Dictionary  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen;  Ancient  Sea  Margins;  The  Life  and 
Works  of  Robert  Burns  (4  vols.) ;  Domestic  Anruds 
of  Scotland    and  Songs  of  Scotland  prior  to  Bums. 

Chambers,  Robert  WUliam,  author,  artist;  born  in 
Brooklyn,  1863;  educated  at  Julien's  academy, 
Paris,  1886-93.  First  exhibited  in  salon,  1889; 
illustrator  for  Life,  Truth,  Vogue,  etc.  Author: 
In  the  Quarter;  The  King  in  Yellow;  The  Red 
Republic;  A  King  and  a  Few  Dukes;  The  Maker 
of  Moons;  With  the  Band;  The  Mystery  of  Choice; 
Lorraine;  Ashes  of  Empire;  The  Haunts  of  Men; 
The  Cambric  Mask;  Outsiders;  The  Conspirators; 
Cardigan;  The  Maid-at-Arm^;  Outdoor  Land; 
The  Maids  of  Paradise;  Orchard-Land;  Forests 
Land;  lole;  The  Fighting  Chance;  The  Firing 
Line;  The  Tree  of  Heaven;  The  Smart  Set,  etc. ; 
also  The  Witch  of  EUangowan,  a  drama  played  at 
Daly's  theater  and  written  for  Miss  Ada  Rehan; 
and  many  magazine  stories. 

Chambers,  William,  Scottish  publisher,  was  bom 
at  Peebles  in  1800.  In  1814  he  was  apprenticed 
to  a  bookseller  in  Edinburgh,  and  in  1819  started 
business  for  himself,  to  book-selling  afterward 
adding  printing.  Between  1825  and  1830  he 
wrote  the  Book  of  Scotland,  and,  in  conjunction 
with  his  brother  Robert,  a  Gazetteer  of  Scotland. 
In  1832  he  started  Chambers'  s  Edinburgh  Journal, 
six  weeks  in  advance  of  the  Penny  Magazine; 
and  soon  thereafter  he  united  with  Robert  in 
founding  the  business  of  W.  «fe  R.  Chambers,  the 
best  known  of  whose  many  publications  are, 
besides  the  Journal  and  a  numerous  series  of 
educational  works,  a  Miscellany,  Papers  for  the 
People,  the  Cydopcedia  of  English  Literature 
(2  vols.),  and  Chambers'  Encyclopaedia  (10  vols.). 
In  1859  William  founded  and  endowed  an  insti- 
tute in  his  native  town.  He  died  in  1883,  having 
shortly  before  received  the  offer  of  a  baronetcy. 
He  was  made  LL.  D.  of  Edinburgh  in  1872. 

Chamisso  (^shd-me'-sd;  French,  shd  -me'-so'),  Adal- 
bert von,  German  lyric  poet,  bom  in  1781  at  the 
castle  of  Boncourt,  in  Champagne,  France.  In 
1814  Count  Rumianzow,  chancellor  of  the  Russian 
empire,  prepared  an  exploring  expedition  round 
the  world,  which  Chamisso  accompanied  as 
naturalist.  Subsequently  he  obtained  a  situa- 
tion in  the  botanical  garden  of  Berlin,  and  was 
made  a  member  of  the  academy  of  science.  As 
early  as  1804-06,  he,  together  with  Vamhagen 
von  Ense,  published  a  Musen  Almanack.  In 
1813  he  wrote  his  original  and  amusing  fiction 
called  Peter  SchLemiM.  The  character  of  his 
poetry  is  wild  and  gloomy,  and  he  is  fond  of 
rugged  and  horrible  subjects.     Died,  1838. 

Cbamplain  (sh&m'-pldn';  French,  sMn'-pWn'), 
Samuel  de,  a  French  naval  officer  and  explorer, 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  During  the  reign  of 
Henry  IV.,  of  France,  he  visited  many  parts  of 
America,  and  formed  the  first  French  establish- 
ments at  Quebec  and  Montreal.  He  was  made 
governor  of  Quebec,  from  which  he  was  driven  by 
the  English,  in  1631.  When  peace  was  restored, 
he  was  reinstated.  He  wrote  Voyages  and 
Travels  in  New  France,  called  Canada,  in  1632. 
Died  in  1635. 

Champney,  James  Wells,  an  American  painter  and 
illustrator,  bom  in  Boston,  Mass.,  1843;  studied 
at  Paris,  Antwerp,  and  Rome.  He  was  especially 
distinguished  as  an  illustrator  and  genre  painter ; 
elected  an  A.  N.  A.  in  1882.     Died,  1903. 

ChampoUion  {shdn'-pol'-ydn'),  Jean  Francois, 
Egyptologist  and  discoverer,  was  bom  at 
Figeac,  France,  1790;  died  in  Paris,  1832. 
He  was  professor  of  history  in  the  Lyceum 
of  Grenoble,  and  afterward  professor  of 
Egyptian  antiquities  in  the  college  of  France, 
Paris.  We  are  chiefly  indebted  to  ChampoUion 
for  the  discovery  of  the  method  of  interpreting 


Egyptian  hierogljrphics.  Among  his  principal 
works  are  Eaypt  under  the  Pharaokt,  MonumtnU 
of  Lgypt  and  Nubia,  and  an  Egyptian  Orammar, 
etc.,  edited  by  his  elder  brother,  Jean  Jaoque* 
ChampoUion,  who  was  also  a  distinguisoed 
archaeologist. 

Channlng,  Edward,  historian;  bom  in  Dorcheater, 
Mass.,  1856;  graduate  of  Harvard,  1878;  Ph.  D., 
1880;  instmctor,  1883-87,  assisUnt  professor, 
1887-97,  professor  of  history  since  1897,  Har- 
vard. Author:  The  United  States  of  America, 
1765-1865 ;  History  of  the  United  States;  Town 
and  County  Government  in  the  En^ish  Colonic 
of  North  America;  Narragansett  Planter  a;  Ths 
Planting  of  a  Nation  in  the  New  World;  etc. 
Collaborator  with  late  Justin  Winsor  on  Nar- 
rative and  Critical  History  of  America;  with  Albert 
B.  Hart  in  Guide  to  Study  of  American  History; 
and  with  Thomas  W.  Uigginson  in  Engliah 
History  for  American  Readers. 

Channlng,  William  Ellery,  founder  of  Americao 
Unitarianism,  and  one  of  the  most  elegant  writers 
this  country  has  produced,  was  bom  in  Newport, 
R.  I.,  1780;  graduated  from  Harvard  in  1798; 
ordained  minister  of  the  Federal  Street  church  in 
Boston  in  1803.  During  the  earlier  years  of  his 
ministry  his  theological  peculiarities  had  little 
prominence  in  his  discourses,  and  in  consequence 
he  stood  upon  friendly  terms  with  all  ortliodox 
churches.  In  1819,  however,  he  preached  a  ser- 
mon at  the  ordination  of  the  Rev.  Jared  Sparks, 
in  which  he  advocated  the  Unitarian  doctrine 
with  so  much  zeal  and  ability,  that  he  was  termed 
the  "  af>ostle  of  Unitarianism."  This  involved 
him  in  controversy,  a  thing  which  he  naturally 
loathed.  Nevertheless,  to  the  end  of  his  life  he 
preserved  a  devoutly  Christian  heart,  shrinking 
with  the  delicate  instinct  of  a  pious  nature  from 
everything  cold,  one-sided,  and  dogmatic,  whether 
Unitarian  or  Trinitarian.  In  1821  he  received 
the  title  of  D.  D.  from  Harvard  university,  on 
account  of  the  high  talent  he  had  exhibited  in  his 
tractate  on  the  Evidences  of  Christianity,  his 
Address  on  War,  and  his  Sermons.  In  1822  he 
visited  Europe,  and  made  the  acquaintance  of 
several  great  authors,  notably  Wordsworth  and 
Coleridge,  both  of  whom  were  strongly  impressed 
in  his  favor.  Coleridge  said  of  him :  "  He  nas  the 
love  of  wisdom  and  the  wisdom  of  love."  In 
1823  he  published  an  Essay  on  National  LiUra- 
ture;  in  1826,  Remarks  on  the  Character  and 
Writings  of  John  Milton;  in  1829,  the  Character 
and  Writings  of  Fendon;  in  1835,  a  work  in  oppo- 
sition to  Negro  Slavery;  and,  in  1838,  an  essay  on 
Self  Culture.  Besides  these,  he  wrote  a  variety  of 
other  essays  and  treatises,  all  characterized  by 
vigor,  eloquence,  pure  taste,  and  a  lofty  tone  of 
moral  earnestness.  He  diea  in  1842  at  Benning- 
ton, Vt. 

Chantrey  (ch&n'-trl\  Sir  Francis,  English  sculptor, 
was  born  in  1781,  died  in  1841.  His  works 
include  numerous  busts  of  distinguished  men  of 
his  time,  including  Wellington,  Watt,  and 
Canning,  the  "Sleeping  Children"  in  Lichfield 
cathedral,  many  sculptures  in  Westminster 
abbey,  the  bronze  statue  of  Pitt  in  Hanover 
square,  London,  and  the  statue  of  Washington  in 
the  state  house  at  Boston.  He  bequeathed  his 
large  fortune  chiefly  for  the  encouragement  of 
art.  _  _ 

Chapman,  Frank  Michler,  ornithologist;  bom 
Englewood,  N.  J.,  1864;  academic  education. 
Curator  omitholoKjr  American  museum  natural 
history  since  1908.  President  Liniuean  society 
New  York,  elected  1897.  Author:  Handbook 
of  Birds  of  Eastern  North  America;  Bird-Life, 
a  Guide  to  the  Study  of  Our  Common  Birds;  Btra 
Studies  with  a  Camera;  A  Color  Key  to  North 
American  Birds;  The  Economic  Value  of  Bird*  to 
the  State;    The  Warbler »  of  North  America;    also 


610 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


numeroua     papers     on     birds     and    mammals. 
Editor  Bird-Lore;   associate  editor  The  Auk. 

Chapman,  George,  Engliuh  poet,  born  1559,  died 
1G34.  He  published  a  translation  of  tlie  Iluid  in 
English  ballad  measure,  and  afterward  translated 
the  Odyssey,  the  Homeric  hymns,  and  portions  of 
Ovid,  Terence,  Musaeus,  and  Petrarch,  and  wrote 
many  plays.  He  was  associated  with  Jonson, 
Marston,  and  others  in  writing  the  comedy  of 
Eastward  Hot  for  which  they  were  imprisoned  by 
King  James. 

Charcot  {shdr'-kd'),  Jean  Martin,  pathologist,  was 
born  at  Paris,  1825,  studied  medicine  at  Paris, 
where  he  became  a  profc^ssor,  doctor  at  the 
Salpetriere  hospital,  and  a  member  of  the  insti- 
tute. He  contributed  much  to  our  knowledge  j 
of  chronic  and  nervous  diseases,  and  made  hypno- 
tism a  scientific  study.  He  published  numerous 
works  on  these  subiects.     Died,  1893. 

Charlemagne  {shar'-le-man\  (Charles  the  Great). 
See  paf^e  430. 

Charles  1^  king  of  England,  second  son  of  James  I., 
was  born  in  IGOO,  proclaimed  king  on  the  death  of 
his  father  in  March,  1G25,  and  married  to  Henri- 
etta Maria  of  France,  daughter  of  Henry  IV.,  in 
the  May  following.  The  duke  of  Buckingham, 
who  had  been  his  father's  minion,  became  his  con- 
fidential minister  until  his  death.  His  reign  is 
chiefly  celebrated  for  the  great  civil  war  between 
the  kmg  and  the  parliameiit  which  began  in  1642, 
and  ended  in  the  capture  of  the  monarch,  who  was 
brought  to  trial  in  January,  1649,  before  what 
was  styled  a  high  court  of  justice,  as  a  traitor  to 
the  country.  Sentence  of  death  being  passed 
upon  him,  he  was,  on  January  30,  1649,  beheaded 
on  a  scaffold  erected  in  the  street  near  the  win- 
dows of  the  banqueting  house  at  Whitehall. 

Charles  11^  king  of  England,  son  of  Charles  I.,  born 
in  St.  James's  palace,  London,  in  1630 ;  was  at  The 
Hague,  in  Holland,  when  his  father  was  beheaded. 
He  assumed  the  royal  title,  and  was  proclaimed 
king  by  the  Scots;  landed  in  Scotland,  and  was 
crowned  at  Scone.  Marching  into  England,  he 
was  defeated  by  Cromwell  at  Worcester,  Septem- 
ber 3,  1651,  and  fled  to  France.  Bv  the  policy  of 
General  Monk,  after  Cromwell's  death,  he  was 
restored  to  his  crown  and  kingdom  in  1660,  an 
event  known  as  the  restoration.  Charles  II. 
was  an  easy-going  man,  and  is  known  in  history 
as  the  "merry  monarch."  His  reign  was  an 
inglorious  one  for  England,  though  it  is  distin- 
guished by  the  passing  of  tne  habeas  corpus  act, 
one  of  the  great  bulwarks  of  English  liberty  next 
to  the  magna  charta.     Died,  1685. 

Charles  V,,  surnamed  "the  wise,"  king  of  France 
1364-80,  was  the  son  of  King  John  H.,  and  was 
born  1337.  His  father  being  made  prisoner  by 
the  English  at  the  battle  of  Poitiers,  on  Septem- 
ber 19,  1356,  he  assumed  the  regency.  His 
father  died  April  8,  1364,  and  Charles  ascended 
the  throne.  By  his  cautious  policy  he  rescued 
the  kingdom  from  some  of  its  troubles,  and 
reestablished  the  power  of  the  crown,  which  had 
been  much  shaken.     Died,  1380. 

Charles  VL,  "the  mad,"  or  the  "beloved,"  bom  1368, 
died  October  21,  1422.  He  succeeded  his  father 
Charles  V.  in  1380,  and  France  was  under  the 
oppressive  rule  of  his  uncles  until  he  dismissed 
them  in  1388.  He  reigned  wisely  till  1392,  when 
his  weak  mind  became  deranged.  His  uncles 
again  seised  the  reins,  Philip  "the  bold"  of  Bur- 
gundy gaining  the  ascendancy.  A  contest  be- 
tween him  and  the  duke  of  Orleans,  the  king's 
brother,  divided  the  nation.  Philip's  successor, 
John  "the  fearless,"  caused  the  murder  of  Or- 
leans, whose  faction  became  known  as  that  of 
the  Armagnacs.  Henry  V.  of  England  invaded 
the  distracted  land  and  won  a  great  victory  at 
Agincourt  in  1415.  Philip  "the  good"  of  Bur- 
gtmdy,  eager  to  avenge  the  murder  of  John  "the 


fearless,"  perpetrated  in  the  presence  of  the 
dauphin,  concluded  a  treaty  at  Troyes,  May  21, 
1420,  by  which  Henry  was  to  succeed  to  the 
French  throne.  Charles  died,  leaving  most  of 
France  in  English  hands.  His  son  by  Isabella  of 
Bavaria,  Charles  VII.,  succeeded  him. 

Charles  VII.,  "the  victorious,"  bom  1403,  died  Julv 
22,  1461.  He  was  the  fifth  son  of  Charles  Vl. 
and  Isabella,  and  became  by  the  death  of  his 
brothers  heir  apparent  in  1416.  On  the  death  of 
Charles  VI.  in  1422  Henry  VI.  of  England  was 
proclaimed  king  of  France  at  St.  Denis,  and  his 
authority  was  generally  recognized  The  prog- 
ress of  the  English  made  the  position  of  Charles 
apparently  hopeless,  when  in  1428  Joan  of  Arc 
came  forward,  inspired  new  ardor,  and  delivered 
Orleans,  1429.  Charles  was  crowned  at  Rheims, 
the  people  roae  in  his  behalf,  and  the  EngUsh 
were  forced  to  yield.  Peace  and  order  were 
restored,  a  regular  army  was  organized,  and 
reforms  were  instituted,  in  which  Jacques  Coeur, 
the  richest  merchant  of  the  time,  had  a  great 
share.  By  1453  the  English  had  lost  all  but 
Calais.  "The  freedom  of  the  Gallican  church  was 
secured  by  the  pragmatic  sanction  of  1438. 
Charles's  later  years  were  embittered  by  his  son 
Louis  XL,  who  succeeded  him. 

Charles  IX.,  king  of  France,  second  son  of  Henr^' 
II.  and  Catharine  de'  Medici,  bom  1550,  died 
May  30,  1574.  He  succeeded  his  brother  Francis 
II.  in  1560.  under  the  regency  of  his  motiier. 
Soon  after  tne  Huguenots  took  up  arms,  and  then 
followed  their  defeat  at  Dreux,  1562,  the  assassi- 
nation of  Guise,  and  the  treaty  of  peace  known 
as  the  edict  of  Amboise,  1563.  Intervals  of  war 
and  peace  ensued.  The  battles  of  Jamac  and 
Moncontour  were  fought  in  1569,  after  which  an 
apparent  reconciliation  was  effected,  succeeded 
in  1572  by  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. 
The  assent  of  Charles  to  the  massacre  seems  to 
have  been  wrung  from  him  by  his  mother.  He 
manifested  deep  remorse,  and  died  after  terrible 
sufferings. 

Charles  X„  king  of  France,  the  grandson  of  Louin 
XV.,  was  bora,  1757.  He  received  the  title 
Comte  d'Artois,  and  in  1773  married  Maria 
Theresa  of  Savoy.  After  the  fall  of  the  Bastille, 
in  1789,  he  headed  the  first  emigration  of  nobles 
and  took  the  lead  in  the  attempts  made  to  restore 
the  monarchy.  Under  Louis  XVIII.,  Artois 
headed  the  roj'alist  party,  and  by  the  death  of 
that  monarch  became  king,  under  the  title  of 
Charles  X.  At  first  he  was  popular  with  all 
parties,  but  it  was  soon  plain  tnat  he  wished  to 
make  his  rule  as  absolute  as  that  of  the  old 
French  monarchy.  The  people  became  discon- 
tented, and  a  struggle  ensued  with  the  chamber 
of  deputies.  On  July  26,  1830,  the  king  signed 
the  five  well-known  ordinances,  putting  an  end  to 
the  freedom  of  the  press,  making  a  new  mode  of 
election  and  dissolving  the  chamber  that  had  just 
been  elected.  Paris  at  once  took  up  arms.  In 
three  days  the  revolution  was  finished,  Charle* 
was  driven  from  the  capital,  and  Louis  Philippe 
declared  king.  Charles  lived  the  remainder  of  his 
life  in  exile.     He  died  at  Gorz,  Austria,  1836. 

Charles  V^  of  Germany.     See  page  438. 

Charles  X.,  king  of  Sweden,  the  son  of  the  count 
Palatine,  was  bom  at  Nykoping,  1622.  He  took 
part  in  the  thirty  j-ears'  war,  and  on  the  abdica- 
tion of  his  cousin,  Queen  Christina,  1654,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  of  a  kingdom  impoverished 
by  her  extravagance.  He  overran  Poland  in 
1655 ;  forced  the  great  elector  to  acknowledge  hi& 
lordship  over  Pnissia;  and  crushed  the  forces  of 
the  Polish  king  anew  in  a  terrible  three  days' 
battle  at  Warsaw,  July  28-30,  1656.  His  next 
war  was  with  the  Danes,  when  he  crossed  the 
great  and  little  belt  on  the  ice,  and  extorted  the 
treaty  of  Roeskild,  1658,  which  gave  to  Sweden 


LAST    MOMENTS  OF  CHARLES  I. 

From  a  fainting  by  J.  fVafftri 


i 


f    'c't    •       ♦ 


<.  •  C     *«C    '        « 


•    <  •         »  < 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


613 


the  southern  parts  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula, 
keretofore  Danish.  In  1659  he  was  driven  from 
a  new  attack  on  Copenhagen  by  help  of  the 
Brandenburgere  and  the  Dutch;  and  he  died  sud- 
denly at  Gothenburg,  1660. 

Charies  XII^  king  of  Sweden,  son  of  Charles  XI., 
and  a  warlike  prince,  was  born  1682.  He  as- 
cended the  throne  at  the  age  of  fifteen.  He  had 
to  cope  with  Denmark,  Russia,  and  Poland  com- 
binecl  against  him ;  he  foiled  the  Danes  at  Copen- 
hagen, the  Russians  at  Narva,  and  Au^^ustus  II. 
of  Poland  at  Riga;  but,  being  trapped  m  Russia, 
and  compelled  to  spend  a  winter  there,  he  was, 
in  July,  1709,  attacked  by  Peter  the  Great  at 
Pultowa,  and  defeated,  so  that  he  had  to  take 
refuge  with  the  Turks  at  Bender;  here  he  was 
again  attacked,  captured,  and  conveyed  to 
Demotica,  but  escaping,  he  found  his  way  miracu- 
lously back  to  Sweden,  and  making  peace  with 
the  czar,  commenced  an  attack  on  Norway,  but 
was  killed  by  a  musket-shot  at  the  siege  of 
Frederikshald.  Charles  XII.  was  the  last  of  the 
Swedish  kings.  His  appearance  among  the 
luxurious  kings  and  knights  of  the  North  at  the 
time,  Carlyle  compared  to  "the  bursting  of  a 
cataract  of  bomb-shells  in  a  dull  ballroom." 
Died  in  1718. 

Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy,  son  of  Philip 
the  Good,  bom  1433,  died  1477.  He  fought  at 
Gavre  in  his  father's  ranks  in  1452,  engaged  in  the 
"war  of  the  public  weal"  in  France,  forcing 
Louis  XI.  to  yield  to  the  demands  of  the  confed- 
erates, and  after  humbling  Li4ge  in  1466  and 
destroying  Dinant,  he  succeeded  Philip,  in  June, 
1467,  as  duke  of  Burgundy.  His  wife  Isabella 
of  Bourbon  died  in  1465,  and  he  married  in  1468 
Margaret  of  York,  sister  of  Edward  IV.  In  1469 
Sigismund  of  Austria  mortgaged  to  him  his  pos- 
session in  Alsace.  With  an  army  of  30,000  men, 
Charles  b^an  a  war  with  Louis  XL  in  1471,  and 
penetrated  into  Normandy,  committing  terrible 
devastations.  A  truce  followed.  In  1472  GeU 
derland,  his  fifth  duchy,  was  acquired.  Possessed 
of  the  most  formidable  power,  Charles  aimed  to 
erect  a  kingdom  out  of  his  realms.  Louis  united 
his  enemies  against  him^  and  Alsace  was  lost ;  but 
in  1475  Charles,  after  joining  with  Edward  IV., 
conquered  Lorraine.  In  1476  he  invaded  Switzer- 
land, but  his  forces  were  overwhelmed  at  Granson 
and  at  Morat,  and  he  lost  Lorraine.  He  at- 
tempted to  recover  it,  and  besieged  Nancy. 
Here  on  January  5,  1477,  Ren^,  duke  of  Lorraine, 
vanquished  his  army,  Charles  falling  in  the  fight. 

Charles  Martel,  duke  of  Austrasia,  was  bom  about 
A.  D.  689;  died  741.  He  was  the  natural  son  of 
Pepin  d'Heristal,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  the 
dukedom  in  714,  As  mayor  of  the  palace  he  pos- 
sessed the  whole  regal  power,  which  he  adminis- 
tered with  great  success,  and  gained  many  victo- 
ries, the  principal  of  which  was  over  the  Saracens 
under  their  general,  Abdurrahman,  whom  he 
defeated  with  great  slaughter  between  Tours  and 
Poitiers,  in  732.  It  was  in  consequence  of  this 
victory  that  he  was  called  M artel,  or  "the 
hammer."  Charles  had  never  taken  the  title  of 
king,  but  only  that  of  mayor  of  the  palace  On 
the  death  of  Thierry  in  737,  he  omitted  to  declare 
a  successor  to  the  throne,  and  continued  to 
administer  affairs  with  the  title  of  duke  of  the 
Franka  At  his  death  he  divided  his  dominions 
between  his  sons  Carloman  and  Pepin.  The 
latter  became  the  first  king  of  France  of  the 
Carlovingian  race,  which  name  was  taken  from 
the  founder,  Charles  Martel. 

Charlevoix  (shdr'-U^moa'),  Pierre  Francois  Xavler 
de,  a  noted  French  traveler  and  historian,  bom  at 
St.  Quentin,  1682.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
society  of  Jesuits  when  only  sixteen  years  old. 
In  1720  he  visited  Canada,  went  up  the  St.  Law- 
rence  river   and   through   the  great   lakes,    and 


reaching  the  Miasimippi  through  the  lUinoia  river, 
sailed  down  to  New  Orleans,  went  from  there  to 
Santo  Domingo,  and  thence  to  France,  which  h» 
reached  after  an  absence  of  two  years.  He  after* 
ward  published  a  History  of  New  rranee  fCanada). 
He  diet!,  1761. 

Charlton,  John,  English  artist,  was  bom  at  Bank- 
borough,  Northumberland,  1849;  studied  at 
Newcastle  school  of  arts  and  8.  Kensinston; 
exhibited  at  royal  academy  1870,  and  regularly 
since  that  time.  Paintings :  "  A  Winter's  Day  '^ 
"The  Hall  Fire";  "Rescue":  "Huntwnan 
Courtship";  "Gone  Away";  "Stag  at  Bay"; 
"British  Artillery  entering  Enemy's  Lines  at 
Tel-el-Kebir";  "Ulundi'';  "Reynard's  Re- 
auiem";  "Bad  News  from  the  Front";  "Inci- 
dent in  the  Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade,"  etc.;"" 
the  "Procession  o?  Royal  Princes  paaung  throuch 
Trafalgar  Square  to  Westminster  Abbey,"  1887, 
painted  for  the  queen:  also  by  command  of  her 
majesty  the  queen  the  official  picture  of  tlie 
thanksgiving  service  in  front  of  St.  Paul's  cathe- 
dral on  the  occasion  of  the  royal  diamond 
jubilee,  entitled  "  God  Save  the  Queen " ;  and 
"The  Funeral  of  Queen  Victoria";  also  a  great 
many  military,  sporting,  and  other  subjects  for 
the  Graphic. 

Charron  (sAd'-rdN'),  Pierre,  philosopher  and  theo- 
logian, born  at  Paris,  1541.  After  being  atimitted 
to  the  bar  he  took  orders,  and  became  a  leader  of 
the  moderate  Catholics.  He  assailed  the  league  in 
his  Discoura  Chretiens,  vindicated  Catholicism  in 
Lea  Troia  Veritea,  and  in  his  chief  work,  D«  la 
Sageaae,  took  a  sceptical  attitude  toward  all 
forms  of  religion.  He  was  a  friend  of  Montaigne, 
from  whose  essays  he  borrowed  freely.   Died,  1603. 

Chase,  Salmon  Portland,  American  jurist  and 
statesman,  was  born  in  New  Hampshire  in  1808. 
He  was  sent  to  the  house  of  representatives  and 
to  the  United  States  senate  from  Ohio^  and  waa 
elected  governor  of  that  state.  Appointed  sec- 
retary of  the  treasury  by  President  Lincoln,  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war,  he  conducted  the 
finances  with  rare  skill  and  success.  Appointed 
chief-justice  of  the  supreme  court  in  1864,  ne  held 
this  office  at  his  death  in  1873. 

Chase,  William  Merritt,  American  artist:  was  bom 
at  Franklin,  Ind.,  1849;  early  studied  under 
B.  F.  Hayes  in  Indianapolis,  J.  O.  Eaton,  New 
York.  A.  Wagner  and  Piloty,  Munich.  Estab- 
lishea  studio  in  New  York,  received  medal,  Phila- 
delphia, 1876;  honorable  mention.  Paris,  1881; 
honors,  Munich,  1883;  silver  medal,  Paris  salon, 
1889;  first  prize  Cleveland  art  a«8t.ciation,  1894; 
Shaw  prize,  society  American  artists,  1895; 
gold  medal  of  honor,  Philadelphia  8w;ademy  of  fine 
arts,  1895;  gold  medal,  Paris  exposition,  1900. 
Specialties,  portraits  and  figure  pieces. 

Chateaubriand  («A<l'-<o'-6r«'-dN'),  Vlcomtede,  Fran- 
cois Auguste,  French  author,  was  bom  1768  at 
St.  Malo,  in  Bretagne.  He  traveled  in  America 
1791-92,  and  while  still  here  learned  of  the  flight 
and  arrest  of  Louis  XVI.  He  immediately 
returned  to  France,  but  found  himself  unable  to 
stem  the  revolutionary  tide,  and  so  retired  to 
England.  In  1800  he  retumed  to  Paris,  and 
wrote  for  the  Mercure  de  France.  In  this  journal 
he  first  printed  his  tale  of  A  tola,  with  a  preface 
lauding  the  first  consul,  Bonaparte.  Its  success 
was  remarkable,  but  his  Gfnte  du  Chriatianiame 
was  even  more  remarkable.  Bonaparte  ajv 
pointed  Chateaubriand  secretary  to  the  embassy 
m  Rome,  and  in  1803  sent  him  as  ambassador  to 
the  little  republic  of  Valais.  In  1806  he  com- 
menced his  pilRriraage  to  the  holy  land,  visited 
Greece,  Palestine,  Alexandria,  and  Carthage,  and 
retumed  through  Spain  to  France  in  1807.  He 
was  created  a  peer  of  France  1815,  was  amba^ 
sador  at  London  in  1822,  and  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  1823-24.     Died  at  Paris,  1848. 


614 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Chatfleld-Taylor,  Hobart  Chatfleld,  author,  was 
bom  at  Chicago,  1865;  graduate  Cornell,  1886. 
Editor:  America,  1888-90;  consul  of  Spain  at 
Chicago,  1892-94;  chevalier  of  the  legion  of 
honor  and  officer  de  1' Instruction  Publique, 
France;  chevalier  of  the  order  of  Isabella,  the 
Catholic,  Spain;  chevalier  of  the  order  of  St. 
James,  Portugal,  etc.  Author:  With  Edge 
Tools;  An  American  Peeress;  Two  Women  and  a 
FooL;  The  Land  of  the  Castanet;  The  Vice  of 
Fools;  The  Idle  Born;  The  Crimson  Wing; 
Moliire,  a  Biography;  contributor  to  North 
American  Review,  The  Bookman,  Harper's 
Weekly,  and  other  magazines. 

Chatham,  WUilam  Pitt,  first  earl  of.  See  Pitt, 
William. 

Chatrlan,  Alexandre.    See  Erclanaiin-Chatrlan. 

Chaucer  (chd'-sir),  Geoffrey,  the  "father  of  English 
poetry,"  was  bom,  most  probably,  about  1340, 
though  the  traditional  date  is  1328.  It  has  been 
said  that  he  studied  at  Cambridge,  and  afterward 
removed  to  Oxford.  While  at  the  university  he 
wrote  The  Court  of  Love,  and  The  Book  of  TroUus 
and  Cressida.  At  one  period  he  seems  to  have 
turned  his  attention  to  law,  and  to  have  become 
a  member  of  the  Inner  Temple.  In  1359  he 
served  under  Edward  III.  in  his  French  cam- 
paign, and  was  made  prisoner.  The  date  of  his 
return  from  captivity  and  of  his  subsequent 
marriage  cannot  now  be  ascertained.  After  his 
marriage  he  began  to  mix  in  public  affairs.  He 
was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Genoa  in  1372,  and 
on  his  return  was  appointed  comptroller  of  the 
customs  for  wools,  and  in  the  same  year  the  king 
granted  him  a  pitcher  of  wine  daily  for  life.  In 
1377  he  proceeded  to  Flanders  in  the  retinue  of 
Sir  Thomas  Percy,  afterward  earl  of  Worc&ster  • 
and  for  several  years  thereafter  he  was  eraployea 
in  embassies  and  other  business  connected  with 
the  public  service.  He  died  at  London  in  1400, 
and  was  buried  in  Westminster  abbey.  He  was 
a  master  of  science,  the  theology  and  the  litera- 
ture of  his  time.  His  poems  are  numerous,  and 
exhibit  every  variety  of  poetical  excellence. 
They  include  The  Flower  and  the  Leaf;  The 
Romaunt  of  the  Rose;  The  Canterbury  Tales; 
The  Book  of  the  Duchess;  The  House  of  Fame,  and 
The  Legend  of  Good  Women. 

Cheops  (ke'-ips),  or  Khufu,  a  king  of  Egypt  of  the 
fourth  dynasty.  He  built  the  great  pyramid, 
and  spent  1,060  talents  in  vegetables  alone  for 
the  workmen  engaged  on  it.  He  changed  that 
government  into  a  despotic  tyranny  which  had 
previously  been  a  limited  monarchy,  and  died, 
after  reigning  fifty-six  years,  hated  by  his  people. 
According  to  Lepsius  he  lived  about  2800-2700 
B.C. 

Cberbullez  {shAr'-bU'-lya'),  Tictor,  French  novelist 
and  critic,  was  born  at  Geneva,  1829,  and 
studied  there,  at  Paris,  Bonn,  and  Berlin,  first 
mathematics,  then  shilology  and  philosophy; 
after  which  he  lived  in  Geneva  as  a  teacher, 
until  his  call  to  Paris  in  1864  to  join  the  staff  of 
the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes.  In  1882  he  became 
a  member  of  the  French  academy.  His  strong 
and  striking  Comte  Kostia,  1863,  was  followed 
by  a  series  of  novels  which,  always  clever  and 
original,  lifted  him  into  the  front  rank  of  French 
writers  of  fiction.  His  best  works  are:  Le 
Roman  d'une  honnete  Femme,;  La  Revanche  de 
Joseph  Noird;  Meta  Holdenis;  Miss  Rovd; 
Samud  Brohl  et  Cie;  L  Idee  de  Jean  Teterol; 
La  Ferme  du  Choquard;  La  Vocation  du  Comte 
Ghidain;  and  Le  Secret  du  Precepteur.  He  pub- 
lished also  political  studies  on  Germany  and 
Spain,  and  died,  1899. 

Cherublni  {ka' -rod-be' -ne),  Maria  Luigi  Carlo 
Zenobo  Salvatore,  Italian  composer,  was  bom  at 
Florence  in  1760.  He  was  naturalized  in  France, 
and  settled  in  Paris,  the  scene  of  his  greatest 


triumphs,  where  he  composed  operas,  of  which 
the  chief  were  Iphigenia  in  Aulis,  and  Les  deux 
Joumees,  or  "Ihe  Water  Carrier,"  his  master- 
piece; also  a  number  of  sacred  pieces  and 
requiems,  all  of  the  highest  merit.      Died,  1842. 

Chesterfield,  Philip  Dormer  Stanhope,  Earl  of, 
English  politician,  writer,  and  man  of  fashion, 
was  born  in  1694,  and  educated  at  Cambridge. 
He  represented  St.  Germans,  Cornwall,  in  tne 
house  of  commons,  and  in  1726  succeeded  to  the 
earldom.  He  was  distinguished  at  the  court  of 
George  II.,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  extra- 
ordinary to  Holland  in  1728.  He  was  made  a 
knight  of  the  garter  in  1730,  and  received  the 
appointment  of  lord  steward  of  the  household. 
He  was  found  among  the  opponents  of  Sir 
Robert  Walpole.  In  1745  he  was  appointed 
lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  afterward  oecame 
secretary  of  state.  He  is  now  more  known  by 
his  Advice  to  His  Son  than  by  his  public  services. 
Died,  1773. 

Chesterton,  Gilbert  Keith,  English  journalist  and 
author;  bom  at  Campden  Hill,  Kensington. 
1874;  educated  at  St.  Paul's  school.  Attended 
classes  at  Slade  school;  began  reviewing  art 
books  for  the  Bookman,  and  then  for  the  Speaker; 
since  then  has  contributed  to  Daily  News,  Litera^ 
tttre,  Pall  Mall  Magazine,  Bookman,  Speaker, 
Black  and  While,  Echo,  World,  Clarion,  English 
Illustrated  Magazine,  Bystander,  Fortnightly  and 
Independent  Review,  Illustrated  London  News. 
Author:  The  Wild  Knight;  Defendant;  Grey- 
beards at  Play;  Twdve  Types;  Browning  (Eng- 
lish Men  of  Letters);  The  Napoleon  of  Notting 
Hill;  The  Club  of  Queer  Trades;  Heretics; 
Dickens;  The  Man  who  was  Thursday;  Ortho- 
doxy; All  Things  Considered. 

Chevalier  {sht-vA'-ly&'),  Michel,  French  economist, 
was  bom  at  Limoges,  1806,  and  trained  as  an 
engineer.  An  ardent  St.  Simonian,  he  attached 
himself  to  Enfantin,  and  heljjed  to  compile  the 
propagandist  Livre  Nouveau.  After  six  months' 
imprisonment  in  1832,  he  retracted  ail  he  had 
written  in  the  Globe  against  Christianity  and 
marriage.  He  was  sent  by  Thiers  to  inquire 
into  water  and  railway  communication  in  the 
United  States*  was  made  a  councillor  of  state 
in  1838;  and  in  1840  professor  of  political 
economy  in  the  Collfege  de  France.  In  1845  he 
was  returned  by  AvejTon  to  the  chamber  of 
deputies.  Aiter  the  revolution  of  1848  he  made 
onslaughts  that  were  never  met  upon  Louis 
Blanc's  socialism  in  articles  collected  as  L'Organ- 
isation  du  Travail,  and  Question*  politiques  et 
sociales.  As  a  freetrader  he  aided  Cobden  in 
carrying  into  effect  in  1860  the  commercial 
treaty  between  France  and  England,  becoming 
a  senator  and  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of 
honor.     He  died  at  Montpellier,  1879. 

Cheyreul(shi'-vr(U'),  Michel  Eugene,  French  chemist, 
born  at  Angers,  1786,  studied  chemistry  at  the 
College  de  France  in  Paris.  He  lectured  at  the 
College  Charlemagne,  and  held  a  technical  post 
at  the  Gobelins.  In  1826  he  entered  the  academy 
of  sciences,  and  in  1830  became  director  of  the 
museum  of  natural  history.  Early  discoveries 
were  those  of  margarine,  oleine,  and  stearine; 
and  these  studies  and  his  theor>-  of  saponification 
opened  up  vast  industries.  Between  1828  and 
1864  he  studied  colors.  This  patriarch  of  the 
scientific  world  died  in  1889,  his  hundredth 
birthday  having  been  celebrated  three  years 
before  with  great  enthusiasm. 

Cheyne  (cM'-ne),  Thomas  Kelly,  biblical  scholar, 
joint-editor  of  the  Encydopcsdia  Biblica,  and 
author  of  Critica  Biblica,  was  bom  in  London, 
1841.  Educated  at  Merchant  Taylors'  school 
and  Worcester  college,  Oxford,  he  became 
fellow  of  Balliol  college  in  1868;  D.  D.,  Edin- 
burgh;  Litt.  D.     He  was  rector  of  Tendring  in 


THROUGHOUT  THE   WORLD 


016 


Essex  from  1880  to  1885,  when  he  became  Oriel 
professor  of  the  iaterpretation  of  scripture  at 
Oxford  and  canoa  of  Rochester.  A  member  of 
the  Old  Testament  Revision  company,  he  has 
contributed  much  to  magazines  and  reviews. 
His  chief  books  are  The  Prophecies  of  Isaiah; 
Exposition  of  Jeremiah  and  Lamentations;  The 
Book  of  Psalms;  The  Origin  of  the  Psalter; 
Founders  of  Old  Testament  Criticism;  Introduction 
to  Isaiah;   Outlines  of  History  of  Israel,  etc. 

Cheyney,  Edward  Potts,  educator,  author;  bom 
at  Walliugford,  Pa.,  1861 ;  graduate  of  univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania,  1883 ;  post-graduate  course 
one  year;  traveled,  1884,  1894,  and  1904-05, 
visiting  German  universities  and  studying  in 
British  museuna;  professor  European  history, 
university  of  Pennsylvania.  Author:  Social 
Changes  in  England  in  the  Sixteenth  Century; 
Social  and  Industrial  History  of  England;  Short 
History  of  England;  European  Background  of 
American  History;  also  monographs  and  review 
articles  on  history  and  economic  subjects. 

Childs,  George  William,  publisher  and  philanthro- 
pist, was  bom  in  Baltimore,  1829,  became  clerk  in 
a  book  store  in  Philadelphia,  and  by  1850  was 
head  of  a  publishing  firm.  Proprietor  from 
1864  of  the  Philadelphia  Public  Ledger,  he 
devoted  his  wealth  to  beneficence,  erecting  a 
memorial  window  in  Westminster  abbey  to 
Cowper  and  George  Herbert,  a  monument  to 
Leigh  Hunt  at  Kensal  Green,  and  a  fountain  to 
Shakespeare  at  Stratford-on-Avon.  He  wrote 
Recollections  of  Noted  Persons.     He  died,  1894. 

Chittenden  {ch'Uf -en-den),  Russell  Henry,  scientist, 
chemist,  director  Sheffield  scientific  school,  Yale, 
since  1898;  born  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1856; 
graduate  Yale,  Ph.  B.,  1875;  Ph.  D.,  1880; 
LL.  D.,  university  of  Toronto,  1903;  Sc.  D., 
university  of  Pennsylvania,  1904;  studied  at 
Heidelberg  university,  1878-79.  Professor  phys- 
iological chemistry,  Yale,  since  1882;  lecturer 
Shysiologioal  chemistry,  Columbia,  1898-1903. 
[ember  national  academy  sciences  since  1890; 
president  American  society  of  naturalists,  1893 ; 
president  American  physiological  society,  1895- 
1904.  Author:  Digestive  Proteolysis;  Studies  in 
Physiological  Chemistry,  4  vols.;  Physiological 
Economy  in  Nutrition;  The  Nutrition  of  Man; 
and  many  papers  on  physiological  subjects  in 
American  and  foreign  journals.  Associate  editor 
American  Journal  of  Physiology,  and  of  the 
Journal  of  Biological  Chemistry. 

Chitty  {ch'Uf-i),  Joseph,  English  law3'er  and  legal 
writer;  bom  1776,  died  at  London,  1841.  His 
chief  works  are.  Treatise  on  the  Parties  to  Actions 
and  to  Pleadings;  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Nations 
relative  to  the  Legal  Effects  of  War  on  the  Commerce 
of  Belligerents  and  Neutrals,  and  on  Orders  in 
Council  in  Licenses;  Political  Treatise  on  Criminal 
Law;  Synopsis  of  Practice  in  the  King's  Bench 
and  Common  Pleas. 

Cboate  (chot),  Joseph  Hodges,  lawyer,  diplomat, 
ambassador  of  United  States  to  England,  1899- 
1905;  bom  in  Salem,  Mass.,  1832;  graduate  of 
Harvard,  A.  B.,  1852,  Harvard  law  school,  1854; 
LL.  D.,  Harvard,  Yale,  Cambridge;  D.  C.  L.,  Ox- 
ford. Admitted  to  Massachusetts  bar,  1855 ;  New 
York,  1856;  settled  in  New  York,  1856.  Identi- 
fied with  many  famous  cases;  one  of  the  com- 
mittee of  seventy  which  broke  up  the  Tweed  ring, 
1871 ;  secured  the  reinstatement  of  General  Fitz 
John  Porter  to  his  army  rank,  etc. ;  governor  of 
New  York  hospital  since  1877  (chairman  of  com- 
mittee of  elections) ;  noted  as  a  public  and  after- 
dinner  speaker.  Author  of  Addresses  on  Abraham 
Lincoln,  Admiral  Farragut,  Rufu^  Choate,  etc. 
Elected  bencher  of  the  Inner  Temple,  England, 
1905. 

Choate,  Bufus,  American  lawyer,  statesman,  and 
orator,  was  born  at  Essex,  Mass.,  in  1799.     After 


graduating  at  Dartmouth  ooUese,  he  entersd 
upon  the  study  of  law  at  Cambridge  and  in  Wash- 
ington. After  practicing  at  Danvers,  Salem,  and 
Boston,  succeesively,  he  was  elected  to  the  Moate 
in  1841,  which  he  quitted  in  1845.  After  the 
death  of  Daniel  Webster.  Choate  became  the 
recognised  leader  of  the  Maasachuaetta  bar,  and 
acouired  quite  a  national  reputation.  Uia  fore- 
sight led  him  to  anticipate  the  civil  war,  and  to 
do  more  than  was  by  some  considered  wiee  to  con- 
ciliate the  South.  As  an  advocate  and  orator,  be 
may  be  classed  with  the  most  distinguished  maa- 
ters  of  modem  eloquence.  Died  at  Halifax, 
Nova  Scotia,  1859. 

Cholseul  {shwIX'-zid'),  £tlenne  Francois,  Duke  oC 
French  statesman  and  dij)lomiit,  was  bom  in 
1719.  He  gained  a  high  rank  in  the  army,  and 
was  then  employed  as  a  diplomatist  at  Rome  and 
Vienna,  and  honored  with  a  peerage.  He  became 
prime  minister  of  France,  it  was  reported,  through 
the  influence  of  Madame  de  Pompadour.  In  176 1 
he  negotiated  the  secret  treaty  with  the  king  of 
Spain,  known  as  the  "  family  compact. "  In 
1763  he  terminated  the  war  between  France  and 
England  by  bringing  about  the  treaty  of  Paris. 
In  1770  he  was  dismissed  from  office,  and  exiled 
to  one  of  his  estates.     He  died  in  1785. 

Chopin  {sho'-pdN'),  Fr6d£rtc  Francois,  Polish 
pianist  and  composer,  was  born,  1809.  His 
waltzes,  mazurkas,  and  other  compositiona  are 
peculiar  in  melody,  rhythm,  and  harmony,  and 
nave  a  great  charm.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
pianists,  and  his  playing,  Uke  his  music,  had  a 
captivating  grace.  He  spent  most  of  his  life  in 
Paris,  where  he  died,  1849. 

Chosroes  {kds' -ro-ez),  or  Khosru  I^  king  of  Persia 
from  A.  D.  531  to  579.  His  reign  was  marked  by 
great  victories  in  war  and  wise  conduct  in  peace. 
His  wars  were  chiefly  against  the  Greek  empire, 
from  which  he  took  Antioch  and  other  cities  of 
Syria,  and  forced  its  emperors  to  pay  him  tribute, 
lie  enlarged  his  kingdom,  and  made  his  subjects 
love  him  by  ruling  justly  and  kindly.  He  lived 
to  be  eighty  years  old,  and  the  forty-eight  years 
of  his  reign  have  been  called  the  golden  age 
of  Persia. 

Chosroes  11^  king  of  Persia,  grandson  of  Chosroes  I., 
came  to  the  throne  in  5Sk).  He  also  was  a  great 
conqueror,  but  cared  more  for  his  own  glory  than 
for  the  good  of  the  people.  He  sent  out  large 
armies  to  fight  the  Greeics,  while  he  enjoyed  at 
home  the  greatest  splendor  and  luxury.  His 
palaces,  of  which  he  built  a  new  one  every  year, 
were  wonders  of  the  world.  He  hud  fifty  thou- 
sand horses  and  twelve  thousand  wives;  and  his 
thrones  were  built  of  gold,  inlaid  with  precioua 
jeweb.  About  A.  D.  622  the  Roman  emperor 
Heraclius  entered  Persia  with  a  strong  army, 
destroyed  the  palaces  and  captured  the  treasures 
of  Chosroes,  and  in  less  than  six  years  reconquered 
all  the  territories  that  the  Persian  king  had  taken. 
At  last  his  subjects,  led  by  his  own  son,  rebelled 
against  him,  and  put  him  to  death,  628,  after  ha 
had  been  king  for  about  thirty-eight  years. 

Christian  11^  king  of  Denmark  and  Norway,  was 
bom  1481,  died  1559.  He  was  charged  at  the  age 
of  twenty  to  suppress  an  insurrection  in  Norway, 
and  nearly  extirpated  the  Norwegian  nobility. 
In  1513  he  succeeded  his  father  John,  under  whom 
the  union  of  Calmar  had  been  reestablished  in 
Denmark  and  Norway,  while  Sweden  was  in 
rebellion.  He  proceeded  to  subdue  Sweden, 
where  he  expected  aid  from  the  treason  of 
Gustavus  Trolle.  He  was  at  first  unsuccessful, 
but  made  a  formidable  invasion  in  1620.  The 
Swedish  regent,  Sten  Sture,  was  mortally 
wounded,  and  the  barons  were  forced  to  recog- 
nize Christian  as  king  on  the  promise  of  a  general 
amnesty.  Stockholm  and  Calmar  held  out,  but 
both  were  soon  reduced.     Christian  was  crowned. 


616 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


and  a  fearful  series  of  executions  ensued.  Sweden 
found  a  deliverer  in  Gustavus  Vaea,  while  the 
Danes  rose  against  Christian  and  gave  their 
throne  to  Frederick,  duke  of  Holstein.  Christian 
fled  with  a  fleet  containing  his  family  and  treas- 
ures, the  national  records,  and  the  crown  jewels, 
to  Antwerp.  Thus  ended  the  union  of  Calmar, 
1523.  He  attempted  to  recover  his  throne,  and  in 
1531  was  acknowledged  king  in  Norway.  He  was 
soon  forced  to  surrender  to  the  Danes,  and  was 
imprisoned  for  the  rest  of  his  life,  passmg  seven- 
teen years  in  a  terrible  dungeon  on  the  island  of 
Alsen. 

Christian  IV^  king  of  Denmark  and  Norway,  and 
duke  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  born  in  Zealand  1577, 
and  elected  successor  to  the  throne  in  1588.  He 
assumed  the  sceptor  in  1593.  From  1611  he 
carried  on  a  successful  war,  known  as  the  Kal- 
marian  war,  against  Charles  IX.  of  Sweden,  and 
his  successor,  Gustavus  Adolphus,  which  ended  in 
an  advantageous  peace  in  1613.  As  leader  of  the 
Protestants  in  the  thirty  years'  war,  Christian 
was  not  successful.  His  legislative  and  financial 
reforms,  together  with  his  love  and  patronage  of 
the  arts  and  sciences,  gained  the  esteem  of  his 
people.     Died,  1648. 

Christian  IX^  king  of  Denmark,  1863-1906,  was 
bom  near  Schleswig  1818,  died  at  Copenhagen 
1906.  In  1864  he  prosecuted  a  war  against 
Austria,  Prussia,  and  other  German  states,  over 
the  ownership  of  Schleswig  and  Hobtein,  which 
terminated  against  him.  He  was  the  father  of 
Frederick  VIII.,  Queen  Alexandra  of  England, 
George  I.,  king  of  Greece,  and  Dagmar,  dowager 
empress  of  Russia. 

Christie,  James  Elder,  British  artist;  bom  Guard- 
bridge,  Fifeshire,  1847;  educated  at  Paisley 
school  of  art.  South  Kensington  art  school,  and 
St  the  royal  academy.  Went  to  London,  1874  • 
gold  medal  at  South  Kensington,  1875;  gold 
medal  at  royal  academy,  1877,  for  historical 
painting.  Chief  pictures:  "Tarn  o'Shanter"; 
"A  Rose  Among  Thorns";  "Pied  Piper  of 
Hamelin";  "The  May  Queen";  "Sorrow's 
Solace";  "Blind  Grannie";  "A  Lion  in  the 
Path"'  "The  Four  Maries";  "Hallowe'en"; 
"The Red  Fisherman";  "Vanity  Fair"*  "Suffer 
little  Children  to  come  unto  Me";  "Fortune's 
Wheel";  "Gather  ye  Rosebuds";  "The 
Golden  Stair";  "The  Fairy  Ring":  "The 
Banks  of  Allan  Water";  " Bonnie  Kilmeny " ; 
"The  Vision  of  Mirza";  "Cupid's  Bower"; 
"The  Djnng  Swan." 

Christina  (kris-te'-na),  queen  of  Sweden,  bom  in 
1626 ;  succeeded  her  father,  Gustavus  Adolphus. 
in  1632.  After  her  coronation  in  1650,  she  fell 
under  the  influence  of  favorites,  and  ceased  to 
interest  herself  in  state  affairs.  She  resigned  the 
crown  to  her  cousin,  Charles  Gustavtis,  in  1654, 
was  baptized  bv  the  pope,  and  lived  for  some 
time  at  Paris.  On  the  death  of  Charles  Gustavus, 
in  1660,  she  vainly  endeavored  to  regain  the 
throne.  She  died  at  Rome  in  1689.  Christina 
was  one  of  the  most  accomplished  women  of  her 
time,  a  remarkable  linguist,  and  the  friend  and 
correspondent  of  Gassendi,  Descartes,  Salmasius, 
and  others  of  the  most  famous  literati  of  that  age. 

Christy,  Howard  Chandler,  illustrator,  writer; 
bom  in  Morgan  county,  Ohio,  1873 ;  educated  at 
Duncan's  Falls,  Ohio;  went  East  in  1893;  since 
then  on  New  York  illustrated  periodicals;  went 
to  Cuba  with  second  United  States  regulars  and 
' '  rough  riders  " ;  saw  the  fighting  before  Santiago ; 
his  letters  and  illustrations  published  in  Scribner's 
Magazine,  Harper's  Magazine,  Collier's  Weekly, 
and  by  R.  H.  Russell,  publisher.  Has  charge 
of  illustrating  class  at  Cooper  institute. 

Chrysostom  {kris'-ds-tHm  or  kris-^s'-tiim),  St.  John, 
one  of  the  Greek  fathers,  bom  about  347;  gave 
himself,  from  an  early  age,  to  a  life  of  prayer  and 


asceticism,  and,  in  397,  was  made  bishop  of  Con- 
stantinople by  the  emperor  Arcadius.  He  was 
renowned  for  his  eloquence  and  almsgiving,  and 
his  zeal  as  a  reformer  made  him  many  enemies, 
among  them  the  empress  Eudoxia.  He  was 
svunmoned  before  a  synod  at  Chalcedon,  deposed 
and  banished,  but  an  insurrection  of  the  people 
led  to  his  inmiediate  recall.  He  was  soon  after- 
ward deposed  again  and  conveyed  to  the 
Taurus  mountains,  whence  he  was  ordered  to 
proceed  to  Pitjois,  on  the  Euxine,  but  died  on  the 
journey  at  Comana  in  407. 

Chrystal,  GeorRe,  mathematician;  professor  of 
mathematics,  Edinburgh  university,  1879-1911: 
dean  of  the  faculty  of  arts;<  secretary,  royal 
societvof  Edinburgh,  1901-11;  was  chairman  of 
first  Eidinburgh  provincial  committee  for  the  train- 
ing of  teachers ;  was  born  in  Aberdeenshire,  1851 ; 
etlucated  at  universities  of  Aberdeen  and  Cam- 
bridge; M.  A.,  LL.  D. ;  professor  of  mathematics, 
St.  Andrews.  Author:  Treatise  on  Algtbra; 
Introduction  to  Algdira;  articles  in  Encydo- 
pcedia  Britannica,  Electricity  and  Magnetism,  etc.; 
contributor  to  Nature,  Philosophical  Magazine; 
proceedings  and  transactions  of  royal  society  of 
Edinburgh ;  in  particular  a  series  of  memoirs  on 
the  OsciUationa  of  Lakes.     Died,  1911. 

Church,  Alfred  John,  English  clerg\'man  and 
writer,  was  bom  1829;  e<lucated  at  king's  col- 
lege, London;  Lincoln  college,  Oxford.  AMistant 
master  in  Merchant  Taylors  school,  London, 
1857-70;  headmaster  of  Retford  grammar 
school,  1873-80;  professor  of  Latin  in  University 
college,  London,  1880-88;  rector  of  Ashley, 
Tetbury,  Gloucestershire,  1892-97.  Author: 
Stories  from.  Homer,  Virgil,  Greek  Tragedians, 
Livy,  Herodotus,  Two  Thousand  Years  Ago,  Fali 
of  Carthage,  etc. ;  Memories  of  Men  and  Books; 
translator  of  Tacitus  (in  collaboration  with  Rev. 
W.  J.  Brodribb),  etc.     Died,  1912. 

Church,  Frederick  Edwin,  American  landscape 
painter,  was  bom  at  Hartfonl,  Conn.,  1826.  He 
nrst  painted  scenes  from  the  Catskill  mountains. 
He  tnen  traveled  in  South  America,  and  painted 
his  "HeaLTt  of  the  Andes,"  "Morning  on  tne  Cor- 
dilleras," etc.  He  also  made  a  sketching  trip  to 
Greece  and  Palestine.  His  "Tropical  Scenery" 
and  "  View  of  Niagara  Falls  from  the  Canadian 
Shore"  are  among  nis  best  works.  Died  at  New 
York,  1900. 

Church,  Blchard  William,  English  clergyman  and 
writer,  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  was  bom  at  Lisbon, 
1815.  He  graduated  from  Wadham  college, 
Oxford,  in  1836,  in  1838  was  elected  a  fellow  of 
Oriel,  and  in  1853  became  rector  of  Whatley, 
near  Frome,  in  1871  dean  of  St.  Paul's.  He  died, 
1890.  Among  his  works,  besides  several  volumes 
of  sermons,  were  Essays  and  Reviews,  Life  of  St. 
Ansdm,  The  Beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages,  Dante: 
an  Essay,  with  a  translation  of  the  De  Monorchia 
by  his  only  son,  F.  J.  Church;  Spenser,  Bacon, 
The  Oxford  Movement,  and  Occasional  Papers. 

Churchill,  John.     See  MarlborouKh,  Duke  of. 

Churchill,  Winston,  American  novelist  and  writer; 
born  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  1871;  graduated,  1894, 
from  the  United  States  naval  academy.  An 
editor  of  the  Army  and  Navy  Journal  of  New 
York,  1894;  managing  editor  of  Cosmopolitan 
Magazine,  1895;  member  of  New  Hampshire 
legislature,  1903  and  1905;  candidate  for  gov- 
ernor of  New  Hampshire  of  Lincoln  republican 
club  on  a  reform  platform  in  1906.  Author: 
The  Celebrity;  Richard  Carvel;  The  Crisis;  The 
Crossing;  Coniston;  Mr.  Crewe's  Career.  Con- 
tributor of  naval  and  other  stories  to  magazines. 

Churchill,  Bt.  Hon.  Winston  Leonard  Spencer, 
British  statesman,  author,  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty  since  1911;  was  bom,  1874;  educated 
at  Harrow;  Sandhurst.  Entered  army,  1895,  and 
served  with  Spanish  forces  in  Cuba;  served,  1897. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


Sir 


Acted  aa  correspondent  of  London  Morning  Post, 
South  Africa,  1899-1900;  taken  prisoner,  action 
November  15th,  but  escaped  December  12th; 
present  at  actions  of  Acton  Homes,  Venter's 
Spruit,  Hussar  Hill,  Cingolo,  Monte  Cristo,  and 
at  battles  of  Spion  Kop,  Vaal  Krantz,  and 
Pieters;  also,  operations  round  Dewetsdorp, 
April,  1900;  passage  of  Sand  river,  May  15th; 
engagements  of  Johannesburg  and  Diamond  Hill, 
and  capture  of  Pretoria;  member  of  parliament 
for  Oldham,  1900-06;  was  Ueutenant  of  the 
fourth  queen's  own  hussars;  member  of  par- 
liament for  Manchester,  1906-08 ;  member  of  par- 
liament for  Dundee  since  1908;  under-secretary  of 
state  for  the  colonies,  1906-08;  president  of  board 
of  trade,  1908-10;  home  secretary,  1910-11. 
Author :  The  Story  of  the  Malakand  Field  Force; 
The  River  War;  Savrola;  London  to  Lady  smith  via 
Pretoria;  Ian  Hamilton' s  March;  Lord  Randolph 
Churchill;  My  African  Journey. 

Ctbber  (slb'-ir),  CoIIeyt  actor,  manager,  and 
dramatist,  was  born  in  London,  1671.  He  was 
educated  at  Grantham,  and  in  1690  joined  the 
Theatre  Royal  in  Drurv  Lane,  where  he  remained, 
with  short  intervals,  during  his  whole  theatrical 
career  of  forty-three  years.  In  1696  his  first 
comedy.  Love's  Last  Shift,  was  produced,  the 
author  playing  Sir  Novelty  Fashion;  it 
established  his  fame  both  as  dramatist  and 
actor.     Poet  laureate   from    1730.     Died,  1757. 

Cicero,  Marcus  Tulllus.     See  page  22. 

Cld  Campeador  (theru  kHm'-pa-a-thdr'),  Buy,  or 
Rodrigo  Diaz  de  Bivar,  hero  of  Spanish  fiction, 
aided  Sancho  of  Castile  against  his  brother, 
Alfonso,  king  of  Aragon,  but  on  the  death  of 
Sancho  acknowledged  Alfonso  as  king  of  Castile. 
He  lost  the  favor  of  Alfonso,  and  retired  from 
his  court,  but  obtained  some  aid  from  him  in 
capturing  the  city  of  Valencia  from  the  Moors, 
which  he  ruled  till  his  death. 

Cimabue  (che'-m&-b<S(>'-d),  Giovanni,  Italian  artist, 
one  of  the  restorers  of  the  art  of  painting  in 
Italy,  which  had  fallen  into  neglect  during  the 
barbarism  of  the  dark  ages;  born  at  Florence  in 
1240,  died  about  1300.  The  exhibition  of  his 
table  of  "The  Virgin"  for  the  Rucellai  chapel  in 
Santa  Maria  Novella  was  the  occasion  of  a 
public  festival.  Except  the  "Madonna,"  little 
of  his  work  remains. 

Cimon  (si'-mon),  Athenian  commander,  was  the 
son  of  Miltiades,  the  conqueror  at  Marathon. 
With  his  patron  Aristides,  he  was  placed  over 
the  Athenian  contingent  to  the  allied  fleet, 
which,  under  Pausanias,  continued  the  war 
against  Persia,  477  B.  C.  His  greatest  exploit 
was  his  encounter  with  a  Persian  fleet  at  the 
river  Eurymedon,  466,  when  he  destroyed  or 
captured  300  out  of  350  ships,  and  defeated  the 
land  forces  on  the  same  day.  He  likewise  drove 
the  Persians  from  Thrace,  Caria,  and  Lycia; 
and  expended  much  of  the  money  which  he  had 
obtained  by  the  recovery  of  his  patrimony  in 
Thrace  upon  the  improvement  of  Athens.  He 
advocated  a  close  alliance  with  Sparta;  and 
■when  the  Helots  revolted,  he  twice  led  an  army 
to  support  thje  Spartans;  but  the  second  time, 
having  lost  the  confidence  of  his  allies,  he  was 
ignominiously  dismissed.  At  Athens  he  was 
opposed  by  the  democracy,  headed  by  Pericles, 
■who  procured  his  ostracism.  He  was  recalled 
in  454,  and  was  instrumental  in  obtaining  a  five 
years'  armistice  with  Sparta;  He  died  in  449 
B.  C.  at  the  siege  of  a  Cjqirian  town. 

Cinclnnatus  (sin'-si-nd'-tOs),  Lucius  Quintius,  a 
Roman  consul  regarded  by  the  later  Romans  as 
the  model  of  antique  virtue,  bom  about  519 
B.  C.  About  460  B.  C.  he  was  chosen  consul, 
and  two  years  later  was  made  dictator.  When 
the  messengers  from  Rome  arrived  to  tell  him 
of  his  new  dignity  they  found  him  plowing  on 


his  small  farm.  After  a  dicUtorahip  ot  dztaea 
days  ho  returned  to  hia  slmpta  oountry  life.  He 
was  again,  when  eighty  yean  old,  made  dioUtor; 
died  about  4.30  B.  C. 

Cinna,  Lucius  Cornelius,  Roman  patrician  who 
supported  Marius;  Hulla,  after  driving  Mariua 
from  Rome,  and  before  setting  out  agiUnst 
Mithridates,  allowed  Cinna  to  be  elected  ooninil 
on  his  swearing  not  to  disturb  the  existing  con- 
stitution. No  sooner,  however,  had  ho  entered 
on  office,  87  B.  C,  than  he  impeached  Sulla. 
and  agitated  for  Marius'  recall.  Cinna  ana 
Marius  next  declared  themselves  consuls  after  a 
cruel  massacre  of  the  Roman  citiiens.  Marius 
died  a  few  days  later;  and  Cinna  in  84  B.  C. 
prepared  to  meet  Sulla,  but  was  slain  by  his  own 
disaffected  troops  at  Bnmdisium.  During  his 
fourth  consulate  his  daughter  Cornelia  was 
married  to  Julius  Caesar. 

Cinq-Mars  (sd:^'-mar'),  Henri  CoUBer  de  RaiC, 
Marquis  de,  French  courtier,  was  bom  in  1620, 
the  second  son  of  the  marshal  Marquis  d'Efliat. 
At  nineteen  he  was  chief  equerry  to  Louis  XI IL. 
but  already  in  his  dreams  he  was  a  duke  and 
peer  of  France,  and  husband  of  the  princess 
Maria  of  Gonzaga.  Finding  his  projects  derided 
by  Richelieu,  his  former  patron,  he  conspired 
with  the  king's  brother,  Duke  Gaston  of  Orleans, 
to  murder  the  cardinal.  With  this  was  com- 
bined a  wider  plot  with  Spain;  but  the  con- 
spiracy was  discovered,  and  Cinq-Mars,  with 
De  Thou,  was  executed  at  Lyons,  September, 
1642. 

Clairaut  (JcU'-ro'),  Alexis  Claude,  French  mathe- 
matician, was  born  in  Paris,  1713,  and  died 
there,  1765.  Admitted  at  eighteen  to  the  acad- 
emy of  sciences,  he  is  remembered  by  his  Figure 
de  la  Terre,  his  theory  of  the  lunar  apogee,  and 
his  computation  of  the  return  of  Halley's  comet. 

Clapp,  Moses  Edwin,  lawyer.  United  States  senator, 
was  bom  in  Delphi,  Ind.,  1851 ;  his  parents 
removed  to  Hudson,  Wis.,  in  1857;  after  obtain- 
ing a  common  school  education,  graduate<l  from 
the  "(Wisconsin  law  school  in  1873;  in  1878  was 
elected  county  attorney  of  St.  Croix  county, 
Wisconsin*  in  1881  moved  to  Fergus  Falb, 
Minn.,  and  resided  there  until  1891;  was  elected 
attorney-general  of  Minnesota  in  1887,  1889, 
and  1891,  and  removed  to  St.  Paul  and  made 
that  his  permanent  home  in  1891;  was  e.  'ted 
to  the  United  States  senate,  1901,  to  fill  a 
vacancy  occasioned  by  the  death  of  Hon.  Cush- 
man  K.  Davis,  and  took  his  seat,  1901;  reelected 
for  the  terms  1905-11  and  1911-17. 

Clarendon  (kl&r' -en-dun),  Edward  Hyde,  Earl  of, 
English  historian  and  statesman,  was  bom,  160S, 
at  Dinton,  England.  He  sat  in  the  short  par- 
liament and  in  the  long  parliament  on  the  popular 
side,  but  during  the  civil  war  became  a  devoted 
royalist;  was  from  1641  one  of  the  chief  advisers 
of  the  king ;  on  the  failure  of  the  royal  cause,  took 
refuge  first  in  Jersey,  and  then  in  Holland  with 
the  prince  of  Wales;  contributed  to  the  restora- 
tion; came  back  with  Charles,  and  became  lord 
chancellor;  fell  into  disfavor,  and  quitted 
England  in  1667;  died  at  Rouen,  1674.  He 
wrote,  among  other  works,  a  History  of  the  Oreat 
Rebellion,  dignifiedly  written,  though  often  care- 
lessly, but  full  of  graphic  touches  and  character- 
izations especially  of  contemporaries. 

Clark,  Alvan,  American  optician,  engraver,  and 
manufacturer  of  tele8cof>e8,  was  bom  at  Ash- 
field,  Mass..  1808,  and  died  at  Cambridge,  Mass., 
1887.  Early  in  life  he  was  a  portrait  painter; 
but  in  1845  he  turned  his  attention  to  the  makinz 
of  achromatic  lenses  and  the  manufacture  of 
telescopes.  Associated  with  his  sons,  he  con- 
struct^ object-glasses  for  universities,  for  the 
naval  observatory  at  Washington,  and  for  the 
Lick   observatory  in   California.      He  also  had 


618 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


orders  from  Russia,  from  the  imperial  observa^ 
tory  at  Pulkova. 

Clark,  Sir  Andrew,  British  physician,  was  bom  at 
Wolfhill,  Scotland,  1826 ;  educated  at  Aberdeen 
and  Edinburgh.  In  1854  he  settled  in  London, 
■where  he  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  his  skill 
in  the  treatment  of  diseases  affecting  the  respira- 
tory, renal,  and  digestive  organs.  Among  his 
patients  were  George  Eliot  and  Gladstone.  Cre- 
ated a  baronet  in  1883,  he  died  1893.  He  pub- 
lished several  medical  works. 

Clark,  Champ,  congressman,  lawyer;  bom  in 
Anderson  county,  Kentucky,  1850;  educated  in 
common  schools,  Kentucky  university,  Bethany 
college,  and  Cincinnati  law  school;  president 
Marshall  college,  West  Virginia,  1873-74;  has 
worked  as  hired  hand  on  farm,  clerk  in  country 
store,  country  newspaper  editor;  was  city 
attorney  of  Louisiana,  Mo.,  and  later  of 
Bowling  Green,  Mo. ;  prosecuting  attorney  of 
Pike  county-  presidential  elector;  member  con- 
gress, ninth  Missouri  district,  1893-95,  and  again 
1897-1915 ;  chairman  democratic  national  con-  | 
vention,  St.  Louis,  1904.  Speaker  of  house  of 
representatives  since  1911. 

Clark,  Charles  Edgar,  naval  of&eer ;  bom  Bradford. 
Vt.,  1843;  appointed  to  United  States  naval 
academy  from  Vermont,  1860,  graduated,  1863; 
LL.  D.,  university  of  Pennsylvania,  1905. 
Served  on  board  Ossipee,  western  gulf  block- 
ading squadron,  1863-65;  battle  of  Mobile  bay, 
and  capture  of  Fort  Morgan,  August,  1864; 
Vanderbilt,  Pacific  squadron,  1865-67;  com- 
mander of  the  Ranger,  1883-86;  lighthouse 
inspector  of  ninth  district,  1887-91 ;  navy  yard. 
Mare  island,  1891-93;  commander  of  the 
Mohican,  1893-94;  special  duty,  1895;  com- 
mander receiving-ship  Independence,  1895-96, 
Monterey,  1896-98;  commander  battleship 
Oregon  during  the  cruise  from  San  Francisco  to 
Key  West,  and  in  the  battle  of  Santiago,  July  3, 
1898;  for  eminent  and  conspicuous  conduct  in  , 
this  battle  was  advanced  six  numbers  in  rank;  i 
was  again  advanced  seven  additional  numbers  in 
rank,  and  promoted  rear  admiral,  1902;  gov- 
ernor naval  home,  Philadelphia,  19<)l-04;  presi- 
dent naval  examining  and  retiring  board, 
1904-05;  retired,  1905. 

C^ark,  Clarence  Don,  lawyer,  United  States  senator, 
was  born  at  Sandy  Creek,  Oswego  county,  N.  Y., 
1851;  educated  at  Iowa  state  university; 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1874;  practiced  law  in 
Iowa  until  1881 ;  moved  to  Evanston,  Wyo., 
where  he  has  since  resided;  was  prosecuting 
attorney  for  Uinta  county  four  years;  upon  the 
admission  of  Wyoming  as  a  state  was  elected  to 
the  fifty-first  and  fifty-second  congresses;  was 
defeated  for  reelection  to  the  fifty-third  congress 
by  a  fusion  of  democrats  and  populists;  was 
elected  1895  to  the  United  States  senate,  and 
reelected  in  1899,  1905,  and  1911. 

Claric,  Edwin  Charles,  English  lawyer,  regius 
professor  of  civil  law,  Cambridge,  was  bom 
1835;  graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge, 
and  was  formerly  scholar  and  fellow  of  Trinity; 
now  professorial  fellow  of  St.  John's;  LL.  D., 
F.  S.  A.  Practiced  for  a  short  time  as  a  con- 
veyancer in  London.  Author:  Early  Roman 
Law:  Regal  Period;  Analysis  of  Criminal  Lia- 
bility; Practical  Jurisprudence:  A  Comment  on 
Austin;  Cambridge  Legal  Studies;  History  of 
Roman  Private  Law. 

Clark,  Francis  Edward,  founder  united  society  of 
Christian  Endeavor;  bom  of  New  England 
parentage,  Aylmer,  P.  Q.,  1851;  graduate  of 
Dartmouth  college,  1873 ;  studied  theology  three 
years  at  Andover;  became  pastor  Williston 
church,  Portland,  Me.,  which  from  a  small 
mission  he  built  up  to  a  large  Congregational 
church;    foimded,    Febmary,    1881,   the  society 


of  Christian  Endeavor,  which  has  extended 
throughout  the  world;  pastor  Phillips  church. 
South  Boston,  1883-87;  since  then  has  de- 
voted his  time  to  the  Christian  Endeavor  work 
as  president  of  united  society  of  Christian  En- 
deavor, president  of  World's  Christian  Endeavor 
union,  and  editor  of  The  Christian  Endeavor 
World.  Author:  Our  Vacations;  Our  Business 
Boys;  Lookina  Out  on  Life;  Danger  Signals; 
Ways  and  Means;  Our  Journey  ArourCd  the 
World;  The  Mossback  Correspondence;  Fellow 
Travelers;  The  Great  Secret;  World-Wide  En- 
deavor; A  New  Way  Around  an  Old  World; 
Training  the  Church  of  the  Future;  Christian 
Endeavor  Manual;   etc. 

Clark,  Sir  James,  British  physician,  bom  at  Cullen, 
Banffshire,  1788;  took  his  M.  A.  at  Aberdeen; 
studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh  and  London ;  was 
a  naval  surgeon  1809-15;  practiced  eight  yeans 
at  Rome,  and  in  1826  settled  in  London.  In 
1837  Clark,  who  had  been  physician  to  the  duchess 
of  Kent,  was  appointed  physician  in  ordinary'  to 
Queen  Victoria,  and  in  1838  was  created  a 
baronet.  He  wrote  on  climate,  consumption, 
etc.     He  died,  1870. 

Clark,  John  Bates,  educator,  bom  at  Providence, 
R.  I.,  1847;  graduate  of  Amherst  college,  1872; 
special  studies,  economics  and  history,  university 
of  Heidelberg,  university  of  Zurich;  Ph.  D., 
LL.  D.,  Amherst,  LL.  D.,  Princeton.  Was 
professor  of  political  economy,  Carleton  college, 
Smith  college,  Amherst  college;  lecturer,  Johns 
Hopkins;  professor  of  political  economy,  Colum- 
bia since  1895.  Member  board  of  trustees  of 
Smith  college,  board  of  editors  Political  Science 
Quarterly.  Author:  The  Philosophy  of  Wealth; 
The  DistribxUion  of  Wealth;  The  Control  of 
Trusts;  The  Problem  of  Monopoly;  Essentials  of 
Economic  Theory;  also  monographs  —  Wa^ges; 
Capital  and  Its  Earnings;  and  numerous  articles 
in  economic  reviews  and  journals. 

Clark,  Kate  Upson,  author;  bom  Camden,  Ala., 
1851 ;  daughter  Edwin  and  Priscilla  (Maxwell) 
Upson;  graduate  Wheaton  semlnan.',  Norton, 
Mass.,  1869^  Westfieid  (Mass.)  normal  school, 
1872;  married  Eklward  Perkins  Clark,  journalist 
(died  Febmar\'  16,  1903).  Taught  in  Cleveland, 
(Ohio)  Central  high  school,  1872-73.  Editor:  Good 
Cheer,  \^2r-%7;  Romance,  \S9l2-95.  Contributor 
to  Harper's  publications;  Wide  Awake;  St. 
Nicholas;  Youth's  Companion;  Atlantic  Monthly, 
etc. ;  also  to  religious  weeklies ;  editorial  writer 
on  BrooWyn£^a^/e  since  1907.  Author:  That  Mary 
Ann;  Bringing  Up  Boys;  White  Butterflies; 
How  Dexter  Paid  His  Way;  Move  Upward;  On 
the  Witch  Brook  Road;  The  Dole  Twins;  The 
Adventures  of  Spotty;  Donald's  Good  Hen;  Art 
and  Citizenship. 

Clark,  or  Clarke,  William,  American  explorer; 
bom  in  Virginia  1770,  died  at  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
1838.  In  1804-06,  in  company  with  Lewis,  he 
started  on  an  exploring  expedition  from  St.  Louis 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  river ;  governor  of 
Missouri  territory  1813-21  j  superintendent  of 
Indian  affairs  from  1822  until  his  death. 

Clark,  William  Andrews,  capitalist,  ex-United 
States  senator;  bom  near  Ck)nnellsville,  Pa., 
1839;  educated  at  Laurel  Hill  academy  and 
other  academies;  studied  law  at  Mt.  Pleasant, 
la.,  university;  did  not  enter  legal  profession; 
taught  school,  Missouri,  1859-60;  went  to  Colo- 
rado, 1862;  to  Montana,  1863;  since  then 
merchant,  banker,  mine-owner,  manufacturer, 
having  large  interests;  owns  street  railways  of 
Butte,  the  Miner  newspaper,  etc. ;  president 
United  Verde  copper  company,  of  Arizona; 
state  orator,  representing  Montana  at  Centennial 
exposition,  1876;  grand  master  Masons,  Mon- 
tana, 1877 ;  major  Butte  battalion,  leading  it  in 
Nez  Perc6  campaign,  1878;    president  constitu- 


THROUGHOXrr  THE  WORLD 


619 


tional  conventions,  1884  and  1889;  commissioner 
from  Montana  to  New  Orleans  exposition,  1884 ; 
democratic  candidate  for  delegate  in  congress, 
1888  (defeated);  nominated  by  democrats  for 
United  States  senator,  1890,  and  claimed  election, 
but  was  denied  seat;  elected  by  legislature  for 
term,  1901-07,  United  States  senate. 

Clark,  Sir  William  Mortlmier,  lieutenant-governor 
of  Ontario,  1903-08;  chairman,  Knox  college, 
Toronto,  since  1880;  bom  at  Aberdeen,  Scotland, 
1836.  He  was  educated  at  Marisciial  college, 
Aberdeen;  university  of  Edinburgh;  settled  in 
Toronto,  Ontario,  1859;  admitted  to  bar  of 
Ontario,  1869;  Q.  C,  1890;  for  fifteen  years 
senator  of  university  of  Toronto;  LL.  D., 
Toronto,  1902,  Queen's  university,  Kingston, 
1903;  president  of  Toronto  mortgage  company; 
director  of  Metropolitan  bank  of  Canada; 
director  of  gas  company;  solicitor  for  various 
public  companies  and  charities;  president  of  St. 
Andrew's  society  for  two  years;  for  five  years 
secretary  of  Canadian  institute;  for  two  years 
president  of  County  of  York  law  association. 
He  is  the  author  of  numerous  contributions  to 
Toronto  press  on  public,  educational,  and  literar-y 
questions.  Has  traveled  extensively  on  Ameri- 
can continent,  in  Africa,  Asia,  and  almost  every 
country  in  Europe. 

Clark,  William  Boblnson,  educator,  religious 
writer;  professor  emeritus  of  philosophv.  Trinity 
college,  Toronto,  1882-1908;  bom  at  Inverurie, 
Scotland,  1829 ;  educated  at  King's  college,  Aber- 
deen; Hertford  college,  Oxford.  Ordained 
deacon,  1857;  priest,  1858;  curate  of  St. 
Matthias',  Birmingham,  1857;  St.  Mary  Mag- 
dalene, Taunton,  1858;  vicar,  1859;  prebendary 
of  Wells,  1870^  Baldwin  lecturer  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Michigan,  1887;  LL.  D.,  Hobart  college, 
1888;  D.  C.  L.,  Trinity  university,  Toronto, 
1891;  F.  R.  S.,  1891;  Slocum  lecturer  in  the 
university  of  Michigan,  1899;  president  of  the 
royal  society  of  Canada,  1900;  D.  D.,  Queen's 
university,  Canada,  1902;  hon.  canon  of  St. 
Alban's  cathedral,  Toronto,  1907.  Author:  The 
Redeemer;  The  Comforter;  The  Four  Tempera- 
ments; Witnesses  to  Christ  (Baldwin  lectures); 
Savonarola:  His  Life  and  Times;  The  Anglican 
Reformation;  The  Paraclete  (Slocum  lectures); 
Pascal  and  Port  Royal;  translated  and  edited 
Hagenbach's  History  of  Christian  Doctrine; 
Hefele's  History  of  the  Councils. 

Clarke,  Adam,  British  Wesleyan  divine  and  author, 
was  bom  at  Moybee,  Ireland,  1762.  From 
1782  he  preached  in  places  as  widely  different  as 
the  Channel  islands  and  Shetland,  but  after 
1805  lived  mostly  in  London.  His  first  work 
was  a  Bibliographical  Dictionary  (8  vols.);  his 
greatest,  his  edition  of  the  Holy  Scriptures 
(8  vols.)  with  a  commentary.     He  died,  1832. 

Clartce,  Sir  Caspar  Purdon,  Kt^  formerly  director 
Metropolitan  museum  of  art,  New  York,  was  bom 
at  London,  England,  1846 ;  educated  in  England 
and  France;  LL.  D.,  McGill  university,  Mon- 
treal, 1908.  Was  keeper  of  art  collections  and 
assistant  director,  and  afterward  director  of  art 
museum.  South  Kensington,  London,  until  1905; 
director  of  iJetropolitan  museum  of  art.  New 
York,  1905-11.  Chevalier  legion  d'honneur, 
France,  1878;  companion  of  the  order  of  the 
Indian  empire,  1883;  created  knight,  1902; 
commander  Victorian  order,  1905.  Read  a  num- 
ber of  papers  before  various  art  societies,  and 
was  influential  in  promoting  art  education. 
Died,  1911. 

Clarke,  Charles  Cowdcn,  English  writer  and  critic, 
was  bom  in  1787,  at  Enfield,  Middlesex.  He 
early  imbibed  a  passion  for  the  theater,  and 
made  frequent  visits  to  London,  where  he  formed 
the  friendship  of  Leigh  Hunt,  Shelley,  Haelitt, 
Charles  and  Mary  Lamb.     On  his  father's  death 


in  1820,  he  became  a  bookseller  in  London,  and 
shortly  partner  as  music  publisher  with  Alfred 
Novello,  whose  sister,  Mary  Victoria,  be  married 
m  1828.  A  year  later  Mrs.  Cowden  Clarke  becan 
her  famous  Concordance  to  ShahufMortf »  Play*. 
In  1834  Clarke  entered  on  that  twenty  years' 
course  of  public  lectures  on  Shakespeue  and 
other  dramatists  and  poets  which  brought  him 
so  much  celebrity  and  profit.  Some  of  them 
were  published,  as  his  Shakespeare  Chareuiert 
and  Moliire  Characters.  The  joint  productions 
of  the  pair  were  the  valuable  Shakespeare  Key; 
an  annotated  edition  of  Shakespeare,  now 
reissued  as  Cassell's  Illustrated  Shakespeare;  and 
Recollections  of  Writers,  full  of  reminiscences  of 
Keats,  Lamb,  Dickens,  etc.  In  1866  both  went 
to  live  at  Nice,  but  removed  in  1861  to  Oimoa, 
where  Charles  died,  1877,  and  his  widow,  1897. 

Clarke,  Frank  WlRKlesworth,  cheniist;  born  at 
Boston,  1847;  graduate  of  Lawrence  scientific 
school.  Harvard,  1867;  D.  Sc.,  Columbian, 
1891,  Victoria,  Manchester,  1903;  LL.  D.,  Aber- 
deen, 1906.  Instructor  at  Cornell,  1869:  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry,  Howard  university,  Wash- 
ington, 1873-74;  professor  of  chemistry  and 
physics,  university  of  Cincinnati,  1874-83; 
chief  chemist  of  United  States  geological  survey 
and  honorary  curator  of  minerals  in  United 
States  national  museum,  since  1883.  Member 
of  numerous  scientific  bodies;  chairman  inter- 
national committee  on  atomic  weiglits ;  chevalier 
de  la  legion  d'honneur;  member  of  international 
jury  of  awards,  Paris  exposition,  1900.  Author: 
yVeights,  Measures  and  Money  of  All  Nations; 
Elements  of  Chemistry;  Constants  of  Nature; 
Report  on  the  Teaching  of  Chemistry  and  Physics 
in  the  United  States;  Elementary  Chemistry  (with 
L.  M.  Dennis) ;  Laboratory  Manual  (with  same) ; 
also  bulletins  of  United  States  geological  survey 
and  over  100  papers  on  chemistry  and  mineralogy. 

Clarke,  James  Freeman,  American  theologian  and 
writer,  was  born  at  Hanover,  N.  H.,  1810; 
graduated  at  Harvard,  1829;  Cambridge  divinity 
school,  1833.  He  was  pastor  of  a  Unitarian 
church,  Louisville,  Ky.,  until  1840;  co-founder  of 
the  church  of  Disciples,  Boston ;  professor  of  natu- 
ral theology  at  Harvard,  1867-71;  lecturer  on 
ethnic  religions,  1876-77.  He  wrote:  The  Ten 
Great  Religions,  his  greatest  work;  Orthodoxy; 
Events  and  Epochs  in  Religious  History;  Steps  of 
Belief;  etc.     Died  at  Jamaica  Plain,  MtLsa.,  1888. 

Clarke,  James  P.,  lawyer.  United  States  senator, 
was  bom  in  Yazoo  City,  Miss.,  1854:  was  edu- 
cated in  the  common  schools,  in  several  academies 
in  Mississippi,  and  studied  law  at  the  imiversity 
of  Virgima,  graduating  in  1878;  began  the 
practice  of  his  profession  at  Helena,  Ark.,  in 
1879.  He  was  elected  to  the  Arkansas  legia- 
lature  in  1886;  in  1888  was  elected  to  the  state 
senate,  serving  until  1892,  being  president 
of  that  body  m  1891  and  ex-officio  lieutenant- 
governor;  was  elected  attorney -general  of 
Arkansas  in  1892,  but  declined  a  renomination, 
and  was  elected  governor  in  1894.  At  the  close 
of  his  service  as  governor  he  moved  to  Little 
Rock  and  resumed  the  practice  of  the  law.  He 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  senate  to  succeed 
Hon.  James  K.  Jones,  1903 ;  reelected  in  1909. 

Clarke,  Samuel,  English  philosopher  and  theoloeian, 
was  bom  at  Norwich,  1675,  and  educated  at 
Cambridge.  Along  with  philosophy  he  pursued 
the  study  of  theolo^  and  philology.  He  was 
for  some  time  chaplain  to  the  oishop  of  Norwich, 
a  promoter  of  science;  he  afterward  became 
chaplain  to  Queen  Anne,  and  in  1709  rector  of 
St.  James's.  His  views  were  of  the  kiiid  known 
as  semi-Arian.  He  died  1729.  His  most 
famous  works  are  Demonstration  of  the  Being  and 
Attributes  of  God,  and  Verity  and  Certitude  of 
Natural  and  Revealed  Rdigion. 


620 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Claude  (Jddd)  of  Lorraine,  or  Claude  Gel^e,  French 
landscape  painter,  bom  at  Chamagne,  in  Lor- 
raine, 1600;  died  in  Rome,  1682.  He  was 
originally,  it  is  said,  apprenticed  to  a  pastry 
cook;  but  at  the  age  of  twelve,  being  left  an 
orphan,  he  found  a  home  with  an  elder  brother, 
who  was  a  carver  in  wood  at  Freibui^,  ana 
there  showed  some  signs  of  Kenius.  He  after- 
ward studied  at  Rome  and  at  Naples.  In 
return  for  his  teaching,  in  the  house  of  Agoetino 
Tassi  at  Rome,  he  ground  his  master's  colors, 
and  did  all  the  drudgery  of  the  house.  He  made 
a  tour  in  Italy,  France,  and  Germanv,  suffering 
much  through  poverty;  but,  in  1627,  he  returned 
finally  to  Rome,  where  he  speedily  made  himself 
famous.  His  works  are  remarkable  for  their 
rich  coloring,  and  for  the  wonderful  vividness  of 
their  representations  of  natural  scenery. 

Claudlanus  {kl6-dl-a'-nix8\  Claudius,  the  last  of 
the  great  Latin  poets,  came  from  Alexandria  to 
Rome  in  395  A.  D.,  and  obtained  patrician 
dignity  by  favor  of  Stilicho,  whose  fall,  408,  he 
seems  not  to  have  long  survived.  A  pagan,  he 
wrote  first  in  Greek,  tliough  he  was  of  Roman 
extraction;  but  in  Gibbon's  words,  he  "assumed 
in  his  mature  age  the  familiar  use  and  absolute 
command  of  Latin."  We  have  two  epic  poems 
by  him,  Raptus  Proserpina  and  the  fragmentary 
Gigantoniachia,  besides  panegyrics  on  Honorius 
and  Stilicho,  EidyUia,  Epigrammata,  etc. 

Claudius  {kld'-dl^iia),  Marcus  Aureiius  Claudius 
Gothlcus,    Roman   emperor,    bom   in    Illyria   in 

A.  D.  214.  He  was  of  a  poor  family,  but  won 
fame  as  a  soldier,  and  when  the  emperor  Gallienus 
was  murdered  the  soldiers  made  him  emperor. 
The  next  year  he  gained  a  great  victory  over  the 
Goths  in  Macedonia,  from  which  he  took  the 
name  of  Gothicus.  He  died  in  270  from  a 
pestilence  which  broke  out  in  the  camp  of  the 
Goths  and  spread  to  his  own  array. 

Claudius,  Tiberius  Drusus  Nero  Germanlcus, 
Roman  emperor,  born  at  Lugdunura  (Lyons),  10 

B.  C.  He  was  weak  and  timid  in  his  youth,  and 
was  treated  with  neglect  even  by  his  mother,  for 
which  Augustus  left  him  a  fortune  when  he  died, 
to  which  Tiberius  largely  added  on  his  death. 
When  Caligula  was  killed  (A.  D.  41),  he  was  made 
emperor  by  the  soldiers.  This  was  the  first  time 
that  an  emperor  was  chosen  by  the  army.  He 
was  disposed  to  be  a  kind  and  iust  ruler,  but  was 
led  to  do  some  cruel  things  by  his  wives  and 
favorites.  The  conauest  of  Britain  was  begun 
by  him,  and  it  would  probably  have  become  a 
Roman  state  had  not  Claudius  been  recalled  to 
Rome;  from  his  conquests  in  Germany  he  took 
the  title  of  Germanicus.  He  did  much  good  for 
his  people  and  greatly  improved  Rome,  building 
the  harbor  of  Ostia  and  the  Claudian  aqueduct, 
which  supplied  the  city  with  water.  He  was 
poisoned  by  his  wife  Agrippina,  who  wanted  the 
empire  for  her  son  Nero,  in  A.  D.  54. 

Clauslus  (Jcld'-sUiis),  Rudolf  Julius  Emanuel, 
German  physicist,  was  bom  at  KosUn,  Pomerania, 
1822.  He  was  educated  at  Berlin,  and  held  pro- 
fessorships of  physics  at  Zurich,  Wiirzburg,  and 
Bonn.  He  discovered  the  principle  of  virial  in 
mathematical  physics  and  published  a  number  of 
books  on  physical  subjects.  He  defended  the 
scientific  possibility  of  miracles.     Died,  1888. 

Claxton,  Kate  (Mrs.  Charles  A.  Stevenson),  actress; 
born  Somerville,  N.  J.,  1850;  daughter  Spencer 
Wallace  Cone ;  first  professional  engagement  with 
Miss  Lotta,  Chicsigo,  1870 ;  fall  of  same  j'ear  joined 
Augustin  Daly's  Fifth  Avenue  theater.  New 
York;  became  member  of  A.  M.  Palmer's  Union 
Square  theater,  spring  of  1872,  playing  princi- 
pally comedy  r61es.  Created  part  of  Louise  in 
The  Ttoo  Orphans.  First  starring  tour,  1876; 
married  1878  Charles  A.  Stevenson. 


Claxton,  Philander  P.,  United  States  commissioaer 
of  education  since  1911;  born  in  Tennessee,  1862; 
A.  B.,  university  of  Tennessee,  1882,  A.  M.,  1887; 
graduate  student  Johns  Hopkins,  1884-85;  studied 
in  Germany,  1885-86;  visited  schools  in  Europe, 
1897.  Superintendent  of  schools,  Kinston,  N.  C, 
1883-84,  Wilson,  1886-88,  Asheville,  1888-93; 
professor  of  pedagogy  and  German,  1893-96, 
professor  of  pedagogy,  North  Carolina  normal 
and  industrial  college,  1896-1902;  professor  of 
education,  university  of  Tennessee,   1902-11. 

Clay,  Alexander  (Stephens,  lawyer.  United  States 
senator,  was  born  on  a  farm,  Cobb  county,  Ga. 
1853;  graduate  of  Hiawassee  college,  1875 
taught  school  two  years;  admitted  to  bar,  1877, 
afterward  practiced  law;  member  Marietta  city 
council,  1880-82;  Georgia  general  assembly, 
1884-87,  speaker,  1886-87;  member  and  preai- 
dent  senate,  1892-94;  chairman  Georgia  state 
democratic  committee,  1894-97.  United  States 
senator  1897-1910.     Died.  1910. 

Clay,  Henry,  American  statesman,  bom  1777  in 
Hanover  county,  Va.  He  studied  law  and  was 
admitted  to  theoar,  1797.  In  1806  was  elected  to 
congress,  and  again  in  1809  was  chosen  senator. 
In  1811  be  was  sent  to  the  house  of  representa- 
tives, where  be  was  immediately  elected  speaker. 
A  strong  advocate  of  nationality,  he  denounced 
the  claims  put  forth  by  England  as  to  right  of 
search ;  he  was  a  strenuous  supporter  of  the  war 
with  that  country,  and  in  consequence  was  sent, 
in  1814,  as  one  of  the  commissioners  to  sign  the 
treaty  of  peace  at  Ghent.  On  his  return  he 
exerted  all  his  talents  in  favor  of  the  independence 
of  South  America,  and  labored  hard  to  eradicate 
all  European  influence  from  the  Americsui  con- 
tinent. Clay,  however,  is  best  known  as'  the 
author  of  the  famous  Missouri  compromise,  and  of 
the  compromise  of  1850,  known  as  Clay's  "omni- 
bus" measure.  In  1824  he  was  an  unsuccessful 
candidate  for  president,  but  was  made  secretary 
of  state  by  J.  Q.  Adams,  the  successful  candidate. 
In  1832  he  again  ran  against  Jackson  and  was 
defeated.  He  was  then  returned  to  the  United 
States  senate,  in  which  he  played  a  leading  part 
for  many  years  ensuing,  especially  in  the  tariflf 
compromise  of  1833,  whereby  a  conflict  with 
South  Carolina  was  averted,  and  in  resistance  to 
the  new  financial  policy  of  President  Van  Buren 
in  1837,  whereby  the  treasury  was  to  be  divorced 
from  all  connection  with  banks.  Clay  was  again 
a  candidate  for  president  before  the  first  whig 
national  convention  in  1839,  but  Harrison  was 
nominated  and  elected.  Harrison's  death  and 
Tyler's  course  brought  Clay  forward  as  the  choice 
of  his  party  in  1844,  when  an  unsuccessful  effort 
was  made  to  elect  him.  Clay's  name  was  once 
more  presented  to  the  whig  national  convention  of 
1848,  but  Taylor  was  nominated  over  him  and 
elected.  He  had  in  1842  bidden  farewell  to  the 
senate,  but  was  persuaded  to  return  to  it  after 
1844,  and  bore  a  leading  part  in  effecting  the 
slavery  compromise  of  1850.  He  returned  to 
Washington  from  Kentucky  for  the  last  time  near 
the  close  of  1851,  and  was  soon  prostrated  by 
disease,  under  which  he  gradually  sank  until  hia 
death.  Though  not  successful  as  an  aspirant  to 
the  presidency,  he  was  a  gallant  party  chief,  an 
eloquent  orator,  a  skillful  legislator,  wielding  un- 
equaled  influence,  not  only  over  his  friends,  but 
even  over  his  political  antagonists.     Died,  1852. 

Clayton,  John  SUddleton,  American  statesman  and 
diplomat,  bom  in  Delaware,  1796;  graduated 
from  Yale,  1815,  and  became  a  noted  lawyer. 
.  He  was  United  States  senator  1829-37,  184&-49, 
and  1851-56.  During  1849-50  he  was  secretary 
of  state  under  President  Taylor  and  negotiated 
with  the  British  government  the  historic  Clay- 
ton-Bulwer  treaty.     Died,  1856. 


u 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


623 


Cldtncnceau  (fcZfi'-?n<lN'-«6'),  GeorKcs  Benjamin 
Eugtoe,  prime  minister  and  minister  of  interior, 
France,  1906-09,  was  born  Ch&teau  de  I'Aubraie, 
Feole,  Vendue,  1841.  Educated  at  Nantes,  ana 
settled  in  Paris,  1860;  resided  in  United  States 
1865-69;  elected  mayor  of  Montmartre  when 
republic  was  proclaimed,  and  to  national  assem- 
bly; member  of  chamber  of  deputies,  1876-93, 
and  since  1902;  founded  La  Justice,  1888-1900: 
LcfiZoc,  1900-02;  L'^wrore,  1903-07.  Resigned 
as  premier  1909,  and  was  succeeded  by  M.  Briand. 
Author:  De  la  G6niration  des  Elements  Anatomi- 
mies;  La  Melie  Sociale;  Le  Grand  Pan;  Lea 
Pleus/orts;  Le  Voile  du  Bonheur;  Aux  Embua- 
cades  de  la  Vie. 

Clemens,  Samuel  Langhome  ("Mark  Twain"), 
author,  lecturer;  born  at  Florida,  Mo.,  1835; 
educated  at  common  schools,  Hannibal,  Mo.; 
M.  A.,  1888,  Litt.  D.,  1901,  Yale ;  LL.  D.,  university 
of  Missouri,  1902:  Litt.  D.,  Oxford,  England, 
1907;  apprenticed  to  printer  at  twelve;  short 
time  was  Mississippi  pilot;  became,  1861,  private 
secretary  to  his  orother  when  latter  was  ap- 
pointed territorial  secretary,  Nevada.  City  editor 
of  Virginia  City  (Nev.)  Enterprise,  1862;  alter- 
nated between  mining  and  newspaper  work  until 
he  began  lecturing  and  writing  books ;  f oxinded, 
1884,  publishing  house  of  C.  L.  Webster  &  Co., 
failure  of  which  involved  him  in  heavy  losses; 
paid  its  debts  by  proceeds  of  lectures  and  books ; 
traveled  extensively.  Author:  The  Jumping 
Frog;  The  Innocents  Abroad;  The  Gilded  Age 
(with  C.  D.  Warner);  Roughing  It;  Adven- 
tures of  Tom  Sawyer;  A  Tramp  Abroad;  The 
Prince  and  the  Pauper;  Life  on  the  Missis- 
sippi; The  Adventures  of  Huckleberry  Finn;  A 
Yankee  at  the  Court  of  King  Arthur;  The  £1,000,- 
000  Bank  Note;  Puddinhead  Wilson;  Tom 
Saxvyer  Abroad;  A  Dog's  Tale;  Eve's  Diary;  A 
Horse's  Tale;  Christian  Science;  Autobiography 
of  Mark  Twain.     Died,  1910. 

Clement  XIV.,  Giovanni  Vlncenzo  Antonio  Gan- 
ganelll,  bom,  1705,  at  St.  Arcangelo,  near  Rimini, 
died  1774.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  entered  the 
order  of  Minorites,  and  studied  philosophy  and 
theology,  which  he  then  successfully  taught. 
Benedict  XIV.  appointed  him  to  the  important 
post  of  counsellor  to  the  inquisition,  and  under 
Clement  XIII.  he  was  made  a  cardinal.  On  the 
death  of  Clement  XIII.  he  succeeded  to  the  papal 
chair,  1769.  Clement  XIV.  was  remarkable  for 
liberality  of  mind,  address  as  a  statesman,  sound 
learning,  and  mildness  of  character.  He  cher- 
ished the  arts  and  sciences,  and  was  the  founder 
of  the  Clementine  museum,  which,  by  the  addi- 
tions of  Pius  VI.  and  Pius  VII.,  became  the  chief 
ornament  of  the  Vatican. 

Cleomenes  III.  (kle-dm'-i-nez),  king  of  Sparta, 
reigned  236-220  B.  C.  He  reestablished  the 
institutions  of  Lycurgus,  and  made  a  new  dis- 
tribution of  the  lands,  relinquishing  his  own 
property.  The  Achseans,  beaten  by  him,  invoked 
the  aid  of  Macedon;  Antigonus  Doson  entered 
the  Peloponnesus  and  routed  the  Spartans 
in  the  battle  of  Sellasia.  Cleomenes  fled  to 
Egypt,  where  hp  killed  himself,  after  vainly 
attempting  to  raise  an  insurrection  against 
Ptolemy  Philopator. 

Cleopatra  (Jde'-o-pd'-trd),  queen  of  Egypt,  bom  in 
69  B.  C. ;  celebrated  for  her  beauty;  was  the 
daughter  of  Ptolemy  Auletes,  by  whose  will  she 
was  left  joint  sovereign  with  her  brother  Ptolemy, 
51  B.  C.  Expelled  by  the  latter,  she  sought  the 
assistance  of  Julius  Caesar,  who  restored  her  to 
the  throne  in  conjunction  with  a  younger  brother. 
She  afterward  followed  Caesar  to  Rome,  and  in 
41  captivated  Mark  Antony,  who  rejected  Octavia 
for  her  sake.  A  quarrel  with  Octavius  ensued; 
the  fleet  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra  was  defeated  at 
Actium,  and  they  fled  together  to  Egypt,  where 


they  both  ended  their  Uvm  by  eommitting 
suicide  in  the  year  30  B.  C. 

Cleveland,  Stephen  Grover,  president  of  the  United 
States,  1885-89,  and  1893-97,  was  bom  in  Cald- 
well, Essex  county,  N.  J.,  1837;  academic  educa- 
tion; LL.  D.,  Princeton,  1897.  Went  to  Buffalo, 
1855,  became  clerk  in  a  law  office  and  waa 
admitted  to  bar,  1859 :  assistant  district  attorney 
of  Erie  county,  N.  Y.,  1863-66;  sheriff  Erie 
county,  1870-73;  established  law  practice;  in 
1881  was  elected  mayor  of  HufTalo.  His  veto  of 
extravagant  appropriations  directed  outside 
attention  to  him  and  led  to  his  nomination  and 
election  as  governor  the  following  year;  in  1884 
was  elected  president  of  United  States  as  demo- 
crat, over  James  G.  Blaine,  republican,  by 
majority  of  thirty-seven  electoral  votes;  in 
1888  again  democratic  nominee,  but  defeated  by 
Benjamin  Harrison;  returned  to  law  practice, 
locating  in  New  York;  in  1892  again  elected 
president  as  democrat,  defeating  President  Har- 
rison; in  1896,  the  democratic  party  having 
declared  for  the  free  coinage  of  silver  in  the  plat- 
form of  its  national  convention,  Cleveland 
withheld  his  support  from  the  ticket  and  platform. 
He  took  up  his  residence,  after  his  second  retire- 
ment from  the  White  House,  at  Princeton,  N.  J., 
where  he  died,  1908. 

Clews,  Henry,  banker;  bom  in  Staffordshire,  Eng- 
land ;  intended  for  the  ministry,  but  left  school  at 
fifteen  to  enter  mercantile  life  in  New  York, 
whither  his  father  had  taken  him  for  a  visit; 
junior  clerkship  of  Wilson  G.  Hunt  &  Company, 
woolen  importers;  member,  firm  Stout,  Clews  & 
Mason,  1858;  later,  Livermore,  Clews  &,  Com- 
pany; at  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  invited  bv 
secretary  of  treasury  to  become  agent  to  sell 
government  bonds ;  firm  of  Henry  Clews  &  Com- 
pany organized,  1877,  its  members  pledging  them- 
selves never  to  take  any  speculative  risk.  Many 
years  treasurer  American  geographical  society; 
treasurer  of  the  society  for  the  prevention  of 
cruelty  to  animals;  connected  with  many  city 
institutions  and  financial  corporations;  frequent 
contributor  to  newspapers  and  magazines. 
Author:  Twenty-eight  Years  in  Wall  Street,  Tha 
Wall  Street  Point  of  View. 

Clifford,  William  Klngdon,  English  mathematician 
and  philosopher,  was  bom  in  1845 ;  was  educated 
at  Cambriclge;  appointed  profes-sor  of  applied 
mathematics  at  Universitv  college,  London,  in 
1871;  wrote  Seeing  and  Thinking,  Lecturea  and 
Essays,  Common  Sense  of  the  Exact  Scieneea,  and 
other  scientific  works.     Died,  1879. 

Clifford,  Mrs.  W.  K.  (Lucy  Lane),  daughter  of 
John  Lane;  married  1875,  W.  K.  Clifford,  F.  R.  8. 
Author:  Mrs.  Keith' a  Crime,;  Love  Letters  of  a 
Worldly  Woman;  Mere  Stories;  A  Woman  Alone; 
Woodstde  Farm;  The  GeUing  Wdl  of  Dorothy,  A 
Story Jor  Children;  The  Modern  Way;  etc.  Plays: 
The  Likeness  of  the  Night;  A  Long  Duel,  a  comedy 
in  four  acts;  A  Supreme  Moment,  one  act  play; 
The  Searchlight,  one  act ;  Hamilton's  Second  Mar- 
riage, four  acts;  Tfie  Latch,  one  act. 

Clinton,  De  Witt,  American  statesman,  was  bom  at 
Little  Britain,  N.  Y.,  1769.  He  graduated  at 
Columbia  college,  and  after  studying  law  entered 
the  lower  house  of  the  New  York  legislature,  la 
1797,  where  he  soon  becsune  the  leader  of  bis 
party  in  the  state.  He  was  chosen  United  States 
senator  in  1802,  but  left  the  senate  to  become 
mayor  of  New  York  city.  On  the  question  of  war 
with  England,  he  competed  for  tne  presidency 
with  Madison,  receiving  eighty-nine  votes.  He 
was  elected  governor  of  New  York  foar  times. 
His  greatest  service  to  the  state  was  in  urging  the 
construction  of  the  Erie  canal,  and  pushing  the 
measure  assiduously  until  he  saw  that  great  enter- 
prise completed  and  the  canal  open  for  traffic. 
He  died  at  Albany,  N.  Y..  1828. 


624 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Clinton,  George,  American  commander  and  states- 
man, born  in  1739.  He  served  in  early  life  under 
General  Amherst  against  the  French,  and  after- 
ward studied  the  law.  During  the  struggle  for 
independence  he  sat  in  the  colonial  congress,  and 
was  made  a  brigadier-general.  With  an  inferior 
force,  he  succeeded  m  preventing  Sir  Henry 
Clinton  from  assisting  General  Burgoyne.  Died, 
1812. 

Clinton,  Sir  Henry,  an  English  general,  was  bom 
about  1738;  entered  the  British  army  1751,  sJid 
succeeded  Sir  William  Howe  as  commander-in- 
chief  in  America;  fought  at  Bunker  Hill  and 
Long  Island,  and  captured  Charleston.  His 
course  was  marked  by  bravery  and  good  conduct, 
but  not  with  success.  After  his  return  to  Eng- 
land he  waa  appointed  governor  of  Limerick, 
and  subsequently  of  Gibraltar,  where  he  died  in 
1795.     . 

Cllve  {kliv),  Kitty,  British  actress^was  bom  in  Lon- 
don in  1711,  the  daughter  of  William  Raftor,  a 
Jacobite  lawyer  from  Kilkenny.  She  came  out 
at  Drury  Lane  about  1728,  and  continued  to  play 
chiefly  at  that  theater  till  17G9,  when  slie  quitted 
the  stage,  and  retired  to  Twickenham.  About 
1731  she  married  George  Clive,  a  barrister,  but 
they  soon  parted.  She  died  at  Little  Strawberry 
Hill,  1785.  Garrick,  Handel,  Horace  Walr>ole, 
and  Dr.  Johnson  all  liked  her^  the  last  remarking 
to  Boswell  that  "in  the  snnghtliness  of  humor 
he  never  had  seen  her  equaled." 

Cllve,  Robert,  Lord,  English  statesman  and  soldier, 
was  born  at  Styche,  near  Market  Drayton,  in 
Shropshire,  1725;  died  in  London,  1774.  He 
went  to  India  in  1744  as  a  writer  under  the  East 
India  company,  but  three  years  later  relinquished 
the  civil  lor  the  military  service,  in  which  he 
greatly  distinguished  himself.  Returning  to 
England  in  1753,  he  went  back  to  India  as  gov- 
ernor of  Fort  St.  David,  near  Madras,  and  with 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  Scarcely  had  he 
arrived  when  the  nabob  of  Bengal  captured 
Calcutta,  destroyed  the  British  factories  near 
that  city,  and  threw  146  of  his  prisoners  into  the 
memorable  "black  hole  of  Calcutta,"  from 
which  only  twenty-three  came  out  alive.  The 
victory  of  Plassey,  1757,  was  Clive's  retaliation 
for  these  wrongs.  He  was  now  made  governor 
of  Bengal,  but  two  years  afterward  returned 
once  more  to  England,  when  he  was  created  an 
Irish  peer.  In  1765  he  went  again  to  Bengal,  as 
president,  but  finally  returned  to  England  in 
1767.  His  last  years  were  embittered  by  the 
attacks  of  his  enemies,  and  by  charges  of  malver- 
sation and  abuse  of  p>ower;  but  the  house  of 
commons  rejected  a  motion  against  him,  and 
declared  that  "he  had  rendered  great  and  meri- 
torious services  to  his  country.  In  a  fit  of 
gloom,  however,  probably  induced  by  disease,  he 
put  an  end  to  his  life  by  suicide. 

Clodd  (kldd),  Edward,  English  scientist  and  writer, 
secretary,  London  joint-stock  bank,  ltd.,  since 
1872 ;  bora  in  Margate,  1840.  Educated  at  Alde- 
burgh  grammar  school.  Entered  commercial  life, 
1855;  clerk  in  London  joint-stock  bank,  ltd., 
1862.  Author:  T fie  Childhood  of  the  World;  The 
Childhood  of  Religions;  Jesus  of  Nazareth;  Myths 
and  Dreams;  Story  of  Creation;  Story  of  Primitive 
Man;  Primer  of  Evolution;  Story  of  the  Alphabet; 
Thomas  Henry  Huxley;  Animism:  or  the  Seed  of 
Rdigion;  articles  in  Encyclopcedia  Britannica, 
Chambers's  Clycopcedia,  Quarterly  Review,  etc. 

Clodius  (kld'-dl-Os),  Publius,  a  famous  Roman 
tribune  who  committed  sacrilege  and  was  tried 
for  the  offense,  but  acquitted  through  bribery. 
He  persecuted  Cicero,  who  had  become  his  enemy 
by  testifying  against  him,  and  was  killed  in  an 
encounter  with  Milo,  52  B.  C. 

Cloosh  {kmf),  Arthur  Hugh,  English  poet,  was 
born  at  Liverpool,   1819.     His  father,  a  cotton 


merchant,  of  an  old  Denbighnhire  family,  in  the 
winter  of  1822-23  emigrated  to  Charleston, 
South  Carolina,  and  there  the  boy  lived  until  in 
1828  he  was  taken  back  to  school  at  Chester, 
and  next  year  at  Rugby,  then  under  Dr.  Arnold. 
In  1837  he  entered  Balliol  college,  Oxford;  in 
1842  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  Oriel.  For  a 
time  he  fell  under  the  spell  of  Newman's  influ- 
ence, but  this  waa  soon  followed  by  a  period  of 
severe  inward  struggle,  with  the  result  that  he  felt 
it  his  duty  to  withdraw  in  1848  from  Oriel. 
The  same  year  he  published  the  Bothie  of  Tober- 
na-Vuolich,  a  "long  vacation  pastoral"  in 
hexameter  verse.  He  traveled  in  France  and 
Italy^  part  of  the  time  with  Emerson,  and  was 
appointed  on  his  return  in  1849  warden  of 
University  hall,  London.  In  1852  he  visited 
America.     Died  at  Florence,  Italy,  1861. 

Clevis  L  (kld'-vls),  son  of  Childenc  I.,  was  bom 
about  465,  and  is  regarded  as  the  real  founder 
of  the  French  monarchy.  He  succeeded  Chil- 
deric  in  481.  The  victory  of  Soissons.  which  he 
gained  in  486  over  Syagrius,  rendered  him 
master  of  all  the  Roman  possessions  in  the  center 
of  Gaul.  Victorious  when  opposed  to  the  Ger- 
mans at  Tolbiac  near  Cologne,  in  496  he  is  said 
to  have  made  a  vow  embracing  Cliristianity. 
and  to  have  kept  his  promise.  He  was  baptized 
by  St.  Remigius,  archoishop  of  Rheims.  Having 
conquered  Alaric,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  in  607, 
he  gained  mo8t  of  the  south  provinces,  but  was 
himself  overthrown  near  Aries,  by  Theodoric, 
in  509.     Died,  511. 

Cobb,  Henry  Ives,  architect;  bom  at  Brookline, 
Mass..  1859;  educated  at  private  and  public 
schools  and  at  Massachusetts  institute  of  tech- 
nology- graduated  from  Harvard,  1880.  He 
entered  an  architect's  oflice  in  Boston,  and  in 
1881  removed  to  Chicago;  established  practice, 
and  was  architect  for  Chicago  opera  house, 
Newberry  librarj*,  university  of  Chicago,  church 
of  the  Atonement,  and  many  prominent  resi- 
dence, business  and  public  builuings  in  Chicago 
and  other  cities:  one  of  national  board  of  archi- 
tects of  Worlds  Columbian  exposition,  1893; 
special  architect  for  United  States  government, 
1893-1903;  also  lar^e  general  practice  through- 
out the  country  —  mcTuding  the  Pennsylvania 
state  capitol.  United  States  government  buildings 
at  Chicago,  League  island,  Annapolis,  etc.,  and 
the  American  university  at  Washington,  and 
many  other  prominent  buildings. 

Cobbe  (kdb),  Frances  Power,  British  author,  was 
bom  at  Newbridge  near  Dublin,  1822,  and  went 
to  school  at  Brighton.  Her  interest  was  early 
aroused  in  theological  questions;  and  her 
mother's  death  led  her  to  Theodore  Parker, 
whose  counsels  are  contained  in  his  famous 
Sermon  of  the  Immortal  Life.  Her  father,  too, 
died  in  1857,  when,  lea\ing  Newbridge,  she 
traveled  in  Italy  and  the  East,  and  wrote  Cities 
of  the  Past,  and  Italics.  A  strong  theist,  a  sup- 
porter of  women's  rights,  and  a  prominent  anti- 
vivisectionist,  she  published  more  than  thirty 
works,  among  them  Friendless  Girls;  Criminals, 
Idiots,  Women,  and  Minors;  Darunnism  in 
Morals;  The  Hopes  of  the  Human  Race  Hereafter 
and  Here;  Re-echoes;  The  Peak  in  Darien; 
Scientific  Spirit  of  the  Age;  and  an  autobiography. 
Died,  1904. 

Cobbett  {k5b'-^),  William,  British  politician  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  bom  at  Farnham,  Surrey. 
1762;  commenced  life  as  a  farm  laborer,  ana 
then  as  copying  clerk;  enlisted,  and  saw  seven 
years'  service  in  Nova  Scotia;  being  discharged, 
traveled  in  France  and  America;  on  his  return 
started  the  Weekly  Political  Register,  at  first  tory, 
then  radical ;  published  a  libel  against  the  govern- 
ment, for  which  he  was  imprisoned;  on  his 
release  issued  his  Register  at  a  low  price,  to  tb* 


THROUGHOUT  THE   WORLD 


026 


immense  increase  of  its  circulation ;  vain  attempts 
were  made  to  crush  him,  against  which  he  never 
ceased  to  protest;  after  the  passing  of  the 
reform  bill  he  was  elected  to  parliament,  and 
proved  an  effective  debater.  His  writings  were 
numerous,  and  include  his  Grammar,  Cottage 
Economy,  Rural  Rides,  and  Advice  to  Young  Men 
and  Women;  his  political  opinions  were  extreme, 
but  his  English  was  admirable.      Died,  1835. 

Cochrane  (kdk'-ran),  Thomas  (tenth  earl  of  Dun- 
donald).     See  Dundonald. 

Cockbum  (ko'-burn).  Sir  Alexander,  British  jurist, 
was  bom  in  1802;  in  1822  entered  Trinity  hall, 
Cambridge;  in  1829  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
and  soon  became  distinguished  as  a  pleader 
before  parliamentary  committees.  In  1847  he 
became  liberal  member  of  parliament  for  South- 
ampton, in  1850  a  knight  and  solicitor-general, 
in  1851  attorney-general,  in  1856  chief  justice 
of  the  common  pleas,  in  1858  a  baronet,  and 
in  1859  lord  chief  justice.  He  prosecuted  in 
the  Palmer  case,  and  presided  over  the  Wain- 
wright  and  Tichbome  cases.  He  represented 
Britain  in  the  Alabama  claims  at  Geneva.  He 
died,  1880. 

Cockbum,  Sir  George,  English  naval  officer,  whose 
operations  against  Martinique  secured  that  island 
to  Great  Britain,  was  born  in  1772.  He  was 
active  in  the  war  with  the  United  States  in 
1812-15,  marauding  along  the  shores  of  the 
Chesapeake  and  burning  the  public  buildings  at 
Washington.  His  last  noteworthy  sea  employ- 
ment was  to  convey  Napoleon  to  St.  Helena. 
He  rose  to  rank  of  admiral,  was  several  times 
returned  to  house  of  commons,  and  was  one  of 
the  lords  of  the  admiralty.     Died,  1853. 

Cockran,  William  Bourke,  lawyer,  orator:  bom  in 
Ireland,  1854;  educated  in  Ireland  and  France; 
came  to  the  United  States,  1871;  taught  in 
private  academy;  later,  principal  of  a  public 
school  in  Westchester  county,  N.  Y.;  then  a 
lawyer,  soon  becoming  prominent  in  New  York 
city  politics;  made  noteworthy  speeches  at 
national  democratic  conventions,  1884  and  1892, 
opposing  the  nomination  of  Cleveland;  member 
of  congress,  1887-89,  and  1891-95,  as  democrat. 
In  1896,  became  advocate  of  the  gold  standard 
and  campaigned  for  McKinley.  On  issue  of 
anti-imperialism,  returned  to  democratic  party, 
1900,  and  campaigned  for  Bryan.  Was  again 
elected  to  congress,  February  23,  1904,  at  a 
special  election  to  fill  a  vacancy  caused  by  the 
resignation  of  George  B.  McClellan;  reelected, 
1904  and  1906. 

Cockrell,  Francis  Marlon,  ex-United  States  senator, 
lawyer;  was  bom  in  Johnson  county.  Mo.,  1834; 
graduated  from  Chapel  Hill  college,  Missouri, 
1853;    studied  law,  and  admitted  to  bar,  1855; 

Practiced  at  Warrensburg ;  served  in  Confederate 
tates  army,  captain  to  brigadier-general. 
Resumed  practice  after  war;  United  States  sen- 
ator, 1875-1905 ;  was  chairman  senate  committee 
on  engrossed  bills  and  member  committees  on 
appropriations,  military  affairs,  rules,  etc.,  and 
select  committee  on  industrial  expositions ;  mem- 
ber of  the  interstate  commerce  commission, 
1905-10. 
Coghlan,  Bose,  actress;  bom  at  Peterboro,  Eng- 
land, 1853;  played  soubrette  parts  at  Theater 
Royal,  Cheltenham,  England,  later  becoming 
leading  lady;  went  to  London  and  traveled 
through  the  provinces  in  burlesque  and  comedy. 
Came  to  the  United  States,  1872,  with  Lydia 
Thompson,  soon  after  joining  E.  A.  Sothern; 
returned  to  England  and  supported  Barry  Sulli- 
van; leading  lady  with  Wallack,  1880^9.  Has 
starred  since  then  in  various  companies  in  the 
United  States  and  England;  naturalized  Ameri- 
can citizen,  1902,  and  engaged  in  stock  raising  in 
Montana. 


Cohan,  GeofRe  M^  comedian,  playwright;  bom  at 
Providence,  R.  I.,  1878.  Kirrt  appearance, 
Haverstraw,  N.  Y.,  at  nine  years  of  age,  in 
Daniel  Boone;  appeared  in  Feck' a  Bad  Boy, 
1890;  later  in  vaudeville,  in  The  Four  Cohant; 
starred  in  LitUe  Johnny  J  ones,  1904-06:  Oeorgt 
Waahtn^ton,  Jr.,  1906-07.  Author:  (playi) 
The  Wtae  Guv;  The  Governor's  Son;  Running 
/or  Office;  LitUe  Johnny  J  one*;  Forty-five  Minutet 
from  Broadway;  George  Washington,  Jr.;  Pomt- 
larity;  The  Talk  of  New  York,  and  many 
popular  songs. 

Cohen,  Solomon  Soils,  physician-  bom  In  Phila- 
delphia. 1857 ;  graduate  of  Philadelphia  Central 
high  school,  1872,  A.  M.,  1877;  graduate  of  Jef- 
ferson medical  college,  1883.  Professor  of 
clinical  medicine  and  therapeutics,  Philadelphia 
polyclinic  and  college  for  graduates  in  medicine, 
1887-1902;  lecturer  on  clinical  medicine,  Jeffer- 
son medical  college,  1888-1902;  professor  of 
clinical  medicine,  Jefferson  medical  college,  since 
1902.  Author:  Therapeutics  of  Tuberculosis. 
Essentials  of  Diagnosis,  and  other  medical 
writings.  Editor:  System  a/  Physiologic  Thera- 
peutics; was  editor  of  Philadelphia  Polyclinic; 
editor  of  department  of  treatment,  in  American 
Medicine;  one  of  the  editors  of  The  Ameri- 
can Hebrew.  Has  contributed  poems  and  occa- 
sional essays  to  Century,  Scribncr's,  Lippincott's, 
Arena,  etc. ;  also  a  translator  of  poems  from  the 
Hebrew 

Coke  {kdbk  or  k6k).  Sir  Edward,  English  jurist  and 
law  writer,  was  born  1552;  educated  at  Norwich 
granunar  school  and  Cambridge;  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1578 ;  early  acquired  a  high  reputation, 
and  became  solicitor-general  in  1592,  ana 
attorney-general  in  1594.  He  showed  much 
harshness  in  his  prosecution  of  Essex,  Raleigh, 
and  others;  but  his  loyalty  gained  him  the  chief- 
justiceship  of  the  common  pleas,  in  1606.  In 
this  position  and  that  of  chief-justice  of  the 
king's  bench,  1613,  he  opposed  James  I.'s  claim 
to  exercise  prerogatives  and  was  temporarily 
deprived  in  1616.  Entering  parliament  in  1621, 
he  there  resisted  the  king's  encroachments;  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower  in  1622,  and  in  1628 
took  the  chief  part  in  drawing  up  the  petition  of 
right.  The  remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  in 
compiling  his  Commentaries  upon  Littleton. 
Diecf,  1634. 

Colbert  (kol'-Mr'),  Jean  Baptiste,  a  distinguished 
French  statesman,  minister  of  finance  in  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIV. ;  was  bom  at  Rheims, 
France,  1619.  His  whole  life  was  devoted  to 
financial  and  fiscal  reforms,  and  to  the  encourage- 
ment of  commerce  and  manufactures.  To  him 
the  kingdom  was  indebted  for  the  enlarjcement  of 
its  navy,  for  the  acquisition  of  many  of  its  foreign 
possessions,  and  for  a  large  number  of  internal 
improvements.  He  instituted  the  royal  acad- 
emy of  painting  and  sculpture,  and  also  the 
academies  of  science  and  of  architecture.  The 
gardens  of  the  Tuileries,  the  H6tel  des  Invalides, 
the  fagade  of  the  Louvre,  and  several  of  the 
quays  along  the  Seine  were  all  the  work  of 
Colbert.     Died,  1683. 

Colby,  Frank  Moore,  editor  and  educator,  bom  at 
Washington,  1865;  studied  at  Columbian  uni- 
versity, Washington;  graduated  from  Columbia 
university.  New  York,  1888,  M.  A.,  1889;  special 
studies  in  political  science,  Columbia.  Acting 
professor  of  history,  Amherst  college,  1890-91 ; 
lecturer  of  history,  Columbia,  1891-95 ;  instructor 
of  history  and  economics  at  Barnard  college, 
1891-95;  professor  of  economics.  New  York 
university,  1895-1900;  resigned  to  become 
editorial  writer  Commercial  Advertiser^  1900-02. 
On  editorial  staff  Johnson's  Cydopcedia,  depart- 
ment of  history  and  political  science,  1893-95; 
editor   International    Cydopcedia,    1898    edition; 


626 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


International   Year  Book   1898-1902;     American 
editor    Nelson's    Encydopcedia,    1905-06;    editor 
New    International     Encydopcedia,     since     1900. 
Author:    Outlines  of  General  History;    Imaginary 
Obligations. 
Cole,  Thomas,  artist,  was  bom  at  Bolton,  England, 
1801,  and  came  to  America  in  1819,  where  he 
became  one  of  the  best  known  landscape  painters. 
In    1830   two   of   his   pictures   appearea   in   the 
royal  academy,  and  he  afterward  made  sketch- 
ing tours  through  England,  France,  and  Italy; 
but    all    his    best    landscapes    were    American. 
Died  at  Catskill,  N.  Y.,  1848. 
Cole,  Timothy,  wood  engraver,  was  bom  at  London, 
England,  1852,  and  came  to  the  United  States, 
1857;     burned    out    bv    Chicago    fire    of    1871: 
returned     to     New     York     penniless;      entered 
employment     of     Scribner's     Magazine,      1875. 
Went  to  Europe  to  engrave  the  old  masters,  1883: 
finished    first    Italian    series,    1892,    Dutch    and 
Flemish  series,  1896,  English  series,  1900,  Spanish 
series,    1907;      French     series,    1910.      Received 
diploma,    Chicago    exposition,    1893;    first-class 
gold  medal,  Paris  exposition,  1900;  grand  prix, 
St.    Louis  exposition,  1904.     Honorary  member 
society    of    sculptors,  painters,    and    engravers, 
London.     Author:    Notes  to  Old  Italian  Master s; 
Monograph  on  the  lives  of  Dutch  Masters;  Notes  to 
English  Masters. 
Colebrooke      {kol'-brdbk    or      k^'-brdbk),      Henry 
Thomas,  British  orientalist,  was  born  in  London, 
1765.     He  was  a  director  of  the  Bengal  Asiatic 
society,    and   made   translations   from   the   San- 
skrit works  on  Hindu  law,  algebra,  arithmetic, 
and  mensuration,  which  were  important  contri- 
butions to  the  history  of  mathematics.     He  laid 
the  foundations  for  the  modern  study  of  San- 
skrit.    Died,  1837. 
Colenso  {k6-lin'-sd\  John  William,  English  divine, 
was  born  in   1814.     In   1846  he  was  appointed 
rector  of  Forncett  St.   Mary,   in  the  county  of 
Norfolk,  England,  and  1853  first  bishop  of  Natal, 
South   Africa.     In   the  next  year  appeared   his 
Ten  Weeks  in  Natal;    in  1861  his  Translation  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  Commented  on  from  a 
Missionary    Point    of   View;     A    Letter    to    his 
Or  ace    the    Archbishop    of   Canterbury    upon    the 
Question    of  the    Proper    Treatment   of  Cases   of 
Polygamy,  as  found  already  existing  in  Converts 
from  Heathenism;    and  in   1802   The  Pentateuch 
and  Book  of  Joshua  Critically  Examined.     The 
two  latter  subjected  him  to  intense  criticism,  and 
the  bishop  of  Cape  Town  declared  him  deposed 
from  his  see;     but  on   an  appeal  to  the   privy 
council,  in  1865,  the  deposition  was  pronounced 
null     and     void.     Colenso    wrote    treatises    on 
mathematics  used  as  text  books.     Died,  1883. 
Coler,  Bird  Sim,  politician,  financier,  ex-comptroller 
of  New  York;    born  at  Champaign,   111.,   1867; 
educated  at  polytechnic  institute  and  Andover 
academy.     Entered  his  father's  banking  house  as 
clerk  and  later  became  partner  of  the  firm  of  W.  N. 
Coler  &  Co.     Candidate  for  alderman  at   large, 
Brooklyn,  1892;    democratic  candidate  for  gov- 
emor  of  New  York,    1902;    elected   comptroller 
city  of  New  York,   1897;    president  borough  of 
Brooklyn,  1906-09,  on  the  municipal  ownership 
ticket;    delegate  to  democratic  national  conven- 
tion,  1896.     Author:    Municipal  Government,  as 
illustrated    by   the  Charter,  Finances  and  Public 
Charities  of  New  York;   The  Financial  Efects  of 
Consolidation,  Municipid  Government  and  Tunnds 
and  Bridges. 

Coleridge  (kdl'-rif).  Hartley,  eldest  son  of  Samuel 
Taylor  Coleridge,  born  at  Clevedon,  near  Bristol, 
1796.  In  1815  he  was  entered  a  scholar  of 
Merton  college,  Oxford.  He  then  went  to  Lon- 
don, wrote  for  the  London  Magazine,  and  pub- 
lished therein  some  sonnets  of  remarkable  beauty. 


He    afterward    attempted    a    private   school    at 
Ambleside,  but  failed.     Near  this  little  town  he 
resided  till  he  died,  1849. 
Coleridge,  Samuel  Taylor,  British  poet,  essayist,  and 
dramatist,  was  bom  in  Devonshire  in  1772.     He 
was  sent  to  Christ's  hospital,  and  subsequently 
studied  at  Cambridge,  where,  in  1792,  he  obtained 
the  prize  for  the  best  Greek  ode.     His  works  are 
many,  and  are  generally  distinguished  by  benevo- 
lence   and     piety.       His    Sibylline    Leaves    and 
Biographia  Literaria  found  many  admirers,  and 
several  of  his  poems  have  been  given  very  high 
praise,  particularly  the  Ancient  Mariner.     Among 
his    other    works     are:     Remorse,     a     Tragedy 
Christabd,  Aids  to  Reflection,  etc.      Died,  1834.     ' 
Colfax  (kol'-fdks),  Schuyler,  American  statesman, 
vice-president  of  the  United  States,  1869-73,  was 
bom  in  New  York,  1823.     Removing  to  Indiana, 
he  published  a  newspaper  at  South  Bend,  whick 
he  made  the  foremost  whig  journal  in  the  state. 
Elected  to  congress  by  the  newly  formed  repub- 
lican party,  in  1854,  he  remained  a  member  until 
1869    and    was    three    times    speaker.     He   was 
elected  vice-president  on  the  ticket  with  Grant 
in  1868.     He  died  1885. 
Coltgny    (kd'-Un'-ye'    or    k6-lin'-yi),    Gaspard    de 
Chatlllon,  Sire  de,  French  admiral  and  general  of 
eminence,    bom    at    Chfttillon-sur-Loing,     1517. 
Introduced  at  court,  he  served  under  Francis  I. 
in    Italy.     Under   Henry    II.    he  was   made   an 
infantry  colonel,  and  in  1552  admiral  of  France. 
On  the  death  of  Henry   II.   Cohgny  became  a 
Protestant,  and  a  friend  of  the  prince  of  Cond6. 
Coli^ny  went  to  court,  and  was  apparently  well 
received  by  Charles  IX.,  but  the  enmity  of  the 
Guises,  by  whom  Coligny  was  unjustly  accused 
of  murdering  the  duke  of  Guise  at  the  siege  of 
Orleans,    was   stirred    up   against   him,    and    an 
attempt  was  made  by  one  of  their  menials  to 
assassinate  him,  1572.     This  attempt  at  individ- 
ual murder  was  but  a  preUminary  step  to  the 
general  massacre  of  the  Huguenots,  which  took 
place  two  days  afterward,  and  in  which  Coligny 
was  basely  slaughtered,  his  bodv  being  afterward 
exposed  to  the  vile  outrages  of  the  mob.      In  1889 
a  statue  of  Coligny  of  colossal  size  was  unveiled  in 
Paris. 
Collier  (kdl'-yir),  Jeremy,  English  clergyman  and 
controversialist,    was   bom   at   Stow   cum   Quy, 
Cambridgeshire,     1650.     He    was    educated    at 
Caius    college,    Cambridge,    afterward    becoming 
rector  of  Ampton  near  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  and 
lecturer  at  Gray's  Inn.     His  reply  to  Bumet's 
Inquiry  into  the  State  of  Affairs,  1688,  cost  him 
some  months  in  Newgate.     He  next  waged  war- 
fare on  the  crown  with  incisive  pamphlets,  and 
was    arrested    in    1692    on    suspicion    of    being 
involved  in  a  Jacobite  plot.     In  1697  he  pubUshed 
his  Short  View  of  the  Immorality  of  the  English 
Stage,  which  fell  like  a  thunderbolt  among  the 
wits.     Collier  continued  to  preach,  and  was  con- 
secrated bishop  in   1713.     He  died,    1726.     His 
largest  works  were  the  Great  Historical,  Geographi- 
cal, Genealogical,  and  Poetical  Dictionary,  and  An 
Ecclesiastical  History  of  Great  Britain. 
Collier,  Peter  Fenelon,  publisher ,was  bom  atCarlow, 
Ireland,  1849 ;  educated  at  Mt.  St.  Mary's  college, 
Cincinnati.     Founder  and  publisher  of  Collier's 
Weekly  and  head  of  P.  F.  Collier  &  Son,  publishers. 
Member  of  Ohio  society,  American  academy  of 
political     and     social     science.     United     States 
Catholic  historical  society.  New  York  historical 
association,  and  of  many  clubs  and  turf  associa- 
tions.    Died,  1909. 
Collingwood,  Cuthbert,  Lord,  English  admiral,  was 
bom  at  Newcastle-upon-T5Tie,  1750.     He  entered 
the  navy  at  eleven,  and  from  1778  his  career  was 
closely  connected  with  that  of  Nelson,  whom  he 
followed  up  the  ladder  of  promotion  step  by  step. 
Among  the  great  naval  victories  in  which  he  bore 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


627 


a  prominent  part  were  those  of  Lord  Howo  off 
Brest  in  1794 ;  of  Lord  Jervis  off  Cape  St.  Vincent 
in  1797;  and  of  Trafalgar  in  1805,  where  he  held 
the  second  command.  A  peerage  was  his  reward. 
After  several  years'  uneventful  service  in  the 
Mediterranean,  he  died  at  sea,  1810,  and  was 
buried  beside  Nelson,  in  St.  Paul's. 
Collins,  William,  English  artist,  was  bom  in  Great 
Tichfield  street,  London,  1788.  In  1807  he 
entered  the  royal  academy  as  a  student,  and  in 
the  same  year  he  exhibited  two  pictures  at  the 
academy's  exliibition.  At  firstj  necessity  obliged 
bim  to  devote  himself  to  portraits,  but  he  latterly 
devoted  himself  successfully  to  landscapes  and 

fenre  pictures.  He  was  elected  R.  A.  m  1820. 
n  1836  he  visited  Italy,  and  remained  there 
nearly  two  years,  studying  the  great  masters, 
and  sketching  monks  and  peasants,  and  groups  of 
bronzed  children.  In  1839  he  sent  to  the 
academy  several  Italian  pictures,  which  were 
greatly  admired.  His  attempts  in  another  direc- 
tion—  "Our  Saviour  with  the  Doctors  in  the 
Temple,"  and  "The  Two  Disciples  at  Emmaus" 
—  were  not  particularlv  successful,  and  he  fell 
back  on  his  green  fiefds,  his  sea-beaches,  his 
rustics,  and  his  children  at  their  games.  Died  at 
London,  1847. 
Collins,  William  Wilkle,  English  novelist,  was  bom 
in  London,  1824.  He  was  educated  at  a  private 
school.  After  a  .short  time  spent  with  a  firm  in 
the  tea  trade  be  adopted  the  profession  of  the  law, 
and  was  a  student  at  Lincoln's  Inn.  From  1848 
he  made  literature  his  profession.  His  first  novel 
was  printed  in  1850,  and  was  called  Antonina,  or 
The  Fall  of  Rome.  This  was  followed  by  Basil, 
a  story  of  modem  life;  Mr.  Wray'a  Cash  Box; 
Hide  and  Seek;  After  Dark;  The  Dead  Secret; 
The  Woman  in  White;  No  Nam^;  Armxidale; 
The  Moonstone;  Man  and  Wife;  The  New 
Magdalen;    The  Law  and  the  Lady;    etc.     His 

frincipal  books  have  been  translated  into  French, 
talian,  German,  Dutch,  Danish,  and  Russian. 
Died,  1889. 

Collyer  (kdl'-yer),  Kobext,  Unitarian  clergyman; 
bom  Keighly,  Yorkshire,  England,  1823;  Teamed 
the  blacksmith  trade,  which  he  followed  after 
coming  to  the  United  States,  1850.  Was  Metho- 
dist local  preacher,  but  became  a  Unitarian  in 
1859;  became  Unitarian  missionary  in  Chicago; 
founded  and  was  pastor  of  Unity  church  there, 
1860-79;  in  1879  became  pastor  of  church  of 
the  Messiah,  New  York  (later  pastor  emeritus). 
Author:  Naiure  and  Life;  The  Life  That  Now  Is; 
The  Simple  Truth:  a  Home  Book;  Talks  to  Young 
Men;  History  of  Ilkley  in  Yorkshire  (with  Horse- 
fall  Turner) ;    Things  New  and  Old.     Died,  1912. 

Colman,  George,  commonly  called  "the  elder," 
English  dramatic  author  and  theatrical  manager, 
was  bom  at  Florence  in  1732.  In  1760  his 
first  dramatic  piece,  entitled  Polly  Honeycomb, 
was  produced  at  Drury  Lane,  London,  with  great 
success.  Next  year  he  gave  to  the  world  his 
comedy  of  The  Jealous  Wife,  and  in  conjunction 
with  Garrick  in  1766  wrote  The  Clandes- 
tine Marriage.  In  1767  he  became  part  owner  of 
Covent  Garden  theater,  and  held  the  office  of 
acting  manager  for  seven  years.  In  1777  he 
purchased  the  Haymarket.  He  died,  1794. 
Colman  was  an  industrious  author;  besides 
poetry  and  translations,  he  wrote  and  adapted 
upward  of  thirty  dramatic  pieces. 

Colman,  George,  "the  younger,"  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  bom  in  1762.  His  bent  lay  in  the 
same  direction  as  his  father's,  during  whose 
illness  he  acted  as  manager  of  the  Haymarket 
theater;  and  on  the  death  of  the  elder  Colman, 
George  III.  transferred  the  patent  to  his  son. 
Colman  held  for  a  considerable  time  the  ofiice 
of  examiner  of  plays.  In  industry,  he  rivaled 
his  father,   and  he  received  large  sums  for  his 


dramatic  writings.     His  best  known  pUvs  ara 
The  Poor  Gentleman,  John  Bull,  and  T/ki  Htir 

at  Law.     He  died,  1830. 

Colman,  Samuel,  American  painter,  was  bom  in 
Portland,  Maine,  1832;  studied  in  Europe  in 
1860-62;  was  elected  a  member  of  the  national 
academy  in  1862,  and  first  president  (1860-67) 
of  the  American  society  oi  painters  in  water 
colors.  His  pictures  include  scenes  from  Alireria, 
Germany,  France,  Italy,  and  Holland. 

Colonna  (fcd-ion'-rui),  Vlttoria,  the  most  celebrated 
poetess  of  Italy,  was  the  daughter  of  Fabrisio 
Colonna,  high  constable  of  Naples,  at  whose 
estate  of  Marino  she  was  bom  in  the  year  1490. 
When  four  years  old  she  was  betrothed  to  a  boy 
of  the  same  age,  Fernando  d'Avalos,  son  of  the 
Marchese  de  Pescara.  At  seventeen  they  were 
married.  After  her  husband's  death  in  the 
battle  of  Pavia,  1525,  she  found  her  chief  conso- 
lation in  solitude  and  in  the  cultivation  of  her 
poetical  genius.  Her  friendship  with  Michael- 
angelo  is  well  known.  He  addressed  many  of 
his  sonnets  to  her.     Died  in  Rome,  1547. 

Colquhoun  {k6-ha>n'),  Archibald  Boss,  journalist, 
descriptive  writer,  born  off  cape  of  Good  Hope, 
1848,  of  Scotch  parentage.  Educated  in  Scot- 
land and  on  the  continent.  Indian  public 
works  department,  1871;  secretary  and  second 
in  command  of  government  mission  to  Siam  and 
Siamese  Shan  states,  1879;  explored  from 
Canton  to  Bhamo  to  trace  best  route  for  con- 
necting Burmah  and  China  by  railway,  1881-82; 
London  Times  correspondent  Franco-Chinese 
war  and  whole  far  East,  1883-84;  proposed 
annexation  of  upper  Burmah,  and  visited  Siam 
in  connection  with  railway  construction,  1885; 
deputy-commissioner  of  upper  Burmah,  1886- 
89;  accompanied  pioneer  force  to  South  Africa, 
and  on  occupation  of  Mashonaland  became 
administrator,  1890 j  executed  Manika  treaty; 
has  traveled  extensively,  and  been  Times  cor- 
respondent in  various  parts  of  world.  Author: 
The  Key  of  the  Pacific;  China  in  Transformation; 
Russia  Against  India;  The  Renascence  of  South 
Africa;  The  Mastery  of  the  Pacific;  Greater 
America;  The  Africander  Land;  The  Whirlpool 
of  Europe;  Austria-Hungary  and  the  Habsburga 
(with  Mrs.  Colquhoun);  From  Dan  to  Beerah^a 
—  reminiscences  of  public  service ;  and  many 
contributions  to  the  periodical  press. 

Colt,  Samuel,  American  inventor,  bom  in  Hartford. 
Conn.,  1814.  He  early  conceived  the  idea  m 
revolving  fire-arms,  and,  in  1835,  took  out  a 
patent  for  the  weapon  since  known  ihe  world 
over  as  "Colt's  revolver."  In  1848  he  estab- 
lished a  company  for  the  working  out  of 
his  patent,  and  built  at  Hartford  one  of  the 
most  extensive  armories  in  the  world.  Died, 
1862. 

Columba  (A;d-Zum'-6d),  St^  Celtic  missionary,  was 
bom  at  Gartan,  County  Donegal,  521,  the  son 
of  a  chief  related  to  several  of  the  princes  then 
reigning  in  Ireland  and  in  the  west  of  Scotland. 
He  studied  under  St.  Finnian  at  Moville  on 
Strangford  Lough  and  under  another  St.  Finnian 
at  Clonard;  in  546  he  founded  the  monastery 
of  Derry,  and  in  553  that  of  Durrow.  Accom- 
panied by  twelve  disciples,  he  founded  a  mon- 
astery at  lona,  Scotland,  563,  and  set  himself  to 
convert  the  northern  Picts;  he  and  his  followers 
founded  mona-steries  on  the  Pictish  mainland, 
the  Western  islands,  and  the  Orkneys.  The 
parent  house  of  lona  exercised  supremacy  over 
all  these,  as  well  as  over  the  Columban  churches 
in  Ireland  and  those  afterward  established  in 
the  north  of  England.     He  died,  597. 

Columbus,  Christopher.     See  page  329. 

Columella,  Lucius  Junius  Moderatus,  the  most 
learned  of  Roman  writers  on  practical  agricul- 
ture, bom  at  Cadiz  in  Spain,  smd  flourished  in 


628 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


the  earlier  part  of  the  first  century  of  the  Chris- 
tian era.  For  some  time  he  resided  in  Syria, 
but  lived  chiefly  at  Rome,  and  died,  most  prob- 
ably, at  Tarentum.  His  great  work,  De  Re 
Ruatica,  in  twelve  books,  is  addressed  to  one 
Publius  Siivinus,  and  treats  of  arable  and  pasture 
land,  culture  of  vines,  olives,  etc.,  the  respective 
duties  of  masters  and  servants,  etc. 

Combe  (k(}bm  or  kom),  George,  British  phrenologist 
and  moral  philosopher,  born  in  Edinburgh,  1788. 
As  early  as  1816  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Dr.  Spurzheim,  while  the  latter  was  on  a  visit 
to  Scotland,  but  at  first  regarded  his  phrenological 
system  with  aversion.  Investigation,  however, 
convinced  him  that  phrenology  was  based  on 
fact.  The  result  was  his  Essays  on  Phrenology, 
1819.  Five  years  later  appeared  his  System  of 
Phrenology.  But  his  most  important  production 
is  The  Constitution  of  Man  Considered  in  Relation 
to  External  Objects.     Died,  1858. 

Comenius  {ko-itia'-ne-^s  or  A:d-m^'-nl-us),orKoinen- 
sld,  John  Amos,  educational  reformer,  was  bom 
in  1592,  in  Moravia,  either  at  Comna  or  at 
Nivnitz.  His  parents  belonged  to  the  Mora^ 
vian  brethren.  He  studied  at  Herbom  and  then 
at  Heidelberg,  became  rector  of  the  Moravian 
school  of  Prerau,  1614-16,  and  minister  at 
Fulnek,  but  lost  ail  his  property  and  library  in 
1621,  when  that  town  was  taken  by  the  imperial- 
ists. Settling  at  Lissa  in  Poland.  1628,  he  here 
worked  out  his  new  theory  of  education,  wrote 
his  Didactica  Magna,  and  was  chosen  bishop  of 
the  Moravian  brethren  in  1632.  In  1631  he 
publishe{l  his  Janua  Lingtiarum  Reaeraia,  and  in 
1639  his  Pansophice  Prodromus.  In  1641  he  was 
invited  to  England  by  parliament  to  assist  in 
reforming  the  system  of  public  instruction ;  but 
owing  to  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war.  he  went 
instead  to  Sweden,  1642.  He  returned  to  Lissa 
in  1648,  and  in  1650  went  to  Saros-Patak,  Hun- 
gary. Here  he  composed  his  Orbis  Senstialium 
Pictus,  the  first  picture  book  for  children. 
Finally,  he  settled  in  Amsterdam,  and  died  at 
Naarden,  1671. 

Commons,  Jolin  Rogers,  educator,  economist - 
born  in  Darke  county,  Ohio,  1862;  graduated 
from  Oberlin,  1888,  A.  M.,  1890;  student  Johns 
Hopkins,  1888-90.  Professor  of  sociology,  Ober- 
lin college,  1892;  Indiana  university,  1893-95; 
Syracuse  university,  1895-99.  Expert  agent 
industrial  commission,  1901 ;  professor  of  polit- 
ical economv,  university  of  Wisconsin  since  1904. 
Author:  7^ he  Distribution  of  Wealth;  Social 
Reform  and  the  Church;  Proportional  Representa- 
tion, Regulation  and  Restriction  of  Output  by 
Employers  and  Unions;  Trade  Unionism  and 
Labor  Problems;  Races  and  Immigrants  in 
America.  Contributor  to  reviews  and  periodi- 
cals. 

Comnena,  Anna.     See  Anna  Comnena. 

Comstock  (kum'stdk),  Anthony,  moral  reformer, 
secretary  and  special  agent  of  New  York  society 
for  suppression  of  vice  since  1873;  born  in  New 
Canaan  Conn.,  1844 ;  educated  in  district  school 
and  Wyckoff's  academy.  New  Canaan,  and 
1860-61,  high  school.  New  Britain,  Conn.;  left 
school  to  earn  living,  1861.  His  brother  Samuel 
having  been  killed  at  Gettysburg,  he  volun- 
teered to  fill  his  place  in  regiment,  enlisting 
in  17th  Connecticut  volunteer  infantry,  Decem- 
ber, 1863 ;  mustered  out,  July,  1865.  Appointed, 
March  3,  1873,  and  since  then,  post-ofiice 
inspector  of  New  York;  was  prominent  in 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  As  secretary  and  special  agent  of 
New  York  society  for  suppression  of  vice  and 
post-office  inspector,  has  brought  about  3,500 
criminals  to  justice  and  destroyed  one  hundred 
forty  tons  of  obscene  literature  and  pictures,  etc. 
Author:  Frauds  Exposed,  Gambling  Outrages, 
Morals  vs.  Art,  Traps  for  the  Young. 


Comstock,  John  Henry,  scientist,  professor  of 
entomology,  Cornell,  since  1882;  born  at  Janes- 
yille,  Wis.,  1849;  graduated,  B.  S.,  Cornell,  1874; 
instructor  entomology,  1875-77,  assistant  pro- 
fe.ssor,  1877-78,  Cornell;  United  States  entomol- 
ogist at  Washington,  1879-81.  Author:  A  Manual 
for  the  Study  of  Insects;  Insect  Life;  Notes  on 
Entomology;  Report  on  Cotton  Insects;  Introduc- 
tion to  Entomology;  How  to  Know  the  ButterflieM 
(with  his  wife).  Contributor  of  papers  on 
entomology  in  various  scientific  journals. 

Comte  (fc<5N<),  Auguste,  French  philosopher,  founder 
of  the  "positive  philosophy,"  born  at  Mont- 
pellier,  France,  1798.  He  studied  at  Paris,  and 
attracted  the  attention  of  his  companions  by  the 
boldness  and  novelty  of  his  speculations,  main- 
taining that  the  time  was  come  when  philosophy 
must  undergo  another  great  change,  such  as  it 
had  done  in  the  days  of  Bacon.  He  became 
acquainted  with  St.  Simon,  and  in  1820  was 
appointed  to  prepare  an  exposition  of  the 
Politique  Positive  of  the  St.  Simonian  society. 
In  1832  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematice 
at  the  Ecole  Polytechnique,  which  situation  he 
was  forced  to  resign  in  1852,  on  account  of  differ- 
ences with  hia  colleagues.     Died,  1857. 

Conant  (ko'^nant),  Charles  Arthur,  author,  banker; 
bom  at  Winchester,  Mass.,  1861;  educated  at 
grammar  and  high  schools,  supplemented  by  pri- 
vate study.  Democratic  candidate  for  congress. 
Harvard  university  district,  1894;  Wasliington 
correspondent  of  New  York  Journal  of  Commerce, 
1889-1901;  delegate  to  gold  democratic  conven- 
tion, 1896;  s[)ecial  coninns.sioner  of  war  depart- 
ment in  Philippines,  1901 ;  member  of  commission 
on  international  exchange  of  United  States,  1903 ; 
member  of  special  committee  of  New  York  cham- 
ber of  commerce  on  currency  reform.  1906; 
strong  advocate  of  gold  standard  and  civil  service 
reform.  Treasurer  of  Morton  trust  company, 
1902-06.  Member  of  American  economic  associa- 
tion, chamber  of  commerce  (New  York),  Ameri- 
can academy  of  political  and  social  science, 
American  Asiatic  association.  Author:  A  History 
of  Modem  Banks  of  Issue;  The  United  States  in 
the  Orient;  Alexander  Hamilton;  Wall  Street  arid 
the  Country;  The  Principles  of  Money  and 
Banking  (2  vols.);  contributor  on  economics  to 
journals. 

Conaty  {kdn'-d-H),  Rt,  Rev.  Thomas  James,  Roman 
Catholic  prelafee,  bishop  of  Los  Angeles:  bom  in 
Ireland,  1847;  educated  at  Montreal  college, 
1863-67 ;  graduated  at  college  of  the  Holy  Cross. 
1869 ;  Montreal  theological  school,  1872 ;  ordained 
priest,  1872;  D.  D.,  Georgetown  university, 
1889;  J.  C.  D.  and  D.  D.,  Laval  university. 
Quebec,  1896;  pastor,  church  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  Worcester,  Mass.,  1880-97;  president  of 
Catholic  total  abstinence  union  of  America, 
1887-88;  one  of  organizers  of  Catholic  summer 
school,  Plattsburgh,  N.  Y.;  president,  1893-97; 
selected  hy  American  Cathohc  bishops,  trustees 
of  university,  to  succeed  Bishop  Keane  as  rector 
Catholic  university,  Washington,  1896,  and 
appointed  to  position  by  Pope  Leo  XIII.,  who 
also  conferred  upon  him,  1897,  the  title  of 
domestic  prelate  and  nominated  him  titular 
bishop  of  Sam  OS,  1901 ;  appointed  to  see  of 
Monterey  and  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  1903.  Long 
identified  with  educational  and  social  movements; 
founded,  and  edited  four  years.  Catholic  SchoM 
and  Home  Magazine.  Author:  Bible  Studies,  for 
use  in  colleges  and  schools. 

Cond£  (kdN'-dd'),  Prince  de,  Louis  I.  de  Bourbon, 
younger  brother  of  Antony  of  Bourbon,  king  of 
Navarre,  was  bom  1530.  During  the  wars 
between  Henry  II.  and  Spain,  he  distinguished 
himself  at  the  siege  of  Metz,  the  battle  of  St. 
Quentin,  and  the  capture  of  Calais  from  the 
English.     On     Francis     II.'s     accession,     1569, 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


629 


Cond6,  like  hia  brother,  joined  the  Huguenots, 
took  part  in  the  unlucky  conspiracy  of  Amboise 
against  the  Guises,  and  escaped  execution  only 
by  the  death  of  the  king.  The  regent,  Catharine 
de'  Medicis,  the  Guises'  bitter  enemy,  made  con- 
cessions to  tlie  Huguenots,  and  Cond6  became 
governor  of  Picardy.  The  massacre  of  Hugue- 
nots at  Vassy  by  Guise.  15G2,  led  to  the  first  civil 
war,  and  Cond6  and  Coligny  gathered  a  Iluguenot 
army;  but  at  Dreux  Cond6  was  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner.  In  the  second  Huguenot  war, 
1567-69,  Cond6  had  coins  struck  with  the  inscrip- 
tion: "Louis  XIII.,  first  Christian  king  of 
France";  but  at  Jarnac,  1569,  he  was  defeated, 
taken  prisoner,  and  shot. 

Cond£,  Prince  de,  Louis  II.  de  Bourbon,  commonly 
termed  "the  great  Cond6,"  was  born  1621.  By 
the  death  of  his  father,  1646,  he  became  head  of 
hia  family,  and,  next  to  the  duke  of  Orleans,  the 
highest  personage  in  the  state.  At  the  head  of 
troops  collected  in  the  Netherlands,  he  gained 
the  battle  of  Bleneau,  in  April,  1652,  and  im- 
mediately marched  upon  Paris.  After  a  fruit- 
less effort  to  seize  Paris  he  left  the  country,  and 
on  the  formal  outbreak  of  war  between  France 
and  Spain  became  generalissimo  of  the  Spanish 
forces,  but  was  unable  to  gain  the  advantage 
over  Turenne.  The  war  having  been  renewed 
by  Spain,  1673,  he  again  commanded  the  French 
in  the  Netherlands,  and  soon  after  retired  to 
Chantilly,  where  he  enjoyed  the  society  of  such 
men  as  Molidre,  Boileau,  and  La  Bruydre.  Died, 
1686. 

Condillac  (kdvi'-de'-ydk'),  £tienne  Bonnot  de 
Mably  de,  French  philosopher,  the  founder  of 
sensationalism,  was  born  of  a  noble  family  at 
Grenoble,  1715.  As  a  child  his  delicate  health 
delayed  his  progress  in  education;  but  in  youth 
he  numbered  among  his  friends  Rousseau, 
Diderot,  Duclos,  etc.  Many  of  his  works  were 
composed  for  his  pupil,  the  duke  of  Parma, 
grandson  of  Louis  XIV.;  and  he  was  titular 
Abb^  de  Mureaux.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of 
the  French  academy  of  sciences  in  1768.  He 
died  on  his  estate  of  Flux,  near  Beaugency,  in 
1780.  He  based  all  knowledge  on  the  senses. 
Among  his  works  were  Essai  sur  I'Origine  des 
Connaissances  Humaines;  TraiU  des  SysUmes; 
Traits  des  Sensations;  Logique;  and  Ltangue  des 
Calculs. 

Condorcet  (k6n'-ddr'-s^'),  Jean  Marie  Antolne 
Nicholas  Caritat,  Marquis  de,  French  philosopher 
and  mathematician,  was  born  in  1743.  He  first 
gained  celebrity  by  his  successful  labors  as  a 
mathematician.  His  treatise  on  integral  calculus, 
written  when  he  was  but  twenty-two  years  of 
age,  was  eminently  successful,  and  was  con- 
sidered to  indicate  a  degree  of  knowledge  seldom 
I>ossessed  at  so  early  an  age.  He  was  the  friend 
of  D'Alembert  and  of  almost  all  his  illustrious 
contemporaries,  as  well  as  one  of  the  disciples  of 
Voltaire.  Being  appointed  governor  of  the 
dauphin  by  the  constituent  assembly,  he  was  suc- 
cessively called  to  the  legislative  body  and  to  the 
convention;  but  subsequently  denounced  as  a 
partisan  of  the  Girondists,  he  was  outlawed  in 
1793,  and  shortly  after  was  taken  prisoner,  when 
he  poisoned  himself,  in  1794. 

Confucius  (kdn-/u'-shl-us),  (Chinese  philosopher). 
See  page  198. 

Congreve  (kdng'-grev),  William,  English  drainatist, 
was  bom  near  Leeds,  1670.  He  entered  himself 
as  a  student  at  the  Middle  Temple,  but  abandoned 
the  law  for  literature.  His  first  piece,  written  at 
the  age  of  seventeen,  was  a  romance  entitled 
Incognita,  or  Love  and  Duty  Reconciled.  In  1693 
he  wrote  his  first  comedy.  The  Old  Bachelor. 
This  brought  him  not  only  great  reputation,  but 
also  the  substantial  benefit  of  a  commissionership 
in  the  hackney-coach  office,  which  was  given  to 


him  by  the  earl  of  Halifax,  who  afterward  still 
further  patronised  and  favored  him.  He  wrote 
also  Love  for  Love;  The  Double  DettUr;  Tk« 
Mourning  Bride;  The  Way  of  the  World;  an 
opera,  and  some  poems.     Died,  1729. 

Ck>nkllng  {kdmjk'-llng),  Boaooe,  American  politician, 
was  born  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  1829.  In  1846  he 
removed  to  Utica,  N.  Y.,  where  he  became  dis- 
trict attorney,  and  was  mayor  in  1858.  In  the 
latter  year  he  was  elected  to  consrees,  and  In 
1867  became  a  member  of  the  iJnited  State* 
senate.  He  took  an  active  and  prominent  part 
in  the  practical  business  of  both  housee,  aenred  on 
important  committees,  and  was  instrumental  in 
the  passing  of  many  useful  legislative  measure*. 
After  the  war  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  recon- 
struction of  the  southern  states,  and  atlvocated  the 
resumption  of  specie  payments.  He  opposed 
President  Johnson's  policy,  and  was  a  zealous 
champion  of  Grant's  administration.  In  1881  he 
resigned  his  seat  in  the  senate,  owing  to  Garfield's 
assumption  of  the  control  over  appointments  in 
his  native  state.  In  1882  he  was  appointed  asso- 
ciate-justice of  the  supreme  court,  but  declined 
the  appointment.     Died  at  New  York,  1888. 

Connaught,  Arthur  William  Patrick  Albert,  duke 
of,  third  son  of  Queen  Victoria,  wa.s  bom  May  1. 
1850.  He  was  educated  at  Woolwich;  entered 
the  army,  1868;  became  captain,  1871,  major, 
1875,  colonel  and  major-general,  1880;  accom- 
panied the  expedition  to  Egypt,  1882;  became 
lieutenant-general,  1889,  ancf  general,  1893.  He 
conunanded  the  Bombay  army  in  India,  1886- 
90,  the  southern  district  of  England,  1890-93, 
that  of  Aldershot,  1893-98.  In  1900  he  suc- 
ceeded Lord  Roberts  in  command  of  the  forces 
in  Ireland;  became  inspector-general  in  1904, 
and  was  commander-in-chief  of  Mediterranean, 
1907-09.  He  was  created  duke  of  Connaught 
and  Strathearn  and  earl  of  Sussex  in  1874  ;  mar- 
ried Princess  Louise  of  Prussia,  1879.  In  1911 
he  was  designated  by  George  V.  to  succeed  Earl 
Grey  as  governor-general  of  Canada. 

"Connor,  Ralph.*'     See  Gordon,  Charles  W. 

Conrad  I.  {kdn'-r&d),  was  chosen  king  of  Germany 
in  911,  and  was  the  first  of  the  elected  rulers  of 
Germany.  His  short  reign  was  spent  in  putting 
down  his  nobles,  who  were  always  rebelling 
against  him,  Duke  Henry  of  Saxony  being  the  one 
who  gave  him  most  trouble.  Many  contests  took 
place  with  him,  and  Henry  showed  so  much 
ability  that  even  Conrad  admired  him  •  and  when 
he  was  mortally  wounded  in  a  battle  with  the 
Huns,  Conrad  begged  his  nobles  to  elect  the  duke 
of  Saxony  to  succeed  him,  as  Henry  I.,  which 
they  did.     Conrad  died,  918. 

Conrad  III.,  the  first  Hohenstaufen  king  of  the 
Germans,  was  born  1093,  son  of  Frederick  of 
Swabia.  He  unsuccessfully  contested  the  crown 
of  Italy  with  the  emperor  Lothair  of  Saxony,  on 
whose  death  the  princes  of  Germany,  fearing  the 
growing  prep>onaerance  of  the  Guelph  party. 
offered  Conrad  the  throne,  and  he  was  crowned 
at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  1138.  He  was  immediately 
involved  in  a  auarrel  with  Henry  the  Proud,  duke 
of  Bavaria  ana  Saxony,  and  head  of  the  Guelphs 
in  Germany;  and  the  struggle  was  continued 
under  Hen^s  son,  Henry  the  Lion.  When  St. 
Bernard  of  Clairvaux  preached  a  new  crusade, 
Conrad  set  out  for  Palestine  with  a  large  army, 
1147.  A  new  attempt  by  the  duke  of  Bavaria  to 
regain  his  dukedom  was  defeated  by  the  nephew 
of  Connad,  whose  health  had  broken  during  the 
crusade,  and  who  died  at  Bamberg,  1152. 

Conscience  {k6s'-sy&fi8'\  Hendrik,  Flemish  novel- 
ist, was  bom  at  Antwerp,  1812,  and  died  at  Brus- 
sels, 1883.  His  Phantazy,  a  fine  collection  of 
tales,  and  his  most  popular  romance,  De  Leeuvo 
van  Vlaenderen,  early  made  his  name  known; 
but  it  was  hb  series  of  charming  pictures  of  quiet 


630 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Flemish  life,  beginning  with  Hoe  men  achilder 
wordt,  1843,  that,  through  translations,  carried 
his  name  over  the  world. 

C^nsid^rant  {kda'-ae'-dd'-r&ii'),  Victor-Prosper, 
French  socialist,  was  born  at  Salins,  France,  1808 ; 
he  entered  the  army,  which,  however,  he  soon 
left  to  promulgate  Fourier's  doctrines.  On  the 
death  of  his  master,  Consid^rant  became  head  of 
his  school,  and  edited  the  Phalange.  An  Eng- 
lishman, Mr.  Young,  having  advanced  money, 
Considdrant  established  a  socialist  colony  or 
■phalanatire  in  Eure-et-Loir;  but  the  experiment 
failed,  and  with  it  the  Phalange.  Of  his  numerous 
writings  the  chief  is  the  Deatinie  Sociale.  In 
1849  he  was  accused  of  high  treason,  and  fled 
from  France.  In  Texas  he  founded  a  community, 
La  /i^unum,  which  flourished  for  a  time.  He 
returned  to  France  in  18G9,  and  died  1893. 

Constable  (ktin'-atd-b'l),  John,  landscape  painter, 
born  in  East  Bergholt,  Suffolk,  England,  1776. 
died  suddenly  1837.  He  studied  at  the  royal 
academy;  b(>gan  with  portraits  and  historical 
Bubiects,  but  finally  fixed  upon  landscape.  The 
national  gallery  has  his  best  pictures,  "The 
Cornfield,'^  "The  Valley  Farm,"  and  "The  Hay- 
wain."  Several  good  examples  of  his  art  have 
been  added  to  the  Louvre,  and  Marquand  pre- 
sented two  fine  pictures  by  him  to  the  Metro- 
politan museum  of  art,  New  York. 

Constans  ikdn'-gt&nz)^  Flavius  Julius,  emperor  of 
Rome,  was  born  about  A.  D.  320.  He  was  the 
youngest  son  of  Constantine  the  Great,  on  whose 
death,  337,  he  received  as  his  share  of  the  empire. 
Western  lllyricum,  Italy,  and  Africa.  Three 
years  afterward  his  brother  Constantine  II. 
mvadcd  Italy,  and  was  killed  in  battle  near 
Aquileia,  when  Constans  became  master  of  the 
whole  of  the  Western  empire.  He  was  a  weak 
and    cruel    ruler,    and    at    last    Magnentius,    his 

feneral  in  Gaul,  sent  some  conspirators  to  kill 
im.  Constans  fled  to  Spain,  but  was  overtaken 
by  them  and  slain,  A.  D.  350. 

Constant  de  Rebecque  (^n'-sMn'  di  r6-bik'), 
Henri  Benjamin,  author  and  poUtician,  was  born 
of  Frencli  Huguenot  ancestry  at  Lausanne, 
Switzerland,  1767.  Educated  at  Oxford,  Erlan- 
gen,  and  Edinburgh,  he  in  1795  settled  in  Paris 
as  a  publicist.  He  entered  the  tribunate  in  1799, 
but  was  banished  from  France  in  1802  for  de- 

•  nouncing  the  despotic  acts  of  Napoleon.  After 
traveling  in  Germany  and  Italy  with  Madame  de 
Stael,  he  settled  at  Gottingen.  On  Napoleon's 
fall  in  1814  he  returned  to  Paris;  during  the 
hundred  days  became  one  of  Napoleon's  coun- 
cillors, though  previously  he  had  styled  Napo- 
leon a  Genghis  Khan*  and  after  the  second 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons  wrote  and  spoke  in 
favor  of  constitutional  freedom.  He  was  returned 
to  the  chamber  of  deputies  in  1819,  and  became 
the  leader  of  the  liberal  opposition.  He  died 
1830.  His  De  la  Religion  (5  vols.)  is  a  notable 
work.  He  likewise  wrote  a  remarkable  novel, 
Adolphe,  a  short  story  of  love  and  disillusion. 

Constantine  I.  (k6n'~stan-4in)t  called  the  Great; 
born  in  272jat  Moesia,  was  the  son  of  Constantius 
Chlorus  by  Helena.  On  the  death  of  his  father  at 
York,  where  he  accompanied  him,  Constantine 
was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  troops ;  this  title 
being  challenged  by  Maximian,  his  father-in-law, 
and  Maxentius,  his  brother-in-law,  he  took  up 
arms  against  first  the  one  and  then  the  other, 
and  defeated  them.  One  day  he  saw  a  cross  in 
the  sky  with  the  words,  "By  this  conquer,"  in 
Greek,  and  under  this  sign,  kno\vn  as  the  labarum, 
which  he  adopted  as  his  standard,  he  accord- 
ingly marched  straight  to  Rome,  where  he  wiks 
acknowledged  emperor  hy  the  senate  in  312, 
and  thereafter  an  edictwas  issued  named  of  Milan, 
granting  toleration  to  the  Christians.  He  had 
still  to  extend  his  empire  over  the  East,  and  hav- 


ing done  so  by  the  removal  of  Lieinius,  he  trans- 
ferred the  seat  of  his  empire  to  Byzantium,  which 
was  thereafter  called  Constantinople,  i.  e.,  Con- 
stantine's  city.  Constantine  was  oaptis^  in 
337  as  a  Christian,  after  having  three  years 
before  proclaimed  Christianity  the  state  religion. 
Died,  337. 

Constantine  XIII.,  Palseologus,  the  last  empteror 
of  the  East,  born  in  1394.  His  father  and  his 
brother  had  been  emperors  before  him,  and  he 
did  not  come  to  the  throne  until  he  was  fifty- 
four  years  old,  1448.  At  that  time  the  Turks  had 
conquered  almost  all  of  the  Eastern  empire,  and 
but  little  was  left  besides  Constantinople  and  a 
few  other  cities.  The  Turkish  sultan,  Moham- 
med II.,  determined  to  take  Constantinople  also, 
and  laid  siege  to  it  with  a  great  army,  1453. 
Constantine,  who  had  only  about  9,000  soldiers, 
resisted  bravely  for  nearly  two  months,  but  at 
last  the  Turks  battered  down  part  of  tne  walls 
and  rushed  in  ^^ith  wild  shouts,  and  the  emperor 
and  his  little  band  of  nobles  were  all  slain. 
Constantine's  body,  found  under  a  heap  of  the 
dead,  was  known  by  the  gold  eagles  on  his  shoes. 
It  is  said  that  Mohammed  had  nis  head  cut  off 
and  exhibited  it  in  all  the  cities  of  Arabia  and 
Persia. 

Constantius  I„  called  Chlorus,  a  Roman  emperor, 
father  of  Constantine  the  Great,  bom  about  A.  D. 
250.  Constantius  served  in  the  army  with  dis- 
tinction under  the  emperor  Diocletian,  and  in 
292,  when  the  two  emperors  Diocletian  and 
Maximian  each  appointed  a  favorite  general  aa 
assiBtant  emperor,  under  the  title  of  Cma»i, 
Constantius  received  the  place  of  Ciesar  to 
Diocletian.  After  he  had  been  Cssar  thirteen 
years  he  was  made  chief  emperor,  when  Diocletian 
gave  up  the  throne.     He  died  at  York,  England, 

Constantius  II.,  a  Roman  emperor,  second  son  of 
Constantine  the  Great^  born  317.  Constantine 
on  his  death  divided  his  empire  among  his  three 
sons,  Constantine,  Constans,  and  Constantius, 
but  at  last  the  whole  was  united  under  Constan- 
tius. There  were  many  rival  emperors  in  his 
time,  many  disputes  in  the  church,  and  many 
unsuccessful  wars  against  the  Germans  and 
Persians.  His  cousin  Juhan  won  so  many  victo- 
ries that  the  army  proclaimed  him  emperor,  and 
Constantius  marched  again.st  him,  but  died  on 
the  way,  361.     He  was  succeeded  by  Julian. 

Converse,  John  H.,  philanthropist,  manufacturer; 
president  of  Burnham,  Williams  &  Co.,  proprie- 
tors of  Baldwin  locomotive  works,  Philadelphia; 
bom  at  Burlington,  Vt.,  1840;  educated  at 
university  of  Vermont.  Vice-moderator  of  the 
general  assembly,  Presbyterian  church.  United 
States,  1900;  leader  of  many  benevolent  and 
religious  enterprises.  Was  trustee  of  Princeton 
theological  seminary;  was  member  of  American 
philosophical  society.      Died,  1910. 

Conway,  Moncure  Daniel,  clergjinan,  author,  was 
bom  in  Virginia,  1832;  entered  the  Methodist 
ministry  in  1850,  but,  after  a  divinity  course  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  became  a  Unitarian  preacher 
in  Washington  in  1854,  and  in  Cincinnati  in  1857. 
He  was  a  strong  opponent  of  slavery,  and  in  1863 
went  to  England  to  lecture  on  the  war.  In  Lon- 
don he  became  head  of  the  South  Place  institute 
(for  advanced  religious  thought),  which  he  finally 
gave  up  in  1897,  and  wrote  much  for  the  press 
and  magazines.  He  wrote  The  Rejected  Stone, 
RepiMican  Superstitions;  Idols  and  Ideals, 
Demonology  and  Devil-lore;  Thomas  Carlyle, 
Pine  and  Palm,  and  A  Life  of  Paine.  Died 
1907. 

Conway,  Sir  William  Martin,  English  traveler,  art 
critic,  and  geographer,  bom  at  Rochester,  Eng- 
land, 1856;  was  educated  at  Trinity  college, 
Cambridge.       University      extension      lecturer. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


081 


1882-85;  professor  of  art,  University  college, 
Liverpool,  1885-88;  in  1889  traveled  in  Egypt 
and  the  East  nine  months;  in  1892  in  Himalayas, 
climbing  peak  23,000  feet  high,  and  surveying 
2,000  miles  of  mountains;  traversed  the  Alps 
from  end  to  end  in  1894;  explored  interior  of 
Spitsbergen,  1896-97;  in  1898  explored  and  sur- 
veyed Bolivian  Andes,  ascending  Sorata  (21,500 
feet)  and  lUimani  (21,200  feet),  also  ascended 
Aconcagua  (23,080  feet)  and  explored  glaciers  of 
Tierra  del  Fuego;  Slade  professor  of  fine  arts, 
Cambridge,  1901-04;  president  of  the  Alpine 
club,  1902-04.  Author:  Woodcutters  of  the 
Netherlands  in  the  fifteenth  century;  Early  Flemish 
Artists;  Literary  Remains  of  Albrecht  DOrer; 
Dawn  of  Art  in  the  Ancient  World;  Climbing  and 
Exploration  in  the  Karakoram-Himalayas,  etc.; 
Tlic  Alps  from  End  to  End;  The  First  Crossing  of 
Spitsbergen;  With  Ski  and  Sledge  over  Arctic 
Glaciers;  The  Bolivian  Andes;  The  Domain  of 
Art;  Early  Tuscan  Artists;  Aconcagua  arid 
Tierra  del  Fuego;  Great  Masters;  No  Man's 
Jjond  (history  of  Spitsbergen) ;   etc. 

Conwell,  Russell  Herman,  lecturer,  educator.  Bap- 
tist clergyman;  bom  at  Worthington,  Mass., 
1842 ;  educated  at  Wilbraham  academy ;  entered 
Yale,  law  department,  1860;  graduated  from 
Albany  law  school,  1866;  served,  captain  of 
infantry,  1862-65,  in  Union  army;  promoted  to 
lieutenant-colonel,  1865;  practiced  law  in 
Minneapolis,  1865-67;  immigration  agent  for 
state  of  Minnesota  to  Germany,  1867-68: 
foreign  correspondent  New  York  Tribune  ana 
Boston  Traveler,  1869-71 ;  practiced  law  in  Bos- 
ton, 1871-79;  ordained  to  ministry,  1879;  pastor 
of  Grace  Baptist  church,  Philadelphia,  1881-91 ; 
founded  Temple  college,  1888,  and  is  its  presi- 
dent; Samaritan  hospital,  1890;  pastor  the 
Baptist  temple,  Philadelphia,  since  1891; 
lyceum  lecturer.  Author:  Why  the  Chinese 
Emigrate;  Woman  and  the  Law;  Joshua  Giana- 
vello;  .Life  of  Charles  H.  Spurgeon;  Life  of 
Bayard  Taylor;  Life  of  President  Hayes;  Life  of 
President  Garfield;  Acres  of  Diamonds;  Lives  of 
the  Presidents;  The  New  Day. 

Cook,  Albert  Stanburrough,  educator;  bom  at 
Montville,  N.  J.,  1853;  graduated  at  Rutgers 
college,  1872;  M.  S.,  M.  A.,  L.  H.  D.,  LL.  D., 
Rutgers;  M.  A.,  Yale;  Ph.  D.,  Jena;  student 
Gottingen  and  Leipzig,  1877-78,  London  and 
Jena,  1881-82.  Tutor  mathematics,  Rutgers, 
1872-73;  teacher  at  Freehold,  N.  J.,  institute, 
1873-77;  associate  in  English,  Johns  Hopkins, 
1879-81 ;  professor  of  English,  university  of 
California,  1882-89;  professor  of  English  lan- 
guage and  literature,  Yale,  since  1889.  Co-editor 
of  Journal  of  English  and  Germanic  philology, 
1897-1905.  Author  and  editor  of  numerous 
works  on  English  classics,  criticism,  and  language. 

Cook,  Captain  James,  a  celebrated  English  naviga^ 
tor,  best  known  through  his  Voyages  Round  the 
World;  born  in  Marton,  in  North  Riding,  York- 
shire, 1728.  He  made  three  principal  voyages, 
in  the  course  of  which  he  made  many  important 
discoveries,  but  was  ultimately  killed  in  a  quarrel 
with  the  natives  of  Hawaii.  His  kindly  disposi- 
tion and  his  scrupulous  justice  and  humanity 
were,  with  his  skill  as  a  navigator,  among  his 
first  recommendations.  After  his  death,  at 
Hawaii,  one  of  the  Sandwich  islands,  1779,  many 
honors  were  paid  to  his  memory,  both  in  his  own 
and  in  foreign  countries. 

Cooke,  Josiah  Parsons,  American  chemist,  was 
bora  at  Boston,  Mass.,  1827,  and  was  professor  of 
chemistry  at  Harvard  from  1850.  His  chief 
works  are  Elements  of  Chemical  Physics,  First 
Principles  of  Chemical  Philosophy,  The  New 
Chemistry,  etc.     Died  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  1894. 

Cooke,  Sir  WiUiam  FothergUl,  British  electrician, 
bom  at  Ealing,  England,  1806;  was  educated  at 


Durham  and  Eklinburch,  lerved  in  the  Indiwi 
army  from  1826  to  1831;  after  studving  medidae 
at  Paris  and  Heidelljcrg,  took  up  telemtpby. 
in  1837  entere<l  into  partnenbip  with  Proie 
Wheatstone.     In  1845  they  patented  the  . 

needle  apparatus;   in  1846  Cooke  formed  a  i 

pany,  which  paid  £120,000  for  the  partnera' 
earher  patents.  In  1867  Cooke  and  Wheatetone 
received  the  Albert  gold  medal;  Cooke  wee 
knighted  in  1869.     He  ditni  1879. 

Cooley,  Thomas  Mclntyre,  American  jurist,  wee 
born  at  Attica,  N.  Y.,  1824,  wae  admitted  to  the 
bar  1846,  and  became  profeeeor  of  law  at  the 
university  of  Michigan,  1859;  was  aaeociate 
justice  Michigan  supreme  court  1864-68,  end 
chief-justice  1868-85.  He  was  first  chairman  of 
the  United  States  interstate  commerce  commie- 
sion,  and  wrote  extensively  on  constitutional 
law.  His  chief  works  are :  Constituitonal  Limita- 
tions; Law  of  Taxation;  Wrongs  and  their  Reme- 
dies, and  General  Princi^es  of  Corutitutional 
Law  in  the  United  States.     He  died  1898. 

Coolldge,  Archibald  Cary,  instructor  in  history. 
Harvard,  1893-99,  assistant  professor,  1899-1908, 
professor  since  1908,  Harvard;  bom  at  Boeton, 
1866 ;  graduated  from  Harvard  university,  1387 ; 
studied  at  Berlin  university  one  term;  Eeole 
des  Sciences  Politiques,  Paris,  and  F'reiburg,  in 
Baden;  Ph.  D.,  1892.  Acting  secretary  Ameri- 
can legation,  St.  Petersburg,  winter  of  1890-01; 
private  secretary  to  uncle,  T.  J.  Coolidge,  min- 
ister to  France,  spring  of  1892;  secretary  of 
American  legation  at  Vienna,  1893.  With  Taft 
party  to  Philippine  islands,  1905-06;  Harvard 
lecturer  at  the  Sorbonne  and  other  French  uni- 
versities, 1906-07.  Has  contributed  to  Ameri- 
can Historical  Review,  the  New  York  Nation,  etc. 

Coolldge,  Thomas  Jefferson,  manufacturer,  aiplo- 
mat;  bom  at  Boston,  1831;  educated  at  Har- 
vard; LL.  D.,  Harvard,  1902.  Embarked  in 
business  in  firm  of  Gardiner  &  Coolldge,  East  India 
merchants;  largely  interested  in  cotton  mills; 
formerly  president  of  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  . 
Fk  railroad ;  also  Oregon  railroad  and  navigation 
company.  Director  of  Bay  state  trust  company, 
Amoskeag  manufacturing  company;  connected 
with  large  New  England  mills,  banks,  railroads, 
and  other  enterprises;  United  States  minister 
to  France,  1892-93;  member  of  joint  liigh 
commission  to  adjust  disputes  between  United 
States  and  England.  1898-99. 

Cooper,  Anthony  Ashley.     See  Shaftesbory. 

Cooper,  Sir  AsUey  Paston,  a  celebrated  English 
surgeon,  was  bom  in  Brooke,  Norfolk,  1/68; 
studied  imder  Henry  Cline,  surgeon  to  St. 
Thomas's  hospital,  London,  and  was  appointed 
demonstrator  of  anatomy  there,  1789.  In  1792 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  anatomy  at  Sur- 
geon's hall;  and  in  1800,  surgeon  to  Guy's 
hospital.  In  1813  he  received  the  professorship 
of  comparative  anatomy  in  the  college  of  sur- 
geons. In  1822  he  was  elected  one  of  the  court 
of  examiners  of  the  college  of  surpeons,  and  in 
1827,  president.  In  the  following  year  he 
received  the  appointment  of  surgeon  to  the  king, 
and  in  1830  was  made  vice-president  of  the^  royal 
society.  He  was  made  a  member  of  the  French 
institute,  and  corresponding  member  of  the 
royal  academy  of  sciences,  a  D.  C.  L.  of  Oxford, 
and  an  LL.  D.  of  Edinburgh.  He  died  1841. 
A  colossal  statue  to  his  memory  is  erected  in  St. 
Paul's  cathedral,  London. 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore,  famous  American  novelist, 
was  born  in  Burlington,  N.  J.,  1789.  After  six 
years'  experience  of  naval  life,  he  retired  from  the 
sea  in  1810,  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Coopers- 
town,  Otsego  county,  N.  Y.  About  1819  ap- 
peared his  first  work.  Precaution.  In  1821  fol- 
lowed The  Spy,  a  tale  which  at  once  secured  for 
him  a  place  in  the  first  rank  of  novelists;   then 


632 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


appeared  his  almost  unequaled  sea  stories,  The 
Red  Rover,  Pilot,  and  Water-vntch;  his  famous 
"Leather  Stocking  series"  of  Indian  life  and 
adventure,  the  Pioneers,  Last  of  the  Mohicans, 
Pathfinder,  Deerslayer,  Prairie,  etc.  Cooper, 
after  passing  some  years  in  Europe,  die<l  at 
Cooperstown,  in  1851.  His  works  liave  been 
translated  into  every  European  language,  and 
have  exhausted  numerous  cuitions. 

Cooper,  Peter,  American  inventor,  manufacturer, 
and  philanthropist,  was  born  in  New  York,  1791. 
His  early  life  was  laborious.  His  first  invention 
was  an  improvement  in  a  machine  for  shearing 
cloth.  In  1828  he  erected  iron  works  in  Canton, 
near  Baltimore,  and  here  constructed  after  his 
own  designs  the  first  locomotive  engine  ever  made 
in  this  country,  after  which  he  took  a  great 
interest  in  the  first  ocean  telegraph  and  in  state 
canals.  But  the  work  of  his  life  was  the  founding 
of  an  institution  for  the  instruction  of  the  indus- 
trial classes  —  the  Cooper  Union,  New  York, 
whose  corner  stone  he  laid  in  1854.  It  contains 
a  school  of  art  for  women  taught  in  the  day  time, 
and  a  free  school  of  telegraphy.  Free  schools  of 
science,  art,  mathematics,  practical  engineering, 
etc.,  are  open  to  youtlis  of  both  sexes  every 
evening,  lectures  are  given,  and  a  free  reading 
room  and  library  are  open  to  the  public  at  all 
hours.  A  cupola  and  an  additional  story  were 
added  to  this  fine  building  at  the  commencement 
of  the  year  1880.  In  1876  the  independent 
party  nominated  him  for  president  of  the  United 
States,  and  he  received  nearly  100,000  votes. 
Cooper  had  a  reception  given  in  honor  of  his 
84th  birthday,  at  which  he  received  the  degree  of 
LL.  D.  On  his  90th  birthday,  1881.  he  gave  the 
Union  an  additional  endowment.     Died,  1883. 

Cope  (hop),  Edward  Drinker,  American  naturalist, 
born  in  Philadelphia,  1840.  He  early  achieved 
success  as  an  investigator  in  herpetology,  and  in 
1864  was  appointed  professor  of  naturalscience  in 
Haverford  college,  but  resigned  because  of  poor 
health,  1867.  His  contributions  to  science  have 
been  valuable  and  voluminous ;  among  them  are 
Origin  of  the  Fittest  and  Tertiani  Vertebrate*  of 
North  America.     He  died  at  Philadelphia,  1897. 

Copernicus  {ko-pir^-ni-kus),  Nicholas.  See  page  337. 

Copley  {k6p'4i),  John  Singleton,  American  painter, 
was  born  at  Boston,  Mass.,  1737.  When  only 
sixteen,  his  portraits  were  admired.  Washington 
sat  to  him  in  1755,  and  later,  in  London,  he 
painted  George  III.  and  bis  queen.  Here,  also, 
he  became  the  friend  of  such  men  as  West  and 
Reynolds.  Some  of  his  best  works  are:  "Death 
of  Lord  Chatham,"  "Death  of  Major  Pierson," 
"Charles  I.  Demanding  the  Surrender  of  the 
Five  Members,"  and  the  "Assassination  of 
Buckingham."  His  historical  paintings  are 
perhaps  superior  to  those  of  West,  and  his 
portraits  rank  with  those  of  Reynolds  and 
Gainsborough.     He  died  at  London,  1815. 

Copp^e  (ko'-pa'),  Francois,  French  poet,  was  born 
in  Paris,  1842.  For  three  years  a  war-office 
clerk,  he  early  gave  himself  to  poetry,  and  with 
Le  Rdiquaire  and  Les  Inimites,  gained  the  front 
rank  of  the  "Pamassiens."  Later  volumes  of 
poetry  were  Les  Humbles,  Le  Cahier  Rouge, 
Olivier  (his  one  long  poem),  Les  Ricits  et  les 
EUgiea,  and  Contes  en  Vers.  His  earUest  dra- 
matic poem,  Le  Passant,  owed  much  to  Sarah 
Bernhardt,  and  was  followed  by  Deux  Douleurs; 
L'Abandonnie;  Le  Luthier  de  Cremone;  La 
Guerre  de  Cent  Arts;  Madame  de  Maintenon; 
Severo  Tordli;  Les  Jacobites;  and  Le  Pater. 
Dramatic  critic  for  some  years  to  La  Patrie, 
Copp6e  entered  the  academy  in  1884.   Died,  1908. 

Coquelln  (kok'-Utti'),  Benott  Constant,  French 
actor,  bom  at  Boulogne,  1841,  was  admitted  to 
the  conservatory  in  1859,  and  having  gained  the 
second  prize  for  comedy,  made  his  d^but  at  the 


The&tre  Francais,  1860.  For  over  a  quarter  of  a 
century  he  played  here  with  unbroken  success, 
both  in  classical  pieces  and  in  rdles  created  by 
himself,  in  the  broader  aspects  of  comedy  standing 
without  a  rival.  He  appeared  in  1887  in  London, 
in  1888-89  in  South  America  and  the  United 
States.     Died,  1909. 

Corbin,  Henry  Claris  American  general;  bom  in 
Clermont  county,  Ohio,  1842;  educated  at  com- 
mon schools  and  two  years  in  private  academy; 
studied  law,  1860-61.  Entered  United  States 
volunteers,  second  Ueutenant  83d  Ohio  infantry, 
1862,  and  served  throughout  civil  war.  Entered 
regular  army  as  second  lieutenant  17th  United 
States  infantry,  1866;  and  was  finally  made 
lieutenant-geneiul  in  United  States  army,  1906; 
retired  in  same  year.  Served  ten  years  on  plains 
in  Kansas,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  Texas; 
in  1877,  detailed  for  duty  at  executive  mansion; 
secretary  of  Sitting  Bull  commission.  With 
President  Garfield  at  the  time  he  was  shot  and 
at  his  bed-side  at  Elberon,  where  he  died.  In 
recognition  of  his  services,  and  the  part  he  took 
in  the  war  with  Spain,  congress  conferred  upon 
him  rank  of  major-general.  Commander  of 
the  Atlantic  division,  1904;  conducted  army 
maneuvers,  Manassas,  Va.,  September,  1904; 
commander  of  the  Philippine  division,  1904; 
Northern  division,  1906.      Died,  1909. 

Corbin,  Jolin,  novelist,  dramatic  critic;  bom  at 
Chicago,  1870;  gratluated  at  Harvard,  1892, 
A.  M.,  1893;  BaTli<jl  college,  Oxford,  1894-95. 
Instructor  in  English  composition  at  Harvard, 
1895-96;  assistant  editor.  Harper's  Magaxine, 
1897-1900;  dramatic  critic.  Harper's  Weekly, 
1899-1900;  editorial  staff,  Eneydopcedia  Britan' 
nica,  1900-02;  dramatic  critic.  New  York 
Timet,  1902;  dramatic  critic.  New  York  Sun, 
1905-07;  literary  manager,  the  New  theater. 
New  York,  1908-10.  Author:  An  American 
at  Oxford;  A  New  Portrait  of  Shakespeare;  The 
First  Loves  of  Perilla;  The  Cave  Man;  Which 
College  for  the  Boyt  and  many  articles  and 
stories  m  the  Harper  publications,  Scribner's, 
The  CerUury,  The  Atlantic  Monthly,  The  North 
American  Review,  and  the  Saturday  Evening 
Post. 

Corday  d'Armans  {kdr'-dl'  ddr'-mdN',  or  mAv'), 
Marie  Charlotte,  French  heroine,  was  bom  in 
1768,  at  St.  Satumin,  Normandy,  of  a  noble 
Norman  family;  sympathized  with  the  ideas  of 
the  French  revolution  but  was  horrified  at  ita 
excesses;  visited  Paris  in  July,  1793,  with  the 
purpose,  it  is  said,  of  assassinating  Marat,  or 
Robespierre;  obtaining  an  interview  with  the 
former  while  in  his  bath,  she  stabbed  him  with  a 
knife;  was  immediately  apprehended  and 
executed  four  days  afterward.  Her  beauty 
added  to  the  interest  which  her  sanguinary 
heroism  inspired. 

Corelil  {ko-rU'-l)^  Marie,  English  novelist,  of 
mingled  Italian  and  Scotch  parentage  and  con- 
nections, was  born  1864;  adopted  in  infancy  by 
Charles  Mackay.  the  well  known  song-writer  and 
litterateur,  and  Drought  up  during  childhood  in 
England.  Afterward  sent  to  France  and  edu- 
cated in  a  convent,  where  she  received,  with 
other  instruction,  a  first-class  musical  training. 
Her  first  book,  A  Romance  of  Two  Worlds,  was 
an  instant  success,  and  from  that  time  she  has 
devoted  herself  entirely  to  literature.  She  has 
never,  however,  abandoned  her  love  of  music,  and 
is  proficient  on  the  piano  and  the  mandolin.  Her 
books  include :  A  Romance  of  Two  Worlds;  Ven- 
detta; Thdma;  Ardath;  Soul  of  LUith;  Barabbas; 
The  Sorrows  of  Satan;  Mighty  Atom;  The  Murder 
of  Delicia;  Ziska:  The  Problem  of  a  Wicked  Soul; 
The  Master  Christian;  Temporal  Power,  A  Study  in 
Supremacy;  God's  Good  Man;  Free  Opinions;  The 
Treasure  of  Heaven;  Holy  Orders.     She  persuaded 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


088 


Edward  Morris,  of  Chicago,  to  purchase  Harvard 
House,  Stratford-on-Avon  (which  she  had  re- 
stored), and  to  present  it  to  Harvard  university, 
to  which  it  now  belongs. 

Corey,  William  Ellis,  capitalist,  steel  manufacturer, 
was  born  in  Pennsylvania,  18G6.  At  sixteen, 
entered  chemical  laboratory  of  Edgar  Thomson 
steel  works;  studied  bookkeeping  and  chemistry 
at  home;  superintendent  of  plate  mill  at  twenty- 
three  ;  invented  Carnegie  reforged  armor.  Suc- 
ceeded Charles  M.  Schwab,  and  has  been  president 
of  Carnegie  steel  company,  National  steel  com- 
pany, and  American  steel  hoop  company ;  presi- 
dent of  United  States  steel  corporation,  1903-1 1 . 

Cormon,  Femand,  French  decorative  and  figure 
painter,  was  born  in  Paris,  1845.  Studied  under 
Cabanel,  Fromentin,  and  Portaels  and  became 
one  of  the  leading  historical  painters  of  France. 
Became  officer  of  legion  of  honor,  1889,  and 
member  of  the  institute,  1898.  Among  his 
paintings  are:  "Cain  flying  before  Jehovah's 
Curse;"  a  series  of  panels  "Birth,"  "Death," 
"  Marriage,"  "War,"  etc.  Exhibited  at  St.  Louis 
exhibition  decorations  for  Paris  museum. 

Comeille  (kdr'-nal'),  Pierre,  creator  of  French 
tragedy,  born  1606,  at  Rouen.  He  studied  for 
the  legal  profession,  but  a  love  adventure,  in 
which  he  became  the  rival  of  a  friend,  first 
prompted  him  to  write  verses,  and  Milite,  the 
comedy  founded  on  this  incident,  was  performed 
with  success  in  1629.  It  was  quickly  followed 
by  other  dramatic  pieces.  In  1635  appeared  his 
MitUe,  a  declamatory  drama,  written  in  imitation 
of  Seneca.  Cardinal  RicheUeu,  who  aspired  to 
be  the  patron  of  the  stage,  kept  in  his  pay  a  num- 
ber of  writers  for  whom  he  dictated  plots,  and 
wished  to  number  Comeille  among  his  retainers; 
but  Corneille  was  so  audacious  as  to  alter  the  plan 
of  a  comedy,  and  thus  lost  the  cardinal's  favor. 
He  now  returned  to  his  native  place,  where  M. 
Chalon,  once  secretary  to  Marie  de'  Medici,  sug- 
gested that  he  should  turn  his  attention  to 
tragedy.  The  result  was  The  Cid,  1636,  which 
was  received  with  enthusiastic  applause.  In 
1639  he  composed  Horace  and  Cinna,  which  were 
followed  by  a  worthy  successor  —  Polyeucte  — 
a  tragedy  of  Christian  martyrdom.  Soon  after- 
ward appeared  La  Mart  de  Pompee,  and  Le 
Menteur,  the  latter  a  comedy,  the  only  one  he 
ever  wrote  worthy  of  his  great  genius.  He  did 
not  add  to  his  fame  by  the  few  works  which  he 
produced  during  the  next  ten  years.     Died,  1684. 

Cornelia  (kdr-ne'-ll-d),  the  daughter  of  Scipio 
Africanus,  was  the  wife  of  Tiberius  Sempronius 
Gracchus,  who  was  consul,  177  B.  C.  By  him 
Comeha  had  twelve  children,  and  was  left,  still  in 
the  prime  of  life,  a  widow.  To  her  children  she 
gave  all  her  care,  though  only  three  reached 
maturity,  but  these  owed  to  their  mother  the  high 
distinction  which  they  gained  in  the  common- 
wealth. A  lady,  after  displaying  her  jewels, 
asked  to  see  those  of  Comeha,  who,  producing 
her  sons,  said  "These  are  mine."  Her  hand  was 
sought  by  the  king  of  Egypt.  She  is  said  to 
have  encouraged  her  sons  to  be  too  ambitious, 
which  eventually  cost  them  their  lives. 

Cornelius,  von  (fon  kor-nd'4e-dds),  Peter,  German 
painter,  was  bom  at  Diisseldorf  1783,  and  studied 
under  Langer  in  the  academy  of  his  native  town. 
When  only  nineteen  years  of  age  he  painted  some 
remarkable  frescoes  for  the  cupola  of  the  old 
church  of  Neusa.  Four  years  later  he  gave  still 
more  unmistakable  proofs  of  a  creative  fancy  in 
his  illustrations  of  Goethe's  Faust  and  the  iVtbe- 
lungenLied.  In  1811  he  went  to  Rome.  He  gained 
a  wide  reputation  while  at  Rome  by  two  cartoons, 
"Joseph's  Interpretation  of  the  Dream,''  and 
"Joseph's  Recognition  of  his  Brethren.'  His 
chief  works  are  frescoes  in  the  Glyptothek  and 
Ludwigskirche,  in  Munich.     Died,  1867. 


Cornpll,  Eira, 


was  bom 


■ra,  American  philanthropist, 
1807  at  Westchester  Landing,  N.  Y.;  died  1874, 
at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  He  b^an  life  as  a  mechanio  ana 
miller  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  lie  spent  his  busineas  life 
in  the  extension  of  the  telegraph  service  through* 
out  the  northern  and  western  states.  He  WM  a 
delegate  to  the  first  republican  national  conven- 
tion in  1856,  president  of  the  New  York  state 
agricultural  society,  and  its  representative  at  the 
International  exposition  at  London,  1862;  mem- 
ber of  assembly  1862-63,  and  state  senator 
1864-67.  In  1805  he  founded  Cornell  unlvcrrity, 
at  Ithaca,  with  an  endowment  of  $500,000  to 
which  he  subsequently  added  nearly  $400,000. 
He  also  estabUshcd  the  Cornell  library  at  Ithaca, 
at  a  cost  of  $100,000. 

Coming,  James  Leonard,  physician;  bom  at 
Stamford,  Conn.,  1855;  educated  at  university 
of  Heidelberg,  and  university  of  Wiiriburg, 
Germany;  M.  D.,  Wiirzburg;  hon.  A.  M.,  LL.  D., 
Williams  college.  Specially  distinguished  ss 
neurologist;  discoverer  of  spinal  anesthesia, 
1885;  first  to  demonstrate  tnat  the  action  of 
certain  medicinal  substances,  notably  stimulants 
and  sedatives,  may  be  increased  and  prolonged 
while  subject  remains  in  compressed  air;  luso 
first  to  inject  liquid  paraffin  into  the  tissues  and 
solidify  it  in  loco.  Member  of  many  medical 
and  scientific  societies.  Author:  Carotid  Com- 
pression; Brain  Rest;  Brain  Exhaustion;  Local 
Anaesthesia ;  Hysteria  and  Epilepsy;  A  Treaiiae 
on  Headache  and  Neuralgia;  Pain  in  its  Newro- 
Pathological  and  N euro-Therapeutic  Rdations; 
and  extensive  contributor  to  medical  press  on 
neurological  subjects. 

Cornwall,  Barry.     See  Proctor. 

Comwallls,  Charles,  Marquis,  English  statesman 
and  general,  was  bom  1738.  He  entered  the 
British  army  1756;  entered  the  house  of  com- 
mons 1760,  and  the  house  of  lords  1763.  He 
was  promoted  major-general  in  1776,  and  in  that 
year  joined  Sir  William  Howe  in  command  of  the 
British  forces  during  the  American  revolution. 
In  1780  he  defeated  General  Gates  at  Camden, 
won  the  battle  of  Guilford  court  house,  1781,  and 
surrendered  to  Washington  at  Yorktown,  October 
19,  1781.  He  was  afterward  governor-general 
and  commander-in-chief  in  India,  where  he 
greatly  distinguished  himself  by  his  victories  over 
Tippoo  Sahib;  and  still  later,  in  1798,  he  was 
lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  in  1802  plenipo- 
tentiary of  Great  Britain  to  negotiate  the  peace 
of  Amiens.  Appointed,  in  1805,  governor- 
general  of  India  a  second  time.  He  died  1805  at 
Ghazipur,  in  the  province  of  Benares,  while  on  his 
way  to  assume  the  command  of  the  troops. 

Corot  {ko'-ro'),  Jean  Baptlste  Camille,  French 
painter,  pupil  of  Michallon  and  Bertm,  and 
founder  of  the  impressionist  school ;  was  bom  in 
Paris,  1796.  He  began  to  exhibit  in  1827,  but 
did  not  produce  the  masterpieces,  "Dante  and 
Virgil,"  and  "Macbeth  meeting  the  Witches, 
unta  1859.  He  even  surpassed  these  amon^  his 
landscape  subjects,  and  as  a  landscape  P«"°ter 
ranks  among  the  first  in  the  world.     Died,  1876. 

Correggio  (kdr^id'-]6),  Antonio  AUegrI,  celebrated 
Italian  painter,  called  Corregmo  from  the  place  of 
his  birth,  a  small  town  near  Modena,  now  called 
Reggio;  was  bom  1493.  He  was  the  first  among 
the  modems  who  diaplaye<l  that  grace  and 
general  beauty  and  softness  of  effect,  the  com- 
bined excellences  of  design  and  color  with  tasto 
and  expression  for  which  he  is  still  unnvaled. 
His  chiaroscuro  is  perfect.  Almost  before  he  had 
seen  the  great  masters,  he  became  a  master  in  a 
style  all  his  own ;  he  was  the  founder,  or  rather 
his  imitators  for  him,  of  what  is  called  by  "OOM 
the  Lombard,  by  others  the  Parma  school  of 
painting.     He  painted  "The  Assumption  of  th« 


634 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Virgin,"  for  the  cathedral  church  of  Parma;  and 
among  his  numerous  productions  are  the  "Na^ 
tivity,"  the  "Marriage  of  St.  Catherine,"  the 
"Holy  Family,"  etc.     Died,  1534. 

Corson,  Hiram,  professor  of  English  literature, 
Cornell,  1870-1903,  professor  emeritus,  1903-11; 
bom  at  Philadelphia,  1828;  connected  with 
library,  Smithsonian  institution,  1849-56 ;  lecturer 
on  English  literature,  Philadelphia,  1859-65; 
professor  Girard  college,  1865-66,  St.  John's, 
1866-70;  LL.  D,  Litt.  D.  Author  and  editor 
of  many  books  on  English  language,  literature, 
and  criticism,  including:  Hand-book  of  Anglo 
Saxon  and  Early  English;  The  Claims  of  Literary 
CuLture;  An  Inirodxiction  to  the  Study  of  Robert 
Brotonin^ s  Poetry;  An  Introduction  to  the  Stxidy 
of  Shakespeare;  The  Aims  of  Literary  Study; 
The  Voice  and  Spiritual  EdiuxUion;  An  Intro- 
duction to  the  Prose  and  Poetical  Works  of 
John  Milton;  etc.     Died,  1911. 

Cortelyou,  George  Bruce,  ex-public  official,  finan- 
cier, was  born  in  the  city  of  New  York,  1862; 
graduated  at  Hempstead  (L.  I.)  institute,  state 
normal  school,  Wcstfield,  Mass.,  and  the  law 
schools  of  the  Georgetown  and  Columbian 
(George  Washington)  universities;  LL.  D., 
Georgetown,  1903 ;  in  1883  was  a  law  reporter  in 
New  York;  was  principal  of  preparatory  schools 
in  New  York  from  1885  to  1889;  in  the  latter 
year  entered  the  public  service,  and  has  been 
private  secretary  to  various  public  ofFicialts, 
among  them  the  post-ofiice  inspector  in  charge  at 
New  York,  the  surveyor  of  the  port  of  New  York, 
and  the  fourth-assistant  postmaster-general;  in 
1895,  was  appointed  stenographer  to  President 
Cleveland;  1896,  executive  clerlt;  1898,  assistant 
secretary  to  President  McKinley;  1900,  secretary 
to  the  president,  and  1901,  reappointed  by  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt;  was  appointed  secretary  of  the 
newly  established  department  of  commerce  and 
labor,  1903;  1904,  was  elected  chairman  of  the 
republican  national  committee,  and  conducte<l 
the  campaign  which  resulted  in  the  election 
of  President  Roosevelt.  He  entered  the  new 
cabinet,  1905,  as  postmaster-general,  and  1907 
was  appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury.  In 
1909  he  became  president  of  the  New  York  g&s 
company. 

Cortes,  or  Cortex  (kdr'-tiz),  Fernando,  a  Spanish 
adventurer;  bom  in  Medellin  in  Estremadura, 
in  1485.  He  was  first  destined  for  the  law; 
but  a  passion  for  arms  carrying  him  to  the 
military  profession,  he  went  early  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  with  Valasquez,  to  Cuba,  and 
subsequently  obtained  the  command  of  the 
expedition  sent  against  Mexico.  With  seven 
hundred  men  under  his  command,  he  landed  at 
Tobasco  in  1519,  and  immediately  burned  his 
ships,  that  his  followers  might  have  no  hope  but 
in  victory.  He  advanced  to  Mexico,  where  he 
was  at  first  received  with  friendly  demonstrations ; 
but  on  his  seizing  Montezuma,  the  Mexican  king, 
whom  he  subsequently  put  to  death  by  fire,  a 
struggle  ensued,  in  w^hich  many  thousands  of 
lives  were  lost.  He  eventuallv  succeeded  in 
putting  down  all  opposition,  and  in  overrunning 
Mexico.  While  effecting  this  he  is  believed  to 
have  perpetrated  the  most  enormous  cruelties. 
He  was  rewarded  with  the  title  of  marquis,  and  a 

frant  of  land;  but  subsequently,  on  his  return  to 
pain,  he  found  himself  very  much  neglected. 
He  died  near  Seville,  in  1547. 

Corvinus,  Matthias.     See  Matthias  Corvinus. 

Corwln,  Thomas,  lawj'er  and  orator,  was  bom  in 
Bourbon  county,  Kentucky,  1794;  removed  to 
Ohio  in  early  youth;  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
1818,  and,  after  serving  a  nuxnber  of  years  in  the 
Ohio  legislature,  was  elected  a  member  of  con- 
gress in  1830;  in  1840  governor  of  Ohio;  elected 
to  the  senate  of  the  United  States  in  1845,  and 


Century  Dictionary.     Died,  1899. 

•  (hJb'^dasth'),  Fustel  de.     See  Fiutel  de 


appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury  by  President 
Fillmore  in  1850.  He  was  sent  as  minister  to 
Mexico  1861,  returned  home  in  1864,  and  died  in 
Washington,  D.  C,  1865. 

Coudert,  Frederick  Rene,  American  lawyer,  was 
born  in  New  York  18:^2;  graduated  at  Columbia, 
1850,  and  was  aomitted  to  tlie  New  York  bar 
in  1853  as  a  member  of  the  legal  firm  of  Coudert 
Bros.  He  acquired  a  wide  reputation  as  a  lawyer, 
orator,  and  public  lecturer.  In  1885-88  he  was 
a  government  director  of  the  Union  Pacific 
railroad,  represented  the  United  States  before 
the  Bering  sea  tribunal  at  Paris  1893-95,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  Venezuelan  boundary  com- 
mission in  1896.     Died,  1903. 

Coues  (kouz),  Elliott,  American  ornithologist,  wa» 
bom  at  Portsmouth,  N.  U.,  1842,  and  graduated 
at  Columbian  (now  George  Washington)  univer- 
sity, 1861;  M.  D.,  Columbian ;  1863-80  assistant 
surgeon  and  surgeon  of  United  States  army. 
His  chief  works  are:  Key  to  North  American 
Birds,  Field  Ornithology,  Dictionary  of  North 
American  Birds,  etc.  He  also  edited  the  Journal 
of  Lewis  and  Clarke,  and  was  an  assistant  editor 
of  the  Ci 

Coulanges 
Coulanges. 

Coulomb  {ka>'-l6ti')t  Charles  AuKustln  de,  French 
physicist,  was  bom  at  Angouleme,  1736.  He 
exp>erimented  on  friction,  and  invented  the 
torsion  balance  for  measuring  the  force  of  mag- 
netic and  electrical  attraction.  Died  at  Paris, 
1806. 

Coulter  {kdl'-Ur),  John  Merle,  botanist,  head  profes- 
sor of  botany,  university  of  Chicago,  since  1896; 
born  at  Ningpo,  China,  1851;  graduated  at  Han- 
over college,  Indiana,  1870;  Pn.  D.,  university  of 
Indiana.  Botanist  of  United  States  geological 
survey  in  Rocky  mountains,  1872-73 ;  professor 
of  natural  sciences,  Hanover  college,  1874-79; 
professor  of  biology,  Wabash  college,  1879-91; 
president  of  university  of  Indiana,  1891-93; 
president  of  Lake  Forest  university^  1893-96. 
Author:  Manual  of  Rocky  Mountain  Botany; 
Manual  of  Texan  Botany;  Plant  Relations; 
Plant  Structures;  Plant  Studies;  Morphology  of 
Gymnosperms;   Morphology  of  Angiosperms;   etc. 

Courbet  (fa»r'-W),  Gustave,  French  painter, 
founder  of  realism  in  painting,  was  bom  at 
Umans,  Franche-Comte,  1819.  In  1839  he  was 
sent  by  his  father  to  study  law  in  Paris,  but  the 
bent  of  his  nature  was  toward  art.  In  1841  he 
took  to  landscape  work,  painting  in  the  forest  of 
Fontainebleau.  In  1844  he  began  to  exhibit  at 
the  salon ;  and  his  works  created  a  great  sensa- 
tion in  1850.  His  hunting  scenes  and  animal 
subjects  are  especially  vigorous  and  spirited.  In 
1871  he  joined  the  commune,  and  was  concerned 
in  the  destruction  of  the  Venddme  column,  May 
16th,  for  which  the  next  September  he  wa» 
sentenced  to  six  months'  imprisonment  and  a 
fine  for  its  restoration,  his  pictures  being  sold  in 
1877  toward  that  purpose.  On  his  release  he 
retired  to  Tour-de-Peiltz,  near  Vevey,  in  Switzer- 
land, where  he  died,  1877. 

Cousin  (AyJB'-aiN'),  Victor,  French  philosopher,  was 
bom  in  Paris,  1792;  died  at  Cannes,  1867. 
After  a  literary  career  extending  over  many 
years,  he  was  made,  in  1830,  under  the  ministry 
of  M.  Guizot,  a  member  of  the  council  of  public 
instruction  in  France;  in  1832  he  was  n^e  a 
peer  of  France,  and,  in  1840,  was  minister  o( 
public  instruction  in  the  cabinet  of  M.  Thiers. 
He  published  a  translation  of  Plato,  in  thirteen 
volumes,  and  a  Course  of  the  History  of  Philosophy. 
in  five  volumes,  which  was  his  largest  original 
work.  Besides  these,  he  published,  among  other 
works,  Philosophical  Fragments,  and  Lessons 
from  the  Philosophy  of  Kant.  His  last  years  were 
spent  in  retirement  in  the  Sorbonne. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


085 


Couture  (k^SS'-tiir'),  Thomas,  French  painter,  pupil 
of  Delaroche,  was  bora  in  1815.  Uis  first  note- 
worthy work  was  "The  Love  of  Gold."  In  1847 
he  greatly  enhanced  his  reputation  by  the 
"Romans  of  the  Decadence,"  which  secured  for 
him  the  cross  of  the  legion  of  honor.  His  chief 
work  is  "Les  liornains  de  la  Decadence."  Died 
near  Paris,  1879. 

Coverdale,  (kUv'-ir-dal)  Miles,  translator  of  the 
English  Bible,  was  born  in  Yorkshire,  1488;  died 
in  London,  1568.  He  was  a  monk  of  Norwich, 
but  early  devoted  himself  to  the  work  of  the 
reformation.  In  1551  he  was  appointed  bishop 
of  Exeter,  but  was  ejected  and  imprisoned  on  the 
acces.sion  of  Mary  in  1553.  In  the  subsequent 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  till  within  two  years  of  his 
death,  he  was  rector  of  the  church  of  St.  Magnus, 
in  the  city  of  London;  and  to  that  church  his 
remains  were  removed  in  1840,  when  the  church 
of  St.  Bartholomew,  in  which  he  was  at  first 
buried,  was  taken  down.  The  Psalms  of  Cover- 
dale  and  Tyndale's  translation  are  still  used  in 
the  services  of  the  church  of  England. 

Cowley,  Abraham,  in  his  own  day  considered  the 
greatest  of  English  poets,  was  born  in  London, 
1618.  Attracted  to  poetry  by  the  Fd&rie  Queen, 
he  wrote  excellent  verses  at  ten,  and  at  fifteen 

Eublished  five  poems.  From  Westminster  school 
e  proceeded  in  1637  to  Trinity  college,  Cam- 
bridge, and  while  here  wrote,  among  many  other 
pieces,  a  large  portion  of  his  epic,  the  Davideis,  its 
hero  King  David.  During  the  English  civil  war 
he  was  ejected  from  Cambridge,  but  at  St.  John's, 
Oxford,  studied  for  another  two  years.  In  1646 
he  followed  Henrietta  Maria  to  Paris,  was  sent  on 
royalist  missions,  and  carried  on  her  correspond- 
ence in  cipher  with  the  king.  He  returned  to 
England  in  1656,  was  arrested,  released  on  £1,000 
bail,  and,  perhaps  as  a  blind,  took  the  Oxford 
M.  D.,  1657.  On  Cromwell's  death  he  again 
went  to  Paris,  and  returned  to  England  at  the 
restoration.  He  died  at  Chertsey,  1667,  and  was 
buried  in  Westminster  abbey. 

Cowper,  WlUlam,  English  poet,  was  bom,  1731, 
died  1800.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1754, 
but  did  not  practice.  He  passed  many  years  at 
Olney,  Buckmghamshire,  in  the  society  of  Mrs. 
Unwin,  Lady  Austen,  and  the  Rev.  John  Newton, 
engaged  in  religious  exercises  and  charities. 
Lady  Austen  turned  his  attention  to  poetry,  and 
after  contributing  sixty-eight  pieces  to  the 
Olney  Hymns,  he  published  in  1782  his  first 
volume,  which  was  tolerably  well  received.  The 
ballad  of  John  Gilpin  gave  him  a  wide  renown. 
His  longest  original  poem.  The  Task,  1785, 
gained  general  popularity.  He  next  translated 
Homer  in  blank  verse,  and  undertook  a  new  edi- 
tion of  Milton,  with  translations  of  the  Latin  and 
Italian  poems.  In  1799  he  revised  his  Homer, 
and  wrote  his  last  poem,  Tfie  Castaway. 

Cox,  David,  noted  landscape  painter,  was  bom  at 
Deritend,  a  suburb  of  Birmingham,  England, 
1783.  He  studied  in  London  with  John  Varley; 
in  1805-06  visited  North  Wales,  which  to  the  end 
of  his  life  was  his  favorite  sketching-ground; 
taught  as  a  drawing-master  from  1814  to  1826 
in  Hereford,  publishing  A  Treatise  on  Landscape 
Painting.  From  1827  till  1841  London  was  his 
headquarters,  but  in  1841  settled  at  Harbome, 
near  Birmingham,  where  he  died,  1859.  It  was 
during  this  period  that  he  produced  his  greatest 
works.  Among  his  oil  pictures  are  "Lancaster 
Castle";  "Peace  and  War";  "The  Vale  of 
Clwyd";  "The  Skylark";  "Boys  Fishing"; 
and  "Bettws-y-Coed  Church."  Among  his  very 
numerous  water  colors  are  "Lancaster  Sands"; 
"Ulverston  Sands";  "  Bolton  Abbey  " ;  "Welsh 
Funeral";  and  "Broom  Gatherers  on  Chat 
Moss."  His  water  color  "The  Haj^eld  "  brought 
£2,950  in  1875. 


Cox,  81p  George  Wllllaau  English  writer,  mytholo- 
gist,  was  horn  1827,  educated  ftt  Rugby  Mbool 
and  Trinity  collcgo,  Oxford.  He  took  onlws  In 
1850,  and  after  holding  curacies  in  Devonahire 
and  an  assiatant-mMtentUp  at  Cheltenham, 
became  vicar  of  Bekesboume  in  Kent  and  after- 
ward rector  of  Scrayingham,  York.  In  1877  ho 
succeeded  to  his  uncle  s  baronetcy.  Among  his 
works  are  Tales  of  Ancient  Greece;  Aryan  My- 
thology; History  of  Greece;  Comparative  Mj^M- 
ogy  and  Folklore;  Lives  of  Greek  Staleemen,  and 
Life  of  Colenso.     Died,  1902. 

Cox,  Kenyon,  painter;  bom  in  Warren,  Ohio, 
1856;  studied  in  Cincinnati  and  Philadelphia; 
in  Paris  under  Carolus  Duran  and  G^rdme, 
1877-^2-  returned  to  New  York.  Pictures  are 
principally  portraits  and  figure  pieces;  painted 
two  decorations  in  library  of  congress,  one  in 
Walker  art  gallery^  Bowdoin  college;  one  in 
Minnesota  state  capitol,  one  in  Citizens'  buildins, 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  and  frieze  in  court  room,  appel- 
late court.  New  York,  and  other  decorative 
pictures.  Contributed  to  leading  magazines  on 
art  subjects;  part  author  of  Modem  French 
Masters,  edited  oy  J.  C.  Van  Dyke,  and  of  The 
Nineteenth  Century.  Author:  Mixed  Beaata, 
Old  Masters  and  New.     Died,  1911. 

Cox,  Palmer,  artist;  bom  in  Granby,  Quebec, 
Canada,  1840;  graduate  of  Granby  academy; 
lived  in  San  Francisco,  1863-75,  contributing  to 
Golden  Era  and  Alta  California;  since  1875. 
has  lived  in  New  York.  His  specialty  is  original 
humorous  pictures  illustrating  his  own  books. 
Author:  Squibs  of  California,  or  Every-day  Life 
Illustrated;  Hans  von  Pelter's  Trip  to  Gotham; 
How  Columbus  Found  America;  That  Stanley; 
The  Brownies,  Their  Book;  Queer  People;  Queer 
People  with  Wings  and  Stings;  Queer  People  ivilh 
Paws  and  Claws;  Another  Brownie  Book;  The 
Broumies  at  Home;  The  Brovmiea  Around  the 
World;  The  Brownies  Through  the  Union;  The 
Brownies  Abroad;  The  Broumies  in  Fairyland 
(cantata  in  two  acts);  Palmer  Cox's  Brownxe* 
(spectacular  play  in  three  acts) ;  The  Broumies  in 
the  Philippines;  Brownie  Clown  in  Brownie 
Town;  etc. 

Cox,  Samuel  Sullivan,  American  politician  and 
diplomat,  known  as  "Sunset"  Cox,  was  bom  in 
Ohio  in  1824,  and  died  in  New  York,  1889. 
Graduate  of  Brown  university;  studied  law, 
entered  politics,  and  1857-65  represented  an 
Ohio  district  in  congress.  In  1866  he  moved  to 
New  York,  and  was  returned  to  congress  almost 
continuously  from  1869,  except  while  be  was 
minister  to  Turkey,  1885-86.  The  present 
arrangements  for  taking  the  national  census  were 
largely  of  his  conception,  and  the  life-saving 
service,  which  is  one  of  the  most  efficient  branches 
of  the  govertunent  service,  is  almost  entirely  his 
creation.  It  was  one  of  his  glowing  editorial 
descriptions  of  a  sunset  which  won  him  his 
nickname,  and  he  added  many  books  to  his 
journalistic  work.  A  genial  humor  characterized 
his  writings  and  made  them  popular. 

Coxe  (kdks),  Arthur  Cleveland,  American  Episcopal 
bishop,  was  bom  at  Mendham,  N.  J.,  1818j  and 
died  1896.  He  graduated  at  the  university  of 
New  York  in  1838,  and  became  well  known  as  a 
churchman  and  a  writer.  Among  his  works  are 
his  Christian  Ballads,  and  Impreesiona  of  England. 
He  became  the  rector  of  Grace  chiirch  in  New 
York  city  in  1859,  and  bishop  of  western  New 
York  in  1865. 

Crabbe  (krOb),  Georxe,  English  p>oetj  bom  1754, 
died  1832.  He  was  a  surgeon,  but  abandoned  his 
profession  for  literary  aSventure,  and  went  to 
London  in  1780.  Edmund  Burke  secured  a  pub- 
lisher for  his  poem  The  Library,  1781,  and 
advised  him  to  take  holy  orders.  He  was 
ordained  a  priest  in  1782,  and  became  chaplain  to 


636 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


the  duke  of  Rutland  at  Bel  voir  caatle.  In  1783 
he  published  Tfte  Village,  and  in  1807  The 
Parish  Register,  his  best  works.  They  were 
followed  by  The  Borough,  Tales  in  Verse,  and 
Tales  of  the  Hall.  His  last  days  were  spent  as 
rector  of  Trowbridge,  Wiltshire. 

Craddock,  Charles  Egbert.  See  Murfree,  Alary 
NoaUles. 

Crafts,  Wilbur  Flsk,  Presbyterian  clergyman;  bom 
at  Fryeburg,  Me.,  1850;  graduate  of  Wesleyan 
university,  Connecticut,  18G9;  B.  D.,  Boston 
university,  1871;  Ph.  D.,  Marietta  college,  1896. 
Was  pastor  Stoneham,  Haverhill,  New  Bedford, 
Mass.,  Dover,  N.  II.,  Chicago.  Brooklyn,  New 
York.  Founded  American  Sabbath  union,  1889 ; 
lectured  throughout  the  United  States  as  its 
field  secretary,  1889-90;  founded,  1895,  and 
became  superintendent  of  international  reform 
bureau.  Chief  editor  of  Christian  Statesman, 
1901-03;  Twentieth  Century  Quarterly  since  1896. 
Author  of  numerous  reUgious  and  educational 
books  and  tracts. 

Cralgte  (krag'-l),  Mrs.  Pearl  Mary  Theresa.  See 
Hobbes,  John  Oliver. 

Craik  (krdk),  Mrs.  Dinah  Maria.     See  Mulock. 

Craili«  GeorKc  Llllle,  Scottish  writer  and  educator, 
born  at  Kennoway,  Fife,  1798;  studied  for  the 
church  at  St.  Andrews,  but  settled  in  London  in 
1826.  In  1849  he  became  professor  of  history  and 
English  literature  in  Queen's  college,  Belfast. 
Among  his  works  are  Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under 
Dijjicxdties;  History  of  Literature  and  Learning  in 
England  (6  vols.);  History  of  British  Commerce 
(3  vols.);  Spenser;  Bacon;  The  English  of 
Shakespeare  and  History  of  English  Language 
and  Literature.     Died  at  Belfast,  1866. 

Cranach  (fcrfl'-ndK),  Lucas,  German  painter,  was 
born  near  Bamberg,  Germany,  1472.  He  seemed 
to  have  acted  as  factotum  at  the  court  of  the 
elector  and  his  two  successors,  preparing  for  and 
directing  the  ceremonies  and  festivities,  and 
knew  besides  how  to  follow  other  lucrative  trades. 
In  1520  he  bought  an  apothecary's  business  at 
Wittenberg,  where  he  was  also  a  book-seller  and 
paper-maker,  became  councilor  and  chamberlain, 
and  was  twice  chosen  burgomaster  of  the  town. 
He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Luther,  whose  pic- 
ture he  several  times  painted ;  his  best  works  are 
probably  his  portraits.  In  1550  he  went  to 
Augsburg  to  share  the  imprisonment  of  the 
elector,  and  returned  with  nim  to  Saxony  in 
1552.     Cranach  died  at  Weimar,  1553. 

Cranch  (krdnch),  Christopher  Pearse,  American 
painter,  was  bom  at  Alexandria,  Va.,  1813: 
studied  in  France  and  Italy  in  1846-63 ;  returned 
to  New  York  and  became  a  member  of  the 
national  academy  in  1864.  He  was  also  a 
graceful  writer  in  prose  and  verse,  and  published 
a  book  of  Poems,  The  Bird  and  the  Bell,  Ariel  and 
Caliban,  and  prose  tales  for  children,  which  he 
illustrated.  His  best  pictures  are  "October 
Afternoon''  "Venice,"  and  "Venetian  Fishing 
Boats."     Died,  1892. 

Crane,  Walter,  English  painter,  decorator,  designer, 
book-illustrator,  writer,  lecturer,  socialist,  born 
at  Liverpool,  1845.  Educated  privately;  mostly 
self-taught.  Apprenticed  to  W.  J.  Linton;  first 
illustrated  book.  The  New  Forest,  1863 ;  exhibited 
at  the  royal  academy  at  sixteen,  1862;  director 
of  design,  Manchester  municipal  school  of  art, 
1893-96;  hon.  art  director,  Reading  college. 
1898;  principal  of  the  Roval  college  of  art, 
South  Kensington,  1898-99';  awarded  Albert 
gold  medal,  society  of  arts,  1904.  Publications: 
Baby's  Opera;  Baby's  Bouquet;  Mrs.  Mundi; 
Pan-Pipes;  Grimm's  Household  Stories;  First  of 
May;  The  Sirens  Three:  a  Poem;  Baby's  Own 
^sop;  Flora's  Feast;  Claims  of  Decorative  Art; 
A  Wonder  Book;  The  Old  Garden;  etc. ;  illustra- 
tions to  Shakespeare's  Tempest,  Two  Gentlemen 


of  Verona,  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor;  Decorative 
Illustration  of  Books;  Spenser's  Fairie  Queene; 
The  Shepherd's  Calendar;  The  Bases  of  Design; 
Line  and  Form;  Don  Quixote;  A  Masque  of 
Days;  illustrations  and  type  decorations  to  the 
International  Bible;  An  Artist's  Reminiscences; 
etc.  Principal  pictures:  " Renascence  of  Venus "  ; 
"Fate  of  Persephone";  "Sirens  Three"; 
"  Europa " ;  " Freedom  " ;  "The  Bridge  of  Life " ; 
"La  Belle  Dame  sans  Merci"*  "Neptune's 
Horses";  "The  Swan  Maidens'  ;  "England's 
Emblem";  "Britannia's  Vision";  "The  World's 
Conquerors " ;  "A  Stranger " :  " "The  Fountain  of 
Youth";  "The  Winds  of  the  World";  "The 
Fates";  "The  Mower";  "The  Walkyrie's 
Ride";  "A  Masque  of  the  Four  Seasons"; 
"  Prometheus  Unbound  " ;  etc. 

Crane,  William  H.,  actor-  bom  at  Leicester,  Mass., 
1845;  d^'but  Utica,  N.  Y.,  1863.  Was  with  Mrs. 
Harriet  Holman's  opera  company  for  eight  years; 
Oates  opera  company,  four  years.  Became 
leading  comedian  Hoolev's  stock  company, 
Chicago;  appeared  with  Stuart  Robson,  Park 
theater.  New  York,  in  Our  Boarding  House, 
1877,  followed  by  numerous  successes,  including 
the  two  Dromios  in  Shakespeare's  Comedy  of 
JSrror«,  ending  with  The  Henrietta.  Separated 
from  Robson  in  1889,  and  since  appeared  in 
star  rAlea  in  The  Senator;  On  Probation;  For 
Money;  The  American  Minister;  Brother  John; 
Fool  of  Fortune;  The  Pacific  Mail;  A  Virginia 
Courtship;  Worth  a  Million;  The  Head  of  the 
Family;  David  Harum;  Father  and  the  Boys;  etc. 

Crane,  Wlnthrop  Murray,  manufacturer.  United 
States  senator,  was  born  at  Dalton,  Mass.,  1853; 
educated  at  pubUc  schools,  Dalton  and  WilUston 
seminary;  A.  M.,  Williams,  1897.  He  was  an  ex- 
tensive manufacturer  of  paper,  but  upon  his  elec- 
tion to  the  United  States  senate  retired  from 
active  connection  with  that  industry.  Lieutenant- 

Sovemor  of  Massachusetts,  1897-99 ;  governor  of 
[assachusetts,  1900-02;  United  States  senator 
from  Massachusetts,  appointed  by  governor, 
1904,  to  fill  vacancy  caused  by  death  of  Senator 
Hoar;  elected,  1905,  to  fill  term  expiring  1907, 
and  reelecte<l  that  year  for  the  term  1907-13. 

Cranmer,  Thomas,  archbishop  of  Canterbury',  wa» 
born  1489,  and  educated  at  Cambridge  univer- 
sity. He  obtained  the  favor  of  Henry  VIII.  by 
furthering  his  divorce  from  Catharine  of  Aragon. 
and  was  appointed  primate  in  1533.  He  favored 
the  reformed  doctrines  during  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.,  and  in  that  of  Edward  VI.  Protes- 
tantism was  thoroughly  established,  and  the  Book 
of  Common  Prayer  compiled,  1549,  under  his 
guidance.  He  was  committed  to  the  Tower  on 
the  accession  of  Mary,  condemned  at  Oxford  for 
heresy  in  1554,  and,  after  two  years'  imprison- 
ment, burned  there,  openly  rejecting  the  recanta- 
tion of  Protestantism  which  he  had  oeen  induced 
to  sign.     Died,  1556. 

Crassus  (krds'-iis),  Lucius  Lirinius,  Roman  orator 
and  statesman,  was  bom  140  B.  C.  He  was  the 
greatest  orator  of  his  age,  and  was  as  distin- 
guished for  his  wit  as  for  his  rectitude  in  the 
capacity  of  proconsul.  He  was  consul  in  95,  and 
censor  in  92  B.  C.     Died,  91  B.  C. 

Crassus,  Marcus  Llclnlus,  Roman  general  and 
statesman,  was  bom  about  105  B.  C.  He  was 
the  wealthiest  citizen  of  Rome,  and  Caesar  valued 
highly  his  friendship.  During  his  consulate  he 
gave  a  feast  to  the  people,  which  was  spread  on 
10,000  tables,  and  distributed  a  provision  of  com 
for  three  months.  Plutarch  estimates  the  wealth 
of  Crassus  at  more  than  7,000  talents,  and  Phny 
states  that  the  lands  of  Crassus  were  worth  8,000 
talents.  About  60  B.  C.  Caesar,  Pompey,  and 
Crassus  became  members  of  the  first  triumvirate. 
In  55  B.  C,  as  consul  with  Pompey,  he  gained 
Syria,  and  made  preparations  for  war  against  the 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


687 


Parthiansj  was  beguiled  into  a  conference  with 
the  Parthian  general,  Surenas,  and  was  slain  at 
the  appointed  place  of  meeting,  53  B.  C. 

Crawford,  Coe  I^  lawyer.  United  States  senator, 
was  born  on  a  farm  near  Volney,  Iowa,  1858; 
graduated  from  the  law  department  of  the 
university  of  Iowa  in  1882;  practiced  law  at 
Independence,  Iowa,  and  after  one  year  went  to 
Pierre,  Dakota  territory,  where  he  continued  in 
practice  thirteen  years;  was  states  attorney 
of  Hughes  county  1886-88;  member  of  the 
territorial  legislature  in  1889;  member  of  the 
first  state  senate,  1889;  attorney-general  in 
1892-96;  was  president  of  the  South  Dakota 
state  bar  association  in  1899 ;  governor  of  South 
Dakota  in  1907-09 ;  elected  United  States  senator 
for  the  term  1909-15. 

Crawford,  Francis  Marlon,  American  novelist,  was 
born  at  Bagni  di  Lucca,  Italy,  1854.  Educated 
in  the  United  States,  in  Italy,  and  at  Trinity 
college,     Cambridge,     England.     He     afterward 

grosecuted  his  studies  at  Karlsruhe,  and  at 
[eidelberg,  studied  Sanskrit  at  Rome,  and  in 
1879  edited  The  Indian  Herald,  at  Allahabad, 
India.  From  1881  to  1883  he  was  in  America, 
and  subsequently  resided  at  Sorrento,  ItaW. 
He  published  over  forty  novels,  including  Mr. 
Isaacs;  An  American  Politician;  Zoroaster; 
Saracinesca;  With  the  Immortals;  The  Children  of 
the  King;  Don  Orsino;  Katherine  Lauderdale; 
Love  in  Idleness;  A  Rose  of  Yesterday;  Ave  Roma 
Immortalis  (hist.);  Via  Crucis;  In  the  Palace  of 
the  King;  The  Rulers  of  the  South  (hist.);  Marietta, 
a  Maid  of  Venice;  Cecilia,  a  Story  of  Modern 
Rome;  The  Heart  of  Rome;  A  Lady  of  Rom^;  and 
the  play,  Francesca  da  Rimini,  produced  by 
Sarah  Bernhardt  in  Paris,  1902.     Died,  1909. 

Crawford,  Thomas,  American  sculptor,  was  bom  in 
New  York  in  1814.  He  early  manifested  a  taste 
for  artistic  studies,  and,  in  1835,  repaired  to 
Rome,  where  he  entered  the  studio  of  Thorwald- 
sen.  His  principal  works  are  the  bronze  statue 
of  Beethoven,  executed  for  the  Boston  music 
hall;  the  colossal  equestrian  statue  of  Washing- 
ton at  the  capitol,  Richmond;  and  the  marble 
and  bronze  statuary  for  the  capitol,  Washington. 
Died  in  London  in  1857. 

Crawford,  William  Harris,  American  statesman, 
bom  in  Virginia,  1772.  In  1783  he  settled  in 
Columbia  county,  Georgia,  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  1798,  and  began  his  practice  in  Lexington. 
He  was  elected  to  the  state  senate  in  1802,  and 
to  the  United  States  senate  to  fill  a  vacancy  in 
1807,  reelected  for  a  full  term  1811,  and  was 
chosen  president  of  the  senate  pro  tem.  1812. 
He  refused  the  secretaryship  of  war,  was  ap>- 
pointed  minister  to  France  in  1813.  Two  years 
later  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  war,  and  the 
next  year  became  secretary  of  the  treasury,  and 
held  the  latter  office  till  1825.  He  received  the 
nomination  for  president,  1824,  and  in  the  elec- 
tion had  forty-one  electoral  votes.  He  died  in 
1834. 

Creasy  (fcre'-st).  Sir  Edward  Shepherd,  English 
historian,  born  at  Bexley,  Kent,  in  1812,  from 
Eton  passed  to  ^King's  college,  Cambridge,  and 
in  1834  was  elected  a  fellow.  Admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1837,  he  went  on  the  home  circuit  for  over 
twenty  years,  and  in  1840  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  history  at  London  university,  in  1860 
chief-justice  of  Ceylon,  and  knighted.  In  1870 
he  returned  to  England  on  a  year's  leave  of 
absence,  in  1871  went  out  again,  but  returned 
finally  in  1873;  died  at  Hampton  Wick,  1878. 
He  was  author  of  The  Fifteen  Decisive  Battles  of 
the  World,  Invasions  of  England,  History  of  the 
Ottoman  Turks,  etc. 

Creel,  Enrique  C^  Mexican  diplomatist  and  states- 
man, was  born  at  Chihuahua,  Mexico,  1854 ;  self- 
educated;    went  to  work  at  an  early  age;    has 


been  merchant,  sohooi  teacher,  newspaper  man, 
tanner,  fanner,  miner,  banker,  railway  offidal, 
financier.  Member  of  city  council,  Chilmahua, 
1876-80;  memlnT  of  Mcxtran  national  cungraM, 
1898-1904;  speaker  of  house,  1802;  govemorM 
state  of  Chilmaluia,  1903-O6;  ambaaaador 
extraordinary  and  minister  plenipotentiary  of 
Mexico  to  United  SUtes,  I906-O9.  Praaid«it  of 
Banco  Central  Hexicano:  vio»«r«aideni  of 
Chihualiua  «fe  Pacific  railroad,  Kansaa  City, 
Mexico  &  Orient  railroa<l;  director  of  aeveral 
banking  and  insurance  compauiea  ^»Mi  interwted 
in  other  manufacturing  enterprises  in  Ifexioo. 

Creeiman,  James,  author,  journalist;  aaMoiate  editor 
of  Pearson's  Magazine  1906-10,  was  bom  at  Mon- 
treal, 1859.  Ecfitorial  writer  and  correspondent, 
Nev}  York  Herald,  1887-89;  editor  of  London 
edition,  1890,  Paris  edition,  1891-92,  Neva  York 
Evenina  Telegram;  European  editor  of  New  York 
Journal;  British  editor  oi  Cosmopolitan  MaaoMinej 
1893;  war  correspondent  for  New  YorkWorld, 
Japanese  war,  1894 ;  war  correspondent  of  New 
York  Journal,  Grieco-Turkish  war,  1897;  Cuban 
war,  1898;  Philippine  war,  1899;  was  aide  on 
General  Lawton's  stafif,  Philippines;  captured 
Spanish  flag,  and  was  shot  alter  he  received 
surrender  of  Spanish  commandant  at  El  Caney, 
1898.  Author:  On  the  Great  Highway,  Eagle 
Blood,  etc. 

Creighton  (krl'-tUn),  James  Edwin,  educator,  pro- 
fessor of  logic  and  metaphysics,  Cornell,  since 
1895,  was  bom  at  Pictou,  Nova  Scotia,  1861; 
graduate  of  Dalhousie  college,  Halifax,  1887; 
student  of  universities  of  Leipzig  and  Berlin; 
Ph.  D.,  Cornell.  1892;  LL.  D^  Queen's  univer- 
sity. ^AitoT  o(  Philosophical  Review;  American 
editor  of  Kant  Studien.  Author:  An  Introduc- 
tory Logic.  Translator:  (with  E.  B.  Titchener) 
Wundt's  Human  and  Animal  Psychology;  (with 
A.  Lefevre)  Paulsen's  Kant  —  His  Life  and 
Philosophy;  and  contributor  of  philosophical 
articles  to  the  philosophical  press. 

Creighton,  Mandell,  English  historian,  bom  at 
Carlisle,  1843;  graduated  at  Merton  college, 
Oxford,  and  was  elected  a  fellow  in  1866.  He 
became  vicar  of  Embleton,  Northumberland,  in 
1875,  first  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at 
Cambridge  in  1884,  bishop  of  Peterborough  in 
1891,  and  of  London,  1896.  His  chief  works  are 
Simon  de  Montfort,  History  of  the  Papacy  during 
the  Reformation  Period  (5  vols.),  and  the  sumptu- 
ous Queen  Elizabeth.     Died,  1901. 

Crillon  {kre'-y6n'),  Louis  des  Balbes  de  Berton  de, 
French  soldier,  surnamed  "le  brave,"  was  bom 
at  Murs  in  Provence,  1541.  Under  Francis  of 
Lorraine,  duke  of  Guise,  then  the  model  of 
chivalry,  he  was  trained  for  war,  and,  still  a  boy, 
covered  himself  -with  glory  at  the  siege  of  CaUJs 
and  the  capture  of  Guines.  He  distinguished 
himself  further  at  Dreux,  Jamac,  and  Moncon- 
tour.  Wounded  at  Lepanto,  1571,  he  was  yet 
sent  to  carry  the  news  of  the  victory  to  the  pope 
and  the  French  king.  He  abhorred  the  massacre 
of  St.  Bartholomew,  but  took  part  in  the  siege  of 
La  Rochelle  in  1573.  When  the  peace  with 
Savoy  was  concluded,  Crillon  retired  to  Avignon. 
and  ended  his  days  in  the  exercise  of  piety  ana 
penance.     Died,  1615. 

Crispi  (kres'-pe),  Oanresco,  Italian  statesman,  was 
bom  at  Ribera  in  Sicily,  1819;  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  at  Palermo,  but,  joining  the  revolutionary 
movement  of  1848,  had  to  flee  to  France.  He 
organized  the  successful  movement  of  1859-60, 
and  reentered  Sicily  with  Garibaldi.  In  the 
restored  kingdom  o?  Italy  he  became  deputy, 
president  of  the  chamber,  minister,  and  in  1887- 
90,  and  again  in  1894-96,  premier  —  a  member  of 
the  "left,  strongly  anti-clerical,  and  maintaining 
the  alliance  with  Germany  at  the  cost  even  oT 
alienating    France.     In    1805    strenuous    efforts 


638 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


were  made  to  discredit  him  by  connecting  him 
with  a  series  of  bank  scandals;  in  1896  the 
Abyssinian  disaster  of  Adowa  compelled  his 
resignation.     Died,  1901. 

Crltlas  (krish'-l-aa),  a  pupil  of  Socrates,  but  a  hearer 
rather  than  a  doer  of  his  word.  On  his  return  to 
Athens  from  banishment,  he  headed  the  oli- 
garchical party,  and  was  afterward  the  worst  of 
the  thirty  tyrants  set  up  by  the  Spartans,  404 
B.  C.  In  the  same  year  he  fell  at  Munychia,  re- 
sisting Thrasybulus  and  the  exiles.  He  had  a  high 
reputation  as  an  orator,  and  also  wrote  p>oetry. 

Crittenden   (krlf-'n-den),  John   Jordan,    American 
statesman,    born    in    Kentucky    in    1787.     After  I 
having  studied  and  engaged  in  the  practice  of  the  j 
law,  he,  in  1816,  became  a  member  of  the  Ken-  , 
tucky  house  of  representatives,  and  was  elected  j 
to  the  United  States  senate  in  1817,  1835,  and 
1855.     In    1841    he  became  attorney-general   in 
President    Harrison's    administration,      and     in 
1848   was   elected   governor   of   Kentucky.     He 
served    as    attorney-general    in    President    Fill- 
more's cabinet  from   1850  until  the  accession  of 
President     Pierce.      Throughout     his     political 
career,  Crittenden's  name  is  identified  with  most 
of  the  measures  introduced  and  advocated  by  his 
friend,  Henry  Clay.     He  opposed  the  secession 
movement  in  1860-61.     Died,  1863. 

Crocker,  FrancLs  Bacon,  electrician,  physicist,  pro- 
fessor of  electrical  engineering,  Columbia,  since 
1893;  born  at  New  York,  1861;  graduated  at 
Columbia,  M.  E.,  1882;  Ph.  D.,  1894.  President 
American  institute  of  electrical  engineers,  1897- 
98;  president  of  New  York  electrical  society. 
1889-92:  permanent  secretary  of  international 
electrical  congress,  Chicago,  1893.  Founder  and 
vice-president  of  Curtis  and  Crocker  electric  com- 
pany, 1887,  and  Crocker-Wheeler  electric  com- 
pany, 1889.  Author:  Afanagement  of  Electrical 
Machinery,  Electric  Ldghting,  Electric  Motors;  also 
many  articles  and  papers  in  Electrical  World, 
transactions  American  institute  electrical  engi- 
neers, etc. 

Crockett,  David,  American  pioneer  and  politician, 
was  born  in  Tennessee,  1786.  He  was  chiefly 
noted  for  his  adventures  and  eccentric  habits; 
he  was  a  member  of  congress  from  1827  to 
1831,  and  from  1833  to  1835.  He  joined  the 
Texans  in  their  revolt  against  Mexico,  was  taken 
prisoner  at  Ft.  Alamo  in  1836,  and  was  killed  in 
that  celebrated  massacre.  He  published  his 
AtUobiograpfiy  in  1834. 

Crockett,  Samuel  Rutherford,  British  novelist; 
bom  in  Duchrae,  Galloway,  1860.  Educated  at 
Edinburgh,  Heidelberg,  and  New  college,  Oxford. 
Entered  Free  church  of  Scotland,  1886;  minister 
of  Penicuik  for  some  vears,  then  became  a  writer 
and  journalist.  Author:  The  Stickit  Minister; 
Sweetheart  Travelers;  The  Standard  Bearer;  The 
Black  Douglas;  The  Silver  SkuU;  Love  Idylls; 
The  Firebrand;  The  Lilac  Sunbonnet;  Maid 
Margaret;  Sir  Toady  Crusoe;  The  Cherry  Ribbon 
(Peden  the  Prophet) ;  Vida;  Me  and  Myn;  The 
Bloom  of  the  Heather;  etc. 

Croesus  (kri'-sHs),  last  of  the  kings  of  Lvdia,  in  the 
sixth  century  B.  C. ;  celebrated  for  his  wealth, 
so  that  his  name  became  a  synonjTn  for  a  man 
overwhelmed  by  the  favors  of  fortune;  being 
visited  by  Solon,  he  asked  him  one  day  if  he 
knew  any  one  happier  than  he  was,  when  the 
sage  answered,  "No  man  can  be  counted  happy 
till  after  death."  Of  the  truth  of  this  Crcesus 
soon  had  experience ;  being  condemned  to  death 
by  Cyrus,  who  had  defeated  him  and  condemned 
him  to  be  burnt,  and  about  to  be  led  to  the 
burning  pile,  he  called  out  thrice  over  the  name 
of  Solon.  Cyrus,  having  learned  the  reason,  was 
moved  with  pity,  ordered  his  release,  retained 
him  among  his  counsellors,  and  commended  h'*" 
when  dying  to  the  care  of  his  son. 


Crofts,  Ernest,  British  painter,  keeper  of  the  royal 
academy;  born  in  Yorkshire,  1847;  educated 
at  Rugby  and  Berlin.  Studied  art  at  London 
and  Diisseldorf.  Pupil  of  A.  B.  Clay  and  Pro- 
fessor Hunten.  First  picture,  "A  Retreat," 
exhibited  at  the  royal  academy,  1874.  Hia 
historical  paintings  range  over  a  wide  period  and 
deal  mainly  with  miUtary  subjects.  Cnief  paint- 
ings: "Napoleon  at  Ligny";  "On  the  Mominc 
of  the  Battle  of  Waterloo";  "Oliver  CromweU 
at  Marston  Moor";  "Ironsides  Returning  from 
Sacking  a  Cavalier's  House";  "The  Evening  of 
the  Battle  of  Waterloo";  "George  II.  at  Det- 
tingen";  " Wallenstein " ;  "Marlborough  after 
Ramillies";  "Napoleon  Leaving  Moscow"; 
"Marston  Moor":  "Execution  of  Charles  I.": 
"Queen  Elisabeth  Opening  the  First  Royal 
Exchange."     Died,  1911. 

Croker,  Richard,  poHtician,  was  bom  at  Black 
Rock,  Ireland,  1843;  brought  to  United  States 
when  two  years  old;  educated  at  public  schools. 
New  York.  Alderman,  New  York,  1868-70  and 
1883;  coroner,  1873-76;  fire  commissioner,  1883; 
city  chamberlain,  1889-90.  Was  prominent 
opponent  of  Tweed  ring;  prominent  in  Tammany 
hall  and  long  recognized  as  its  leader;  especially 
active  in  the  campaign  of  1897,  when  Robert  A. 
Van  Wyck  was  elected  first  mayor  of  Greater 
New  York.  Now  resides  in  Ireland,  and  devotes 
much  time  to  the  turf,  but  retains  his  citizen- 
ship in  New  York. 

Cromer  (Ara'-mft-),  Evelyn  Baring,  first  Earl, 
British  statesman  and  diplomat,  was  bom  at 
Cromer  hall,  Norfolk,  1841.  Educated  at 
ordnance  school,  Carshalton;  royal  militaiy 
academy,  Woolwich.  Hon.  D.  C.  L.,  Oxford; 
LL.  D.,  Cambridge.  Entered  roval  artillery, 
1858:  captain,  1870;  ma^or,  1876-  A.  D.  C.  to 
Sir  Henry  Storks  in  Ionian  islands,  1861,  and 
secretary,  1865,  during  inquiry  into  outbreak  in 
Jamaica;  private  secretary  to  earl  of  North- 
brook,  viceroy  of  India,  1872-76;  commissioner 
of  Egyptian  pubhc  debt,  1877-79;  controller- 
generaJ  in  Egypt,  1879;  financial  member  of 
council  of  governor-general  of  India,  1880; 
financial  assistant  at  conference  in  London  on 
Egyptian  finance,  1884;  agent  and  consul- 
general  in  Egypt,  1883-1907.  Author:  Staff 
College  Essays;  Paraphrase  and  Translations 
from  the  Greek;  The  War  Game,  and  other  military 
works;    Modem  Epypt  (2  vols.);    etc. 

Crompton,  Samuel,  inventor  of  the  spinning-mule; 
bom  near  Bolton,  England,  1753;  for  five  years 
he  worked  at  his  project,  and  at  last  sold  it  for 
£60.  It  revolutionized  the  manufacture  of 
British  muslin,  and  brought  wealth  to  all  save 
the  inventor,  who  died  in  comparative  poverty, 
1827. 

Cromwell,  Oliver.     See  page  449. 

Cromwell,  Richard,  bom  in  1626,  was  the  third 
son  of  Oliver,  but  by  the  deaths  of  two  elder 
brothers,  Robert  and  Oliver,  became  his  father's 
heir.  He  was  an  amiable  and  popular  but  weak 
man,  devoted  to  field  sports  and  pleasure.  When 
the  protector  had  been  empowered  to  nominate 
his  successor,  an  efifort  was  made  to  train  Richard 
to  the  work  of  government,  but  in  vain.  Scarcely 
had  he  entered  on  the  protectorship  when  the 
forces  of  anarchy,  both  parliamentary  and  mili- 
tary, broke  loose;  finding  himself  unable  to 
restrain  them,  and  deep  in  debt,  he  abdicated  in 
1659.  After  the  restoration  he  lived  abroad  as 
John  Clarke;  but  he  returned  to  England  about 
1680,  and  Uved  and  died  (1712)  at  Cheshunt. 

Cromwell,  Thomas,  earl  of  Essex,  English  states- 
man, bom  about  1485.  He  was  in  the  service 
of  Wolsey  for  several  years  before  the  cardinal's 
ruin  in  1529,  and  remained  his  steady  friend  in 
adversity.  His  fidelity  to  his  patron  and  his 
talents  commended   him  to  Henry  VIII.,  who 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


630 


appointed  him  his  secretary  and  spokesman  in 
the  house  of  commons.  This  made  him  the 
leader  of  the  EngHsh  reformation.  He  was  soon 
after  made  secretary  of  state  and  master  of  the 
rolls,  in  1535  visitor  general  of  all  the  monas- 
teries, religious  houses,  and  universities  of 
England,  and  in  1536  lord  privy  seal,  baron, 
and  ecclesiastical  viceregent.  the  visitorial 
power  was  executed  with  great  vigor,  and  sweep- 
ing changes  were  made  in  the  religious  system 
of  England.  He  was  created  earl  of  Essex, 
received  valuable  estates  from  the  spoils  of  the 
monasteries,  and  was  the  king's  most  powerful 
subject.  But  he  had  enemies  on  all  siaes,  and, 
haAring  lost  the  king's  favor  by  his  promotion  of 
the  marriage  with  Anne  of  Cleves,  with  whom 
Henrj'  was  disgusted,  he  was  beheaded  in  1540. 

Cromwell,  William  Nelson,  lawyer,  was  bom  in 
1854 ;  now  senior  of  law  firm  of  Sullivan  &  Crom- 
well; specialty  is  corporation  law;  organized, 
1899,  National  tube  company  with  a  capital  of 
$80,000,000;  since  then  many  other  corpora- 
tions; appointed  assignee  and  reorganized  Decker, 
Howell  &  Company,  1890,  and  later,  Price, 
McCormick  &  Company,  which  had  failed  for 
several  millions,  and  put  both  on  paying  basis; 
was  officer,  director,  or  counsel  of  more  than 
twenty  of  the  largest  corporations  in  the  United 
States,  and  one  of  orgamzers  of  United  States 
steel  corporation.  Engaged  by  Panama  Canal 
compapy  of  France,  and  was  instrumental  in 
securing  passage  of  Panama  canal  bill  in  congress. 
He  perfected  the  details  of  the  transfer  of  Panama 
canal  to  United  States  government. 

Cronje  (kron'-yi),  Pletnis  Amoldus,  Boer  general, 
was  bom,  1835,  of  Huguenot  descent;  com- 
manded the  western  army  of  the  South  African 
repubUcs;  besieged  Potchefstroom,  1881,  and 
received  its  capitulation,  keeping  the  garrison  in 
ignorance  of  the  fact  that  an  armistice  had  been 
declared;    frustrated  the  Jameson  raid  at  Kru- 

fersdorp,  1895.  Surrendered  at  Paardeberg  to 
'ield-Marshal  Lord  Roberts,  1900 ;  was  member 
of  executive  council  of  Transvaal  republic  and 
chief  native  commissioner.     Died,  1911. 

Crookes  (krdbks).  Sir  William,  British  chemist  and 
physicist;  proprietor  and  editor  of  Chemiccd 
Netos;  president  of  the  British  association  for 
the  advancement  of  science,  1898;  editor  of 
Quarterly  Journal  of  Science;  bom  in  1832. 
Educated  at  royal  college  of  chemistry;  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry,  Training  college,  Chester, 
England,  1855.  Discoverer  of:  thallium,  a  new 
element,  1861;  repulsion  resulting  from  radia- 
tion, 1873;  the  radiometer,  1875;  illumination 
of  lines  of  molecular  pressure,  1878;  radiant 
matter,  1879;  radiant  matter  spectroscopy, 
1881;  new  elements  in  gadoHnite,  etc.,  1886; 
genesis  of  elements,  1887;  the  spinthariscope, 
1903.  Received  Nobel  prize  for  chemical 
researches,  1907.  Author:  Select  Methods  in 
Chemical  Analysis;  Manufacture  of  Beet  Root 
Sugar  in  England;  Handbook  of  Dyeing  and  Calico- 
Printing;  A  Solxition  of  the  Sewage  Question; 
The  Wheat  Problem;  etc. 

Crosby  (krdz'-bl),  Fanny  (Mrs.  Frances  Jane  Van 
Alstyne),  blind  writer  of  popular  hymns;  bom  at 
Southeast,  N.  Y.,  1820;  when  six  weeks  old 
became  blind  from  application  of  hot  poultices  to 
her  eyes  during  an  illness,  the  poultices  destroying 
the  optic  nerve.  At  fifteen  entered  the  institute 
for  blind,  New  York;  teacher  there,  1847-58,  in 
English  grammar  and  rhetoric,  and  Roman  and 
American  history.  Wrote  words  to  many  songs 
for  George  F.  Root,  the  composer.  Her  first 
hjmnn  was  written  for  WiUiam  B.  Bradbury; 
haswritten  more  than  6,000,  amongthem,  "Safe 
in  the  Arms  of  Jesus";  "Jesus,  Keep  Me  Near 
the  Cross,"  and  "Jesus  the  Water  of  Life  Will 
Give."     Among   her  songs  are  "There's   Music 


tn  the  Air,"  and  "Ha«el  Dell."  Author:  Th« 
Blind  Girl;  Monterey  and  Other  Poema;  A 
Wreath  of  Columbia's  Flowers;  Belt*  at  Evening 
and  Other  Poems;  Memories  of  Eight]/  Years. 

Crosby.  Howard.  American  clergyman  and  scholar, 
was  bora  at  New  York,  1836;  graduate  of  the 
university  of  New  York,  1844;  professor  of 
Greek  there,  1851-59,  and  at  Rutgers  college, 
New  Jersey,  1859-63.  He  was  pastor  of  the 
Fourth  Avenue  Presbyterian  church,  Now  York, 
1863-91 ;  chancellor  of  the  university  of  New 
York,  1870-81;  and  a  member  of  the  American 
committee  for  the  revision  of  the  new  testament. 
In  1877  he  was  the  leading  organizer  of  the 
society  for  the  prevention  of  crime,  and  its  first 
president.     Died,  1891. 

Crothers  (fcrfiTH'-erz),  Samuel  McChord,  Unitarian 
clergyman,  author,  was  born  at  Oswmto,  III., 
1857;  graduated  at  Princeton,  1874 ;  stucued  the- 
ology at  Union  theological  seminary;  D.  D., 
Harvard;  Litt.  D.,  St.  Lawrence,  1904.  Pastor- 
ates: Eureka,  Nev.,  Santa  Barbara,  Cal.,  Brattle- 
boro,  Vt.,  and  St.  Paul:  since  1894  at  First 
Parish,  Unitarian  churcn,  Cambridge,  Mass.; 
preacher  to  Harvard  university.  Author:  Mem- 
bers of  One  Body;  Miss  Muffet's  Christmas  Party; 
The  Gentle  Reader;  The  Understanding  Heart; 
The  Pardoner's  Wallet;   The  Endless  Life. 

Crozler,  William,  army  officer,  was  bora  at  Car- 
rollton,  Ohio,  1855;  graduated  from  United 
States  miUtary  academy,  1876.  Began  his 
service  in  the  United  States  army  as  an  artillery 
officer,  1876;  inspector-general  of  volunteers, 
1898;  appointed  professor  of  natural  and  experi- 
mental philosopny,  United  States  military 
academy,  1901  (declined);  brigadier-general  and 
chief  of  ordnance  of  United  States  army  since 
1901.  With  General  Buffin^on  invented  the 
Buffington-Crozier  disappearing  gun  carriage: 
invented  the  wire  gun.  Delegate  to  international 
peace  conference  at  The  Ilague,  1899;  chief 
ordnance  officer  of  Peking  relief  expedition,  1900. 

Cruikshank  {krdbkf-sh&ngk),  George,  English  artist, 
was  bom  in  London,  1792.  His  father  and  elder 
brother  were  both  caricaturists.  The  works 
illustrated  by  him  include,  among  hundreds  of 
others,  Grimm's  Stories,  Peter  Schlemihl,  Scott's 
Dernonology,  Dickens's  Oliver  Twist,  and  Ains- 
worth's  Jack  Shevpard.  Like  Hogarth,  he  was 
a  moralist  as  well  as  an  artist,  and  as  a  total 
abstainer  he  consecrated  his  art  at  length  to 
dramatize  the  fearful  downward  career  of  the 
drunkard;  his  greatest  work,  done  in  oil,  is  the 
"Worship  of  Bacchus,"  which  is  a  vigorous  pro- 
testation against  this  vice.     He  died,  1878. 

Crumpacker,  Edgar  Dean,  lawyer.  cx-conRressman, 
was  born^in  Laporte  county,  Indiana,  1851 ;  edu- 
cated at  common  schools  and  at  Valparaiso 
academy;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1876,  prose- 
cuting attorney  for  the  thirty-first  judicial  dis- 
trict of  Indiana  from  1884  to  1888;  appellate 
judge  in  the  state  of  Indiana,  1891-93;  member 
of  the  lower  house  of  congress,  10th  Indiana  dis- 
trict, 1897-1913.  ,    ^    ,  . 

CruttweU,  Charles  Thomas,  English  clergyman  and 
scholar,  rector  of  Ewelme,  Oxfordshire,  canon  of 
Peterborough  cathedral;  bora  in  London,  1847: 
graduate  of  St.  John's  college,  Oxford.  Ordained 
to  the  ministry,  1875 ;  curate  of  St.  Giles's,  Oxford, 
1875-77;  headmaster  of  St.  Andrew's  college, 
Bradfield,  1878-80;  Malvera  college,  1880-85; 
rector  of  Sutton,  Surrey,  1885;  rector  of  Denton, 
Norfolk,  1885-91;  rector  of  Kibworth.  1891- 
1901;  rural  dean  of  Gartree,  diocese  of  Peter- 
borough, 1892-1901;  select  preacher  to  the 
university  of  Oxford,  1896-98  and  1903-06; 
proctor  in  convocation  for  the  clergy  of  Peter- 
borough diocese,  1900-06.  Author:  A  History 
of  Roman  LUeraivre;  A  Literary  History  of  Early 
Christianity  (2  vols.);   Six  Lecture*  on  the  Oxford 


640 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Movement;  History  of  the  Church  of  England; 
etc.     Died,  1911. 

Cujas  {ku'-zhas'),  Jacques,  eminent  French  jurist, 
bom  in  1522;  studied  under  Amaud  Ferrier  at  the 
university  of  Toulouse;  became  professor  of  the 
Roman  law  at  Bourges  and  Valence.  Amon^  his 
numerous  works  are  Commentaries  on  Justinian's 
Institutes,  and  on  the  Pandects  and  Decretals. 
Cujas  has  been  styled  by  Hailam  the  greatest  of 
all  civil  lawyers.     Died  at  Bourges,  1590. 

Culberson,  Charles  A.,  lawyer,  United  States 
senator,  born  in  Dadeville,  Ala.,  1855;  removed 
with  his  parents  from  Alabama  to  Texas  in 
1856;  resided  at  Gilmer  and  Jefferson  until 
1887,  when  he  removed  to  Dallas;  graduated 
from  the  Virginia  military  institute,  Lexington, 
1874;  studied  law  under  his  father  and  at  the 
university  of  Virginia  in  1876-77  under  Professors 
Minor  and  Southall;  elected  attorney-general 
of  Texas  in  1890  and  1892;  elected  governor  of 
Texas  in  1894  and  1896 ;  was  a  delegate  at  large  to 
the  democratic  national  conventions  at  Chicago 
in  1896  and  at  St.  Louis  in  1904,  and  chairman  of 
the  Texas  delegation  at  both;  chosen  United 
States  senator,  1899,  to  succeed  Senator  Roger 
Q.  Mills;  reelected  in  1905  and  1911.  He  was 
made  minority  leader  of  the  United  States  sen- 
ate for  the  60th  and  61st  congresses. 

Cullen,  WtUlam,  physician,  born  at  Hamilton, 
Scotland,  1710;  M.  D.,  Glasgow  university,  1740. 
In  1746  he  began  to  lecture  on  the  theory  and 
practice  of  physic,  on  botany,  materia  medica, 
and  finally  on  chemistry,  Glasgow  university. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  prof<>8.sor8  of 
medicine  in  universities  of  Edinburgh  and  Glas- 

fow;  also  first  to  commence  clinical  lectures  in 
Edinburgh  royal  infirmary.  Among  his  chief 
works  are :  First  Lines  of  the  Practice  of  Physic; 
A  Treatise  of  the  Materia  Medica.     Died,  1790. 

Cullom,  Shelby  Moore,  lawyer,  ex-United  States 
senator,  bom  in  Kentucky  in  1829;  studied  law, 
1853,  was  admitted  to  the  Dai\  1855,  and  began  to 
practice  law  at  Springfield,  111. ;  elected  to  state 
legislature  in  1856^  reelected  in  1860;  member 
of  the  war  commission  which  sat  in  Cairo  in 
1862,  and  of  the  39th  and  40th  congresses;  again 
elected  to  the  state  legislature  in  1872,  reelected  in 
1874;  was  governor  of  Illinois  in  1877-83- 
elected  United  States  senator  in  1883,  and 
reelected  in  1888,  1894,  1900,  and  1906.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  commission  appointed  to  prepare 
a  syBtem  of  laws  for  the  Hawaiian  islands. 

Cummins,  Albert  Balrd,  lawyer,  United  States 
senator,  was  born  near  Carmichaels,  Pa.,  1850; 
academic  education  at  Waynesburg  college, 
Waynesburg,  Pa. ;  LL.  D.,  Waynesburg  and  Cor- 
nell colleges  ;  studied  survejnng  and  became  assist- 
ant chief  engineer  of  Cincinnati,  Richmond  <fe  Ft. 
Wayne  railroad ;  studied  law  in  office  of  McClellan 
&,  Hodges,  Chicago.  Admitted  to  Illinois  bar. 
1875;  practiced  at  Chicago,  1875-78-  removed 
to  Des  Moines,  la.,  1878;  member  of  Iowa  legis- 
lature, 1888 ;  candidate  for  United  States  senator, 
1894;  govemor  of  Iowa,  1902-04,  1904-06, 
1906-08 ;  elected  1908  to  United  States  senate  to 
serve  out  term  of  Hon.  W.  B.  Allison,  deceased; 
reelected  for  the  term  1909-15. 

Cunard  {ku-nard').  Sir  Samuel,  civil  engineer, 
founder  of  the  Cunard  steamship  line,  was  bom 
at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  1787;  succeeded  early 
as  a  merchant  and  ship)owner,  and  removed  to 
England  in  1838;  join^  with  George  Bums, 
Glasgow,  and  David  M'lver,  Liverpool,  in 
founding,  1839,  the  Royal  Mail  steam  packet 
company,  and  obtained  a  contract  for  the  mail 
service  between  Liverpool  and  Halifax,  Boston, 
and  Quebec.  The  first  passage,  1840,  was  the 
Britannia's  in  fourteen  days,  eight  hours.  Iron 
steamers  were  introduced  in  1855,  and  paddle- 
wheels  gave  way  entirely  to  the  screw  after  1862. 


Since  then  the  Cunard  line  has  been  known  aa 
one  of  the  leaders  in  transatlantic  travel.  Cunard 
was  created  a  baronet  in  1859.     Died,  1865. 

Cunningham,  Daniel  John,  British  physician, 
scientist,  professor  of  anatomy  in  the  universitj' 
of  Edinburgh  since  1903,  and  dean  of  the  medical 
faculty;  bom  at  Crieff,  Scotland,  1850.  Grad- 
uated M.  B.,  Edinburgh,  1874;  M.  D.,  1876; 
D.  Sc.,  Dublin;  D.  C.  L.,  Oxford;  LL.  D., 
Glasgow;  F.  R.  S.;  demonstrator  of  anatomy 
in  the  university  of  Ekiinbureh,  1876-82;  pro- 
fessor of  anatomv,  royal  college  of  surgeons, 
Ireland,  1882;  at  Dublin  university,  1883-1903; 
was  examiner  on  anatomy  in  the  universities 
of  Edinburgh,  London,  Cambridge,  Oxford,  and 
Victoria;  was  president  of  the  royal  zoological 
society  of  Ireland  and  vice-president  of  the 
royal  Dublin  society;  was  a  member  of  the 
South  African  hospitals  commission,  and  also  of 
the  vice-regal  commission  on  the  inland  fisheries 
of  Ireland.  Author:  Manual  of  Practical  Anat- 
omy; The  Microcephalic  Brain;  The  Anatomy  of 
Hernia  (with  Professor  E.  H.  Bennett),  and 
many  other  monographs;  is  acting-editor  of  The 
Journal  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology.     Died,  1909. 

Cunningham,  William,  English  clergyman  edu- 
cator, archdeacon  of  Ely,  was  born  at  Edinburgh. 
1849.  Educated  at  fc^dinburgh  university,  ana 
Caius  college  and  Trinity  college,  Cambridge. 
University  extension  lecturer,  1874-78;  univer- 
sity lecturer  on  history,  1884-91 ;  professor  of 
economics.  King's  college,  London,  1891-97; 
lecturer  on  economic  history.  Harvard  univer- 
sity, 1899;  ordained  by  bishop  of  Elv,  1873; 
curate  at  HomiiiKsea  and  St.  Saviour's,  Everton; 
chaplain  of  Trinity  college,  1880-91;  Hulsean 
lecturer,  1885;  vicar  of  Great  St.  Mary's,  Cam- 
bridge, 1887-1908;  also  of  St.  Michael's,  Cam- 
bridge, 1907-08.  Author:  Growth  of  English 
Industry  and  Commerce  (2  vols.);  Outlines  of 
English  Industrial  History;  Western  Civilization; 
Modem  Civilization;  Use  and  Abuse  of  Money; 
Alien  Immigrants;  Gospd  of  Work;  Rise  and 
Decline  of  Free  Trade;  Cure  of  Souls;  etc. 

Curie  (ku'-re'),  Madame,  n^e  Marie  Sklodowska, 
Polish  chemist  and  physicist,  was  bom  at  War- 
saw, Russia,  1867;  educated  at  Warsaw,  and  at 
the  Sorbonne,  Paris;  Sc.  D.,  Paris;  she  discov- 
ered the  element  polonium,  and  with  her  husband, 
Pierre  Curie,  the  element  radium.  In  1906  she 
was  appointed  to  the  position  at  the  Sorbonne 
made  vacant  by  the  death  of  her  husband. 
Received  Nobel  prize  for  chemistry,  1911. 

Curie,  Pierre,  French  chemist,  was  bom  in  Paris, 
1869.  Educated  at  the  Sorbonne,  he  became 
professor  of  physics  and  chemistry  at  Paris,  1895, 
and  at  the  Sorbonne,  1900.  In  conjunction  with 
his  wife  he  discovered  the  element  radium.  This 
discovery  brought  him  both  the  La  Caze  prize 
of  the  French  academy,  1901,  and  the  >fobeI 
prize  (with  Professor  Becquerel),  1903;  member 
of  the  French  academy  of  sciences,  1905.  He 
was  killed  by  an  accident  1906. 

Curran   (/cur'-an),  John  Phil  pot,    Irish    legal    and 

Farliamentary  orator,  was  bom  in  County  Cork, 
reland,  1750.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity 
college,  Dublin,  and  in  1773  went  to  London, 
and  entered  the  Middle  Temple.  Two  years 
after  he  was  admitted  to  the  Irish  bar,  where  his 
humorous,  flowery,  and  sarcastic  speech  secured 
him  immediate  success,  which  his  attractive 
social  qualities  did  much  to  extend.  In  1782 
he  obtained  a  seat  in  the  Irish  parliament  as 
member  for  Kilbeggan,  his  general  policy  being 
in  unison  with  that  of  Grattan  and  the  few 
other  Uberal  members  who  were  then  in  the 
house.  Died,  1817. 
Curtin,  Jeremiah,  American  author,  ethnologist,  and 
linguist,  was  bom  at  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  1840; 
grfuluated  from  Harvard,   1863;    was  secretary 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


641 


of  legation  at  St.  Peterebure,  1864-70 ;  connected 
with  the  United  States  bureau  of  ethnology, 
1883-91.  He  traveled  extensively,  was  master 
of  many  languages,  and  is  probably  best  known 
through  his  translations  of  Tolstoi  and  Sienkie- 
wicz.     Died,  1906. 

Curtis,  Benjamin  Sobbtns,  American  jurist,  bom 
in  Massachusetts,  1809;  graduated  at  Harvard: 
was  a  member  of  the  bar  m  Boston,  and  in  1851 
was  appointed  one  of  the  justices  of  the  United 
States  supreme  court,  resigning  this  office  in 
1857.  On  the  impeachment  of  Andrew  Johnson, 
he  appeared  as  one  of  the  counsel  for  the  defend- 
ant. His  reports  of  law  cases  are  well  known. 
Died  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  1874. 

Curtis,  Charles,  lawyer,  ex-United  States  senator, 
was  born  at  Topeka,  Kansas,  1860;  studied 
law  at  Topeka;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1881;  was  elected  county  attorney  of  Shawnee 
county  in  1884  and  reelected  in  1886;  mem- 
ber of  congress  from  Kansas,  1893-1909;  United 
States  senator  from  Kansas,  1907-13. 

Curtis,  Cyrus  H.  K.,  publisher,  was  bom  in  1850, 
and  was  educated  in  the  public  schools  of  New 
England.  He  removed  to  Philadelphia  and 
became  publisher  of  the  Tribune  ana  Farmer. 
Later  he  established  the  Ladies'  Home  Journal. 
He  is  now  the  head  of  the  Curtis  publishing 
company,  publishers  of  the  Ladies'  Home  Journal, 
The  Country  Gentleman  and  the  Saturday  Evening 
Post,  the  latter  established  in  1728  by  Benjamin 
Franklin. 

Curtis,  George  Ticknor,  American  lawyer  and 
writer,  was  bom  in  Massachusetts,  1812;  grad- 
uated at  Harvard,  and  began  law  practice  in 
Boston,  afterward  removing  to  New  York. 
He  was  several  times  in  the  Massachusetts 
legislature,  and  was  for  a  time  United  States 
commissioner.  While  acting  as  such  he  returned 
to  his  master  the  fugitive  slave  Thomas  Sims, 
an  act  which  brought  upon  him  severe  censure. 
Among  his  many  books  are  Rights  and  Duties  of 
Merchant  Seamen;  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Copy- 
right; History  of  the  Origin,  Formation,  and 
Adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States; 
Life  of  Daniel  Webster;  Constitutional  History  of 
the  United  States;  and  various  works  on  legal 
subjects.      Died,  1894. 

Curtis,  George  William,  American  journalist, 
author,  publicist,  was  bom  at  Providence,  Rhode 
Island,  1824.  After  four  years  in  Europe  and 
the  Orient  (1846-50)  he  joined  the  staff  of  the 
New  York  Tribune,  and  was  one  of  the  editors  of 
Putnam's  Monthly  from  1852  to  1869.  He  com- 
menced the  "Editor's  Easy  Chair"  papers  in 
Harper's  Monthly  in  1853,  and  became  editor  of 
Harper's  Weekly  on  its  establishment  in  1857. 
A  novel,  Trumps,  and  most  of  his  books  appeared 
first  in  these  journals.  He  died  at  New  York, 
1892.  He  wrote  Nile  Notes  of  a  Howadji;  The 
Howadji  in  Syria;  Lotus-Eating;  Potiphar 
Papers;  Prue  and  I;  Trumps;  Washington 
Irving;  etc. 

Curtis,  William  Eleroy,  journalist;  bom  in  Akron, 
Ohio,  1850;  graduate  of  Western  Reserve 
college,  1871.  Op  staff  of  Chicago  Inter-Ocean, 
1873-87;  Washington  correspondent  for  Chicago 
Record,  1887-1901;  Chicago  Record-Herald. 
1901-11.  Was  special  commissioner  from  United 
States  to  Central  and  South  American  republics; 
executive  officer  of  international  American  con- 
ference, 1889-90 ;  director  of  bureau  of  American 
republics,  1890-93;  chief  of  Latin-American 
department  and  historical  section  at  World's 
Columbian  exposition,  1891-93;  commissiorier 
of  Columbian  exposition  to  Madrid,  and  special 
envoy  to  the  queen  regent  of  Spain  and  Pop)e 
Leo  XIII.,  1892.  Author:  The  Life  of  Zachanah 
Chandler;  The  Land  of  the  Nihilist;  Handbook  to 
tlie  American  Republics;    The  United  States  and 


Foreign  Powers;  The  Yanke—t/ths  Ba$t;  To-day 
in  France  and  Germany:  The  Tme  Thoma* 
Jefferson;  Denmark,  Su>eaen,  and  Norway;  The 
True  Abraham  Lincoln;  To-day  in  Syria  and 
Palestine;  Modern  India;  Egypt,  Burma,  and  the 
British  East  Indies;  etc.  Was  nicnilM-r  of  nearly 
all  learned  societies  of  United  States  and  several 
in  Europe.     Died,  1911. 

Curtius  (kd6r'-t»e-db»),  Erost,  German  historian  and 
archaeologist,  was  born  1814,  at  LUbcck;  studied 
at  Bonn,  Gottingen,  and  lU-rlin;  visited  Alliens  in 
1837,  and  next  aocoiiipaiiiod  Otfrie<i  Mlillcr  in 
his  travels  through  Greece.  Tutor  (1844-49) 
to  the  crown  prince  Frederick  of  Pruasia;  in 
1856  he  succeeded  Hermann  as  professor  at 
Gottingen,  whence  he  was  recalled  in  1868  to 
Berlin.  From  1853  a  member  of  the  academy  of 
sciences,  he  was  one  of  its  permanent  m'cretaries 
1871-93.  He  died  1896.  Among  his  works  arc: 
Klassische  Studien;  Naxos;  Peloponneaoa:  Olym- 
pia;  Die  lonier;  Die  Topographic  Kletnasiena; 
Ephesos;  Alter  turn,  und  Gegenwart;  Grieehiache 
Geschichtc;  and  Die  Ausgrabungcn  zu  Olyvipia. 

Curtius,  Georg,  one  of  the  greatest  (Jreek  scholars, 
was  bom  at  Liibeck,  Germany,  1820,  and  studied 
at  Bonn  and  Berlin.  After  teaching  at  Dresden 
and  Berlin,  he  became  in  1849  extraordinary,  in 
1851  ordinary  professor  of  classical  philology  at 
Prague,  at  Kief  in  1854,  at  Leipzig  in  1862.  He 
died  1885.  The  chief  of  his  many  works  are: 
Griechische  Schidgrammatik,  Grundzuge  der 
Griechischen  Etyrnologie,  and  Das  Gnechiache 
Verbum. 

Curcon  (kiir'-zdn)  of  Kedleston,  first  Earl, 
George  Nathanial  Curzon,  English  statesman, 
author,  was  bom  in  Kedleston,  1859;  graduate 
oi  Balliol  college,  Oxford;  hon.  I).  C.  L.,  Oxford, 
1904;  hon.  LL.  D.,  Cambridge,  1907;  Romanes 
lecturer,  1907;  chancellor  of  Oxford  university. 
1907.  Assistant  private  secretary  to  marquis  ol 
Salisbury,  1885;  under-secretary  of  state  for 
India,  1891-92;  under-secretary  of  state  for 
foreign  affairs,  1895-98;  has  traveled  exten- 
sively in  Central  Asia,  Persia,  Afghanistan,  the 
Pamirs,  Siam,  Indo-China,  and  Korea.  Member 
of  parliament,  Lancashire,  1886-98 ;  viceroy  and 
governor-general  of  India,  1899^1905:  lord 
warden  of  the  Cinque  ports,  1904-05.  Author: 
Russia  in  Central  Asia;  Persia  and  the  Persian 
Question;  Problems  of  the  Far  East;  Lord  Curzon 
in  India;  East  and  West. 

Cushing  (kddsh'-lng),  Caleb,  American  lawyer  and 
diplomatist,  was  bom  in  1800.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  congress,  1835-43;  United  States  com- 
missioner to  China,  1843-44;  negotiated  the  first 
treaty  of  the  United  States  with  China;  equipp>ed 
a  regiment  of  volunteers  for  Mexican  war, 
became  its  colonel,  and  later  a  brigadier-general : 
was  attorney-general  from  1853  to  1857,  and 
one  of  three  jurists  intrusted  with  the  revision 
of  the  laws  of  congress,  1866;  in  1872  he  was 
one  of  the  counsel  for  the  settlement  of  the 
"Alabama  claims,"  before  the  Geneva  tribunal; 
and  1874-77  was  minister  to  Spain.  Died, 
1879. 

Cuslilng,  Frank  Hamilton,  American  ethnologist, 
was  bom  at  Northeast,  Pa^  1857.  '  He  entered 
the  national  museum  at  Washington,  and  in 
1875  began  making  collections  of  India  relics 
for  the  department  of  ethnology.  He  lived 
among  the  Zuni  Indians  for  six  years  and  wrote 
extensively  on  their  traditions,  customs,  and 
remains.  He  also  discovered  the  remains  of  an 
aboriginal  people  on  the  coast  of  Florida  in 
1895.  Author:  Zuni  Fetiches,  Adventures  in 
Zuni,  Zuni  Folk-tales,  etc.  Died  at  Washington, 
1900. 

Cusbman  {kdbsh'-man),  Charlotte  Saunders,  Ameri- 
can actress,  was  bom  in  1816,  at  Boston,  Mass., 
and  died  there,  1876;    appeared  first  in  opera  in 


642 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


1834,  and  as  Lady  Macbeth  in  1835.  In  1844  she 
accompanied  Macready  on  a  tour  through  the 
northern  states,  and  afterward  appeared  in 
London,  where  she  was  well  receivecl  in  a  range 
of  characters  that  included  I^ady  Macbeth,  Rosa- 
lind, Meg  Merrilees,  and  Romeo.  She  retired 
from  the  stage  in  1875. 

Custer  (kHs'-tir),  George  Armstrong,  American 
soldier,  born  in  Ohio  in  1839,  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1861,  and  served  with  distinction  through 
the  civil  war.  As  a  cavalry  commander  in  tne 
West,  he  several  times  defeated  the  hostile 
Indians;  but  on  the  15th  of  May,  1876,  he 
attacked  9,000  Sioux  on  the  Little  Big  Horn,  in 
Montana,  and  he  and  his  1,100  men  were  all 
destroyed.  He  was  brevet  ma^or-general  of 
United  States  army,  and  major-general  of 
United  States  volunteers.  As  a  cavalry  officer 
he  had  few  equals. 

Cuvler  (ku'-vya'),  Georges  Chretien  Leopold 
Fr£d6rlc  Dagobert.     See  page  386. 

Cyrus  the  Great,  founder  of  the  Persian  monarchy, 
commonly  called  Cyrus  the  Elder,  was  born  about 
590  B.  C.  Much  of  a  legendary  character  attaches 
to  his  birth  and  early  youth.  According  to 
Herodotus,  he  was  the  son  of  Cambyses,  a  Persian 
noble,  ana  of  Mandane,  daughter  of  Astyagea, 
the  Medo-Persian  king.  His  birth  was  a  source 
of  alarm  to  his  grandfather,  Astyages,  who  had 
previously  had  a  dream,  the  interpretation  of 
which  portended  that  the  offspring  of  Mandane 
would  one  day  be  the  ruler  of  all  Asia.  He 
therefore  contrived  to  get  the  infant  into  his  own 
hands,  and  gave  it  to  Harpagxis,  his  cliief  servant, 
with  orders  to  put  it  to  death.  Harpagus 
promised  to  do  so,  but  intrusted  it  secretly  to  the 
care  of  a  herdsman,  who  brought  it  up  together 
with  his  own  children.  The  young  Cyrus  quickly 
distinguished  himself.  Meanwhile,  the  tyranny 
of  Astyages  had  made  him  hateful  to  his  subjects, 
and,  by  the  help  of  the  crafty  Harpagus,  Cyrus 
formed,  a  party  among  the  Medes  favorable  to  his 
designs.  Putting  himself  at  the  head  of  his 
Persian  troops,  Cyrus  advanced  into  Media  and 
overthrew  the  forces  of  Astyages,  549  B.  C. 
After  consolidating  his  domimons.  which  was  a 
work  of  some  time,  Cyrus  proceeded  to  conquer 
the  surrounding  nations.  The  kingdom  of 
Lydia  first  yielded,  546  B.  C,  and  its  King,  the  | 
famous  Croesus,  fell  into  his  hands.  Ultimately,  I 
the  whole  of  Asia  Minor  was  subdued.  But  the  I 
crowning  triumph  of  Cyrus  was  his  capture  of  i 
the  city  of  Babylon,  the  metropolis  of  Assyria,  j 
538  B.  C,  whose  king  was  Labynetus,  the  Bel- 
shazzar  of  Daniel.  Through  the  instrumentality 
of  Cyrus  the  Jews  were  delivered  from  their 
captivity,  and  allowed  to  return  to  Palestine. 
He  wished  his  power  to  overshadow  all  Asia,  and 
although  his  aominions  already  extended  from 
the  Hellespont  almost  to  the  Indus,  he  resolved 
to  subjugate  the  Scythian  peoples,  and  began  an 
unjust  war  with  the  Massagetse,  a  nation  or 
tribe  who  dwelt  to  the  northeast  of  the  Caspian, 
beyond  the  Araxes,  whose  queen  was  called 
Tomyris.  At  first  Cyrus  was  successful,  but  in 
the  second  engagement  he  was  defeated  and 
slain,  529  B.  C. 

Cyrus  the  Younger,  was  bom  in  424  B.  C,  son  of 
Darius,  and  governor  of  the  western  provinces  of 
Asia  Minor.  After  unsuccessfully  plotting 
against  his  elder  brother,  Artaxerxes,  he  raised  a 
large  army,  including  about  12,000  Greek  soldiers, 
with  which  he  marched  against  him,  but  was 
defeated  and  slain  at  Cunaxa.  Xenophon  then 
conducted  the  retreat  of  the  10,000  surviving 
Greeks.     Died,  401  B.  C. 

Dabney,  Charles  William,  educator,  president  of 
university  of  Cincinnati  since  1904,  was  bom  in 
Hampden-Sidney,    Va.,    1855;     graduated   from 


Hampden-Sidney  college,  1873;  university  of 
Virginia,  1877;  studied,  1878-80,  Berlin  and 
Gottingen,  Ph.  D.,  1880;  LL.  D.,  Yale,  1901, 
Johns  Hopkins,  1902.  Professor  of  chemistry, 
university  of  North  Carolina,  1880-81;  state  chem- 
ist and  director  of  North  Carolina  agricultural 
experiment  station,  Raleigh,  1880-87;  chief 
department  of  government  and  states  exhibits. 
Cotton  Centennial  exposition,  New  Orleans, 
1884-85;  was  first  to  discover  the  phosphate 
deposits  in  eastern,  and  tin  ore  in  western  North 
Carolina,  and  to  make  them  known  to  science 
and  commerce;  took  prominent  part  in  estab- 
lishing an  industrial  school  at  Raleigh  (now 
North  CaroUna  college  of  agricultural  and 
mechanic  arts) ;  president  of  university  of 
Tennessee,  1887-1904;  assistant  secretary  of 
agriculture.  United  States,  1893-97;  meml>er  of 
many  scientific  and  educational  societies. 

Da  Costa  (da  kda'-tA),  John  Chalmers,  Americau 
surgeon,  was  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1863; 
graduated  from  university  of  Pennsylvania, 
scientific  department,  1882;  Jefferson  medic^ 
colle^^e,  1885.  Resident  physician,  Philadelphia 
hospital,  1885-86:  assistant  physician  of  insane 
department,  Philadelphia  hospital,  1886-87; 
assistant  demonstrator  of  anatomy,  Jefferson 
medical  college,  1887;  assistant  surgeon,  Jeffer- 
son hospital,  1887;  demonstrator  of  surgery, 
Jefferson  medical  college,  1891 ;  cUnical  pro- 
fessor of  surgery,  same,  1898;  professor  of  sur- 
?ery,  1900.  Surgeon  to  Philadelphia  hospital 
895-1910,  to  St.  Joseph's  hospital  1896-1910. 
Author:  A  Manvuxl  of  Modrm  Surgery.  Edited 
English  edition  of  Zuckerkandl's  Operative  SuT' 
gery,  and  new  American  edition  of  Gray's 
Anatomy.    Died,  1010. 

Daendels  (dan'-dds),  Herman  Wlllem,  Dutch 
general,  was  bora  in  1762,  died  in  1818.  He 
became  oolonel  of  a  corps  of  volunteers  in  the 
French  army  in  1793,  and  afterward  brigadier- 
general.  In  1806  he  entered  the  service  of  the 
king  of  Holland,  occupied  East  Friesland,  and 
was  made  governor  of  Miinster.  He  was  subse- 
quently made  commander-in-chief  of  the  cavalry, 
marshal  of  Holland,  and  from  1808  to  1811  was 
govemor-generiil  of  the  East  Indian  provinces. 
After  the  fall  of  Napoleon  he  was  intrusted  with 
the  organization  of  the  East  African  colonies. 
He  published  a  work  on  the  Dutch  East 
Indies. 

Daguerre  (dd'-gdr'),  Louis  Jacques  Mand£,  French 
inventor,  was  bom  in  1789.  He  discovered  the 
daguerreotype  process  of  photography,  by  which 
the  portrait  was  fixed  on  a  plate  of  copper 
thinly  coated  with  silver,  by  the  successive 
action  of  the  vapors  of  iodine,  bromine,  and 
mercury;  in  this  invention  he  was  associated 
with  M.  Ni^pce.  He  was  also  celebrated  as  a 
dioramic  painter;  was  named  by  the  P>ench 
government  as  an  officer  of  the  legion  of  honor, 
and  granted  a  pension  of  six  thousand  francs. 
Died,  1851. 

Dahlg^ren  (dOl'-grSn),  John  Adolf,  American  admi- 
ral, was  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1809.  He 
became  a  midshipman,  1826,  and  a  lieutenant, 
1837.  Ten  years  afterward  he  began  to  experi- 
ment in  the  casting  of  heavy  cannon  for  naval 
warfare,  and  finally  devised  the  Dahlgren  gun. 
He  served  throughout  the  civil  war,  and  in 
1863  was  made  a  rear-admiral.  He  died  in 
Washington,  when  in  command  of  the  navy 
yard,  1870. 

Dahlmann  (daZ'-wi4n),  Frledrich  Christoph,  Ger- 
man historian,  was  bom  at  Wismar,  1785; 
studied  at  Copenhagen  and  Halle,  and  in  1812 
became  professor  of  history  at  Kiel,  and  in  1829 
of  political  science  at  Gottingen,  where  he  pmb- 
Ushed  his  invaluable  Quelienkunde  der  deuUchen 
Geaehichte.     Banished   in    1837   by   the   king   of 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


043 


Hanover,  he  went  to  Leipzig,  next  to  Jena, 
where  he  wrote  his  masterpiece,  History  of  Den- 
mark. In  1842  lie  became  professor  of  history 
at  Bonn,  and  in  the  movement  of  1848  headed 
the  constitutional  liberals.     Died,  1860. 

Dahn  {d&n),  Julius  Sophus  Felix,  German  publicist, 
historian,  poet,  was  bom  at  Hamburg,  1834,  the 
son  of  the  actor,  Friedrich  Dahn.  He  studied 
at  Munich  and  Berlin,  and  in  1872  became 
professor  of  German  jurisprudence  at  Konigsberg, 
and  in  1888  at  Breslau.  His  most  important 
works  are  The  Kings  of  the  Germans  (6  vols.); 
Reason  in  Law;  Ballads  and  Songs;  The  Struggle 
for  Rome,  and  Odin's  Consolation.     Died,  1912. 

Daingerfleld,  Elliott,  artist,  was  bom  at  Harper's 
Ferrv,  Va.,  1859;  studied  drawing  and  painting 
in  New  York  with  private  teacher  ana  at  art 
students'  league.  First  exhibited  at  National 
academy  of  design,  1880;  studied  in  Europe. 
1897;  commissioned  to  paint  the  Lady  chapel 
of  the  church  of  St.  Mary  the  Virgin,  New  York, 
1902 ;  public  lecturer  on  art.  Notable  paintings : 
"Madonna  and  Child";  "The  Story  of  the 
Madonna";  "Slumbering  Fog";  etc.  Professor 
of  painting  and  composition,  Phjladelphia  school 
of  design. 

Dalberg-Acton  {dal'-bh-K-&k'-tun\  Sir  John  Eme- 
rlch  Edward,  first  Baron  Acton,  English  historian, 
was  born  at  Naples,  Italy,  1834.  In  1895  he  was 
made  professor  of  modern  history  at  Cambridge 
university,  and  as  a  liberal  Catholic  exerted  a 
profound  influence.  He  wrote  The  War  of  1870 ; 
Wolsey  and  the  Divorce  of  Henry  VIII.;  Schools 
of  History  in  Germany;  and  projected  The  Cam- 
bridge Modem  History,  written  by  eminent  his- 
torical scholars  after  his  death.     He  died,  1902. 

D'Albert  (ddl'-b&r'\  Eugen  Francis  Charles, 
pianist  and  coniposer;  bom  in  Glasgow,  1864; 
studied  first  in  London,  afterward  under  Franz 
Liszt  in  Weimar.  Has  received  ten  decorations. 
Gave  his  first  concert  in  Berlin,  1883,  and 
traveled  after  that  in  Russia,  Italy,  France, 
Germany,  and  England,  giving  concerts  every- 
where with  the  greatest  success;  visited  the 
United  States  several  times,  and  was  court 
pianist  in  Weimar.  He  has  written  the  operas 
The  Ruby,  Ghismonda,  Gemot,  The  Departure, 
Kain.  and  The  Improvisor;  and  has  also  com- 
posed string-quartets,  concertos,  a  symphony, 
and  many  songs  and  smaller  works. 

Dale,  Alan,  pseudonym  of  Alfred  J.  Cohen,  dramatic 
critic,  author,  was  bom  in  Birmingham,  England, 
1861;  educated  at  King  Edward's  school  there, 
and  Oxford  university.  Came  to  United  States, 
and  engaged  in  journalism  in  New  York;  dra- 
matic critic  of  New  York  Evening  World,  1887- 
95;  dramatic  critic  of  New  York  Journal  since 
1895.  Author:  Jonathan's  Home;  A  Marriage 
Below  Zero;  An  Eerie  He  and  She;  My  Footlight 
Husband;  Miss  Innocence;  Familiar  Chats  with 
Queens  of  the  Stage;  An  Old  Maid  Kindled;  A 
Moral  Busybody;  Conscience  on  Ice;  His  Own 
Image;  A  Girl  Who  Wrote;  Wanted,  A  Cook; 
etc. 

D'Alembert.     Se^  Alembert. 

Dalhousie  (dOl-hou'-zi),  James  Andrew  Broun 
Ramsay,  Marquis  of,  British  statesman,  was 
born  at  Midlothian,  Scotland,  1812.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  parliament,  holding  with 
credit  many  important  posts,  and  in  1847  pro- 
ceeded to  India  as  the  youngest  governor-general 
ever  appointed  to  that  country.  His  course  there 
was  marked  by  energy  and  ability,  and  earned 
him  the  title  of  "the  greatest  of  Indian  pro- 
consuls." He  carried  out  many  reforms,  opened 
up  the  country  by  railroads,  telegraphs,  roads, 
and  canals,  and  added  four  kingdoms  to  the 
British  possessions.     He  died  in  1860. 

Dall  (dal),  Caroline  Healey,  author,  was  bom  in 
Boston,    Mass.,    1822;     daughter   of   Mark    and 


Caroline  (Porter)  Healey;  educated  by  privaU 
tutors;  LL.  D.,  Alfred  university,  1877;  vice- 
principal  of  Miss  English's  ■obool,  Qeorgetown. 
D.  C,  1842-44;  married,  1844,  Rev.  C.  H.  A. 
Dall.  Author:  Essays  and  Sk«leku;  Hidoriecd 
Pictures  Retouched;  Woman'a  Right  to  Labor; 
Woman's  Riahts  Under  the  Law;  Egyjtt'a  PUiea 
in  History;  The  College,  the  Market,  and  tht  Court; 
My  First  Holiday;  What  We  Redly  Know  About 
Shakespeare;  etc. 

Dallas  (dOl'-lds),  Alexander  James,  American 
statesman,  was  bom  in  tlie  island  of  Jamaica  in 
1759 ;  died  in  1817.  He  was  educated  in  London, 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1783,  and  settled 
as  a  lawyer  in  Philadelphia.  He  was  the  pro- 
jector of  the  United  States  bank  at  the  time 
when  the  nation  was  in  great  trouble  about 
currency  to  carry  on  the  war  with  England. 
He  was  also  secretary  of  the  treasury  and 
acting  secretary  of  war,  and  superintended  the 
reduction  of  the  army  after  peace  had  been 
declared. 

Dallas,  George  Sllflain,  American  statesman  and 
diplomatist,  was  bom  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1792. 
He  accompanied  Gallatin  in  his  special  embassy 
to  St.  Petersburg  as  private  secretary.  During 
1831-33  he  represented  Pennsvlvania  in  the 
United  States  senate;  was  minister  to  Russia, 
1837-39;  vice-president  of  the  United  States, 
1845-49;  and  minister  to  England,  1866-61. 
He  died  in  1864. 

Dalton  (ddl'-tun),  John,  British  chemist  and 
physicist,  was  born  near  Cockermouth  in  1766. 
He  taught  mathematics  and  physics  in  Man- 
chester; made  his  first  appearance  as  an  author 
in  1793  in  a  volume  of  his  observations  and 
essays,  and  in  1808  published  A  New  System  of 
Chemical  Philosophy,  which  he  finished  in  1810. 
He  was  famous  for  his  experiments  on  the 
elastic  force  of  steam;  for  his  researches  on  the 
proportional  weights  of  simple  bodies;  for  his 
discovery  of  the  atomic  theory,  as  also  for  his 
investigations  on  color-blindness  by  experiment- 
ing on  himself  and  his  brother,  who,  like  him- 
self, was  color-blind.     Died,  1844. 

D'Alviella  (dM-ve-U'-la),  Count  Goblet,  member  and 
secretary  of  the  Belgian  senate;  professor  at  the 
university  of  Brussels;  was  born  in  Brussels, 
1846;  educated  at  Brussels  and  Paris.  Hon. 
LL.  D.,  university  of  Glasgow  and  of  Aberdeen; 
former  member  of  parliament  for  Brussels.  Late 
rector  of  Brussels  university;  Hibbert  lecturer  at 
Oxford,  1891,  on  the  "Origin  and  Growth  of  the 
Conception  of  God";  long  time  director  of  the 
Revue  de  Belgique.  Author:  Sahara  and  Ixtp- 
land;  Inde  et  Himalaya;  Contemporary  Ei<oliition 
of  Religious  Thought  in  England,  America,  and 
India;    The  Migration  of  Symbols;  etc. 

Dalsell  (ddl-zW),  John,  ex-congressman^  law>'er; 
bom  in  New  York,  1845 ;  removed  to  Pittsburgh, 
1847;  graduate  of  Yale,  1865;  admitted  to  bar, 
1867;  nas  practiced  ever  since;  for  years  one 
of  the  attornevs  for  the  Pennsylvania  railroad 
company  for  all  its  western  lines;  also  attorney 
for  manv  corporations  in  Allegheny  county.  Pa. 
Member' of  congress,  1887-1913;  member  of  the 
important  committees  on  rules,  and  wa}^*  and 
means,  fifty-fourth  to  sixty-second  congresses. 

Damlen  de  Veuster  (dd'-mydN'  de  vfstAr'),  Joseph, 
Roman  Catholic  missionary,  was  bom  near 
Louvain,  Belgium,  1840.  Sent  on  a  mission  to 
Honolulu,  and,  learning  of  the  neglected  state  of 
the  lepers,  he  volunteered  to  cast  in  his  lot 
with  tneirs,  and  became  physician  of  their  souls 
and  bodies,  their  magistrate,  teacher,  carpenter, 
gardener,  cook,  and  even  gravedigger  at  need. 
He  long  worked  on  single-handed,  but  was 
ultimately  joined  bv  other  priests.  For  twelve 
years  he  escaped  the  contagion;  but  in  1886 
the  malady  appeared  in  him,  yet  he  continued 


044 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


unabated  his  heroic  labors  until  near  his  death 
in  1889. 

Damroscb  {ddm'-rdsh),  Walter  Johannes,  composer 
and  musical  director,  was  born  in  Breslau, 
Prussia,  1862;  received  his  musical  education 
under  his  father  and  Ilischbieter,  Urspruch,  and 
Hans  von  Billow ;  came  to  United  States  with  his 
father,  1871.  Succeeded  his  father  as  conductor 
of  the  New  York  symphony  society,  1885; 
founded  the  Damrosch  opera  company,  1894, 
which  produced  the  Nibelungen  Trilogy  in 
the  United  States;  elected  conductor  of  New 
York  philharmonic  society,  1902,  and  New  York 
symphony  orchestra,  1903.  He  wrote  The 
Scarlet  Letter,  op>era  in  three  acts;  Cyrano,  opera 
in  four  acts;  Manila  Te  Deum;  Violin  Sonata; 
songs,  etc. 

Dana  {d6'-nd),  Charles  Anderson,  American  Jour- 
nalist, was  bom  at  Hinsdale,  N.  H.,  1819.  From 
1848  to  1802  he  was  managing  editor  of  the  New 
York  Tribune,  and  from  1803  to  the  close  of  the 
civil  war  was  assistant  secretary  of  war.  In 
1867  he  founded  the  New  York  Sun,  and  began 
the  successful  management  of  that  paper  on 
democratic  lines.  Toeether  with  George  Ripley, 
he  planned  and  edited  the  New  American  Cydo- 
pcedia,  and  its  revised  edition.  The  American 
Cyclopcedia.  He  also  edited  the  Household  Book 
of  Poetry.     He  died  on  Lon^  I.sland,  1897. 

Dana,  Edward  Salisbury,  mmeralogist,  educator, 
was  born  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1849;  graduated 
from  Yale,  1870;  Ph.  D.,  1876;  studied  at 
Heidelberg  and  Vienna.  Tutor  at  Yale,  1874— 
79;  curator  of  mineral  collection  since  1874; 
assistant  professor  of  natural  philosophy,  1879— 
90;  professor  of  physics  since  1890;  trustee  of 
Peabody  museum  smce  1885;  editor  American 
Journal  of  Science  since  1875.  Member  of  many 
scientific  bodies.  Author:  Text-book  of  Miner- 
alogy; Text-book  of  Elementary  Mechanics; 
Dana's  System  of  Mineralogy;  Minerals  and  How 
to  Study  Them,  etc.,  and  many  papers  on  mineral 
and  other  scientific  subjects. 

Dana,  Francis,  American  jurist  and  diplomat,  was 
born  in  Massachusetts,  1743;  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1762,  and  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1767;  was  a  member  of  the  congress  of  1777, 
which  formulated  the  articles  of  confederation; 
also  of  congress  of  1778;  went  with  John  Adams 
to  England  on  peace  negotiations;  was  minister 
to  Russia,  1781-83;  judge  of  Massachusetts 
supreme  court,  1785;  chief-justice,  1791-1806. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American 
academy  of  arts  and  sciences.     Died,  1811. 

Dana,  James  Dwlght,  scientist,  geologist,  educator, 
was  bom  at  Utica,  N.  Y.,  1813;  graduated  at 
Yale,  1833 ;  geologist  of  the  government  exploring 
expedition,  1838-42;  editor  oi  American  J oumm 
of  Science;  professor  of  natural  history  and 
geology  at  Yale  college,  1850-95;  author  of 
many  philosophic  and  scientific  works,  including 
System  of  Mineralogy,  Manual  of  Geology,  Corals 
and  Coral  Islands,  etc.  Died  at  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  1895. 

Dana,  John  Cotton,  librarian,  was  bom  at  Wood- 
stock, Vt.,  1856,  and  graduated  from  Dartmouth, 
1873;  studied  law,  Woodstock,  Vt.,  1878-80; 
land  surveyor,  Colorado,  1880-81;  admitted  to 
New  York  bar,  1883;  civil  engineer,  Colorado, 
1886-87.  Librarian  of  Denver  public  library, 
1889-97;  city  library,  Springfield,  Mass.,  1898- 
1902;  free  public  librarj',  Newark,  N.  J.,  since 
1902.  President  of  American  library  association, 
1896. 

Dana,  Paul,  editor,  was  bom  in  New  York,  1852; 
educated  in  private  schools.  New  York,  Wash- 
ington, and  Chicago;  graduated  from  Harvard, 
1874;  Columbia  law  school,  1878.  Major  ord- 
nance, first  brigade  New  York  national  guard, 
on    staff    of    General    Louis    Fitzgerald,    1883; 


commissioner  of  public  parks,  New  York,  1891: 
became  connected  with  New  York  Sun,  1880,  of 
which  his  father  was  editor,  and  on  the  death  of 
the  latter,  1897,  succeeded  him  as  editor;  retired 
in  1903. 

Dana,  Richard  Henry,  American  poet  and  prose 
writer,  was  bom  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1787.  Ho 
was  educated  at  Harvard,  aud  admitted  to  the 
bar  at  Boston  in  1811.  In  1818  he  became 
associate  editor  of  the  North  American  Review,  to 
which  he  contributed  largely.  His  Dying  Raven, 
The  Btuxaneer,  and  some  others  of  his  poems 
were  warmly  praised  by  critics ;  but  Dana  s  best 
work  was  in  criticism.  He  died  at  Boston, 
1879. 

Dana,  Blchard  Henry,  Jr^  lawyer  and  author,  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Cambridge,  Mass., 
1815.  He  entered  Harvard  college  in  1832,  but 
suspended  his  studies  on  account  of  the  weakness 
of  his  eves  in  1834.  He  then  shipped  as  a  com- 
mon sailor  on  a  voyage  to  California,  of  which  he 
wrote  a  narrative  entitled  Tuk>  Years  Before  the 
Mast.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard,  1837. 
studied  law  under  Judge  Story,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1840;  published  The  Seaman'* 
Friend  J  Containing  a  Treatise  on  Practical  Sea- 
manship, and  International  Law.  He  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  free  soil  party  in  1848. 
In  1806-67  he  was  lecturer  on  international  law 
in  Harvard  university  law  school.  Died  in 
Rome,  Italy,  1882. 

Dandolo  {d&n'-d646),  Enrico,  doge  of  Venice,  was 
bom  about  1105  or  1108  A.  D.  Eminent  in 
learning,  eloquence,  and  knowledge  of  affairs,  he 
ascended  from  one  step  to  another,  until  in  1171 
he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Constantinople, 
and  in  1192  was  elected  doge.  In  this  latter 
capacity  he  extended  the  bounds  of  the  republic 
in  Istria  and  Dalmatia,  defeated  the  Pisans,  and 
in  1201  marched  at  the  head  of  the  crusaders. 
He  subdued  Trieste  and  Zara,  the  coasts  of 
Albania,  the  Ionian  islands,  and  Constantinople. 
When  the  emperor  Alexius,  who  had  been  raised 
to  the  throne  by  the  exertions  of  Dandolo,  was 
murdered  by  his  own  subjects,  Dandolo  laid 
siege  to  Constantinople,  and  took  it  by  storm. 
1204.  He  died  in  1205  in  Constantinople,  ana 
was  buried  in  the  church  of  St.  Sophia. 

Dane  {dan),  Nathan,  American  lawyer,  was  bom 
in  Massachusetts,  1752.  He  served  in  the  conti- 
nental congress,  1785-88;  framed  the  ordinance 
for  the  Northwest  territory,  in  which  he  pro- 
hibited slavery,  and  was  United  States  senator, 
1794-98.  By  a  gift  of  $15,000  he  founded  at 
Harvard  the  Dane  professorship  of  law.  Died 
at  Beverly,  Mass.,  1835. 

Daniel,  John  Warwick,  lawyer.  United  States 
senator,  was  born  in  LjTichburg,  Va.,  1842; 
educated  at  Lynchburg  college  and  Dr.  Gessner 
Harrison's  university  school;  LL.  D.,  Washing- 
ton and  Lee,  1883,  university  of  Michigan,  1887. 
He  served  in  Confederate  States  army  of  north- 
em  Virginia  throughout  war,  and  was  wounded 
four  times;  became  adjutant-general  on  General 
Early's  staff;  studied  law,  university  of  Vir- 
ginia, 1865-66;  admitted  to  bar,  1866.  Member 
of  Virginia  house  of  delegates,  1809-72 ;  of  state 
senate,  1875-81;  defeated  for  governor  of  Vir- 
ginia, 1881;  member  of  congress,  1885-87; 
United  States  senator,  1887-1910.  Author: 
Attachments  Under  the  Code  of  Virginia,  Ne- 
gotiable Instruments,  etc.     Died,  1910. 

Dannecker  (dan'-ik-ir),  Johann  Helnrich  von, 
German  sculptor,  was  bom  near  Stuttgart,  1758, 
and  educated  by  the  duke  of  Wiirttemberg,  who 
had  become  his  patron;  became  professor  of 
sculpture  in  the  academy  at  Stuttgart;  his 
earher  subjects  were  from  the  Greek  ms^hology, 
and  his  later  Christian,  the  principal  of  the 
latter  being  a  colossal  "Christ,     which  he  took 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


645 


eight  years  to  complete;  he  executed  besides 
busts  of  contemporaries,  which  are  wonderful  in 
expression,  such  as  those  of  Schiller,  Lavater, 
and  Gluck;  "Ariadne  on  the  Panther"  is 
regarded  as  his  masterpiece.     Died,  1841. 

D'Annunzlo  (dan-TMJ5n'-<izg-o),  Gabrlele,  Italian 
poet,  novelist,  and  dramatist;  bom  in  Pescara, 
1864;  educated  at  college  of  Prato  in  Tuscany, 
and  university  of  Rome;  studied  law  in  Pisa, 
but  in  1885  took  up  literature;  member  of 
Italian  'chamber  of  deputies,  1898.  Author: 
The  Child  of  Pleasure;  The  Virgins  of  the  Rocks; 
The  Triumph  of  Death;  The  Dead  City;  The 
Flame  of  Life;  Francesca  da  Rimini,  a  five-act 
tragedy,  and  many  other  novels  and  dramas. 

Dante  AUghlerl.     See  page  32. 

Danton  {daa'-tdN'),  Georges  Jacques,  French  revo- 
lutionist, was  born  at  Arcis-sur-Aube,  France, 
1759.  He  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  actors 
in  the  first  French  revolution,  and  one  of  its 
most  famous  orators.  As  a  member  of  the 
national  convention,  he  used  all  his  influence  to 
hasten  the  execution  of  the  king;  and  subse- 
quently, as  the  president  of  the  committee  of  pub- 
he  safety,  he  united  with  the  other  revolution- 
ary leaders  to  establish  that  fatal  tribunal  under 
whose  authority  so  many  sanguinary  judicial 
murders  were  conunitted.  He  quarrelea,  how- 
ever, with  Robespierre,  by  whom  he  was  sup- 
planted; and,  by  that  very  tribunal  which  he 
himself  had  established,  he  was  condemned  and 
guillotined  in  1794. 

D'Arblay  {dar'-bld'),  Frances  Bumey,  English 
novelist;  bom  at  Lynn  Regis,  England,  1752, 
was  the  third  child,  of  Dr.  Charles  Bumey. 
From  the  age  of  eighteen  to  twenty-six  she 
worked  at  Evelina,  which  appeared  anonymously 
in  1778,  and  won  her  fame,  and  the  admiration 
and  friendship  of  Dr.  Johnson.  Cecilia  was 
equally  successful ;  her  works  gained  her  a  posi- 
tion at  the  English  court  in  1786,  and  in  her 
Diary  she  gives  a  graphic  description  of  its 
decorous  dullness.  In  1793  she  married  General 
D'Arblay,  a  French  refugee.  Her  later  works 
are  Camilla,  The  Wanderer,  and  the  Memoirs  of 
her  father.     Died  at  Bath,  England,  1840. 

Darius  (dd-rt'-ws),  king  of  Persia,  was  bom  in 
558  B.  C,  son  of  Hystaspes;  dethroned  Smerdis 
the  usurper,  and  became  king  of  Persia  in  521, 
in  succession  to  Cambyses.  He  captured  Baby- 
lon after  a  siege  of  twenty  months,  conquered 
Thrace,  and  defeated  the  Scythians.  He  sent 
two  armies  to  Greece  to  avenge  the  destruction 
of  Sardis  by  the  Athenians,  the  first  of  which  was 
repulsed  by  the  Thracians,  and  the  second  by 
the  Athenians  at  Marathon  in  490.  He  died  in 
486  B.  C,  while  organizing  a  third  expedition. 
He  was  a  ruler  of  marked  caution,  skill,  and 
energy. 

Darius  III^  Codomannus,  the  last  mler  of  the 
Persian  empire,  336-330  B.  C.  Shortly  after 
ascending  the  throne  he  had  to  resist  the  advance 
of  the  Greeks  under  Alexander.  His  satraps 
were  defeated  at  the  river  Granicus  in  334,  and 
Darius,  having  collected  an  immense  army,  was 
himself  defeated  at  Issus,  333,  where  his  mother, 
wife,  sister,  and  other  members  of  his  family 
were  made  captive.  At  the  battle  of  Arbela, 
331,  the  Persian  army,  said  to  have  consisted  of 
more  than  1,000,000  men,  was  completely  routed. 
Darius  fled  to  Ecbatana,  where  he  collected  a 
new  force.  Alexander  pursued  him  thither,  but 
before  he  came  up  with  him  Darius  was  assassi- 
nated by  Bessus,  satrap  of  Bactria,  330  B.  C. 

Darley  (dar'-ll),  Felix  O.  C^  American  artist,  was 
bom  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1822.  Though  a 
painter  of  merit,  he  is  especially  known  for  his 
work  as  an  illustrator.  Among  his  best  known 
works  are  his  outline  drawings  for  Irving's 
Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow  and  Rip  Van  Winkle. 


He  also  illustrated  Cooper'a  and  Dickens's  novels, 
and  many  other  works.  Some  of  the  finest 
figures  and  scenes  on  the  government  bonds  and 
legal  tender  notes  were  designed  by  him.  In  1868 
he  publi.shed,  after  a  visit  to  Europe,  SkHehea 
Abroad  ttnth  Pen  and  Pencil.  He  executed  four 
large  pictures  for  Prince  Napoleon.     Died,  1888. 

Darling,  Grace,  English  heroine,  bora,  1815;  died, 
1842.  With  the  assistance  of  her  father,  who 
was  keeper  of  the  Longstone  lighthouse  on  one 
of  the  Fame  islands,  she  rescued  nine  of  the 
survivors  of  the  wreck  of  the  Forfarshire  steamer, 
September  7,  1838. 

Damley  {d6rn'4i).  Lord,  Henry  Stuart,  husband  of 
Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  the  eldest  son  of  the  earl 
of  Lennox  by  Lady  Margaret  Douglas,  was  born 
in  England,  1545,  where  also  he  was  t*ducated. 
He  was  handsome  in  appearance,  accomplished 
in  manners,  but  fatally  aestitute  of  all  moral  and 
intellectual  power.  He  is  interesting  chiefly  on 
account  of  the  position  which  he  occupied  with 
respect  to  his  wife  and  his  tragic  end  in  1567. 
He  was  father  of  James  I.  of  England. 

Darrow,  Clarence  S,,  lawyer  and  socialist,  was  bom 
in  Kinsman,  Ohio,  1857;  studied  law,  and  was 
admitted  to  bar,  1875.  Formerly  attorney  for 
Northwestern  railway.  Has  been  identified 
with  many  prominent  cases;  of  recent  years, 
notably  in  cases  against  monopolies,  including 
litigation  against  gas  trust  in  Chicago;  chief 
counsel  for  anthracite  miners  in  the  anthracite 
coal  strike  arbitration  at  Scranton  and  Phila- 
delphia, 1902-03.  Elected  to  IlUnois  legislature, 
1902.  Active  in  poHtical  campaigns  as  inde- 
pendent democrat.  Counsel  in  Debs  strike  case, 
McNamara  dynamite  case,  and  large  number  of 
labor  injunction  and  labor  conspiracy  cases  on 
side  of  labor.  Author:  Persian  Pearl,  essavs; 
Resist  Not  Evil;  Farmington;  An  Eye  for  an  Lye, 
and  various  pamphlets  on  social  and  economic 
questions. 

Darwin.     See  page  402. 

Darwin,  Erasmus,  English  poet  and  phvsician; 
born  in  Elston,  near  Newark,  England,  1731. 
He  studied  at  Cambridge,  obtained  a  degree  in 
medicine  at  Edinburgh,  in  1755,  and  settled  at 
Lichfield  as  a  physician.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
and  varied  talent,  and  although  some  of  his 
opinions  were  deemed  extravagantly  eccentric  at 
the  time,  his  ideas  have  been  appreciated  and 
utilized  by  later  writers.  His  Botanic  Garden 
was  admired  as  a  fine  specimen  of  polished  verse, 
and  his  Zodnomia,  or  The  Laws  of  Oracnic  Life, 
was  admitted  to  be  ingenious,  though  built  upon 
an  hypothesis  which  was  repudiated  as  absurd. 
He  died  in  1802. 

D'Aublgne,  Jean-Henri  Merle.  See  Merle  d*An- 
blgne. 

Daubigny  (do'-ben'-yf),  Charles  Francois,  French 
landscape  painter,  was  bom  in  Paris,  1817.  His 
paintings  nave  great  merit,  as  have  also  his 
etchings  and  designs  on  wood.  Among  his  best 
known  paintings  are  "The  Vintage";  "The 
Harvest^';  "The  Lake  of  Gylien";  '^The  Graves 
of  Villerville";  "The  Banks  of  the  Oise";  etc. 
He  was  made  chevalier  of  the  legion  of  honor, 
1857.     Died,  1878. 

Daudet  (do'-di'),  Alphonse,  French  novelist,  was 
bom  at  Nimes,  France,  1840;  was  educated  at 
the  Lyons  Lyc^e,  and.  when  only  seventeen,  set 
out  for  Paris  with  his  brother,  Ernest,  who 
became  a  journalist  and  novelist  of  some  mark, 
and  both  obtained  appointments  as  clerk  or 
private  secretary  in  the  office  of  the  Due  de 
Momy.  Alphonse's  poem  Les  Amoureuaes,  pub- 
lished in  1858,  was  followed  by  the  theatrical 
pieces  (written  partly  in  collaboration),  La 
Demiere  Idole;  UCEiUet  Blanc;  Le  Frere  Aine; 
Le  Sacrifice;  Lise  Tavemier;  and  L'Arlesienne. 
In  the  journals  appeared  some  of  his  best  work. 


646 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Lettrea  de  Mon  Moulin;  Robert  Hdmont;  Contea 
du  Lundi,  and  the  charmine  extravaganza  of 
Tartarin  de  Tarascon,  carried  further  in  Tartarin 
sur  les  Alpea,  and  Port  Tarascon.  He  died  in 
1897. 

Daun  (doun),  Leopold  Joseph,  Graf  von,  Austrian 
general,  was  born  at  Vienna,  1705;  served 
against  the  Turks  and  through  the  war  of  the 
Austrian  succession,  and  in  1754  was  made  a 
field-marshal.  In  the  seven  years'  war  he 
neutralised  the  Austrian  defeat  under  Browne 
near  Prague  by  driving  Frederick  the  Great, 
who  had  beleaguered  that  city,  to  Kolin,  and 
forcing  him  to  evacuate  Bohemia.  In  1758  he 
gained  another  victory  at  Hochkirch,  and  came 
near  to  annihilating  the  Prussian  army.  In  1759 
at  Maxen  he  forced  Fink  to  surrender  with 
11,0U0  men.  After  this,  however,  he  gained  no 
important  successes,  Frederick  having  grasped 
the  tactics  of  "the  Austrian  Fabius  Cunctator." 
Died,  1766. 

Davenport,  Homer  Calvin,  cartoonist,  was  bom  in 
Silverton,  Ore.,  1867:  he  never  attended  art 
schools,  and  had  little  school  education; 
was  iockey,  railroad  fireman,  clown  in  circus, 
and  horseman.  In  1892  was  employed  on  San 
Francisco  Examiner,  and  taken  to  New  York 
by  W.  R.  Hearst,  1895,  and  placed  on  New  York 
Journal;  originated  the  Mark  Hanna  S-mark 
suit  of  clothes  and  the  giant  figure  of  the  trusts 
in  1899;  his  work  caused  attempt  to  pass  anti- 
cartoon  bill  in  New  York,  1897.  Author: 
Davenport's  Cartoons;  The  BeU  of  Silverton,  and 
Other  Short  Stories  of  Oregon;  The  Dollar  or  the 
Mant     Died,  1912. 

David,  king  of  Israel,  was  the  son  of  Jesse,  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah;  was  bom  in  Bethlehem,  and 
flourished  in  the  eleventh  century  B.  C.  He 
watched  the  flocks  of  his  father,  when  Samuel 
the  prophet  went  to  Bethlehem  to  proclaim 
him  king  of  Israel  in  the  place  of  Saul,  who  had 
been  rejected.  War  having  broken  out  between 
the  Israelites  and  the  Philistines,  he  fought  and 
vanquished  the  giant  Goliath.  Saul  gave  him 
the  command  of  a  body  of  men,  but  having 
conceived  a  great  hatred  of  him,  David  was 
exposed  to  imminent  danger,  and  compelled  to 
seek  a  refuge  among  the  Philistines.  After  the 
death  of  Saul,  he  was  recognized  as  kin^  of 
Israel,  and  defeated  the  Philistines,  the  Moabites, 
the  Syrians,  and  the  Ammonites.  Many  acts  of 
weakness  were  committed  by  him,  but  he 
obtained  forgiveness  from  Jehovah  by  exemplary 
penitence.  He  transported  the  ark  to  Jerusalem, 
and  is  the  reputed  author  of  many  of  the  psalms. 

David,  F£llclen,  French  composer,  was  bom  at 
Cadenet,  France,  1810;  was  first  a  chorister  in 
Aix  cathedral,  then  at  twenty  entered  the  Paris  | 
conservatory.  He  became  an  ardent  disciple 
of  St.  Simon  and  of  Enfantin;  and  finally,  on 
the  break-up  of  the  brotherhood  in  1833,  betook 
himself,  witn  several  of  his  fellow-dreamers,  to 
the  East.  From  Constantinople  the  enthusiasts 
made  their  way  to  Smyrna  and  Cairo;  as  they 
had  no  means,  they  suffered  greatly  from  want, 
sickness,  and  ill-usage.  In  1835  he  returned  to 
Paris,  and  published  his  MUodies  Orientales  for 
the  pianoforte.  They  were  unsuccessful;  and 
David  remained  in  obscurity  until  his  DSsert  made 
him  known.  His  later  works  were:  Moise  sur 
le  Sinai;  Christophe  Colonibe;  La  Perle  du  Bresil; 
Hercvlaneum;  and  LaUa  Rookh.  In  1862  he  was 
made  an  officer  of  the  legion  of  honor,  and  in 
1869  librarian  to  the  Paris  conservatory.  Died, 
1876. 

David,  Jacques  Louis,  founder  of  the  modem 
French  school  of  painting,  was  bom  at  Paris, 
1748;  studied  at  Paris  and  Rome,  and  during 
the  revolution  was  artistic  superintendent  of 
those  grand  national  fStes  and  solemnities  that 


recalled  the  customs  of  ancient  Greece.  As  a 
member  of  the  convention  he  voted  for  the 
death  of  Louis  XVI.;  he  was  a  zealous  Jacobin, 
and  a  member  of  the  committee  of  public  safety, 
in  all  the  atrocities  of  which  he  sliared,  and  in 
consequence  was  twice  imprisoned  after  the  fall 
of  Robespierre.  In  1804  Napoleon  appointed 
him  his  first  painter,  and  gave  him  a  number  of 
conmiissions ;  among  his  most  celebrated  works 
are  several  historic  portraits  of  the  emperor,  such 
as  "Napoleon  Crossing  the  Alps."  As  one 
of  the  judges  of  Louis  XVI.  he  was  banished  in 
1816  from  France,  and  died  at  Brussels,  1825. 

David,  Pierre  Jean,  French  sculptor,  known  as 
David  d'An^ers,  was  born  at  Angers,  France, 
1789.  In  spite  of  the  opposition  ofhis  father,  a 
wood-carver,  he  resolved  to  become  an  artifet; 
and,  tramping  to  Paris  in  1808,  placed  himself 
under  Jacques  Louis  David,  the  painter.  In 
1811  his  relievo  of  the  "Death  of  Epaminondas " 
gained  the  grand  prix,  and  David  proceeded  to 
Rome,  where  he  became  intimate  with  Canova. 
In  1816  he  returned  to  France.  A  statue  of  the 
great  Condd  established  his  reputation;  and  in 
1826  he  was  elected  to  the  institute  and  appointed 
a  professor  in  the  school  of  the  fine  arts. 
During  the  July  revolution  David  fought  in  the 
ranks  of  the  people;  in  1835-37  he  executed  the 
pediment  of  the  Pantheon  in  Paris.  Among  his 
other  works  are  busts  of  Washington  and  Lafay- 
ette in  the  capitol  at  Washington,  a  statue  of 
Jefferson  in  New  York,  and  the  tomb  of  Marco 
Bozzaris,  at  Miaaolonghi,  Greece.  He  died  in 
Paris,  1866. 

Davids,  T.  W.  Bh7B,  English  orientalist,  professor 
of  comparative  religion,  Manchester,  since  1904, 
was  born  at  Colchester,  1843.  He  was  educated 
at  Brighton  school  and  Breslau  university; 
LL.  D.,  Ph.  D.  Entered  Ceylon  civil  service. 
1866;  barrister.  Middle  Temple,  1877;  delivered 
Hibbert  lectures,  1881.  Author:  Buddhism; 
Buddhist  Birth  Stories;  American  Ijectures; 
Sacred  Books  of  the  Buddhists;  Dialogues  of  the 
Buddha;    Buddhist  India;    Early  Buddhism;   etc. 

Davidson,  Moat  Rev.  Randall  Thomas,  archbishop 
of  Canterbury  since  1903,  was  bom  at  Edinburgh, 
1848;  graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Oxford; 
D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  D.  C.  L.  Curate  of  Dartford, 
Kent,  1874-77;  chaplain  and  private  secretary' 
to  Archbishop  Tait  of  Canterburj-,  1877-82;  to 
Archbishop  Benson,  1882-83;  examining  chap- 
lain to  Bishop  Lightfoot  of  Durham,  1881-83; 
sub-almoner  to  Queen  Victoria,  1882;  one  of  the 
six  preachers  of  Canterbury  cathedral,  1880-83; 
dean  of  Windsor  and  domestic  chaplain  to  Queen 
Victoria,  1883-91 ;  clerk  of  the  closet  to  Queen 
Victoria,  1891-1901;  to  his  majesty  the  king, 
1901-03;  trustee  of  the  British  museum  from 
1884;  bishop  of  Rochester,  1891-95;  bishop  of 
Winchester,  1895-1903.  Author:  Life  of  Arch- 
bishop Tait,  Charges,  Sermons,  etc. 

Davidson,  Samuel,  biblical  critic,  was  bom  near 
Ballymena,  Ireland,  1807,  and  educated  at  the 
royal  college,  Belfast ;  was  professor  successively 
at  Belfast  and  in  a  Congr^ationalist  college  at 
Manchester,  but,  regarded  as  too  "advanced," 
resigned  in  1857.  He  was  a  member  of  the  old 
testament  revision  committee.  His  works  in- 
clude Sacred  Hermeneutics;  Treatise  on  Biblical 
Criticism;  Introduction  to  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments  (5  vols);  Canon  of  the  Bible,  and 
Doctrine  of  Last  Things.     He  died,  1898. 

Davis,  Henry  Gassaway,  capitalist,  was  bom  in 
Baltimore,  Md.,  1823;  educated  at  county 
schools;  became  superintendent  of  a  plantation, 
then  brakeman,  conductor,  and  later  agent  at 
Piedmont,  W.  Va.,  of  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio 
railroad;  later  merchant  and  a  leading  collier; 
projected  and  carried  on  to  success  the  West 
Virginia    Central   &   Pittsburgh    railway,   which 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


M7 


was  sold  to  the  Wabash,  1902;  then  built  the 
Coal  &  Coke  railway  of  West  Virginia,  of  200 
miles,  of  which  he  is  president;  also  preB- 
ident  of  Davis  Trust  company  of  Elkins,  etc.; 
member  of  house  of  delegates,  West  Virginia, 
1865;  state  senator,  1868-71;  United  States 
senator,  1871-83,  declining  reelection;  one  of 
American  delegates  to  Pan-Axnerican  congress; 
is  member  of  United  States  intercontinental 
railway  commission;  was  candidate  of  demo- 
cratic party  for  vice-president,  1904. 

Davis,  Henry  Winter,  American  lawyer,  legislator, 
and  orator,  was  born  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  in  1817. 
He  graduated  at  Kenyon  college,  Ohio,  in  1837, 
and  from  the  law  department  of  the  university 
of  Virginia;  practiced  law  in  Virginia,  and 
latterly  in  Baltimore.  He  was  a  member  of 
congress,  from  Maryland,  1855-61  and  1863-65. 
He  was  an  eloquent  speaker,  and  acted  with 
the  "American"  party.  Soon  after  the  civil 
war  began  he  became  a  radical  republican,  and 
in  1860  was  offered  the  nomination  for  the  vice- 
presidency,  but  refused  the  honor.  He  strenu- 
ously advocated  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves 
and  the  extension  to  them  of  the  rights  of  suf- 
frage. Was  chainnan  of  the  committee  of 
foreign  affairs  in  the  thirty-eighth  congress, 
1863-65.    He  died  at  Baltimore  in  1865. 

Davis,  Jefferson,  American  statesman  and  soldier, 
was  born  in  Kentucky,  1808;  was  graduated 
from  West  Point,  1828;  first  made  himself  con- 
spicuous as  a  member  of  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives, and  afterward  of  the  United  States 
senate,  in  which  he  represented  the  state  of 
Mississippi.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
Mexican  war  he  left  congress,  engaged  actively 
in  the  contest,  and  soon  acquired  distinction. 
When  Pierce  was  elected  president  in  1853, 
Davis  was  appointed  secretary  of  war;  at  this 
period  he  exercised  a  powerful  influence  in  the 
administration  —  ruling,  in  fact,  the  president 
as  well  as  the  greater  number  of  the  members  of 
the  cabinet.  When  Buchanan  became  president, 
he  left  the  cabinet,  but  was  returned  to  the 
senate  by  the  legislature  of  Mississippi,  which 
position  he  retained  until  the  secession  of  his 
state.  In  February,  1861,  Davis  was  chosen 
president  of  the  Confederate  States,  and  reelected 
for  six  years  in  1862.  The  manner  in  which  the 
new  constitution  was  drawn  up  by  Davis,  his 
military  skill,  administrative  capacity,  and 
unwearied  activity  very  fully  justified  the  choice ; 
and  his  disinterestedness  endeared  him  to  the 
South.  After  the  fall  of  Richmond,  in  1865,  he 
was  captured  when  endeavoring  to  escape,  and 
was  imprisoned  in  Fortress  Monroe  for  two 
years.  He  was  released  on  bail  in  1867,  and 
finallv  set  at  liberty  by  the  general  amnesty 
of  1868.  Published  The  Rise  and  Fall  of  the 
Confederate  Government,  1881.  Died  at  New 
Orleans,  1889. 

Davis,  Jefferson,  lawyer.  United  States  senator, 
was  bom  in  Little  River  county,  Arkansas,  1862 ; 
graduated  from  the  law  department  of  Vanderbilt 
university,  1884;  admitted  to  bar  the  same  year. 
He  was  elected  prosecuting  attorney  of  the  fifth 
judicial  district  of  Arkansas  in  1892,  and  reelected 
in  1894;  elected  attorney-general  of  the  state  in 
1898;  governor  of  Arkansas  in  1901,  reelected 
in  1903,  and  1905;  delegate  at  large  to  the 
democratic  national  convention  in  1904;  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  senate,  1907,  for 
the  term  1907-13.    Died,  1913. 

Davis,  John,  English  navigator,  was  bom  at  Sand- 
ridge,  near  Dartmouth,  about  1550,  and  under- 
took in  1585-87  three  Arctic  voyages  in  search 
of  a  northwest  passage.  In  the  last  voyage  he 
sailed  with  a  barque  of  apparently  not  over 
twenty  tons  as  far  as  73  degrees  N.  lat.,  and 
discovered   Davis  strait.      He   next   made   two 


!ll-fat«d  voyacM  toward  the  South  mm  and 
as  pilot  of  a  Dutch  venel  to  the  Eaat  Indiaa. 
In  his  last  voyage  as  pilot  of  an  English  ship  ha 
was  killed  by  Japaneae  pirates  in  the  strait  of 
Malacca,  1605. 

Davis,  Richard  Hardlns,  novelist,  journalist,  waa 
born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1864.  He  graduated 
from  Lehigh  university,  subaequentlv  Mtiuliod 
at  Johns  Hopkins,  and  began  his  jouniulistio 
career  on  Philadelphia  papers.  He  served  as 
war  correspondent  for  the  London  Timet  and 
New  York  Herald  in  Turkish-Greek,  Spanish- 
American,  South  African,  and  Russian-JapaneM 
wars.  Author:  Soldiers  of  Fortune;  Oxw  Engliak 
Cousins;  Van  Bibber  and  Others;  The  RuUrt  of 
the  Mediterranean;  Three  Gringos  in  Venesuala; 
Cuba  in  War  Time;  A  Year  From  a  Correspond' 
erU's  Note-Book;  Cuban  and  Porto  Rican  Cam- 
paigns; Cinderella  and  Other  Stories;  Dr.  Jame- 
son 8  Raiders;  Exiles;  The  Kin^s  Jackal;  The 
Lion  and  the  Unicom;  The  West  From  a  Car  Win- 
dow; Episodes  in  Van  Bibber's  Life;  With  Both 
Armies  in  South  Africa;  In  the  Fog;  R^neon's 
FoUy;  Captain  Macklin;  The  Bar  Sinister;  The 
Man  Who  Could  Not  Lose,  etc.  Plays:  Taming 
of  Helen;  Ranson's  Folly;  The  Dictator;  T/te 
Yankee  Tourist;  Blackmail;  etc. 

Davis,  WUIiam  Morris,  geographer,  geologist,  pro- 
fessor of  geology,  Harvard  university,  since  1899 : 
was  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1850;  graduated 
from  Lawrence  scientific  school,  Harvard,  1869, 
M.  E.,  1870;  Sc.  D.,  university  of  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  1905;  Ph.  D.,  university  of  Greifswald, 
1906.  Assistant  Argentine  national  observa- 
tory, Cordoba,  Argentina,  1870-73;  assistant, 
1876-77,  instructor,  1878-85,  assistant  professor, 
1885-90,  professor  of  physical  geography,  1890-99, 
Sturgis-Hooper  professor  of  geology,  since  1899. 
Harvard;  acting  dean  of  Harvard  gra«luate  school 
of  arts  and  sciences,  1906-07;  member  of  Pumpel- 
ly's  Carnegie  institution  expedition  to  Turkestan, 
1903;  visited  South  Africa,  1905.  Member  of 
national  academy  of  sciences  since  1904. 
Author:  Elementary  Meteorology;  Physical  Geog- 
raphy; The  Triassic  Formation  of  Connecticut, 
and  munerous  .scientific  essays.  Associate  editor 
of  Science,  American  Naturalist,  and  American 
Journal  of  Science. 

Davitt  (ddtZ-U),  Michael,  Irish  journalist  and 
political  leader,  was  bom  at  Straid,  Ireland,  in 
1846.  The  family  emigrated  to  Haslin^den  in 
Lancashire,  England,  1851 ;  and  here  in  1857 
the  boy  lost  his  right  arm  through  a  machinery 
accident  in  a  cotton-factory.  In  1866  he  joined 
the  Fenian  movement,  and  was  sentencied  in 
1870  to  fifteen  years'  penal  servitude.  He  was 
released  in  1877 ;  and,  supplied  with  funds  from 
the  United  States,  began  an  anti-landlord 
crusade  which  culminated  in  the  Irish  land 
league,  1879.  Davitt  was  thenceforward  in 
frequent  collision  with  the  government,  and 
from  Febmary,  1881,  to  May,  1882,  was  impris- 
oned. His  Leaves  From  a  Prison  Diary  was 
published  in  1885.  A  strong  home  ruler,  but 
socialistic  on  the  question  of  land  nationaliza- 
tion, after  the  spht  in  the  party  he  opposed 
ParneU,  and  was  elected  to  parUament  in  1892 
as  an  anti-Pamellite,  but  unseated  on  the  ground 
of  intimidation.  In  1895  he  was  returned 
unopposed  bv  South  Mayo,  but  resigned  in  1899. 
He  died  in  1906. 

Davout  (dd'-r<»').  l«oul8  Nicolas,  French  marshal, 
was  bom  in  1770,  at  Annoux,  France;  was 
educated  with  Bonaparte  at  the  military  school 
of  Brienne.  As  general  he  accompanied  Bona- 
parte to  the  East,  and  mainly  secured  the  victory 
at  Aboukir.  A  marshal  of  the  empire,  1804,  he 
acted  a  brilUant  part  at  Austerlitz,  1805,  and 
Auerstadt,  and  was  made  duke  of  Auerstadt. 
1808.     At  Eckmiihl  and  at  Wagram  be  checked 


648 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


the  Austrian  attack,   and  in   1811  waH  created  | 
prince  of  Eckmiihl;   became  governor  of  Poland, 
and  ruled  that  country  with  the  harBhent  dc»-  i 
potism;    in   the  Russian  campaign   of    1812   he 
gathered  fresh  laurels  on  the  fields  of  Mohilev 
and  Vitebsk.     After  the  retreat  from  Moscow  he 
became  governor-general   of   the   Hanse   towns.  [ 
On   Honaparte's  return  from   Elba  he  was  ap-  | 
pointed   war  minister;     and   after  Waterloo  he  j 
received   the  command   of   the   remnant   of   the  ' 
French  army  under  the  walls  of  Paris.     In  1819  ! 
he  was  made  a  p>eer   of   France.     Ue   died  in 
1823. 

Davy,  Hit  Humphry,  noted  English  chemist,  was 
born  at  Penzance,  in  Cornwall,  1778.  He  wa* 
educated  at  various  local  schools  and,  17U8,  was 
made  laboratory  assistant  in  Beddwu  institution 
at  Bristol.  Two  papers  on  nitrous  oxide  obtained 
for  him  the  post  of  assistant  lecturer  on  chemistry 
to  the  royal  institution,  Lon<lon,  and  in  a  few 
weeks  he  was  raised  to  the  chief  lectureship.  In 
18U3  he  became  a  fellow  and  in  1807  secretary 
of  the  royal  societv-  His  Bakerian  lecture  in 
1806  gained  him  the  3,000-franc  prise  of  the 
French  institute.  In  1815  he  invented  the 
miner's  safety  lamp.  He  was  knighted  in  1812, 
made  a  baronet  and  elected  a  prenident  of  the 
royal  society  in  1K20.  Failing  health  com|>elled 
him  to  leave  England,  and  he  died  at  (ieneva  in 
1820,  of  paralvHis.  Hih  chief  works  are  ElcmentM 
of  Chemical  Philosophy,  and  EletnerUx  of  Agri- 
cultural  CherniHtry. 

Dawson,  George  Mercer,  Canadian  geologist,  was 
born  at  Pictou,  Nova  Scotia,  1849.  He  was 
educated  at  McGill  univerttity,  Montreal,  and  at 
the  royal  school  of  mines,  I^ondon.  In  1875 
he  was  appointed  to  the  geological  survey  of 
Canada,  and  carried  on  explorationn  in  the 
Canadian  Northwest,  British  Columbia,  and  the 
Yukon  region.  In  1891  he  wan  appointed  one 
of  the  Bering  sea  commissioners,  and  in  the 
same  year  was  awarded  the  Bigsby  medal  of  the 
geological  society  <)f  London  for  his  researches 
m  geology  of  the  Ciinadian  Dominion.  In  1893 
he  became  president  of  the  royal  society  of 
Canada,  and  was  made  a  companion  of  the  order 
of  St.  Michael  and  St.  George.  The  results  of 
his  investigations  are  publishe^l  in  reports  of  the 
geological  survey  of  Cana<la,  and  contain  the 
first  detailed  account  of  the  surface  geology  and 
glacial  phenomena  of  the  northern  part  of  the 
American  continent  west  of  the  lakes.  Died  at 
Ottawa,  1901. 

Dawson,  Sir  John  William,  Canadian  geologist 
and  naturalist,  was  born  at  Pictou,  Nova  Scotia, 
1820;  studied  at  Edinburgh,  and  after wanl 
devoted    himself    to    the    natural    hi.story    and 

feology  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick. 
[e  was  appointed  superintendent  of  education 
in  Nova  Scotia  in  1850;  and  from  1855  to  1893 
was  principal  of  McGill  university,  Montreal. 
In  1882  he  received  the  Lyell  niedal  of  the 
London  geological  society,  was  knighted  in 
1884;  and  in  1886  was  president  of  the  British 
association.  A  systematic  anti-Darwinian,  he 
died  in  1899.  Among  his  works  are  Archaia; 
Story  of  the  Earth  and  Man;  Dawn  of  Life; 
Origin  of  the  World;  Fossil  Men;  Egypt  and 
Syria;  The  Meeting-place  of  Geology  ana  History; 
and  Relics  of  Primeval  Life.  He  was  not  only  a 
distinguished  scientist  but  one  of  the  most  noted 
American  educators. 
Dawson,  Samuel  Edward,  president  of  royal 
society  of  Canada,  1907 ;  formerly  king's  printer  for 
Dominion  of  Canada  and  deputy  minister  of 
department  of  public  printing  and  stationery, 
Ottawa;  was  bom  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  1833. 
He  was  for  many  years  senior  member  of  Dawson 
Brothers,  publishers  and  booksellers,  of  Montreal ; 
has   been   a   constant   contributor   to   Canadian 


magazines  and  other  periodical  literature,  and 
was  president  of  board  of  arts  and  manufactures, 
Montreal.  Author:  A  Study  of  Lord  Tennyson's 
Poem  —  The  Princess;  Canada  and  Newfourui- 
land;  a  series  of  monographs  on  the  voyages  of 
the  Cabot«:  The  St.  Lawrence  Basin  and  Its 
Border  Lands. 

Day,  James  Boseoe,  clergjrman,  educator;  chan- 
cellor of  Syracuse  university  since  1894;  was  bom 
at  Whitneyville,  Maine,  1845;  graduated  at  Bow- 
doin  colU-gc,  1874,  .S.  T.  D.,  1894  ;  D.  D.,  Wesleyan. 
and  Dickinson  college;  LL.  D.,  Northwestern 
university;  D.  C.  L..  Cornell  college,  Iowa. 
Methodist  Episcopal  clercvman  in  Bath,  Port- 
land, Boston,  ana  New  Yoric.  Electe<l  bishop 
of  Methodist  Epiaoopal  ehureh,  1004,  but  declined. 
Is  a  vigorous  writer  and  speaker,  and  well  known 
publicMt. 

Day,  Mrs.  S.  A.     See  Gardener.  Helen  Ilamlltoo. 

Day,  William  Bafas,  jurist;  bom  in  Ravenna, 
Ohio,  1840;  graduate  of  university  of  Michigan, 
1870;  studied  in  law  department  of  same; 
admitted  to  Ohio  bar,  1872;  established  in 
practice  at  Canton,  Ohio;  judge  of  court  of 
common  pleas,  188&-00;  appointed,  1880,  judge 
of  United  States  district  court,  northern  district 
of  Ohio,  which  be  declined;  appointed  assistant 
secretary  of  state,  by  President  IfoKinley.  1807; 
succeeded  John  Sherman  as  secretary  oi  state, 
1808,  but  in  September,  1808,  was  succeeded  by 
John  Hay,  becoming  chairman  of  United  States 
peace  commissioners  at  Paris,  at  close  of  war 
with  Spain;  judge  of  Uidted  States  circuit 
court,  sixth  circuit,  1890-1003;  associate  justice 
of  United  States  supreme  court  since  1003. 

De4k  (dd'-dJb),  Par— »,  Hungarian  sUtesman,  who 
did  more  than  anyone  else  to  establish  in  1806 
the  Austro-Hungarian  empire,  was  bora  at 
Kehida  in  Ssalad  distriet,  1803;  practiced  as  an 
advocate,  entered  the  national  diet  in  1832, 
played  the  part  of  a  moderate  in  the  revolution 
of  1848,  and  died  at  Budapest,  1876.  By  the 
Hungarians  he  is  still  Icnown  as  "the  just." 

Deakin,  (df-Jfctn)  Boa*  Alfred,  Australian  statesman, 
prime  minister  of  commonwealth  of  Australia, 
1903-04.  10064)8.  1000-10;  bom  in  Melbourne, 
Australia,  1856;  graduated  from  Melbourne  uni- 
versity, and  became  a  barrister-at-law ;  elected  to 
the  Australian  house  of  representatives,  1879  and 
1889;  minister  of  public  works  and  water  supply, 
1883-86;  solicitor  general,  1885:  president  of 
royal  commission  on  water  supply,  1884;  chief 
secretarv,  1886-00;  senior  representative  of 
imperial  conference  in  London,  1887;  member 
of  federal  council,  1889-95-97-99;  of  national 
Australian  convention,  1891 ;  of  national  Aus- 
tralian federal  convention,  1897-98;  Australian 
delegate  from  Victoria  to  London  to  secure 
passmg  of  the  commonwealth  bill,  1900;  first 
attorney-general  of  the  commonwealth  of  Aus- 
tralia, 1901-03;  represented  Australia  imperial 
conference,  1907;  bencher  of  Gray's  Inn: 
received  freedom  of  London,  Edinburgh,  ana 
Manchester.  He  was  leader  of  the  federal  oppo- 
sition, 1910-13.  Author:  Irrigation  in  Western 
America;  Irrigation  in  Egypt  and  Italy;  Irrigated 
India;  Irrigation  in  Australia,  and  Temple  and 
Tomb. 

Deane,  Silas,  American  statesman  and  diplomat, 
was  bom  in  Connecticut,  1737;  graduated  from 
Yale,  and  was  a  member  of  the  first  continental 
congress.     In    1776    he   was    sent    to    Paris  _  as 

g}litical  and  financial  agent  of  the  colonies, 
enjamin  Franklin  and  Arthur  Lee  joined  him 
afterward,  and  he  was  on  the  committee  which 
negotiated  the  treaty  of  peace  with  France. 
He  was  recalled  in  1777  in  consequence  of 
extravagant  contracts  in  which  he  had  involved 
the  colonies.  An  account  of  his  actions  was 
demanded  on  the  floor  of  congress,  but  a  full 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


610 


explanation  was  declined  on  the  ground  that  his 
papers  were  in  Europe.  The  affair  put  him 
under  a  cloud,  and  after  manv  defensive  and 
aggressive  publications  on  the  subject,  he 
returned  to  Europe,   1784,  and  died,   1789. 

De  Armund,  David  Albaugh,  lawyer,  jurist,  con- 
gressman, waa  born  in  Ulair  county,  Pennsyl- 
vania, 1844;  educated  in  common  schools  and 
at  Williamsport  Dickinson  seminary;  settled  in 
Missouri  and  practiced  law  at  Butler;  presi- 
dential elector,  1884;  served  as  state  senator, 
circuit  judge,  and  Missouri  supreme  court  com- 
missioner. Member  of  congress,  sixth  Missouri 
district,  1891-1909.      Died,  1909. 

Debs  (dibz),  Eugene  Victor,  socialist,  writer, 
lecturer,  organizer,  was  bom  in  Terre  Haute, 
Ind.,  1855;  received  a  common  school  education, 
and  became  locomotive  fireman  on  Terre  Haute 
&  Indianapolis  railroad;  with  wholesale  grocery 
house  of  Hulman  &  Company,  1875-79;  city 
clerk  of  Terre  Haute,  1879-83;  member  of 
Indiana  legislature,  1885;  grand  secretary  and 
treasurer  of  brotherhood  of  locomotive  firemen, 
1880-93;  president  of  American  railway  union, 
1893-97:  candidate  of  social  democratic  party 
for  president,  1900.  As  president  of  American 
railway  union  he  won  a  large  strike  on  the 
Great  Northern  railway;  while  managing  the 
still  larger  strike  of  western  roads  in  1894  he 
was  charged  with  conspiracy,  but  acquitted; 
then  he  was  charged  with  violation  of  an  injunc- 
tion and  sent  to  jail  for  six  months  for  contempt 
of  court.  Candidate  of  socialist  party  for 
president  of  United  States,  1904,  1908,  and 
1912. 

Decamps  (di-ka^i'),  Alexandre  Gabriel,  French 
painter,  was  bom  at  Paris  in  1803.  and  studied 
in  a  desultory  manner  under  Pujol,  David,  and 
Ingres.  In  1824  he  was  in  Switzerland,  in 
1827-28  in  Italv  and  the  Levant.  His  "Defeat 
of  the  Cimbri,  1834,  had  a  great  success.  He 
was  made  a  chevalier  of  the  legion  of  honor  in 
1839,  and  in  1851  an  officer.  lie  died  at  Fon- 
tainebleau  from  a  hunting  accident,  1860.  His 
water-color  "Turkish  Children  Let  Out  of 
School"  in  1861  brought  34,000  francs. 

Oe  Candolle  (di  k&n'-dol'),  Augustin  Pyrame, 
Swiss  botanist,  was  bom  at  Geneva,  1778; 
studied  there  and  in  Paris.  He  first  lectured  on 
botany  in  the  CoUdge  de  France  in  1804.  Hb 
Flore  Francaiae  appeared  in  1805.  He  traversed 
France  and  Italy  in  1806-12,  investigating  their 
botany  and  agriculture,  and  in  1807  was  ap- 
pointed to  a  chair  at  Montpellier;  in  1816  he 
retired  to  Geneva,  where  a  professorship  of 
botany  was  founded  for  him.  He  died  in  1841. 
His  greatest  work  was  Regni  Vegetabilia  Systema 
Naturale. 

Decatur  (de-kd'-tUr),  Stephen,  United  States  naval 
officer,  was  born  at  Sinnspuxent,  Md.,  1779.  and 
entered  the  nav;y  in  1798.  In  1804  he  led  a 
small  party  which  burned,  in  the  harbor  of 
Tripoli,  the  American  frigate  Philadelphia  after 
its  capture  by  the  Tripwlitans.  For  this  exploit 
he  was  raised  to^the  rank  of  captain.  Having 
taken  command  of  the  frigate  United  States,  he 
captured  the  British  frigate  Macedonian,  1812. 
In  1815  he  captured  two  Algerine  vessels  of  war, 
and  compelled  the  dejr  of  Algiers  to  sue  for 
peace.  He  was  killed  m  a  duel  by  Commodore 
James  Barron,  1820. 

DefTand  (di'-fas'),  Marie  de  Vichy-Chamrond, 
Marquise  du,  Parisian  literary  leader,  wa.s  bom 
at  the  ChMeau  de  Chamrond,  France,  1697,  was 
educated  in  a  Paris  convent,  and  as  a  girl  became 
famous  for  her  wit,  audacity,  and  beauty.  In 
1718  she  married  the  Marquis  du  Deffand,  but 
they  soon  separated ;  and  for  a  number  of  years 
she  led  a  lite  of  gallantry  and  became  a  con- 
spicuous figure   in   Paris   literary   society.     She 


was  a  correspondent  of  Voltaire,  Montesquieu, 
D'Alembert,  Horace  Walpolc,  and  other  cele- 
brated men  of  her  time.  She  became  blind  in 
1753,  but  still  retained  her  relish  for  soeisty. 
Died  in  Paris,  1780. 

De  Foe  {di  /d'\  Daniel,  Enslish  novelist  and 
pohtical  writer,  was  bom  in  London,  1601.  He 
began  his  career  as  author  in  1682,  by  publi«hing 
a  pamphlet  which  contained  strictures  upon  the 
clergy  of  that  day.  This  was  followed  in  1683 
by  another  pamphlet  entitled  A  Treatise  Againat 
the  Turks.  In  1685  he  Uxjk  part  in  the  rebellion 
of  the  duke  of  Monmouth,  out  luckily  escaped 
being  punished  on  its  suppression.  After  this 
he  engaged  in  trade,  but  a  series  of  misfortunes 
finallv  led  him  to  forsake  it.  In  1701  he  pub- 
lished his  famous  satirical  poem.  The  Tnuiom 
Englishman,  which  was  written  in  vindication  of 
King  William,  and  in  answer  to  a  poem  in  which 
he  had  been  attacke<l,  called  The  Foreigner:  In 
1719  appeared  the  famous  Robinaon  Crtuoe,  the 
most  popular  of  all  his  works.  De  Foe,  in  rapid 
succession,  produced  his  other  notable  works  of 
fiction,  Moll  Flanders;  Journal  of  the  Plague; 
Colonel  Jack;  Adventures  of  Roxana,  and  the 
Memoirs  of  a  Cavalier.     He  died  in  173L 

Defregger  (dd'-frfg-ir),  Frani  von,  Austrian  genre 
painter  of  deserved  popularity,  was  bom  at 
Stronach,  Tyrol,  1835.  He  studied  under  Piloty 
at  Munich  in  1867,  and  his  "  Speckbacher,"  a 
picture  of  the  Tyrolese  uprising  under  Hofer, 
Drought  him  immediate  fame.  In  1878  he  was 
made  professor  of  paintine  at  the  Munich  acad- 
emy. The  subjects  of  almost  all  his  pictures 
are  drawn  from  the  Tyrolese  peassuit-lite.  His 
chief  pictures  are  "Before  the  Dance";  "The 
Prize  Horse";  "Victors'  Return";  "Hofer 
Going  to  His  Death,"  and  a  "Madonna." 

De  Ganno  (de  gar'-mo),  Charies,  educator,  pro- 
fessor of  science  and  art  of  education,  Cornell, 
since  1898,  was  bom  in  Wisconsin,  1849;  grad- 
uated from  Illinois  state  normal  university, 
1873;  Ph.  D.,  Halle,  Germany,  1886;  assistaQt 
training  teacher,  Illinois  state  normal  univer- 
sity, 1876-83;  professor  of  modem  languages, 
same,  1886—90;  professor  of  psychology,  univer- 
sity of  Illinois,  1890-91 ;  president  of  Swarthmore 
college,  Pennsylvania,  1891-98.  Author:  Essen- 
tials of  Method;  Herbart  and  Herbartiana;  Lan- 
guage Lessons;  Interest  and  Education;  Prir^- 
eijKes  of  Secondary  Education;    etc. 

De  Kalb  {di  k&lb'),  John,  Baron,  general  in  the 
American  revolution,  was  bom  about  1721,  in 
Bavaria,  Germany.  After  studying  the  art  of  war 
in  the  French  army,  he  accompanied  Lafavette 
to  America  in  1777.  He  was  then  appointed 
a  major-general  by  congress,  served  in  tne  field 
in  New  .^rsey  and  Maryland,  and  was  second  in 
command  to  General  Gates.  He  was  killed  in 
the  battle  of  Camden,  1780. 

De  Koven  (di  kO'-ven),  Henry  Louis  Reginald, 
American  composer,  musical  editor  New  York 
World,  was  bom  in  Middletown,  Conn.,  1861 ; 
graduated  at  Oxford,  1880 ;  musical  doctor,  Racine 
college.  Studied  music,  Stuttgart,  Florence,  Paris, 
and  Vienna.  Has  served  as  musical  cntic  on 
various  New  York  publications.  His  operas  are : 
The  Begum;  Don  Quixote;  Robin  Hood;  The 
Fencing  Master;  Rob  Roij;  The  Kniekerhoekers; 
The  Tzigane;  The  Mandarin;  The  Highxcayman; 
The  Three  Dragoons;  Papa's  Wife;  Foxey  Quiller; 
Little  Duchess;  Maid  Marian;  Red  Feather;  Happy- 
land;  Student  King;  The  Snoumuin;  The  Golden 
Butterfly;  The  Beauty  Spot;  The  Wedding  Night. 
He  has  written  songs  and  various  music  for  piano 
and  orchestra.  Founder  and  conductor  of  Wash- 
ington symphony  orchestra. 

Delacroix  {dl-ld'-krwA'),  Ferdinand  Victor  Eostas* 
French  painter,  chief  of  the  romantic  scbooL 
was    t>om    near    Paris,    1799.     At    the    age   of 


660 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


eighteen  he  entered  the  atelier  of  Pierre  Gu6rin. 
In  1822  his  first  work,  "Dante  and  Virgil," 
attracted  much  attention;  his  second  picture, 
"Massacre  of  Scio,"  won  him  fame.  He  subse- 
quently painted  many  Moroccan  canvases  with 
novel  effects  of  Ught  and  costumes.  He  also 
decorated  many  public  buildings  and  churches. 
In  1857  he  was  chosen  by  the  institute  to  fill 
the  place  of  Paul  Delaroche.     He  died  in  1863. 

Delambre  {di-Um'-hr'),  Jean  Baptiste  Joseph, 
eminent  French  astronomer,  was  born  at  Amiens, 
1749,  and  studied  first  under  Delisle,  and  after- 
ward under  Lalande.  After  the  discovery  of 
the  planet  Uranus  in  1781,  he  computed  tables 
of  its  motion,  which  obtained  the  annual  prize 
of  the  academy  of  sciences;  soon  after  con- 
structed new  solar  tables,  and,  at  a  still  later 
period,  tables  of  the  motions  of  Jupiter  and 
Saturn.  He  was  appointed  by  the  French  gov- 
ernment, in  1792,  to  measure  the  arc  of  the 
meridian  between  Dunkirk  and  Barcelona, 
which  was  completed  in  1799.  In  1802  he  was 
appointed  inspector-general  of  education,  and  in 
1803  perpetual  secretary  of  the  mathematical 
section  of  the  institute.  In  1807  he  obtained 
the  chair  at  the  Collie  de  France  rendered 
vacant  by  the  death  of  Lalande,  his  master  and 
friend.  In  1814  he  was  appointed  a  member  of 
the  council  of  public  instruction.  His  most 
valuable  publication  is  the  History  of  Astronomy, 
published  in  six  volumes.  He  died  at  Paris, 
1822. 

Deland  {di-ld.nd'),  Margaretta  Wade,  nie  Campbell, 
American  writer,  was  bom  at  Allegheny,  Pa., 
1857;  educated  at  private  schools,  and  married, 
1880,  Lorin  F.  Deland,  Boston.  Author:  John 
Ward,  Preacher;  The  Old  Garden  and  Other 
Verses;  Philip  and  His  Wife;  Florida  Days; 
Sydney;  The  Story  of  a  Child;  The  Wisdom  of 
Inyols;  Mr.  Tommy  Dove  and  Other  Stories;  Old 
Chester  Tales;  Dr.  Lavendar's  People;  The 
Common  Way;  The  Awakening  of  Helena  Richie; 
An  Encore;   The  Iron  Woman. 

De  la  Bam£e  (di  la  Txi'-m6'\  Loalse  (better  known 
by  her  pen  name  "Ouida"),  English  novelist  of 
French  extraction,  was  born  at  Bury  St.  Ed- 
mund.s,  England,  in  1840.  She  began  her  career 
on  Colburn  s  New  Monthly  and  other  magazines. 
Her  first  novel,  Granville  de  Vigne,  appeared  in 
book  form  in  1863,  and  was  followed  by  numerous 
others  dealing  with  many  phases  of  European 
society.  Her  early  stories  were  extravagantly 
romantic.  Her  later  years  were  spent  in  Italy, 
where  the  scenes  of  many  of  her  novels  are  laid. 
Among  her  stories  are:  Under  Two  Flags;  Held 
in  Bondage;  Chandos;  FoUe  Farine;  In  Mar- 
emma;  The  Princess  Napraxine;  Othmar;  Moths; 
A  House  Party;  Strathmore;  Friendship;  The 
Massarenes;  Pascarel;  Two  Little  Wooden  Shoes; 
Wanda;  Tricotrin,  and  Santa  Barbara.  She 
died  in  Italy,  1908. 

Delaroche  (ds-ld'-rosh'),  Paul,  French  historical 
painter,  was  bom  at  Paris  in  1797,  died  in  1856. 
He  studied  under  Watelet  and  Gros.  Many  of 
his  subjects  are  drawn  from  English  and  French 
history,  and  they  are  usuallv  of  a  somber  char- 
acter: "The  Death  of  the  Princes  in  the  Tower  " ; 
"The  Death  of  Ladv  Jane  Grey";  "The  Death 
of  Queen  Elizabeth'';  "Joan  of  Arc";  "Napo- 
leon at  St.  Bernard";  etc.  His  most  important 
work  is  the  famous  hemicycle  coyering  the  semi- 
circular wall  of  the  hall  in  the  Ecole  des  Beaux- 
Arts,  Paris. 

Delcass£  (dSl'-kd'-sa'),  Theophile,  French  states- 
man, was  bom  in  Pamiers,  France,  1852;  edu- 
cated in  Paris,  and  began  his  career  as  a  journal- 
ist. He  was  elected  to  the  chamber  of  deputies 
in  1889,  for  Foix;  in  1893,  became  under- 
secretary for  the  colonies  under  MM.  Ribot  and 
Dupuy,    and    colonial    minister    in    the    I)upuy 


cabinet  of  1894.  He  has  always  been  a  con- 
sistent advocate  of  colonial  expansion.  When 
M.  Brisson  formed  his  ministry  in  1898,  he 
intrusted  foreign  affairs  to  M.  Delcass^,  and  it 
fell  to  his  lot  to  deal  with  the  difficult  po.sition 
at  Fashoda.  He  retained  hia  portfolio  in  M. 
Dupuy's  ministry,  after  the  defeat  of  the  Brisson 
administration.  In  1899  he  negotiated  the 
agreement  with  Great  Britain  as  to  the  Nile 
valley  and  central  Africa,  and  still  remained 
foreign  minister  when  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau 
succeeded  M.  Dupuy,  and  when  M.  Combes,  in 
1902,  succeeded  M.  Waldeck-Rousseau.  He 
brought  about  the  rapprochement  with  Italy, 
visited  England  with  the  president  in  1903,  and 
with  Lord  Lansdowne  prepared  the  Anglo-French 
agreement,  signed  in  1904.  The  difficulty  ^ith 
Germany  about  Morocco  caused  his  retirement 
in  1905. 

Delille  (dl-lil'),  Jacques,  French  poet,  was  bom  in 
Auvergne,  France,  1738.  He  was  educated  at 
the  College  de  Lisieux  in  Paris,  and  obtained  a 
professorship  in  Amiens.  His  verse  translation 
of  Virgil's  Georgics  liad  an  extraordinary  success, 
and  its  author  was  made  an  academician  in  1774. 
Let  Jardiru,  a  didactic  poem,  was  generally 
accepted  as  a  masterpiece.  The  revolution 
compelled  Delille  to  leave  France,  and  he  traveled 
in  Switzerland  and  (Germany,  and  then  in  London 
occupied  eighteen  months  in  translating  Paradise 
Lost.  After  his  return  to  PVance  in  1802  he 
produced  a  translation  of  the  /Eneid;  L'lmagina- 
tion;  Les  Trois  Regnes,  and  La  Conversation. 
Blind  in  his  old  age,  he  died  in  1813.  During 
his  life  he  was  regarded  by  his  countrymen  as 
the  greatest  French  poet  of  the  dav,  and  wa» 
even  declared  the  equal  of  V' irgil  ancf  Homer. 

DellUsch  (dd'-llch),  Franz,  German  theologian  and 
Hebraist,  was  bom  at  Leipzig.  1813;  died  there 
in  1890.  He  was  professor  of  theology  at  Rostock 
in  1846,  at  Erlangcn  in  1850,  and  at  Leipzig  in 
1867.  His  vast  learning  gave  him  a  foremost 
place  among  conservative  German  theologians, 
while  his  great  personal  influence  over  a  genera- 
tion of  Leipzig  students  and  a  long  series  of 
profoundly  learned  books  extended  a  sound 
knowledge  of  old  testament  exegesis  in  Germany, 
England,  and  America. 

De  Martens.     See  Martens,  Frederic  de. 

De*  Medici,  Catharine.     See  Catharine  de*  MedicL 

De  Blille  (de  mW),  James,  Canadian  novelist,  was 
bom  at  St.  John,  New  Brunswick,  in  1837.  He 
was  professor  of  history  and  rhetoric  in  Del- 
housie  college  for  a  number  of  years.  He  wrote 
Helena's  Household;  The  Dodge  Club;  Cord  and 
Creese;  The  Lady  of  the  Ice;  The  Cryptogram; 
The  American  Baron;  An  Open  Question;  Babe* 
in  the  Woods,  and  The  Living  Link.  Died  at 
Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  1880. 

Democritus  (de-mdk'-rUtiis),  Greek  philosopher, 
was  born  at  Abdera,  in  Thrace,  about  470  or 
460  B.  C.  He  was  by  far  the  most  learned 
thinker  of  his  age.  The  period  of  his  death  is 
uncertain.  He  fived,  however,  to  a  great  age. 
Only  a  few  fragments  of  his  numerous  physical, 
mathematical,  ethical,  and  musical  works  are 
extant.  Cicero  praised  his  style,  and  Pyrrhon 
imitated  it.  Democritus'  system  of  philosophy 
is  known  as  the  atomic  system.  Its  essence  con- 
sists in  the  attempt  to  explain  the  different 
phenomena  of  nature  —  not  hke  the  earlier  Ionic 
philosophers,  by  maintaining  that  the  original 
characteristics  of  matter  were  qualitative,  but 
that  they  were  qwirUiiative.  Died  about  357  or 
360  B.  C. 

Demosthenes  (de-mds'-the-^niz).     See  page  19. 

Deneen,  Charles  Samuel,  lawyer,  public  official, 
was  bom  in  Edwardsville,  111.,  1863;  graduated 
from  McKendree  college,  1882;  studied  law,  and 
was  admitted  to  the   Illinois  bar.     Elected  to 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


061 


nUnoIs  house  of  representatives,  1892;  served 
one  term  as  nttorncj'  for  sanitary  district  of 
Chicago,  1895-96;  state's  attorney  of  Cook 
countv.  111.,  189G-1904;  governor  of  Illinois, 
1905-13. 

Depew,  Chauncey  Mitchell,  lawyer,  railroad  execu- 
tive, ex-United  States  senator,  was  born  in  Peeks- 
kill,  N.  Y.,  1834-  was  graduated  at  Yale  college 
in  1856;  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1858;  LL.  D.,  Yale,  1887.  He  was 
appointed  United  States  minister  to  Japan,  and, 
after  holding  the  commission  a  month,  declined, 
and  began  his  career  as  a  railroad  official  and 
attorney  for  the  New  York  and  Harlem  railroad. 
He  was  made  attorney  and  director  of  the  con- 
solidated Hudson  River  and  New  York  Central 
railroads  in  1869;  general  counsel  of  the  whole 
Vanderbilt  system  in  1875;  second  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  reorganized  New  York  Central  rail- 
road in  1882,  and  president  in  1885.  He  resigned 
in  1898  to  become  chairman  of  the  consolidated 
board  of  directors  of  the  New  York  Central,  the 
Lake  Shore,  the  Michigan  Central,  and  the  New 
York,  Chicago  and  St.  Louis  railroad  companies. 
He  was  canclidate  for  the  presidential  nommation 
in  the  republican  national  convention  in  1888; 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  senate,  1899, 
and  reelected,  1905.  He  has  an  international 
reputation  as  an  orator,  is  constantly  in  request 
as  a  lecturer,  and  has  delivered  many  addresses 
of  public  importance. 

l>e  Qulncey,  Thomas,  EngUsh  essayist,  bom  in 
Manchester,  England,  in  1785.  He  was  first 
educated  at  Salford  and  at  Bath,  and  afterward 
at  Winkfield  and  the  Manchester  grammar 
school,  from  which  he  ran  away,  and  subsequently 
went  through  the  adventures  and  privations 
which  he  described,  in  1821,  in  the  Confessions 
of  an  English  Opium  Eater.  In  1803  he  entered 
Worcester  college,  Oxford,  which  he  left  without 
a  degree,  and  soon  after  became  acquainted  with 
Coleridge  and  Wordsworth,  took  a  cottage  at 
Grasmere,  and  became  a  member  of  the  famous 
"lake  school."  Here  he  remained  for  many 
years,  occasionally  visiting  London  and  Edin- 
burgh. In  1830  he  removed  his  wife  and  eight 
children  to  the  latter  place,  and  lived  there 
until  his  wife's  death,  in  1837.  He  had  acquired 
the  habit  of  taking  opium  by  using  it  to  cure  an 
attack  of  neuralgia,  and  so  greatly  did  it  grow 
upon  him  that  he  was  known  to  take  as  many  as 
12,000  drops,  equal  to  ten  wineglasses,  in  a  day. 
He  was  engaged  in  preparing  fourteen  volumes 
of  his  works  for  the  press  within  a  few  davs  of 
his  death.  Besides  the  Confessions,  the  follow- 
ing works  may  be  mentioned :  Murder  Considered 
as  One  of  tlie  Fine  Arts,  Suspiria  de  Profundis, 
The  English  Mail  Coach,  and  A  Vision  of  Sudden 
Death.  '  Died,  1859. 

Derby,  Edward  George  Geoffrey  Smith-Stanley, 
fourteenth  Earl  of,  British  statesman,  was 
born  in  1799.  He  entered  parliament  in  1821, 
and  in  1827-28  was  under-secretary  for  the 
colonies.  In  the  reform  government  of  Lord 
Grey  he  became  in  1830  chief  secretary  for 
Ireland,  with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet,  and  in  1833 
secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies.  In  1841  he 
became  colonial  secretary  in  Peel's  cabinet.  In 
1844  he  was  called  to  the  house  of  lords  as 
Baron  Stanley  of  Bickerstaffe,  and  assumed  the 
leadership  of  the  conservative  party  in  that  body. 
He  left  the  cabinet  in  1845  and  became  the 
leader  of  the  protectionist  opposition.  During 
the  six  years  of  Lord  Russell's  premiership,  Lord 
Stanley  was  the  leader  of  the  opposition  in  the 
upper  house.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  in 
1851,  he  succeeded  to  the  earldom  and  the  vast 
estates  in  England  and  Ireland.  He  declined  the 
premiership  in  1845  and  in  1851,  but  accepted 
.  it  in  1852,  and  resigned  it  the  same  year.     In 


1858  he  became  first  lord  of  the  treasury. 
Being  defeated  on  a  meaflure  of  parliumentary 
reform,  he  diaaolved  parliament;  but  after  the 
assembling  of  the  new  house  of  commoni,  he 
was  forced  to  resign  in  1850.  He  became  prime 
minister  a  third  time  in  1806,  and  rwlgned  in 
1868.  In  1804  he  published  a  translation  of  the 
Iliad  in  blank  verse.     Died,  1869. 

De  Bestke  (da  riah'-ki),  j^douard,  Polish  singer, 
born  in  Warsaw,  Poland,  1850;  studied  under 
CiafTei  and  Colctti,  at  Milan  and  Naples,  where 
he  developed  a  splendid  baas  voice;  made  his 
d6but,  Th6Atre  dea  Italiens,  Paris,  as  the  king 
in  A'ida,  1876;  later,  sang  at  Turin,  Milan,  and 
other  European  cities;  London  d^'-but  as  Indra 
with  Royal  Italian  opera,  1880,  reipaining  there 
four  seasons.  Has  smce  then  appeared  in  grand 
opera  in  Europe  and  United  States,  taking  oasso 
rdles. 

De  Bescke,  Jean,  Polish  tenor,  brother  of  ^ouard, 
was  bom  in  Warsaw,  Poland,  1853 ;  studied 
music  under  CiafTei,  Cotogni,  and  Sbriglia;  d£but 
as  baritone  singer  in  La  Favorita,  Venice,  1874 ; 
tenor  ddbut,  Madrid,  1879.  He  made  his  d^but 
in  Paris,  1885,  and  has  appeared  in  leading  rAles 
in  grand  opera  in  Europe  and  United  States. 

De  Buyter.     See  Buyter. 

Derzhaven  (dySr-zhu'-ven),  Gabriel,  a  Russian  lyrie 
poet  and  statesman,  was  born  at  Kasan,  1743. 
He  rose  from  the  ranks  as  a  common  soldier  to 
high  offices  in  the  state  under  the  empress 
Catharine  II.,  and  was  made  minister  of  justice 
by  Alexander  I.  In  1803  he  retired  to  private 
life,  and  gave  himself  up  to  poetry;  the  ode  by 
which  he  is  best  known  is  his  Address  to  ttU 
Deity.     Died,  1816. 

Descartes  (dd'-kdrf),  Ben6.     See  page  285. 

Desmoullns  (dd'-Tnd!)'4&t('),  Benedict  Camllle, 
French  revolutionist,  was  born  at  Guise,  France, 
in  1760;  studied  with  the  notorious  Robespierre, 
and  was  a  man  of  great  talent.  In  1789  he  was 
much  admired  as  an  orator,  and  harangued  on 
all  occasions  in  favor  of  liberty.  He  was  a 
deputy  to  the  convention  in  1792,  but  his  com- 
panions eventually  sent  him  to  the  scaffold. 
He  perished  by  the  guillotine  in  1794. 

De  Soto  (de  so'-td),  Hernando,  Spanish  explorer, 
bom  about  1500,  followed  the  path  of  Cortez 
and  Pizarro,  under  the  latter  of  whom  he  served 
in  Peru.  About  1536  he  was  made  governor  of 
Cuba,  and  in  1539  explored  and  took  possession 
of  the  territory  now  comprising  the  present 
Florida.  In  the  same  year  he  conducted  an 
expedition  from  Florida,  which  resulted  in  the 
discovery  of  the  Mississippi.  Died  of  fever  in 
Louisiana  about  1542. 

Dessallnes  {d&'sd'-lin'),  Jean  Jacques,  Haytien 
ruler,  was  bom  in  Africa  about  1758,  and  was 
originally  a  slave  to  a  free  black  in  Santo  Domingo. 
When  the  disturbances  first  besan  in  that  colony 
during  the  French  revolution,  ne  took  an  active 
part.  He  became  second  in  command  to 
Toussaint  I'Ouverture,  and.  after  the  imprison- 
ment of  that  chief,  he  displayed  so  much  talent 
and  courage  that  in  1804  he  was  chosen  emperor 
of  Hayti,  under  the  title  of  Jacques  I.  He  did 
not  long  hold  his  new  dignity,  but  fell  the  victim 
of  a  conspiracy  in  1806. 

De  StaSl,  Mme.     See  StaCl. 

D'Estaing.     See  Estalng. 

Detallle  (di-td'-y'),  Edouard  Jean  Baptiste,  French 
painter,  was  bom  in  Paris  in  1848.  His  pictures 
are  chiefiv  of  soldiers  and  battle-scenes,  and  have 
gained  him  much  fame.  Among  them  are  "En 
Reconnaissance";  "Le  Regiment  qui  Passe"; 
"Salut  aux  Blesses";  "Le  Reve";  "Sortie  de 
la  Garrison  de  Huningue  en  1815";  "Les 
Victimes  du  Devoir";  "En  Batterie";  portraits 
of  prince  of  Wales,  duke  of  Connaught,  and 
emperor  of  Russia;    "La  Revue  de  Chalons"; 


682 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


"Grandes  Decorations  pour  I'HAtel  de  Ville  de 
Paris  " ;  etc.  He  was  a  member  of  the  French 
institute,  member  of  the  Academie  des  Beaux 
Arts,  etc.     Died,  1912. 

De  Tocqueville.     See  Tocqueville. 

De  Vere  (de  ver'),  Aubrey  Thomas,  Irish  poet  and 
political  writer,  was  born  in  1814.  He  first 
published,  in  1842,  The  Waldenaea.  In  1872  he 
produced  the  Legends  of  St.  Patrick;  in  1879, 
Legends  of  the  Saxon  Saints,  and  in  1882,  The 
Foray  of  Queen  Meave,  and  Other  Legends  of 
Ireland's  Heroic  Age.     He  died  in  1902. 

De  Vlgny.     See  Xigay. 

Devine  {di-vln'),  Edward  Thomas,  sociologist, 
educator,  was  born  in  Union,  Iowa,  1867; 
graduated,,  Cornell  college,  Iowa,  1887;  Ph.  D., 
university  of  Penn..  1893;  LL.  D.,  Cornell  col- 
lege. 1904.  General  secretary  of  charity  organ- 
ization society.  New  York,  since  1896.  Eaitor 
of  the  Survey  since  1897;  Schiff  professor 
of  social  economy,  Columbia  university,  since 
1906.  Special  representative  of  American  na- 
tional red  cross  in  charge  of  relief  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, 1906;  member  of  many  educational  and 
humane  bodies.  Author :  Economics;  The  Prac- 
tice of  Charity;  T" he  Principles  of  Relief  ;  Efficiency 
and  Relief,  and  fre<}uent  contributor  to  economic 
journals  of  articles  on  sociological  subjects. 

De  Vtnne  (di  vin'-i),  Theodore  Low,  printer,  and 
writer  on  the  printer's  art,  was  bom  at  Stamford, 
Conn.,  1828;  learned  printer's  trade;  was  an 
employee  and  later  partner  of  Francis  Hart,  of 
New  York,  and  after  the  lattcr's  death,  firm 
became  Theodore  L.  De  Vinne  &  Co.  He  has 
been  a  leader  in  the  improvement  of  typography, 
and  received  an  honorary  M.  A.  from  Both 
Columbia  and  Yale  universities.  Author :  Inven- 
tion of  Printing;  Historic  Types;  Christopher 
Planlin;  Plain  Printing  Types;  Correct  Compo- 
sition;   Title  Pages;    Book  Composition;    etc. 

Dewar  {dii'-6r).  Sir  James,  British  scientist,  Ful- 
lerian  professor  of  ciiemistr^,  royal  institution, 
Loudon;  was  bom  in  Kincaruine,  Scotland, 
1842;  educated  at  Dollar  academy  and  Edin- 
burgh university;  M.  A.  and  hon.  LL.  D..  Glas- 
gow, St.  Andrews,  Aberdeen,  and  Edinbiiivh; 
D.  Sc,  Oxford.  Victoria,  and  Dublin.  With 
Sir  Frederick  Abel  he  invented  cordite,  and 
he  has  distinguished  himself  by  his  researches 
into  the  properties  of  matter  at  low  temperatures, 
and  into  the  nature  and  properties  of  atmos- 
pheric air.  He  was  the  first  to  liquefy  and 
solidify  hydrogen.  Received  French  academy's 
Lavoisier  gold  medal,  in  1894,  and  Matteucci 
medal  of  Italian  society  of  science  in  1906; 
elected  foreign  member  of  nationstl  academy  of 
sciences,  Washington,  in  1907,  and  correspond- 
ing member  of  academy  of  sciences  in  1907. 
Knighted,  1904.  Author  of  numerous  papers 
contributed  to  the  proceedings  of  the  royal 
societies  of  London  and  Exiinburgh,  the  royal 
institution,  the  British  association,  the  chemical 
society,  etc. 

De  Wet  (dg  v^).  Christian  Kudolf,  Boer  general, 
was  bom  in  1853.  He  had  acquired  fame  as  a 
hunter  before  he  became  conspicuous  in  the 
Transvaal  war  of  1880-81 ;  and  in  the  Boer  war 
of  1899-1902  he  was  of  all  the  Boer  commanders 
the  most  audacious,  swift  in  movement,  and 
fertile  in  expedients.  After  the  submission  he 
went  to  Europe  as  a  commissioner  to  raise  money 
for  the  distressed  Boer  families. 

De  Wette  (dd  vif-i),  WUhelm  Martin  Leberecht, 
German  biblical  critic,  born  at  Ulla,  near  Weimar, 
1780.  He  studied  from  1799  at  Jena,  and  became 
professor  at  Heidelberg  in  1807,  in  1810  at 
Berlin,  and  in  1822  at  Basel,  Switrerlsmd,  where 
he  died,  1849.  His  reputation  rests  on  his 
Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament,  translated  by 
Theodore  Parker,   1850,  his  Manual  of  Hebrew 


Archaology,    and    his    Introduction    to    the    New 
Testament. 

Dewey,  George,  admiral  in  United  States  navy; 
born  in  Montpelier,  Vt.,  1837;  appointed  to 
naval  academy,  September  23,  1854;  graduated 
in  1858,  as  passed  midshipman;  LL.  D.,  univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania,  Princeton  university,  1898. 
Attached  to  steam  frigate  Wabash,  Mediterranean 
squadron,  until  1861 ;  then  to  steam  sloop 
Mississippi  of  west  gulf  squadron;  commis- 
sioned heutenant,  April  19,  1861;  in  Farragut's 
squadron  which  forced  the  passage  of  Fort  St. 
Pnilip  and  Fort  Jackson,  April,  1862,  and  par- 
ticipated in  the  attack  on  Fort  St.  Philip  and  the 
subsequent  fights  with  gunboats  and  ironclads, 
which  gave  Farragut  possession  of  New  Orleans. 
In  the  smoke  of  trie  battle  of  Port  Hudson,  the 
Mississippi  lost  her  bearings  and  ran  ashore 
under  tne  guns  of  the  land  batteries,  and  the 
officers  and  men  took  to  the  boats  after  setting 
the  vessel  on  fire.  Was  afterward  on  severu 
vessels  in  North  Atlantic  blockading  squadron, 
then  in  European  squadron,  and  later  on  various 
duties  and  at  different  stations,  being  promoted 
to  commander,  1872;  captain,  1884 ;  conunodore, 
1896.  In  January,  1898,  assumed  command  of 
Asiatic  squadron.  On  May  1,  1898,  in  Manila 
bay,  he  commanded  in  the  greatest  naval  battle 
since  Trafalgar,  completelv  annihilating  the 
Spanish  Asiatic  squadron  under  Admiral  Montojo, 
destroying  eleven  and  capturing  all  other  vessels 
and  aU  the  land  batteries,  without  the  loss  of  a 
man  on  the  American  side.  Immediately  upon 
receipt  of  official  news  of  victorv  he  was  pro- 
moted to  rear-admiral,  and  thanked  by  resolu- 
tion of  congress;  member  of  United  States 
Philippine  commission,  1899;  promoted  to 
admiral,  1899. 

Dewey,  John,  educator,  professor  of  philosophy, 
Columbia  university,  since  1904 ;  was  bom  at 
BurUngton,  Vt.,  1859;  graduated,  university  of 
Vermont.  1879;  Ph.  D.,  Johns  Hopkins,  1884. 
Was  professor  of  university  of  Minnesota,  1888- 
89;  university  of  Michigan.  1889-94;  and  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  and  uirector  of  school  of 
education,  university  of  Chicago.  1894-1904. 
Member  of  American  psychological  association, 
American  philosophical  societv,  naturalists 
society,  etc.  Author:  Psychology;  Leibnitz; 
Criticid  Theory  of  Ethics;  Study  of  Ethics; 
Psychology  of  Number;  School  and  Society; 
Studies  in  Logical  Theory;   Ethics;   etc. 

Dewey,  Melvil,  librarian,  was  bom  in  Adams 
Center,  N.  Y.,  1851;  graduated,  Amherst,  1874; 
LL.  D.,  Syracuse,  Alfred,  1902.  Acting  librarian, 
Amherst,  1874-77;  chief  librarian  and  professor 
of  library  economy,  Columbia  college,  1883-88. 
Director  of  New  York  state  library,  1888-1906, 
and  of  home  education  department,  1891-1906; 
secretary  and  executive  officer  of  university  of 
the  state  of  New  York,  1888-1900;  founder 
and  director,  New  York  state  library  school, 
1887-1906;  state  director  of  libraries,  New  York, 
1904-06.  Author:  Library  School  Rules;  Deci- 
mal Classification  and  Relative  Index;  editor  of 
American  Library  Association  Catalog,  1904. 

De  Witt  {di  vW),  Jan,  Dutch  statesman,  was  bom 
at  Dort,  1625,  son  of  Jacob  De  Witt,  a  vehement 
opp>onent  of  William  II.,  prince  of  Orange. 
Jan  inherited  his  father's  hatred  of  the  office  of 
stadtholder,  and  the  family  that  filled  it.  He 
was  carefully  educated,  and  soon  exhibited 
remarkable  ability.  He  was  one  of  the  deputies 
sent  by  the  states  of  Holland  in  1652  to  Zealand 
for  the  purpose  of  dissuading  that  province  from 
adopting  an  Orange  policy.  In  1654,  on  the 
conclusion  of  the  war  with  England,  a  secret 
article  was  inserted  in  the  treaty  drawn  up 
between  De  Witt  and  Cromwell,  in  virtue  of 
which  the  house  of  Orange  was  to  be  deprived 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


•6S 


of  all  state  ofRces.  After  the  restoration  of 
Charles  11^  De  Witt  leaned  more  to  the  side  of 
France.  This  tendency  necessarily  received  an 
impetus  from  the  renewal  of  hostilities  between 
England  and  Holland  in  1665.  These  lasted  for 
two  years;  and  although  De  Witt  acted  with 
great  vigor  his  influence  was  diminished,  and  his 
party  was  compelled  to  concede  a  larger  measure 
of  power  to  the  house  of  Orange.  De  Witt's 
prospects  became  still  more  clouded  when  the 
designs  of  Louis  XIV.  upon  the  Spanish  Nether- 
lands became  manifest.  The  Orange  party 
carried  their  point  in  the  elevation  of  Wuliam 
to  the  family  and  dignity  of  stadtholder.  On 
the  invasion  of  the  Netherlands  by  Louis  XIV. 
in  1672,  the  prince  of  Orange  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  Dutch  forces;  and  the  first 
campaign  proving  unfortunate,  the  popular 
clamor  against  De  Witt  greatly  increased.  His 
brother,  Cornelius,  accused  of  conspiracy  against 
the  life  of  the  stadtholder,  was  imprisoned  and 
tortured.  De  Witt  went  to  see  him  on  his 
release.  As  they  were  coming  out  of  prison 
they  were  attacked  and  murdered,  1672. 

De  Young,  Michel  Harry,  journalist,  was  bom  in 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  1849;  removed  to  California 
with  parents  when  five  years  old;  with  brother 
Charles  he  established,  1865,  The  Dramatic 
Chronicle,  later  changing  it  to  the  San  Francisco 
Chronicle,  which  they  made  a  leading  newspaper; 
on  his  brother's  death,  1880,  he  became  sole 
proprietor  and  editor-in-chief.  Commissioner 
from  California  to  Paris  exposition,  1889; 
candidate  for  United  States  senator,  1892; 
commissioner  and  vice-president  of  World's 
Columbian  national  commission,  1892-93;  pro- 
jector and  director-general  of  California  mid- 
winter exposition,  1893-94;  ex-president  of 
international  league  of  press  clubs;  United 
States  commissioner  and  president  of  United 
States  commission,  Paris  exposition,  1900. 
Vice-president  and  director  of  concessions,  Pan- 
ama-Pacific international  exposition. 

Dlae  (de'-ds),  or  Dias,  Bartolomeu,  Portuguese 
navigator,  flourished  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
His  residence  at  the  court  of  John  II.  brought 
him  into  contact  with  many  scientific  men,  and 
in  1486  the  king  gave  him  the  command  of  two 
vessels  to  follow  up  the  discoveries  already  made 
on  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  Driven  by  a  violent 
storm,  he  sailed  round  the  southern  extremity 
of  Africa,  the  cape  of  Good  Hope,  without 
immediately  realizmg  the  fact,  and  discovered 
Algoa  bay.  The  discontent  of  his  crew  com- 
pelled him  to  return;  and  arriving  in  Lisbon, 
December,  1487,  he  was  at  first  greeted  with 
enthusiasm.  But  in  the  expedition  of  1497 
he  had  to  act  under  Vasco  da  Gama,  who 
even  sent  him  back  to  Portugal  after  they  had 
reached  the  Cape  Verde  isles.  Three  years 
later  he  joined  the  expedition  of  Cabral,  the 
discoverer  of  Brazil,  but  was  lost  in  a  storm. 
May,  1500. 

Diaz,  Porflrio,  Mexican  statesman,  ex-president  of 
Mexico,  was  bom  at  Oaxaca  in  1830.  He  studied 
law,  and  was  an  oSicer  in  the  war  between 
Mexico  and  the  "United  States.  In  1863  he  was 
military  governor  of  the  state  of  Vera  Cruz,  and 
commanded  the  army  in  the  war  with  France. 
He  was  captured  and  sent  to  France,  but  escaped 
and  was  in  command  of  the  army  which  over- 
threw Maximilian  in  1867,  thus  ending  the  war 
with  France.  In  1876  he  rebelled  and  over- 
threw the  president,  Lerdo  de  Tejado,  and  was 
himself  made  president  in  the  same  year.  He 
was  elected  again  in  1884,  1888,  1892,  1896, 
1900,  1904,  and  1908.  Resigned,  1911.  Mexico 
greatly  prospered  under  his  administration,  and 
his  career  has  given  him  a  high  place  among 
the  world's  statesmen. 


Dtai  de  la  PeSs  {di'-dt'  dt  lA  pkn'-yd'),  NardsM 
Vlnclle,  French  painter,  was  tx>m  at  EiordflMUe 
of  Spanish  parentage,  1807.  Left  dependent, 
he  was  educatini  by  a  Protestant  putor  at 
Bellevue,  near  Paris.  A  snake-bite  occasioDed 
the  amputation  of  a  leg;  at  fifteen  be  wm 
apprenticed  to  a  porcelain  painter;  in  1831  he 
began  to  exhibit  in  the  salon.  His  favorite 
subjects  were  landscapes  with  nymphs,  loves, 
and  satyrs,  which  he  executed  with  rare  skill. 
He  died  at  Mentone,  1876. 

Dicey  (di'si),  Albert  Venn«  British  lawyer  and 
writer,  Vinerian  professor  of  English  law  at 
Oxford,  1882-1909;  was  bom  in  1835;  graduated 
from  BalUol  college,  Oxford;  M.  A.,  hon. 
D.  C.  L.,  Oxford;  hon.  LL.  D.,  Cambridge, 
Glasgow,  and  Edinburgh;  studied  law  and  was 
made  a  barrister  of  the  Inner  Temple,  1863. 
Author:  The  Law  of  DomicU;  Law  of  Uve  Con- 
stitution; England's  Case  Against  Home  RuU; 
Treatise  on  the  Conflict  of  Laws;  Lectures  on  ths 
Relation  Between  Law  and  Public  Opinion  in 
England  During  the  Nineteenth  Century;    etc. 

Dick,  Charles,  lawyer,  ex-United  States  senator,  was 
bom  in  Akron,  Ohio,  1858;  educated  in  public 
schools,  and  was  store  clerk,  bank  bookkeeper 
and  teller,  and  later  grain  commission  merchant; 
studied  law,  and  in  1893  was  admitted  to  Ohio 
bar.  He  has  been  long  connected  with  the  Ohio 
national  guard,  and  is  now  serving  as  major- 
general;  engaged  in  active  service  with  his 
regiment  during  Spanish-American  war;  mem- 
ber of  congress,  nineteenth  Ohio  district,  1898- 
1904;  elected  United  States  senator,  1904,  for 
short  and  long  terms  to  succeed  late  Senator 
M.  A.  Hanna;    term  expired  1911. 

Dickens,  Charles,  EngUsn  novelist  and  humorist, 
was  bom  at  Landport,  England,  1812.  He  was 
first  a  parliamentary  reporter,  and  soon  became 
distinguished  for  his  uncommon  ability.  After 
a  literary  apprenticeship  on  The  True  Sun,  he 
attached  himself  to  the  staff  of  the  London 
Chronicle.  In  this  newspaper  he  gave  the  first 
evidence  of  his  talents  in  the  lively  essays 
entitled  Sketches  by  Box,  published  in  1836.  This 
was  followed  by  the  immortal  Pickwick  Papers 
and  Oliver  Tunst.  After  a  visit  to  the  United 
States  he  published,  in  1842,  his  American  Notes 
for  General  Circulation;  but  a  much  more  admir- 
able result  of  his  visit  was  Martin  Chuzdewit. 
This  was  certainly  the  greatest  of  his  humorous 
works  since  the  Pickwick  Papers,  and  it  may 
almost  be  said  to  have  been  his  last.  His  humor, 
except  in  some  rich  creations,  such  as  Mr. 
Micawber,  was  no  longer  so  apparent,  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  his  wit  and  pathos  increased. 
Dombey  and  Son  was  below  the  standard  of  his 
other  works,  but  for  this  he  made  amends  in 
David  Copperfidd,  which  is  considered  by  far 
his  greatest  work.  Bleak  House,  Hard  Times, 
Little  Dorrit,  Tale  of  Two  Cities,  Great  Expec- 
tations, Our  Mutual  Friend,  and  other  novels 
equally  celebrated  succeeded  one  another 
with  almost  periodical  punctuality,  and  an 
audience  larger  than  any  English  author  ever 
had  awaited  each.  No  prose  writer  was  ever 
more  quotable  or  more  quoted  than  he.  In 
1846  the  Daily  News  was  started  under  his 
editorial  auspices,  but  the  task  appiears  to  have 
been  uncongenial,  for  he  soon  withdrew  from  it. 
In  1850  he  commenced  a  weekly  periodical 
entitled  Household  Words,  afterward  merged  in 
AU,  the  Year  Round.  In  1867  he  again  visited 
the  United  States,  gave  numerous  rea<ling8,  and 
met  with  a  brilUant  reception.  He  was  until 
the  last  engaged  in  writing  a  new  novel,  The 
Mystery  of  Edwin  Drood,  which  was  left  unfin- 
ished at  his  death  in  1870. 

Dickinson,  Don  Bl^  lawyer,  was  bom  at  Port 
Ontario,  N.  Y.,   1846,  removed  to  Michigan  in 


654 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


1848,  and  was  educated  in  the  public  schools 
and  by  private  tutors.  Graduated  from  the  law 
department  of  the  universitv  of  Michigan  in 
1867,  and  since  1867  has  been  a  practicing 
lawyer  in  the  West,  New  York,  and  Washington. 
He  was  postmaster-general  of  the  United  States, 
1887-89;  tendered  and  declined  cabinet  position, 
1893;  senior  counsel  of  United  States  before 
international  high  commission  on  Bering  sea 
claims,  1896-97;  member  of  court  of  arbitration 
to  adjust  controversy  between  United  States  and 
republic  of  Salvador,  1902.  Member  of  many 
legal,  municipal,  financial,  historical,  and  other 
associations. 

Dickinson,  Jacob  McGsvock,  lawyer,  ex-secretary 
of  war,  was  born  in  Columbus,  Miss.,  in  1851; 
graduated  from  the  university  of  Nashville  and 
studied  law  at  Columbia  college.  New  York,  in 
Paris,  and  at  the  university  of  Leipzig;  LL. 
D.,  Columbia,  university  of  Illinois,  Yale; 
was  assistant  attorney-general  of  the  United 
States,  1895-97;  in  1903  appeared  as  counsel  for 
the  United  States  before  the  Alaskan  boundary 
tribunal  in  London;  was  for  many  vears 
general  counsel  of  the  Illinois  Central  railroad 
company.  He  became  secretary  of  war  in  1909, 
resigning  in  1911. 

Dicksee,  Francis  Bernard,  English  painter  and 
royal  academician,  was  born  in  London  in 
1853.  He  was  educated  at  Rev.  Q.  Henslow's 
school,  London.  First  exhibited  at  academv, 
1876;  since  then  has  painted  "Harmony  , 
" Evaneeline " :  "The  House  Builders";  "The 
Symbol";  "The  Love  Story";  "Too  Late"; 
"Romeo  and  Juliet";  "Chivalry"- "Memories" : 
"The  Passing  of  Arthur";  "The  Redemption  of 
Tannhauser  ;  "Mountain  of  the  Winds"; 
"The  Crisis";  "Funeral  of  a  Viking"*  "The 
Magic  Crystal " ;  " Paolo  and  Francesca  ;  "The 
Mirror";  "The  Confession";  "The  Two 
Crowns";  "La  Belle  Dame  sans  Merci";  "A 
Duet";  etc. 

Diderot  (d^d'-r5').  Denis,  celebrated  French  ency- 
clopedist and  philosophical  writer,  was  bom  at 
Langres,  France,  1713.  His  great  work  was  the 
Encvclonidie,  begun  in  1749,  of  which  he  and 
D'AlemDert  were  the  joint  editors.  Diderot, 
besides  revising  all  the  articles,  wrote  the  depart- 
ment of  history,  of  ancient  philosophy,  and  of 
the  mechanical  arts.  He  also  wrote  art  criti- 
cisms from  1765  to  1767,  showing  a  readiness  in 
interpreting  the  meaning  of  a  picture,  and  a 
power  in  reproducing  it  vividly  in  words,  un- 
equaled  by  any  writer  of  his  time.  Toward  the 
latter  portion  of  his  life,  having  never  been  able 
to  save  any  money,  he  detemtined  to  sell  his 
library  to  provide  for  his  only  daughter.  The 
empress  Catharine  of  Russia,  having  been 
informed  by  her  French  ambassador  of  his 
intention,  bought  the  library,  on  condition  that 
he  himself  should  be  librarian,  and  undertake 
the  care  of  it  at  a  salary  of  1,000  francs  yearly. 
In  1773  he  set  out  for  St.  Petersburg  to  thank 
his  imperial  benefactress,  returning  in  the 
following  year.  His  health,  which  was  impaired 
by  this  journey,  soon  after  gave  way,  and  he 
died  in  1784. 

Dlelman  (del'-man),  Frederick,  American  artist, 
was  bom  in  Hanover,  Germany,  1847,  and  came 
to  United  States  in  childhood;  graduated  at 
Calvert  college;  was  topographer  and  draughts- 
man in  United  States  engineering  department, 
1866-72;  studied  art  at  royal  academy,  Munich, 
and  opened  a  studio  in  New  York,  1876.  He 
was  president  of  the  national  academy  of 
design  1889—1909;  member  of  art  commission. 
New  York,  1901-03;  etc.  Designed  mosaic 
panels  "Law"  and  "History"  in  new  congres- 
sional library,  .and  large  mosaic,  "Thrift,"  in 
Albany  savings  bank,  and  the  decorations  in  the 


new  building  of  the  Washington  Evening  Star. 
Since  1903  he  has  been  professor  of  descriptive 
geometry  and  drawing  in  the  college  of  the 
city  of  New  York. 

Dlike  (dilk),  Rt.  Hon.  Sir  Charles  Wentwortb, 
English  statesman  and  writer,  was  born  at 
Chelsea,  near  London,  1843.  He  was  graduated 
at  Cambridge,  studied  law  and  was  a  barrister  of 
the  Middle  Temple.  From  1868-86  he  was  M.  P. 
for  Chelsea;  1892-1911,  M.  P.  for  Gloucester- 
shire; was  under-secretary  of  state  for  foreign 
affairs,  1880-82;  president  of  local  government 
board,  1882-85;  chairman  of  royal  commission 
for  negotiations  with  France,  1880-82;  chair- 
man of  royal  commission  for  housing  of  the 
working-class,  1884-85;  chairman  of  select 
committee  on  income  tax,  1906.  Author:  Grea/«r 
Britain;  The  Present  Position  of  European 
Politics;  The  British  Army;  Problems  of  Greater 
Britain;  British  Empire;  Memoir  of  Lady  Dilke; 
etc.     Died,  1911. 

Dill,  James  Broolcs,  lawyer,  jurist,  was  bom  at 
Spencerport,  N.  Y.,  1854;  graduated  at  Yale, 
1876,  New  York  university  law  school,  1878- 
admitted  to  bar,  1878;  for  many  years  a  noted 
corporation  lawyer;  judge  of  court  of  errors 
and  appeals,  N'^ew  Jersey,  1905-10.  Author: 
Business  Corporations;  LHU  on  Corporations; 
Banking  and  Trust  Company  Laws  of  New  Jersey, 
etc.     Died,  1910. 

DilUncham,  William  Paul,  lawyer.  United  StatM 
senator,  was  born  at  Waterburv,  Vt.,  1843* 
received  an  academic  education  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1867;  was  state's  attorney  for 
Washing^n  county  two  terms;  commissioner 
of  state  taxes  for  several  years;  member  of  the 
Vermont  house  of  representatives  in  1876  and 
again  in  1884;  state  senator  from  Washington 
county  in  1878  and  again  in  1880;  and  governor 
of  Vermont  from  188§  to  1890.  In  1900  he  was 
elected  United  States  senator  from  Vermont  to 
fill  a  vacancy  caused  by  the  death  of  Justin  S. 
Morrill;  in  1002  he  was  elected  to  succeed 
himself,  and  was  reelected  in  1908. 

DlUmann  (dU'-mAn),  Chri.stian  Friedrlch  August, 
German  orientalist  and  theologian,  was  bom  in 
Wiirttemberg,  1823.  He  studied  at  Tiibingen 
under  Ewald,  and  in  1846-48  visited  the  libraries 
at  Paris,  London,  and  Oxford,  cataloguing  Ethi- 
opic  MSS.,  and  then  returned  to  Tiibingen.  In 
1854  he  accepted  a  call  to  Kiel,  where  he  became 
professor  of  oriental  languages  in  1860,  but  was 
transferred  in  1864  to  the  chair  of  old  testament 
exegesis  at  Giessen,  which  in  1869  he  resigned 
to  become  Hengstenberg's  succt^ssor  at  Berlin. 
The  first  authority  on  the  Ethiopic  languages, 
he  became  in  1877  a  member  of  the  Berlin 
academy',  was  president  of  the  fifth  international 
congress  of  orientalists,  and  edited  its  proceed- 
ings.    Died  in  1894. 

DiUon,  John,  Irish  politician  and  leader,  was  bom 
in  New  York  in  1851,  and  was  educated  at  the 
Catholic  university  of  Dublin.  He  early  identi- 
fied himself  with  the  Pamellite  movement,  and 
in  1880  was  elected  to  the  British  parliament  for 
County  Tipperary.  In  parliament  he  distin- 
guished himself  by  the  violence  of  his  language, 
while  speeches  delivered  by  him  in  Ireland  led  to 
his  imprisonment  on  several  occasions.  From 
1883  to  1885  he  was  absent  from  political  life  on 
account  of  ill-health;  but  in  the  latter  year  he 
was  elected  for  East  Mayo,  and  has  since  repre- 
sented that  constituency  in  parliament.  He 
was  one  of  the  chief  promoters  of  the  "plan  of 
campaign,"  a  political  conspiracy,  and  was  again 
imprisoned  in  1891.  In  1896-99  he  was  Justin 
McCarthy's  successor  as  head  of  the  anti- 
Pamellite  party. 

Dinwiddle  (dln-wid'-l  or  din'-wid-t),  Bobert, 
governor  of  Virginia  from  1752  to  1758,  was  bom 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


655 


in  Scotland  about  1690.  His  rule  as  governor 
was  not  successful,  his  ill-temper  and  avarice 
making  him  very  disagreeable  to  his  subjects. 
He  was  the  first  to  suggest  to  the  British  board 
of  trade  the  taxing  of  the  colonies.  He  discerned 
Washington's  military  ability,  and  made  him 
adjutant-general  of  one  of  the  four  military 
districts  of  Virginia.  He  died  in  England  in 
1770. 
Diocletian  (di'-d-kU'shan),  Valerius  Dlocletlanus, 
Roman  emperor,  was  born  in  Dalmatia  in  24.'}, 
and  reigned  from  284  to  305.  He  entered  the 
army  and  held  important  commands  under  the 
emperors  Probus  and  Aurelian.  After  the  death 
of  Numerianus,  he  was  chosen  to  succeed  him 
by  the  troops  at  Chalcedon.  With  his  reign 
began  a  new  form  of  government  in  Rome.  He 
appointed  Maximian  as  his  companion  in  author- 
ity, under  the  title  Augustus,  and  soon  after  he 
appointed  Constantine  and  Galerius  as  subordi- 
nate rulers,  each  with  the  title  of  Caesar.  Each 
of  the  four  rulers  had  a  different  capital  and 

fovemed  a  different  region.  In  the  year  305, 
)iocletian,  teing  worn  out  by  work,  resigned  his 
Eosition  as  emperor  and  went  to  Salona,  in 
•almatia,  where  he  died  eight  years  later.  His 
reign  has  become  memorable  for  the  persecution 
of  the  Christians. 
Diogenes  (di-dj'-e-nez),  philosopher  of  the  school  of 
cynics,  was  bom  in  Asia  Minor  about  412  B.  C. 
,  Becoming  a  citizen  of  Athens,  he  made  himself 
notorious  by  his  abnegation  of  all  social  laws 
and  customs,  lived  upon  alms,  and  took  up  his 
abode  in  a  tub.  Of  his  cynicism  many  well- 
known  anecdotes  are  related.  Died  at  Corinth, 
323  B.  C. 
Dlonyslus  (di'-o-nlsh'-i-iis),  the  Elder,  tyrant  of 
Syracuse,  in  Sicilj^,  was  born  about  430  B.  C. 
When  Sicily  was  invaded  by  the  Carthaginians, 
he  became  a  general  in  the  service  of  Syracuse, 
which  was  then  a  republic.  In  the  year  405  he 
made  himself  tyrant,  or  ruler  of  Syracuse.  He 
later  continued  the  war  against  the  Carthaginians, 
and  was  at  first  defeated,  but  afterward  gained  a 
complete  victory.  He  also  engaged  in  many 
other  military  expeditions,  and  was  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  rulers  of  his  time.  Not  con- 
tent with  his  military  renown,  he  wrote  poems 
and  tragedies,  and  at  one  time  gained  a  prize  at 
Athens  for  the  tragedy  The  Ransom  of  Hector. 
He  died  at  Syracuse  in  367  B.  C. 
Dlonjslus  of  Hallcamassus,  critic,  historian,  and 
rhetorician,  was  bom  about  66  B.  C,  went  to 
Rome  in  29  B.  C,  and  died  there  about  7  B.  C. 
His  Greek  Archceologia,  a  history  of  Rome  down 
to  264  B.  C,  is  a  mine  of  information  about  the 
constitution,  religion,  history,  laws,  and  private 
life  of  the  Romans.  Of  its  twenty  books  we 
have  only  the  first  nine  complete. 
Disraeli  (dlz-rd'-H  or  dlz-re'-ll),  Benjamin,  earl  of 
Beaconsfield,  eminent  statesman  and  novelist, 
was  bom  in  London  in  1804.  He  entered  the 
house  of  commons  in  1837,  and  remained  a 
member  until  his  elevation  to  the  house  of  lords 
in  1876.  His  first  appearance  in  the  debates  of 
the  lower  house  was  not  successful;  but  he 
speedily  made  himself  famous  by  his  brilliant 
and  acrimonious  attacks  upon  Sir  Robert  Peel. 
He  became  the  leader  of  the  old  tory  or  protec- 
tionist party,  on  the  death  of  Lord  George  Bentinck 
in  1848.  In  1852,  and  again  in  1858  and  1866, 
he  was  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  under  the 
earl  of  Derbv,  and  carried  the  reform  act  of 
1867.  In  1868,  on  the  retirement  of  Lord 
Derby,  he  was  made  premier.  His  occupancy 
of  the  premiership  on  this  occasion  was  only 
brief,  his  government  being  displaced  after  a 
few  months  by  that  of  Gladstone;  but  in  1874 
he  was  once  more  in  oflSce,  which  he  held 
until    again    defeated     by    Gladstone    in    1880. 


He  was  one  of  the  ohiof  authora  of  the  traatjr 
of  Berlin  of  1878,  and  wm  one  of  Um  rapraMOt*- 
tives  of  England  at  the  ooncraM  whioh  lad  to 
that  treaty.  Lord  BeaocmaMld's  oaraer  M  fta 
author  was  even  longer  than  his  political  earaer. 
His  first  novel,  Vivian  Grey,  appeared  In  1836, 
when  he  was  little  more  than  twenty-one  yean 
of  age;  his  last,  Endymion,  appeared  In  1880, 
only  a  few  months  before  his  death.  Between 
these  years  he  published  a  large  number  of 
novels,  chiefly  of  a  political  character,  and  all 
remarkable  for  their  brilliancy  and  for  their 
epigrammatic  style.  He  died  at  London  in 
1881. 

Dlx,  John  Adams,  American  statesman  and  general, 
was  bora  at  Boscawcn,  N.  H.,  179S;  entered  the 
army  in  1812,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  adjutant- 
general  in  1830.  From  1833  he  was  sueeeesively 
secretary  of  state,  United  States  eenator,  and 
secretary  of  the  treasury.  In  the  dvll  war  he 
raised  seventeen  regiments,  and  rendered  effective 
service  to  the  cause  of  the  Union.  He  was 
minister  to  France,  1866-09,  and  became  gov- 
ernor of  New  York  in  1872.     He  died  in  1879. 

Dlx,  Morgan,  Protestant  Episcopal  clergyman,  bom 
in  New  York  in  1827;  graduated  Columbia, 
1848;  B.  D.,  General  tneologicid  seminary, 
1852;  S.  T.  D.,  Columbia,  1802;  D.  C.  L., 
university  of  the  South  1885;  D.  D.,  Princeton, 
1896,  Oxford,  England,  1900,  Harvard,  1902; 
assistant  minister  Trinity  church.  New  York, 
1855;  assistant  rector,  1859-62;  rector,  1862- 
1908.  Author:  Sermons,  Doctrinal  and  Practi- 
cal; Memoirs  of  John  A.  Dix;  Gospel  and  Phi- 
losophy;  The  Sacramental  System;  The  Seven 
Deadly  Sins;  Lectures  on  the  Authority  of  Ihs 
Church;   Good  Friday  Addresses.     Died,  1908. 

Dixon,  Joseph  M^  lawyer,  ex-United  States  senator, 
was  born  at  Snow  Camp,  N.  C,  1867 ;  graduated 
from  Guilford  college.  North  Carolina,  1889; 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1892;  moved  to 
Montana  and  was  prosecuting  attorney  of  Mis- 
soula county,  1895-97 ;  member  of  the  Montana 
legislature  in  1900;  member  of  the  fifty-eighth 
and  fifty-ninth  congresses,  and  elected  to  the 
United  States  senate  to  succeed  Hon.  W.  A. 
Clark  for  the  term  1907-13. 

Dixon,  Thomas,  Jr^  lecturer  and  author,  bom  in 
Shelby,  N.  C,  1864;  graduated  Wake  Forest 
college,  N.  C,  1883;  Greensboro,  N.  C,  law 
school,  1886;  admitted  to  bar,  1886;  scholarship, 
history  and  politics,  Johns  Hopkins  university, 
1883-84;  member  of  North  Carolina  legislature, 
1885-86;  resigned  to  enter  Baptist  ministry, 
1886;  pastor  at  Raleigh,  N.  C,  1887;  Boston, 
1888-89;  New  York,  1889-99;  popular  lyceum 
lecturer,  1889-1903.  Author:  The  Leopard's 
Spots;  The  One  Woman;  The  Clansman;  The 
Life  Worth  Living;   The  Traitor;   Comradea;  etc. 

Doane  {don),  Ut.  fiev.  William  Croswell,  Protestant 
Episcopal  clergyman,  bishop  of  Albany,  was 
born  at  Boston,  Mass.,  1832;  graduated  at 
Burhngton  college,  N.  J.,  1850;  D.  D.,  Columbia, 
Trinity,  etc.;  LL.  D.,  Union  and  Cambridge, 
England;  D.  C.  L.,  Union.  Rector  of  churches 
at  Burlington,  Hartford,  Conn.,  and  Albany, 
N.  Y. ;  consecrated  first  bishop  of  the  diocese 
of  Albany,  1869;  built  Cathedral  church,  St. 
Agnes's  school  for  girls,  the  child's  hospital  and 
St.  Margaret's  house  for  babies,  in  Albany:  the 
St.  Christian  home  for  training  servants  in  Sara- 
toga, and  the  orphan  house  of  the  Holy  Saviour 
in  Cooperstown:  also  established  the  sisteriiood 
of  the  Holy  Child  Jesus  in  charge  of  these  insti- 
tutions. Author:  Mosaics,  or  the  Harmony  of 
the  Coiled,  Epistle,  and  Oorpel;  A  Catecniam 
of  the  Christian  Year;  The  Manifestations  of  the 
Risen  Jesus;  two  volumes  of  Addresses  to  the 
graduates  of  St.  Agnes's  school,  and  many  ser- 
mons and  convention  addresses.     Died,  1913. 


666 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Dobson,  Henry  Anstln,  English  poet  and  man  of 
letters,  was  born  in  1840;  educated  at  CJoventry 
and  Strassburg,  and  early  turned  his  attention  to 
literature.  He  contributed  largely  to  the  Biog- 
raphies of  Great  Artists;  edited  for  the  Parch- 
ment Ubrary  the  Eighteenth  Century  Essays, 
Gay's  Fables,  and  The  Vicar  of  Wakefield;  for 
the  Clarendon  press,  Beaumarchais'  Le  Barbier 
de  Seville,  and  Selections  from  Steele.  Author: 
Thomas  Bevnck  and  His  Pupils;  Four  French- 
toomen;  Eighteenth  Century  Vignettes;  A  Paladin 
of  Philanthropy;  Sidewalk  Studies;  etc.  Among 
his  poems  are:  Vignettes  in  Rhyme;  Proverbs  in 
Porcelain;  Old-World  Idylls;  At  the  Sign  of  the 
Lyre. 

Dodge,  Grenvllle  Mellen,  soldier,  railway  official, 
was  burn  at  Danvers,  Mass.,  1831;  graduatca 
Captain  Partridge's  miUtary  academy;  C.  E., 
Norwich  university,  Vermont,  1850;  LL.  D.. 
1892.  Was  engineer  on  Illinois  Central  and 
Rock  Island  roads,  and  later  connected  with 
government  Pacific  railroad  survey.  He  served 
in  the  civil  war  as  colonel  of  the  fourth  Iowa 
infantry,  1801;  brigadier-general  of  volunteers, 
1862,  and  major-general  of  volunteers,  1864, 
resigning  in  1860.  Was  chief  engineer  of  Union 
Pacific  railroad  and  supervised  its  building, 
1866-70;  chief  engineer  of  Texas  and  Pacific 
railway,  1871-81.  Member  of  congress,  second 
Iowa  aistrict,  1867-69.  Succeeded  General  Sher- 
man as  president  of  society  of  army  of  Ten- 
nessee; commander-in-chiei  of  military  order 
of  loyal  legion,  1907-08;  chairman  of  board  of 
directors  of  Colorado  and  Southern  railway 
to  1909;  director  of  Fort  Worth  and  Denver  City 
railway,  etc. 

Dodge,  Mary  Abigail,  American  writer,  wafi  bom 
in  Massachusetts^  1830;  wrote  several  books  of 
merit,  and  contributed  largely  to  the  periodical 

gress  under  the  rwm  de  plume  of  "Gail  Hamilton." 
he  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Boston  juvenile, 
Our  Young  Folks,  1866-67,  and  wrote  a  series  of 
notable  letters  on  civil  service  reform  for  the 
Tribune,  1877.  Her  published  works  are  numer- 
ous and  include  Country  Living  and  Country 
Thinking;  Gala  Days;  Stumblina  Blocks;  Wool 
Gathering;  Woman's  Wrongs:  a  Counter-irritant; 
Battle  of  the  Books;  Woman's  Worth  and  Worth- 
lessness;  Sermons  to  the  Clergy;  What  Think  Ye 
of  Christ  r  etc.     Died,  1896. 

Dohme,  Alfred  Robert  Louis,  manufactiiring  chem- 
ist, was  born  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  1867;  graduated 
from  Johns  Hopkins  university,  1886;  Ph.  D., 
1889;  post-graauate  courses  in  chemistry,  geol- 
ogy, and  mineralogy;  studied  two  years  abroad, 
1889-91,  university  of  Berlin,  laboratory  of 
Fresenius,  Wiesbaden,  and  university  of  Strass- 
burg. Elected  lecturer  of  pharmacy  at  Johns 
Hopkins  university,  medical  department,  1901; 
secretary  of  national  committee  of  the  revision 
of  the  pharmacopoeia  of  United  States;  chairman 
of  scientific  section  of  American  pharmacy 
association,  1898.  In  business  as  manufacturing 
chemist  since  1891 ;  \ice-president  of  Sharp  and 
Dohme,  Baltimore ;  member  of  numerous  chemical 
and  other  scientific  societies. 

Dolbear  (dol'-bir),  Amos  Emerson,  educator. 
Inventor,  was  bom  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  1837; 
graduated  from  Ohio  Wesleyan  university,  1866; 
M.  E.,  Ph.  D.,  university  of  Michigan;  LL.  D., 
Tufts  college,  1902;  1874-1910,  professor  of 
physics.  Tufts  college.  Invented  writing  tele- 
graph, 1864;  magneto  telephone,  1876;  static 
telephone,  1879;  spring  balance  anmieter,  1889; 
air  space  telegraph  cable,  1882;  discovered  con- 
vertibiUty  of  sound  into  electricity,  1873;  tele- 
graphing without  wires,  1881;  photographing 
with  electric  waves,  1893.  He  was  twice  mayor 
of  Bethany,  W.  Va.  Author:  Chemical  Tables; 
Art    of    Projecting;      The    Speaking    Telephone; 


Matter,  Ether  and  Motion;  Modes  of  Motion; 
Natural  Philosophy;  and  many  articles  in  scien- 
tific journals  and  magazines.     Died,  1910. 

Dolcl  (dol'-che),  or  Dolce,  Carlo  or  Carllno,  Floren- 
tine painter,  was  born  in  1616,  died  in  1686. 
He  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  sacred  subjects, 
and  excelled  in  small  pictures.  Among  his  best 
works  are  "Moses";  "St.  Anthony";  "St. 
Sebastian";  "Four  Evangelists";  "Herodias 
with  the  Head  of  John  the  Baptist";  "St. 
Cecilia,  or  the  Organ  Player." 

Dole,  Charles  Fletcher,  Unitarian  clergyman,  was 
bom  at  Brewer,  Me.,  1845;  graduated  from 
Harvard,  1868,  A.  M.,  1870;  Audover  theologi- 
cal seminary,  1872;  D.  D.,  Bowdoin,  1906; 
professor  of  Greek,  university  of  Vermont,  1873; 
pastor,  Portland,  Me.,  1874-76;  since  1876 
minister  of  First  Congregational  (Unitarian) 
church,  Jamaica  Plain,  Boston.  Author :  The 
Citizen  and  the  Neighbor;  Jesu»  and  the  Men 
About  Him;  The  American  Citizen;  The  Golden 
Rule  in  Butineaa;  The  Coming  People;  Luxury 
and  Sacrifice;  The  Theology  of  Civilization;  The 
Problem  of  Duty;  The  Religion  of  a  Gentleman; 
Noble  WomanJiood;  The  Smoke  and  the  Flame; 
From  Agnosticism  to  Theism;  The  Spirit  of 
Democracy;  The  Hope  of  Immortality  (IngersoU 
lecture,  Uarvard),  etc. 

Dole,  Nathan  Haskell,  American  author,  was  bora 
at  Chelsea,  Mass.,  1852;  graduated  from  Har- 
vard, 1874;  taught  at  DeVeaux  college,  1874- 
75;  Worcester  high  school,  1876-76;  preceptor 
of  Derby  academy,  Hin^ham,  Mass.,  1876-78; 
became  literary  and  musical  editor  of  Philadel- 
phia Press;  literary  adviser  of  T.  Y.  Crowell  & 
Co.;  and  secretary  of  department  of  publicity. 
D.  Appleton  A  Co.  Author:  Young  Folks 
History  of  Russia;  Famous  Composers  (2  vols.) ; 
Not  Angela  Quite;  The  Hawthorne  Tree,  ana 
Other  Poems;  Joseph  Jefferson  at  Home;  Omar, 
the  Tent-Maker  —  A  Romance  of  Old  Persia; 
Six  Italian  Essays;  etc.  He  has  also  made 
numerous  translations  from  Russian,  Spanish, 
French,  and  Italian  literature,  and  editea  many 
large  and  diverse  compilations  of  literature, 
poems,  etc. 

Dole,  Saiiford  Ballard,  statesman  and  iurist,  was 
born  in  Hawaiian  islands,  1844;  educated  at 
Oahu  college,  Hawaii,  and  Williams  college, 
Mass.;  studied  law  in  Boston;  admitted  to  bar 
there,  but  engaged  in  practice  in  Honolulu.  He 
there  became  a  member  of  the  legislature,  1884 
and  1886;  leader  in  reform  movement  of  1887; 
judge  of  supreme  court,  1887-93;  placed  at 
head  of  provisional  government,  1893;  became 
president  by  provision  of  constitution  of  1894 
that  he  shoula  hold  that  office  until  1901;  was 
strong  advocate  of  annexation  of  Hawaii  to 
United  States,  and  in  1898  visited  the  United 
States  in  that  behalf.  He  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  the  territory  in  1900,  after  its  annexa- 
tion to  the  United  States;  resigned  the  govern- 
orship in  1903,  and  has  since  been  United  States 
district  judge  of  the  territory. 

DSllinger  (diU'-lng-ir),  Johann  Joseph  Ignax, 
eminent  German  theologian,  was  bom  at  Bam- 
berg in  1799.  In  1826  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  ecclesiastical  historj'  and  canon  law  at 
the  university  of  Munich.  Here  he  became 
prominent  as  the  leader  of  the  "Old  CathoUc" 
movement.  He  was  very  prominent  in  the 
struggle  which  took  place  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  over  the  dogma  of  the  infallibility  of  the 
pope.  He  wrote  a  Targe  number  of  works,  many 
of  them  of  great  value.  Among  his  works  are 
Paganism  and  Judaism;  The  Church  and  the 
Churches;  The  Religion  of  Mohammed,  and  The 
Reformation.     Died  at  Munich,  1890. 

DoUiver,  Jonathan  Prentiss,  lawyer,  orator.  United 
States  senator,  was  bom  near  Kingwood,  Preston 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


987 


county,  W.  Va.,  1858;  graduated  from  West 
Virginia  university,  1875;  LL.  D.,  Bethany 
college,  1900.  Admitted  to  bar,  1878;  estab- 
lished practice  at  Ft.  Dodge,  Iowa.  Member  of 
congress,"  tenth  Iowa  district,  1889-1901;  ap- 
pointed United  States  senator  to  succeed  late 
Hon.  J.  H.  Gear;  elected  for  terms  1901-07  and 
1907-13.  He  earned  a  high  reputation  as  an 
orator  and  lecturer.     Died,  1910. 

DoUond  (ddl'-und),  John,  English  optician,  was 
born  in  London  in  1706.  Ho  was  originally  a 
silk  weaver  of  Spitalfields,  London,  but  studiied 
science,  and  with  his  son  established  a  manu- 
factory of  optical  instruments.  He  discovered 
the  laws  of  the  dispersion  of  light,  and  invented 
the  achromatic  telescope.     Died,  17G1. 

Domenlchlno  {do-ma' -ne-ke' -no),  or  Domenlco  Zam- 
pierl,  Italian  painter  of  the  Bolognese  school,  was 
born  in  Bologna  in  1581  and  died  at  Naples  in 
1641.  His  masterpiece  is  the  "Communion  of 
St.  Jerome,"  in  the  Vatican;  other  productions 
are  "Diana  and  Her  Nymphs";  "Guardian 
Angel";  "St.  John";  "St.  Sebastian";  and 
the  "Cure  of  the  Demoniac  Boy,"  at  Grotta 
P'errata. 

Dominic  {ddrn'-'Unlk),  founder  of  the  order  of 
monks  called  Dominicans,  was  born  in  Castile, 
Spain,  1170.  He  studied  at  the  university  of 
Palencia,  and  in  1194  became  canon  of  the 
cathedral  at  Osma.  In  1204  he  went  to  Langue- 
doc,  France,  and  preached  with  much  vehemence 
against  the  Albigenses.  As  a  result  of  this 
crusade  against  heresy  he  founded  the  order  of 
the  Dominicans,  which  was  confirmed  by  papal 
order  in  1216.  He  was  a  self-denying  man  and 
earnest  in  his  efforts  to  benefit  mankind.  True 
to  his  principles,  when  dying  he  lay  on  a  sack 
of  wool,  refusing  a  bed.  He  died  in  Bologna 
in  1221. 

Donaldson,  Henry  Herbert,  neurologist ;  graduated 
from  Yale,  1879;  Shefiield  scientific  school, 
1880;  college  of  physicians  and  surgeons.  New 
York,  1881;  fellow  of  Johns  Hopkins,  1881-83; 
Ph.  D.,  1885;  D.  Sc,  Yale,  1906;  instructor  in 
biology,  Johns  Hopkins,  1883-84,  associate  pro- 
fessor of  psychology,  1887-88;  assistant  pro- 
fessor of  neurology,  Clark  university,  1889-92; 
professor  and  head  of  department  of  neurology, 
university  of  Chicago,  1892-1906;  professor  of 
neurology,  Wistar  institution  of  anatomy,  Phila- 
delphia, since  1906.  Author :  The  Growth  of  the 
Brain;  The  Physiology  of  the  Central  Nervous 
System;  etc. 

Donatello  (ddn'-a-tSl'-lo),  properly  Donate  dl  Betto 
Bardl,  one  of  the  revivers  of  sculpture  in 
Italy,  was  born  in  Florence  in  1386.  The  "St. 
Peter"  and  "St.  Mark"  in  the  church  of  St. 
Michael  in  Florence  were  his  first  great  works. 
He  excelled  in  wrorks  in  rilievo,  among  which 
were  the  "Nativity  and  Burial  of  Christ"  and 
the  "Assumption  of  the  Virgin."  Died  in 
Florence,  1466. 

Donizetti  (do'-ne-dzSt'-te),  Gaetano,  celebrated 
Italian  composer,  was  bom  at  Bergamo,  Lom- 
bardy,  1797,  and  studied  at  Bologna.  He 
devoted  himself  chiefly  to  dramatic  music  and 
produced  over  sixty  operas;  among  the  number 
Lucia  di  Lammermoor,  the  Daughter  of  the 
Regiment,  Lucrezia  Borgia,  and  La  Favoriia  are 
all  well  known,  and  all  possess  a  melodious 
quality  of  the  first  order.     He  died  in  1848. 

"Dooley,  Mr."     See  Diume,  Flnley  Peter. 

Dora  d'istria  (do'-rd  des'-tre-a).  See  Gbika, 
Helena. 

Dort  (do'-rfi'),  Paul  Gustave,  French  painter  and 
book  illustrator,  was  bom  in  Strassburg  in  1833, 
and  educated  at  a  Parisian  lyc^e.  He  became 
known  by  his  illustrations  of  Rabelais  and  Don 
Quixote,  and  for  some  years  was  a  constant  con- 
tributor to  the  Journal  pour  Rire.     At  the  time 


of  the  Crimean  war  he  produced  hb  Alma  and 
Inkermann;  in  18«l  he  ntibliahed  the  first  of  his 
famous  illustrations  to  Dnntc's  Divine  Comedy; 
and  next  his  illustrations  to  the  Bible.  ParadUt 
Lost,  The  Ancient  Mariner,  and  The  IdylU  of  ih» 
King.  These  worktf  secured  for  him  a  greater 
reputation  in  England  than  was  accorded  to  him 
in  his  native  country.  Ho  afterward  devoted 
himself  to  the  production  of  largo  pictures  on 
religious  subjects,  such  as  "The  Dream  of 
Pilate's  Wife,"  "The  Entry  into  Jerusalem," 
and  "Ecce  Homo."     Died,  1883. 

Doria  (dd'-re-a),  Andrea,  Genoese  naval  commander 
and  admiral,  who  distinguished  himself  in  the 
service  of  several  states,  but  chiefly  in  that  of 
the  Genoese  republic,  was  born  in  1408.  He 
was  the  means,  m  1528,  of  delivering  Genoa  and 
all  Italy  from  the  domination  of  the  French; 
and  for  this  service  was  appointed  censor  of  the 
republic  for  life.  His  later  years  were  disturbed 
only  by  the  ineffectual  conspiracy  of  Fieeco. 
The  Palazzo  Doria,  which  was  presented  to  him 
by  the  republic,  still  remains  as  a  monument  to 
his  patriotism,  and  the  reverence  in  which  he 
was  held  by  his  fellow  countrymen.     Died,  1600. 

Dorion  (d6'-re'-<5N0,  Sir  Antoine  Alme,  Canadian 
statesman  and  jurist,  was  born  in  the  province 
of  Quebec  in  1818.  He  was  educated  at  Nicolet 
college,  early  studied  law,  and  in  1842  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  From  1854  to  1801  he 
represented  Montreal  in  the  old  Canadian  assem- 
bly; member  of  the  Dominion  parliament, 
1862-67.  From  1867  he  served  on  the  judiciary 
of  the  province  of  Quebec,  first  as  associate  and 
latterly  as  chief-justice.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  British  privy  council,  and  was  knighted  in 
1877.     Died  at  Montreal,  1891. 

Dorr,  Thomas  Wilson,  American  politician,  was 
bom  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  1805 ;  graduated  from 
Harvard,  1823.  He  was  the  leader  of  a  party 
in  1840-41  whose  object  was  to  extend  the  right 
of  suffrage  in  Rhode  Island.  This  party  framed 
a  new  constitution,  which  was  voted  on  in 
December,  1841,  when  it  was  claimed  that  a 
clear  majority  of  the  male  citizens  of  the  state 
voted  for  its  adoption.  In  April,  1842,  an 
election  for  state  officers  under  this  constitution 
was  held,  and  Dorr  was  chosen  governor.  In 
May  the  new  government  undertook  to  oiiganise 
and  assume  full  power.  They  were  resisted  by 
the  regular  state  government,  and  made  some 
show  of  using  force,  but  there  was  no  actual 
fighting.  Before  the  close  of  the  month  the 
Dorrites  were  scattered,  and  their  leader  was 
arrested,  tried  for  treason,  and  sentenced  to 
imprisonment  for  life,  June  25,  1844.  In  1847 
he  was  released  under  an  act  of  general  amnesty, 
and  in  1851  was  restored  to  civil  and  political 
rights.     He  died  in  1854. 

Dostoyevsky  {dds'-td-yif-ske),  Feodor  Slikhallo- 
vltch,  Russian  novelist,  was  bom  at  Moscow  in 
1822.  IHs  Poor  Folk  bad  not  long  appeared 
when  he  became  involved  in  communist  plots. 
and  in  1849  was  condemned  to  twelve  yearr 
labor  in  the  Siberian  mines.  In  1856  he  was 
permitted  to  return,  and  in  1860  pubUshe4 
Prison  Life  in  Siberia.  His  masterpiece,  Crime 
and  Punishment,  is  one  of  the  most  powerful 
realistic  works  of  modem  fiction.  Other  novels 
that  have  appeared  in  English  are  Injury  and 
Insult.  The  Idiot,  Friend  of  the  Family,  and  The 
Gambler.     He  died  in  1881. 

Douglas,  Stephen  Arnold,  American  statesman, 
styled  the  "little  giant,"  was  bom  at  Brandon, 
Vermont,  1813.  His  early  youth  was  one  of 
poverty;  but  he  managed  to  spend  three  years 
at  the  Canandaigua  academy,  having  the  study 
of  law  in  view.  In  1833  he  went  West  and 
settled  in  Jacksonville.  111.,  where  he  entered  on 
the  practice  of  law,  ana  was  soon  chosen  attorney- 


668 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


general  of  the  state.  He  soon  after  was  elected 
to  the  legislature,  and  in  1840  became  secretary 
of  state  for  Illinois.  He  was  judge  of  the  Illinois 
supreme  court  from  1841  to  1843,  when  he 
resigned,  and  was  chosen  to  congress  as  a  demo- 
crat, where  he  at  once  became  recognized  as 
one  of  the  ablest  men  of  his  party.  He  was 
opposed  to  slavery,  was  strongly  opposed  to  the 
celebrated  Wilmot  proviso,  and  argued  in  favor 
of  states  rights.  Douglas  was  elected  to  the 
senate  in  1847,  and  it  was  as  a  member  of  the 
senate  that  he  introduced,  in  1854,  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  bill,  which  provided  that  their  own 
citizens  should  determine  whether  these  terri- 
tories should  become  free  or  slave  states.  In 
1858  he  was  a  candidate  for  the  United  States 
senate,  and  held  a  series  of  joint  debates  with 
Abraham  Lincoln,  his  opponent.  In  1860  the 
democratic  party  split  into  two  divisions,  one 
of  which  nominatea  Douglas  for  president,  and 
the  other  John  C.  Breckenridge.  Douglas  was 
strongly  opposed  to  secession,  and  delivered 
several  addresses  on  the  subject  after  the  out- 
brt!ak  of  the  civil  war.     He  died  in  1861. 

Douglas,  William  Lewis,  manufacturer,  ex-govemor 
of  Massachusetts,  was  bom  in  Plymouth,  Mass., 
1845;  educated  at  brief,  irregular  periods  in 
public  schools  of  Massachusetts;  when  five  yearn 
old  his  father  died;  at  age  of  seven  he  went  to 
work  for  an  uncle,  who  set  him  to  pegging  shoes, 
and  except  for  a  brief  return  to  his  mother  when 
eleven  years  old,  worked  for  his  uncle  eight 
years;  worked  in  cotton  mill  at  Plymouth  at 
fifteen,  and  later  in  factory  at  Chiltonville,  Mass. ; 
afterward  went  to  Hopkinton  and  South  Brain- 
tree,  Mass.,  where  he  learned  bootmaking;  at 
Brockton,  1876,  began  with  small  .shop,  from 
which  he  has  built  up  a  business  with  combined 
capacity  of  over  20,000  pairs  of  shoes  daily,  and 
owns  seventy-eight  retail  shoe  stores  in  large 
cities  seUing  the  "Douglas"  shoe.  Member  of 
Ma-ssachusctts  house  of  representatives,  1884-85, 
and  of  Massachusetts  senate,  1887;  mayor  of 
Brockton,  1890;  elected  governor  of  Massachu- 
setts, 1905.  Delegate  to  democratic  national  con- 
ventions, 1884, 1892,  1896;  delegate  at  large,  1904. 

Douglass,  Frederick,  American  orator,  a  mulatto 
slave,  Was  bom  at  Tuckahoe,  near  Easton, 
Maryland,  in  1817.  In  1838  he  escaped  from  a 
Baltimore  shipyard  to  the  northern  states,  and 
chanced  his  name  from  Lloyd  or  Bailey  to 
Douglass.  He  lectured  on  slavery  with  great 
success  during  1845-47  in  Great  Britain,  where 
150  pounds  was  collected  to  buy  his  freedom. 
In  1847  he  started  Frederick  D(yiwlas8'8  Paper,  a 
weekly  abolition  newspaper,  at  Rochester,  New 
York.  He  became  assistant  secretary  to  the 
Santo  Domingo  commission,  1871,  a  presidential 
elector,  1872:  United  States  marshal  for  the 
District  of  Columbia,  1876-81 ;  recorder  of  deeds 
there,  1881-86;  and  United  States  minister  to 
Hayti,  1889-91.  He  died  at  his  home  near 
Washington,  1895. 

Dow,  or  Dou,  Gerard,  Dutch  painter,  was  bom  at 
Leyden  in  1613.  He  studied  under  Rembrandt, 
1628-31,  and  at  first  mainly  occupied  himself 
with  portraiture,  but  soon  turned  to  genre.  His 
200  works,  scattered  over  all  the  great  European 
collections,  include  his  own  portrait,  that  of  his 
wife,  "The  Poulterer's  Shop,"  in  the  national 
gallery,  London;  and  his  celebrated  "Dropsical 
Woman,"  with  ten  others,  in  the  Louvre.  He 
died  in  1675. 

Dow,  Neal,  temperance  reformer,  was  bom  in 
Portland,  Me.,  1804,  of  Quaker  parentage.  In 
1851,  through  his  efforts  while  mayor  of  Portland, 
he  secured  the  passage  of  what  is  called  the 
"Maine  law,"  which,  under  severe  penalties, 
prohibited  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors.  In 
1884    this    provision    was    incorporated    in    the 


constitution  of  the  state.  He  was  twice  chosen 
mayor  of  Portland,  and  during  the  civil  war 
served  as  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  holding 
at  different  times  three  separate  commands. 
He  was  twice  wounded  and  once  taken  prisoner. 
He  resigned  from  the  army  in  1864.  In  1880 
he  was  the  candidate  of  the  national  prohibition 
party  for  president  of  the  United  States.  Died, 
1897. 

Dowden  (dou'-den),  Edward,  British  critic  and 
editor,  professor  of  English  literature,  university 
of  Dublin,  1867-1913,  was  bom  in  Cork,  1843; 
grtuluate  of  Dublin  university;  M.  A.,  LL.  D., 
D.  C.  L.,  Litt.  D.  Clark  lecturer  in  English 
literature.  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  1893-96; 
commissioner  of  national  education,  Ireland, 
1896-1901.  He  wrote:  Shakapere:  Hia  Mind 
and  Art;  Studies  in  Literature;  Life  of  Shelley; 
The  French  Revolution  and  English  lAterature; 
A  History  of  French  Literature;  Puritan  and 
Anglican;  Afichd  de  Montaigne;  edited  Shelley's 
Poetical  Works;  Wordsworth's  Poetical  Works, 
etc.     Died,  1913. 

Doyte,  Sir  A.  Conan,  Scottish  novelist  and  physi- 
cian, was  born  in  Edinburgh,  1859;  educated 
at  Stonyhurst  and  Edinburgh  university. 
From  1882  until  1890  he  practiced  his  profession 
at  Southsea,  writing  all  the  while  various  short 
stories,  some  of  which  have  been  since  published 
under  the  title  of  The  Captain  of  the  Poleatar. 
After  A  Study  in  Scarlet,  Micah  Clarke,  and  Tha 
Sian  of  Four  came  The  White  Company,  which 
lea  to  the  final  abandonment  of  medicine  for 
literature.  The  Adventures  of  Sherlock  Holmes 
and  The  Memoirs  of  Sherlock  Holmes  formed  a 
brilliant  series  of  detective  stories.  In  1894  he 
wrote  a  short  play,  A  Story  of  IKolerioo,  success- 
fully produced  by  Sir  Henry  Irving.  Then  fol- 
lowea  The  Expioits  of  Brigadier  Gerard;  Rodney 
Stone;  Unde  Bemac;  The  Tragedy  of  the  Korosko; 
a  volume  of  poems  entitled  Songs  of  Action;  A 
Duet  with  an  Ocoaaiontd  Chorus;  The  Hound  of 
the  BaskerviUes;  The  Adventures  of  Gerard;  Return 
of  Sherlock  Holmes;  Sir  Nigd;  Through  th» 
Magic  Door;  The  Fires  of  Fate:  a  Modem  Morality 
Play;  The  Crime  of  the  Congo;  Songs  of  the  Road; 
The  Lost  World;  etc.  He  volunteered  for  service 
in  the  Transvaal  war,  and,  in  1900,  gave  bis 
medical  services  for  some  months  in  the  hospi- 
tals there,  and  afterward  published  a  history 
of  the  war,  entitled  The  Great  Boer  War. 
Knighted  in  1902. 

Draco  (dra'-kd),  archon  of  Athens  and  celebrated 
lawgiver,  lived  in  the  last  half  of  the  seventh 
century.  He  first  gave  stability  to  the  state  by 
committing  the  laws  to  writing,  and  establishing 
the  ephetse,  or  court  of  appeaJ,  621  B.  C. ;  he 
punished  every  transgressor  of  his  laws  with 
death,  so  that  his  code  became  unbearable,  and 
was  superseded  by  a  milder  code,  instituted  by 
Solon,  who  affixed  the  penalty  of  death  to 
murder  alone.  Draco  is  said  to  have  justified 
the  severity  of  his  code  bv  maintaining  that  the 
smallest  crime  deserved  aeath,  and  he  knew  no 
severer  punishment  for  greater.  It  is  said  he 
was  smothered  to  death  in  the  theater  by  the 
hats  and  cloaks  showered  on  him  as  a  popular 
mark  of  honor. 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  eminent  English  navigator, 
was  born  of  obscure  parentage  in  1540,  at 
Tavistock,  England,  and  first  served  at  sea 
under  Sir  John  Hawkins,  his  relative.  From 
1570  to  1572  he  made  three  expeditions,  as 
commander,  to  the  West  Indies  and  the  Spanish 
main,  in  the  last  of  which  he  gained  a  lar^e 
booty.  He  next  fought  with  such  bravery  in 
Ireland,  under  Essex,  that  Sir  Christopher  Hatton 
introduced  him  to  Queen  Elizabeth.  With  five 
small  vessels  he  sailed  in  1577  to  attack  the 
Spaniards  in  the  South  seas.     In  this  expedition 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


659 


he  ravaged  the  Spanish  settlements,  coasted  the 
North  American  shore  as  far  as  latitude  forty- 
eight  degrees  north,  and  took  possession  of  the 
country  under  the  name  of  New  Albion.  He 
then  returned  home  by  the  Moluccas  and  the 
cape,  after  a  circumnavigation  of  nearly  three 
years.  Elizabeth  dined  on  board  his  ship  at 
Deptford,  and  knighted  him  in  1580.  In  1585 
he  successfully  attacked  the  Spaniards  in  the 
West  Indies;  in  1587  he  destroyed  many  ships 
at  Cadiz;  and  in  1588,  as  vice-admiral,  he  par- 
ticipated in  the  destruction  of  the  armada.  He 
died  near  Porto  BcUo  in  1596. 

Drake,  Joseph  Rodman,  American  poet,  was  bom 
in  New  York  in  1795;  graduated  from  Columbia 
college,  1816,  and  became  an  intimate  friend  of 
Fitz-Greene  Halleck.  His  poems  The  Culprit 
Fay  and  Address  to  the  American  Flag  are  the 
best  of  his  productions.  He  died  in  New  York 
in  1820. 

Drake,  Samuel  Gardner,  American  antiquary  and 
writer,  was  born  in  Pittsfield,  N.  H.,  1798.  He 
opened  an  antiquarian  book-store  in  Boston  in 
1828,  and  wrote  and  published  various  works, 
including  Indian  Biography,  History  and  Antiqui- 
ties of  Boston,  Annals  of  Witchcraft  in  the  United 
States,  and  Book  of  the  Indians.     Died,  1875. 

Draper,  Andrew  Sloan,  educator,  commissioner  of 
education,  state  of  New  York,  1904-1913,  was 
born  in  Westford,  N.  Y.,  1848.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Albany  academy  and  Albany  law  school. 
Taught  school,  1866-71;  practiced  law,  1871- 
85;  LL.  D.,  Colgate  university,  1889;  Columbia 
university,  1903;  university  of  Illinois,  1905; 
member  of  legislature  of  New  York,  1881; 
member  of  board  of  education,  Albany,  N.  Y., 
1879-81,  1890-92;  member  of  state  normal 
college  board,  1882-86;  judge  of  United  States 
court  of  Alabama  claims,  1885-86;  state  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction  of  New  York, 
1886-92;  superintendent  of  instruction,  Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  1892-94;  president  of  university  of 
Illinois,  1894-1904.  Member  of  many  educa- 
tional and  other  learned  societies,  and  author  of 
numerous  addresses  and  papers  on  educational 
subjects.    Died,  1913. 

Draper,  Eben  Sumner,  manufacturer,  ex-governor 
of  Massachusetts,  was  bom  in  Hopedale,  Mass., 
1858.  He  was  educated  at  Allen's  school.  West 
Newton,  and  Massachusetts  institute  of  tech- 
nology, and  subsequently  studied  in  machine 
shops  and  cotton  mills.  He  then  became  an 
active  officer  in  the  operations  of  the  Draper 
company.  Chairman  of  republican  state  com- 
mittee, 1892;  chairman  of  Massachusetts  dele- 
gation to  republican  national  convention,  1896. 
Director  of  National  Shawmut  bank.  Queen 
City  cotton  company,  Milford  national  bank. 
Member  of  corporation  of  Massachusetts  insti- 
tute of  technology.  Home  Market  club,  etc. ; 
trustee  of  Peter  Bent  Brigham  hospital  fund. 
In  1898,  through  Massachusetts  volunteer  aid 
association,  raised  $200,000  for  hospital  ship 
Bay  State  for  Spanish-American  war.  In  1906 
he  became  lieutenant-governor  of  Massachusetts, 
and  in  1909,  governor. 

Draper,  John  William,  American  chemist,  physi- 
ologist, and  author,  was  bom  in  England,  1811. 
He  took  his  degree  of  M.  D.  at  the  university  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1836;  became  successively  pro- 
fessor of  natural  sciences  in  Hampden-Sidney 
college,  Virginia,  and,  in  1841,  professor  of 
chemistry  in  New  York  university,  and,  in  1850, 
of  physiology.  From  1850  to  1873  he  was  also 
president  of  the  New  York  medical  college.  He 
was  a  noted  investigator  in  spectrum  analysis 
and  in  photography.  Of  his  numerous  works 
the  following  are  the  chief:  Human  Physiology, 
Statical  and  Dynamical;  History  of  the  American 
CivU  War;    Textbook  on  Chemistry;    History  of 


the  Intdlectual  Development  of  Europe,  and 
Scientific  Memoirt.  He  died  in  1882. 
Drew,  John,  actor,  was  bora  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
1853.  lie  comes  from  a  family  of  distinguished 
actors,  and  was  educated  by  private  tutors  and 
at  the  Episcopal  academy,  Piiiladelphia.  First 
appearance,  1873,  Arch  Street  theater,  Phila^ 
delphia,  as  Plumper  in  Cool  a»  a  CucunUner; 
appeared  in  Woman  of  the  Day.  1871;  joined 
Augustin  Daly's  company,  Fifth  Avenue  theater, 

1875,  as  Bob  Ruggles  in  The  Big  Bonanaa; 
joined    Edwin    Booth,    Fifth    Avenue    theater, 

1876,  in  Shakespearian  plays:  supported  Fanny 
Davenport,  1877-78;  played  Henry  Heauclafr 
in  Diplomacy,  1878-79 ;  leading  man  in  Augiutin 
Daly's  company.  1879-82,  creating  many  rdles; 
starred,  1892,  playing  Dr.  Paul  Hlondet  in  The 
Masked  Ball,  and  Frederick  Oasian  in  The 
Butterflies  with  Maude  Adams ;  has  since  starred 
in  The  Bauble  Shop,  Rosemary,  The  Squire  of 
Dames,  The  Marriage  of  Convenience,  One  Sum- 
mer's Day,  The  Liars,  The  Tyranny  of  Teart, 
etc.  He  is  now  under  the  management  of 
Charles  Frohman. 

Dreyfus  {dra'-fiis'),  Alfred,  French  army  officer, 
was  bom  about  1859  at  Miilhausen  in  Alsace, 
the  son  of  a  rich  Jewish  manufacturer.  In  1874  he 
was  taken  to  Paris.  He  was  an  artillery  captain, 
attached  to  the  general  army  staff,  when  in  1894, 
on  a  charge  of  dehvering  to  a  foreign  government 
documents  connected  with  the  national  defense, 
he  was  court-martialed,  degraded,  and  trans- 
ported to  Devil's  island,  French  Guiana.  The 
efforts  of  his  wife  and  friends  to  prove  him 
an  innocent  victim  of  malice,  injustice,  and 
forgery  plunged  France  into  a  chaos  of  militarism 
and  anti-Semitism.  He  was  not  reinstated  until 
July,  1906. 

Dreyse  (dri'-zg),  Johann  Nikolaus  von,  German 
inventor,  was  bom  at  Sommerda  near  Erfurt, 
Prussia,  1787.  He  worked  first  as  a  locksmith 
and  then  in  a  gim  factory.  He  founded  iron- 
works in  Sommerda,  and  from  1824  manufactured 
percussion  caps.  In  1827  he  invented  a  muzsle- 
loading,  and  in  1836  a  breech-loading  needle 
gun  —  adopted  in  the  Prussian  army  in  1840. 
He  opened  a  gun  factory,  which  soon  supplied 
weapons  for  all  the  German  states.  He  was 
ennobled  in  1864,  and  died  in  1867. 

Driver,  Samuel  BoUes,  biblical  scholar,  regius  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew,  and  canon  of  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  since  1883,  was  bora  in  Southampton, 
England,  1846.  He  was  educated  at  Winchester 
college,  and  New  college,  Oxford;  hon.  Litt.  D., 
Dubfinand  Cambridge;  hon.  D.  D., Glasgow:  fel- 
low of  New  college,  1870-83 ;  tutor  of  New  college, 
1875-83;  member  of  Old  Testament  Revision 
company,  1876-84:  examining  chaplain  to 
bishop  of  Southwell,  1884-1904.  Author:  A 
Treatise  on  the  Use  of  the  Tenses  in  Hebrew; 
Isaiah:  His  Life  and  Times;  An  Introduction  to 
the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  numerous 
sermons,  translations,  and  commentaries. 

Droysen  (droi'-zen),  Johann  Gustav,  German  his- 
torian, was  bora  at  Treptow,  Prussia,  1808,  and 
became  lecturer  on  history  in  the  university  of 
Berlin  in  1833.  He  published,  amon^  other 
works.  History  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Hisloryof 
Hdlenism,  and  History  of  Prussian  Politics.  The 
latter  is  call«l  his  most  important  work.  Died, 
1884.  „        .. 

Dmmmond,  Hon.  Sir  Georije  Alexander,  Canadian 
legislator  and  financier,  was  born  in  1829.  He 
became  a  member  of  the  upper  house  of  the 
Dominion  parliament  in  1888,  and  chairman  of 
the  bulking  and  commerce  standing  committee 
of  the  senate.  He  was  also  president  of  the  bank 
of  Montreal,  vice-president  of  the  Royal  trust 
company,  director  of  Canadian  Pacific  railway, 
and  other  companies.     Died,  1910. 


668 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


general  of  the  state.  He  soon  after  was  elected 
to  the  legislature^  and  in  1840  became  secretary 
of  state  for  Illinois.  He  was  judge  of  the  Illinois 
supreme  court  from  1841  to  1843,  when  he 
resigned,  and  was  chosen  to  congress  as  a  demo- 
crat, where  he  at  once  became  recognized  as 
one  of  the  ablest  men  of  his  party.  He  was 
opposed  to  slavery,  was  strongly  opposed  to  the 
celebrated  Wilmot  proviso,  and  argued  in  favor 
of  states  rights.  Douglas  was  elected  to  the 
senate  in  1847,  and  it  was  as  a  member  of  the 
senate  that  he  introduced,  in  1854,  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  bill,  which  provided  that  their  own 
citizens  should  determine  whether  these  terri- 
tories should  become  free  or  slave  states.  In 
1858  he  was  a  candidate  for  the  United  States 
senate,  and  held  a  series  of  joint  debates  with 
Abraham  Lincoln,  his  opponent.  In  1860  the 
democratic  party  split  into  two  divisions,  one 
of  which  nominated  Douglas  for  president,  and 
the  other  John  C.  Breckenridge.  Douglas  was 
strongly  opposed  to  secession,  and  delivered 
several  addresses  on  the  subject  after  the  out- 
break of  the  civil  war.     He  died  in  1861. 

Douglas,  William  Lewis,  manufacturer,  ex-governor 
of  Massachusetts,  was  bom  in  Plymouth,  Mass., 
1845;  educated  at  brief,  irregular  periods  in 
public  schools  of  Massachusetts;  when  five  years 
old  his  father  died;  at  age  of  seven  he  went  to 
work  for  an  uncle,  who  set  him  to  pegging  shoes, 
and  except  for  a  brief  return  to  his  mother  when 
eleven  years  old,  worked  for  his  uncle  eight 
years;  worked  in  cotton  mill  at  Plymouth  at 
fifteen,  and  later  in  factory  at  Chiltonville,  Mass. ; 
afterward  went  to  Hopkinton  and  South  Brain- 
tree,  Mass.,  where  he  learned  bootmaking;  at 
Brockton,  1876,  began  with  small  shop,  from 
which  he  has  built  up  a  business  with  combined 
capacity  of  over  20,000  pairs  of  shoes  daily,  and 
owns  seventy-eight  retail  shoe  stores  in  large 
cities  selling  the  "Douglas"  shoe.  Member  of 
Massachu.setts  house  of  representatives,  1884-85, 
and  of  Ma8.sachusetts  senate,  1887;  mayor  of 
Brockton,  1890;  elected  governor  of  Massachu- 
setts, 1905.  Delegate  to  democratic  national  con- 
ventions, 1884, 1892,  1896;  delegate  at  large,  1904. 

Douglass,  Frederick,  American  orator,  a  mulatto 
slave.  Was  bom  at  Tuckahoe,  near  Easton, 
Maryland,  in  1817.  In  1838  he  escaped  from  a 
Baltimore  shipyard  to  the  northern  states,  and 
changed  his  name  from  Lloyd  or  Bailey  to 
Douglass.  He  lectured  on  slavery  with  great 
success  during  1845-47  in  Great  Britain,  where 
150  pounds  was  collected  to  buy  his  freedom. 
In  1847  he  started  Frederick  Dottglasa'a  Paper,  a 
weekly  abolition  newspaper,  at  Rochester,  New 
York.  He  became  assistant  secretary  to  the 
Santo  Domingo  commission,  1871,  a  presidential 
elector,  1872-  United  States  marshal  for  the 
District  of  Columbia,  1876-81 ;  recorder  of  deeds 
there,  1881-86;  and  United  States  minister  to 
Hayti,  1889-91.  He  died  at  his  home  near 
Washington,  1895. 

Dow,  or  Dou,  Gerard,  Dutch  painter,  was  born  at 
Leyden  in  1613.  He  studied  under  Rembrandt, 
1628-31,  and  at  first  mainly  occupied  himself 
with  portraiture,  but  soon  turned  to  genre.  His 
200  works,  scattered  over  all  the  great  European 
collections,  include  his  own  portrait,  that  of  his 
wife,  "The  Poulterer's  Shop,"  in  the  national 
gallery,  London;  and  his  celebrated  "Dropsical 
Woman,"  with  ten  others,  in  the  Louvre.  He 
died  in  1675. 

Dow,  Neal,  temperance  reformer,  was  bom  in 
Portland,  Me.,  1804,  of  Quaker  parentage.  In 
1851,  through  his  efforts  while  mayor  of  Portland^ 
he  secured  the  passage  of  what  is  called  the 
"Maine  law,"  which,  under  severe  penalties, 
prohibited  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors.  In 
1884    this    provision    was    incorporated    in    the 


constitution  of  the  state.  He  was  twice  chosen 
mayor  of  Portland,  and  during  the  civil  war 
served  as  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  holding 
at  different  times  three  separate  commands. 
He  was  twice  wounded  and  once  taken  prisoner. 
He  resigned  from  the  army  in  1864.  In  1880 
he  was  the  candidate  of  the  national  prohibition 
party  for  president  of  the  United  States.  Died. 
1897. 

Dowden  (dou'-den)^  Edward,  British  critic  and 
editor,  professor  of  Knglish  literature,  university 
of  Dublin,  1867-1913,  was  bora  in  Cork,  1843; 
graduate  of  Dublin  university;  M.  A.,  LL.  D., 
D.  C.  L.,  Litt.  D.  Clark  lecturer  in  English 
literature,  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  1893-96; 
commissioner  of  national  education,  Ireland, 
1896-1901.  He  wrote:  Shakspere:  His  Mind 
and  Art;  Studies  in  Literature;  Life  of  SheUey; 
The  French  Revolution  and  English  lAteraiuxe; 
A  History  of  French  Literature;  Puritan  and 
Anglican;  Afiehd  de  Montaigne;  edited  Shelley's 
Poetical  Works;  Wordsworth's  Poetical  Works, 
etc.     Died.  1913. 

Doyle,  Sir  A.  Conaii,  Scottish  novelist  and  physi- 
cian, was  bom  in  Edinburgh,  1859;  educated 
at  Stonyhurst  and  Edinburgh  university. 
From  1882  until  1890  he  practiced  his  profession 
at  Southsea,  writing  all  the  while  various  short 
stories,  some  of  which  have  been  since  published 
under  the  title  of  The  Captain  of  the  Polestar. 
After  A  Study  in  Scarlet,  Micah  Clarke,  and  Tfie 
Sian  of  Four  came  The  White  Company,  which 
led  to  the  final  abandonment  of  medicine  for 
literature.  The  Adventures  of  Sherlock  Holmes 
and  The  Memoirs  of  Sherlock  Holmes  formed  a 
brilliant  series  of  detective  stories.  In  1894  he 
wrote  a  short  play,  A  Story  of  IF a/erioo,  success- 
fully produced  by  Sir  Henry  Irving.  Then  fol- 
lowea  The  Exploits  of  Brigadier  Gerard;  Rodney 
Stone;  Unde  Bemae;  The  Tragedy  of  the  Koroeko: 
a  volume  of  poems  entitled  Songs  of  Action;  A 
Duet  with  an  Occasional  Chorus;  The  Hound  of 
the  Baskervilles;  The  Adventures  of  Gerard;  Return 
of  Sherlock  Holmes;  Sir  Nigel;  Through  the 
Magic  Door;  The  Fires  of  Fate:  a  Modem  Morality 
Play;  The  Crime  of  the  Congo;  Songs  of  the  Road; 
The  Lost  World;  etc.  He  volunteered  for  service 
in  the  Transvaal  war,  and,  in  1900,  gave  his 
medical  services  for  some  months  in  the  hospi- 
tals there,  and  afterward  published  a  history 
of  the  war,  entitled  The  Great  Boer  War. 
Knighted  in  1902. 

Draco  (dr&'-kd),  archon  of  Athens  and  celebrated 
lawgiver,  lived  in  the  last  half  of  the  seventh 
century.  He  first  gave  stability  to  the  state  by 
committing  the  laws  to  writing,  and  establishing 
the  ephetse,  or  court  of  appeal,  621  B.  C. ;  he 
punished  every  transgressor  of  his  laws  with 
death,  so  that  his  code  became  unbearable,  and 
was  superseded  by  a  milder  code,  instituted  by 
Solon,  who  affixed  the  penalty  of  death  to 
murder  alone.  Draco  is  said  to  have  justified 
the  severity  of  his  code  bv  maintaining  that  the 
smallest  crime  deserved  death,  and  he  knew  no 
severer  punishment  for  greater.  It  is  said  he 
was  smothered  to  death  in  the  theater  by  the 
hats  and  cloaks  showered  on  him  as  a  popular 
mark  of  honor. 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  eminent  English  navigator, 
was  born  of  obscure  parentage  in  1540,  at 
Tavistock,  England,  and  first  served  at  sea 
under  Sir  John  Hawkins,  his  relative.  From 
1570  to  1572  he  made  three  expeditions,  as 
commander,  to  the  West  Indies  and  the  Spanish 
main,  in  the  last  of  which  he  gained  a  lar^e 
booty.  He  next  fought  with  such  bravery  in 
Ireland,  under  Essex,  that  Sir  Christopher  Hatton 
introduced  him  to  Queen  Elizabeth.  With  five 
small  vessels  he  sailed  in  1577  to  attack  the 
Spaniards  in  the  South  seas.     In  this  expedition 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


6M 


he  ravaged  the  Spanish  settlements,  coasted  the 
North  American  shore  as  far  as  latitude  forty- 
eight  degrees  north,  and  took  possession  of  the 
country  under  the  name  of  New  Albion.  He 
then  returned  home  by  the  Moluccas  and  the 
cape,  after  a  circumnavigation  of  nearly  three 
years.  Elizabeth  dined  on  board  his  ship  at 
Deptford,  and  knighted  him  in  1580.  In  1585 
he  successfully  attacked  the  Spaniards  in  the 
West  Indies;  in  1587  he  destroyed  many  ships 
at  Cadiz;  and  in  1588,  as  vice-admiral,  he  par- 
ticipated in  the  destruction  of  the  armada.  He 
died  near  Porto  BcUo  in  1596. 

Drake,  Joseph  Rodman,  American  poet,  was  bom 
in  New  York  in  1795;  graduated  from  Columbia 
college,  1816,  and  became  an  intimate  friend  of 
Fitz-Greene  Halleck.  His  poems  The  CtUprit 
Fay  and  Address  to  the  American  Flag  are  the 
best  of  his  productions.  He  died  in  New  York 
in  1820. 

Drake,  Samuel  Gardner,  American  antiquary  and 
writer,  was  born  in  Pittsfield,  N.  H.,  1798.  He 
opened  an  antiquarian  book-store  in  Boston  in 
1828,  and  wrote  and  published  various  works, 
including  Indian  Biography,  History  and  Antiqui^ 
ties  of  Boston,  Annals  of  Witchcraft  in  the  United 
States,  and  Book  of  the  Indians.     Died,  1875. 

Draper,  Andrew  Sloan,  educator,  commissioner  of 
education,  state  of  New  York,  1904-1913,  was 
born  in  Westford,  N.  Y.,  1848.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Albany  academy  and  Albany  law  school. 
Taught  school,  1866-71;  practiced  law,  1871- 
85;  LL.  D.,  Colgate  university,  1889;  Columbia 
university,  1903;  university  of  Illinois,  1905; 
member  of  legislature  of  New  York,  1881; 
member  of  board  of  education,  Albany,  N.  Y., 
1879-81,  1890-92;  member  of  state  normal 
college  board,  1882-86;  judge  of  United  States 
court  of  Alabama  claims,  1885-86;  state  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction  of  New  York, 
1886-92;  superintendent  of  instruction,  Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  1892-94;  president  of  university  of 
Illinois,  1894-1904.  Member  of  many  educa- 
tional and  other  learned  societies,  and  author  of 
numerous  addresses  and  papers  on  educational 
subjects.    Died,  1913. 

Draper,  Eben  Sumner,  manufacturer,  ex-governor 
of  Massachusetts,  was  bom  in  Hopedale,  Mass., 
1858.  He  was  educated  at  Allen's  school.  West 
Newton,  and  Massachusetts  institute  of  tech- 
nology, and  subsequently  studied  in  machine 
shops  and  cotton  mills.  He  then  became  an 
active  officer  in  the  operations  of  the  Draper 
company.  Chairman  of  republican  state  com- 
mittee, 1892;  chairman  of  Massachusetts  dele- 
gation to  republican  national  convention,  1896. 
Director  of  National  Shawmut  bank.  Queen 
City  cotton  company,  Milford  national  bank. 
Member  of  corporation  of  Massachusetts  insti- 
tute of  technology.  Home  Market  club,  etc. ; 
trustee  of  Peter  Bent  Brigham  hospital  fund. 
In  1898,  through  Massachusetts  volunteer  aid 
association,  raised  $200,000  for  hospital  ship 
Bay  State  for  Spanish-American  war.  In  1906 
he  became  lieutenant-governor  of  Massachusetts, 
and  in  1909,  governor. 

Draper,  John  William,  American  chemist,  physi- 
ologist, and  author,  was  bom  in  England,  1811. 
He  took  his  degree  of  M.  D.  at  the  university  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1836;  became  successively  pro- 
fessor of  natural  sciences  in  Hampden-Sianey 
college,  Virginia,  and,  in  1841,  professor  of 
chemistry  in  New  York  university,  and,  in  1850, 
of  physiology.  From  1850  to  1873  he  was  also 
president  of  the  New  York  medical  college.  He 
was  a  noted  investigator  in  spectrum  analysis 
and  in  photography.  Of  his  numerous  works 
the  following  are  the  chief:  Human  Physiology, 
Statical  and  Dynamical;  History  of  the  American 
Civil  War;    Textbook  on  Chemistry;    History  of 


th»  IntelUetual  Developmmt  of  Europe,  and 
Scientific  Memoirs.  He  died  in  1882. 
Drew,  John,  aotor,  was  bora  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
1853.  lie  comea  from  a  family  of  distmguiahea 
actors,  and  was  educated  by  private  tutors  and 
at  the  Episcopal  academy,  Philadelphia.  First 
appearance,  1873,  Arch  Street  theater,  Philip 
delphia,  as  Plumper  in  Cool  as  a  Cticumbtr: 
appeared  in  Woman  of  th«  Day.  1871;  joinea 
Augustin  Daly's  company.  Fifth  Avenue  theatar, 

1875,  as  Bob  RugKlcs  in  The  Big  Bonanaa; 
joined    Edwin    Booth,    Fifth    Avenue    theater, 

1876,  in  Shakespearian  plays;  supported  Fannv 
Davenport,  1877-78;  played  Henry  lieauclafr 
in  Diplomacy,  1878-79;  leading  man  in  Augustin 
Daly's  company  1879-82,  (Tenting  many  r6les; 
starred.  1892,  playing  Dr.  Paul  Hlondet  in  Ths 
Masked  Ball,  and  Frederick  Ossian  in  Ths 
Butterflies  with  Maude  Adams;  has  since  starred 
in  The  Bauble  Shop,  Rosemary,  The  S<iuire  of 
Dames,  The  Marriage  of  Convenience,  One  Sum- 
mer's Day,  The  Liars,  The  Tyranny  of  Tears, 
etc.  He  is  now  under  the  management  of 
Charles  Frohman. 

Dreyfus  (drd'-fus'),  Alfred,  French  army  officer, 
was  bom  about  1859  at  Miilhausen  in  Alsace, 
the  son  of  a  rich  Jewish  manufacturer.  In  1874  he 
was  taken  to  Paris.  He  was  an  artillery  captain, 
attached  to  the  general  army  staff,  when  in  IWH, 
on  a  charge  of  delivering  to  a  foreign  government 
documents  connected  with  the  national  defense, 
be  was  court-martialed,  degraded,  and  trans- 
ported to  Devil's  island,  French  Guiana.  The 
efforts  of  his  wife  and  friends  to  prove  him 
an  innocent  victim  of  malice,  injustice,  and 
forgery  plunged  France  into  a  chaos  of  militarism 
and  anti-Semitism.  He  was  not  reinstated  until 
July,  1906. 

Dreyse  (drl'-zS),  Johann  Nlkolaus  Ton«  German 
inventor,  was  born  at  Sommerda  near  Erfurt, 
Prussia,  1787.  He  worked  first  as  a  locksmith 
and  then  in  a  gun  factory.  He  founded  iron- 
works in  Sommerda,  and  from  1824  manufactured 
percussion  caps.  In  1827  he  invented  a  muzsle- 
loading,  and  in  1836  a  breech-loading  needle 
gun  —  adopted  in  the  Prussian  army  in  1840. 
He  opened  a  gun  factory,  which  soon  supplied 
weapons  for  all  the  German  states.  He  was 
ennobled  in  1864,  and  died  in  1867. 

Driver,  Samuel  RoUes,  biblical  scholar,  regiua  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew,  and  canon  of  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  since  1883,  was  bom  in  Southampton, 
England,  1846.  He  was  educated  at  Winchester 
college,  and  New  college,  Oxford;  hon.  Litt.  D., 
DubBnand  Cambridge;  hon.  D.  D., Glasgow:  fel- 
low of  New  college,  1870-83 ;  tutor  of  New  college, 
1875-83;  member  of  Old  Testament  Revision 
company,  1876-84;  examining  chaplain  to 
bishop  of  Southwell,  1884-1904.  Author:  A 
Treatise  on  the  Use  of  the  Tenses  in  Hebrew; 
Isaiah:  His  Life  and  Times;  An  Introduction  to 
the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  nimierous 
sermons,  translations,  and  commentaries. 

Droysen  (droi'-zen),  Johann  Gustav,  German  his- 
torian, was  bom  at  Treptow^  Prussia,  1808,  and 
became  lecturer  on  history  m  the  university  of 
Berlin  in  1833.  He  published,  amon^  other 
works.  History  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Historyof 
Hdlenism,  and  History  of  Prussian  Politics.  The 
latter  is  called  his  most  important  work.  Died, 
1884.  ^       ^, 

Dnimmond,  Hon.  Sir  GeorKC  Alexander,  Canadian 
legislator  and  financier,  was  bom  in  1829.  He 
became  a  member  of  the  upper  house  of  the 
Dominion  parliament  in  1888,  and  chairman  of 
the  banking  and  commerce  standing  committee 
of  the  senate.  He  was  also  president  of  the  bank 
of  Montreal,  vice-president  of  the  Royal  trust 
company,  director  of  Canadian  Pacific  railway, 
and  other  companies.     Died,  1910. 


660 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Dnunmond,  Sir  Georj^  Gordon,  British  soldier, 
was  bom  in  1772,  died  in  1854.  He  entered  the 
British  army  as  ensign,  1789;  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  Holland  campaign,  1794-95,  and 
in  Egypt,  1800;  on  duty  in  Canada,  1808-11; 
promoted  to  lieutenant-general,  1811;  again 
ordered  to  Canada  as  second  in  command  under 
Sir  George  Prevost,  1813;  planned  and  efTected 
the  capture  of  Fort  Niagara,  and  planned  the 
successful  attack  on  Black  Rock  and  Buffalo; 
led  a  combined  military  and  naval  force  against 
Oswego  and  destroyed  the  American  works  and  | 
stores,  1814;  was  in  command  of  the  British 
forces  at  the  battle  of  Lundy's  Lane,  July  25,  i 
and  in  August  invested,  but  failed  to  capture 
P'ort  Erie.     In  1815  he  was  appointed  governor-  i 

feneral    of   Canada,    resigned    and    returned    to ! 
ingland.  | 

Dnunmond,  Henry,  Scottish  clergyman  and  author, ' 
was  born  in  Stirling,  Scotland,  1851;    educated  | 
at   Edinburgh   and  Tiibingen;    studied  for  the  I 
Free  church ;  lectured  on  natural  science;  became  j 
famous  by  the  publication  of  Natural  Law  in  the 
Spiritual  World,  a  book  which  had  an  enormous  | 
sale.     This  was  succeeded  by  Tromcal  Africa,  a 
book  of  travel,  and  by  a  series  of  booklets,  com- 
mencing with  The  Greatest  Thing  in  the  World,  \ 
intended   to   expound   and   commend   the   first 
principles  of  the  Christian  faith.     His  last  work 
except    one,    published    posthumously,    entitled ' 
The  Ideal  Life,  was  The  AscerU  of  Man,  in  which  I 
he  places  an  altruistic  element  in  the  process  of 
evolution,  and  makes  the  goal  of  it  a  higher  and 
higher  life.     Died,  1897. 

Drummond,  James,  British  biblical  scholar,  prin- 
cipal of  Manchester  college,  Oxford,  188^1906, 
was  born  in  Dublin,  1835.  He  was  educated  at 
Trinity  college,  Dublin,  and  Manchester  New 
College,  London;  LL.  D.,  Litt.  D.,  Dublin; 
M.  A.,  Oxford;  D.  D.,  Tufts.  Colleague  of  Rev. 
William  Gaskell,  Cross  Street  chapel,  Manchester, 
1859-69;  professor  of  theology  in  Manchester 
Now  college,  Lotidon,  1870;  succce<ied  Dr. 
Martineau  as  principal,  1885;  removed  with  the 
college  to  Oxford,  1889;  retired,  1906.  Author: 
Spiritual  Rdigion:  Sermons  on  Christian  Faith 
and  Life;  The  Jewish  Messiah:  A  Critical  History 
of  the  Messianic  Idea  Among  the  Jews;  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Study  of  Theology;  Via,  Veritas,  Vita, 
the  llibbert  lectures  for  1894  on  Christianity 
in  its  most  simple  and  intelligible  form;  Studies 
in  Christian  Doctrine,  etc. 

Drusus  (dr(5d'-siis),  Nero  Claudius,  commonly  called 
Drusus  Senior,  sterxson  of  the  emperor  Augustus, 
and  younger  brother  of  the  emperor  Tiberius, 
was  born  in  38  B.  C.  As  he  grew  up,  he  devel- 
oped splendid  personal  (qualities  as  well  as  the 
highest  capacity  for  civil  and  military  afifairs. 
He  began  his  public  career  in  19  B.  C,  and 
signalized  himself  by  the  defeat  of  the  Rhsetians 
and  other  Alpine  tribes  which  infested  the  north 
of  Italy.  In  13  B.  C.  he  was  sent  into  Gaul, 
then  in  revolt,  and,  after  crushing  the  rebels 
there,  pushed  across  the  Rhine  in  pursuit  of 
their  German  allies.  In  this  campaign  he  sub- 
dued the  Sicambri  and  Frisii,  and  forced  his  way 
to  the  German  ocean,  being  the  first  Roman 
general  who  had  done  so.  From  this  time  he 
made  the  business  of  his  life  to  establish  the 
Roman  supremacy  in  Germany,  partly  by  con- 
quest, and  partly  by  the  execution  of  great 
military  works.  A  fall  from  his  horse  cut  short 
his  brilliant  career  in  9  B.  C. 

Dryden,  John,  English  poet,  was  bom  in  North- 
amptonshire, 1631.  After  graduating  at  Cam- 
bridge, he  entered  upon  a  literary  career,  and 
succeeded  Sir  William  Davenant  as  poet  laureate 
in  1670.  His  essay  on  Dramatic  Poesy,  according 
to  Dr.  Johnson,  created  the  school  of  English 
criticism.     Dryden,  by  his  dramas  and  political 


satires  —  especially  his  Absalom  and  Achitophd 
—  occupies  a  high  place  among  English  p)oet8, 
and  his  works  have  elicited  high  eulogy  from 
such  judges  as  Pope,  Scott,  Macaulay,  and 
Brougham.  He  made  numerous  translations 
from  the  classics  —  especially  Virgil,  Juvenal,  and 
Ovid  —  and  his  dramatic  work  almost  equals 
his  verse.     Died,  1700. 

Du  Barry  {dii  bd'-re'),  Marie  Jeanne  Gomard  de 
Vaubemler,  Comtesse,  favorite  of  Louis  XV., 
was  born  in  1746,  at  Vaucouleurs,  the  daughter 
of  a  dressmaker.  Brought  up  in  a  Paris  convent, 
in  1769  as  Mademoiselle  Lange  she  won  the 
notice  of  Louis  XV.,  who  married  her  to  Comte 
Guillaume  du  Barry,  brother  of  her  former 
protector.  Her  influence  henceforth  reigned 
supreme  until  the  death  of  Louis  in  1774,  when 
she  was  dismissed  from  court.  She  was  tried 
before  the  revolutionary  tribunal  for  having 
wasted  the  treasures  of  the  state  and  worn 
mourning  for  the  late  king,  and  was  guillotined, 
1793. 

Du  Bols-Reymond  {dH  bw&'-rd'-mds'),  Emll,  Ger- 
man physiologist,  was  born  in  Berlin  in  1818. 
His  name  is  chiefly  identified  with  animal  elec- 
tricity, the  subject  of  his  chief  work,  which  has 
given  him  a  commanding  place  among  modern 
scientists.  He  became  professor  of  physiology 
in  the  university  of  Benin  in  1858,  and  secre- 
tary of  the  Berun  academv  of  sciences  in  1867. 
Two  volumes  of  his  collected  memoirs  and 
addresses  appeared  in  1885-87.     Died,  1896. 

Du  Bose,  WUllam  Porcher,  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  was  bom  in  South  Carolina,  1836. 
He  was  educated  at  the  military  academv  of 
South  Carolina  and  the  university  of  Virginia: 
8.  T.  D.,  Columbia;  D.  C.  L.,  university  of  the 
South;  D.  D.,  General  theological  seminary. 
While  a  student  for  the  ministry  he  entered  the 
military  service  of  the  confederacy,  1861: 
served  as  an  officer  through  war,  was  several 
times  wounded  and  once  a  prisoner;  priest  in 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  church,  1865;  became 
chaplain  and  professor,  university  of  the  South, 
1871 ;  after  continuous  8er\'ice  in  this  university 
for  over  thirty-six  years,  he  resigned  active 
duties  in  the  summer  of  1908  and  was  elected 
dean  and  professor  emeritus.  Author:  Soteri- 
ology  of  the  New  Testament;  The  Ecumenical 
Councils;  The  Ooapd  in  the  Gospds;  The  Gospel 
According  to  St.  Paxd;  High  Priesthood  and 
Sacrifice. 

Du  Challlu  {da  shd'-yu.'),  Paul  Bellonl,  American 
traveler,  was  bom  in  Louisiana,  1835.  In  1855 
he  sailed  to  West  Africa,  where  he  spent  four 
years.  His  Explorations  in  Equatorial  Africa 
gave  important  contributions  to  geographical, 
ethnological,  and  zoological  science,  but  was 
receivea  at  first  with  much  distrust.  In  1863^ 
65  he  revisited  his  old  hunting  grounds,  vindi- 
cated his  former  discoveries,  and  described  his 
second  expedition  in  A  Journey  to  Ashango-Land. 
Besides  books  for  the  young,  foundea  on  his 
varied  adventures,  he  pubUshed  The  Land  of 
the  Midnight  Sun  and  The  Viking  Age.  Died, 
1903. 

Dudevant  (dud'-wflN'),  Aurore.      See  Sand,  George. 

Dufferin  {diLf'-ir-ln\  Frederick  Temple  Hamilton 
Blackwood,  Marquis  of,  British  statesman,  was 
born  in  Florence,  Italv,  1826.  He  graduated 
from  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  in  1841  suc- 
ceeded to  his  father's  title.  In  1855  he  was 
attached  to  the  Vienna  mission  under  Lord  John 
Russell,  and  in  1859  made  a  yacht  voyage  to 
Iceland.  In  1860  he  gave  a  printed  account  of 
this  voyage  in  Letters  from.  High  Latitudes.  In 
1860  he  became  British  commissioner  in  Syria, 
and  served  as  under-secretary  of  state  for 
India  from  1864  until  1866,  and  later,  for  a 
short  time,  was  under-secretarj'  of  war.     From 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


661 


1868  until  1872  he  was  chancellor  of  the  duchy 
of  Lancaster;  governor-general  of  Canada, 
1872-7S;  ambassador  to  Russia,  1879-81; 
ambassador  to  Constantinople,  1881-84;  gov- 
ernor-general of  India,  1884-88;  ambassador  to 
Italy,  1888-91;  and  ambassador  to  France, 
1891-96.  Hewas  made  an  earl  in  1871.  Author: 
Irish  Emigration  and  the  Tenure  of  Land  in 
Ireland;  Mr.  Mill's  Plan  for  t)ie  Pacification  of 
Ireland  Examined;  Contributions  to  an  Inquiry 
into  the  State  of  Ireland;  Speeches  and  Addresses; 
etc.     Died,  1902. 

Du  Guesclin  {dH  gi'-kl&s'),  Bertrand.  See  Gues- 
clin. 

Dumas  (dii'-md'),  Alexandre,  the  Elder,  French 
novelist  and  dramatist,  was  born  in  Villers- 
Cotterets,  1802,  son  of  General  Dumas,  a  Creole. 
He  lost  his  father  at  the  age  of  four,  and  led  for 
a  time  a  desultory  life,  until,  driven  by  poverty, 
he  went  to  Paris  to  seek  his  fortune.  He  soon 
made  his  mark  in  literature,  and  became  the 
most  popular  dramatist  and  romancer  of  his 
time.  His  romances  are  numerous,  but  he 
reached  the  climax  of  his  fame  in  Monte  Crista, 
in  1844,  and  the  Three  Musketeers,  which  followed 
soon  after.  He  was  unhappy  in  his  marriage,  and 
squandered  his  fortune  in  reckless  extravagance. 
Latterly  he  lived  at  Dieppe,  broken  in  health  and 
impaired  in  intellect,  ministered  to  by  his  son  and 
daughter.     Died,  1870. 

Dumas,  Alexandre,  the  Younger,  was  bom  in  1824. 
He  was  a  son  of  the  preceding,  and,  like  him,  a 
noveUst  and  dramatist.  He  accompanied  his 
father  on  a  voyage  to  the  Mediterranean  in  1846, 
and  in  1848  produced  the  work  which  made  his 
reputation  —  La  Dame  aux  Camilias  —  a  novel 
which  drew  the  encomium  of  his  own  father. 
Subsequently  his  work  was  chiefly  dramatic,  and 
includes  such  plays  as  Le  Demi-Monde,  La 
Princesse  Georges,  Monsieur  Alphonse,  and  Denise. 
In  1874  he  was  admitted  as  a  member  to  the 
French  academy.     Died,  1895. 

Dumas,  Jean  Baptlste,  distinguished  French 
chemist,  was  born  at  Alais,  in  the  department 
of  Gard,  1800.  He  was  at  first  apprenticed  to 
an  apothecary  in  Geneva,  and  engaged  in  some 
scientific  investigations  that  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  De  Candolle  and  Provost.  In  1821  he 
went  to  Paris  and  became  tutor  in  the  polytechnic 
school,  and  then  professor  of  chemistry  in  the 
ificole  de  Medicine.  He  was  afterward  removed 
to  the  Sorbonne  and  made  a  member  of  the 
institute.  His  researches  in  organic  chemistry, 
on  atomic  weights,  sulphuric  ether,  and  the  law 
of  "substitutions"  attracted  the  attention  of  all 
Europe.  In  1848  he  was  a  member  of  the  legis- 
lative assembly;  and  in  1849-51  held  the  port- 
folio of  agriculture  and  commerce.  After  the 
C(mp  d'etat  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  senate, 
and  of  the  superior  council  of  public  instruction. 
Died,  1884. 

Du  Maurler  (dii  mo'^rya'),  George  Louis  Palmella 
Busson,  artist  and  draughtsman,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1834;  educated  in  London,  Belgium, 
and  the  Netherlands.  For  many  years  a  val- 
uable art  contributor  to  Punch,  at  the  same  time 
illustrating  many  other  books  and  magazines. 
His  mode  of  satirizing  the  extravagances  of  the 
so-called  aesthetic  school  and  other  society 
foibles  procured  for  him  a  high  reputation.  In 
1891  he  published  a  novel,  Peter  Ibbetson,  followed 
by  Trilby  in  1894.     Died,  1896. 

Dumourlez  {du'^mob'-rya'),  Charles  Frangols, 
French  general,  was  born  at  Cambrai,  1739; 
entered  the  army  in  1757,  and  served  in  Germany 
during  the  seven  years'  war.  During  the 
French  revolution  he  became  lieutenant-general 
in  the  army  of  the  north,  commanded  bv 
Marechal  Luckner.  A  winter  campaign  in  Bel- 
gi\un  followed,   and  in   1792  he  overthrew  the 


Austrians  under  the  duke  of  SaohMD-TcaolMa 

and  Clairfait  at  Jcmappw.  The  campaign  of 
1793,  which  aimc<l  at  the  complete  conquest  of 
the  Netherlands,  was  opened  with  the  siege  of 
Maeatrioht;  Breda  and  other  places  were  ^kcn 
by  the  French ;  but  at  Neerwinden  be  suatained 
a  severe  defeat  from  the  Austrians  under  Coburg, 
with  whom  he  entered  into  a  plot  to  restore  the 
monarchy.  Reports  of  his  meditated  treMOD, 
however,  reached  the  government  at  Paris,  ana 
an  order  of  arrest  was  issued  against  him.  This 
he  succeeded  in  evading,  and  escaped  aeroM  the 
border.  A  reward  of  300,000  francs  was  set 
upon  his  head,  but  after  wandering  through 
many  countries  of  Europe  he  finally  settled  lu 
England,  where  he  died  an  exile  at  TurviUa 
Park,  near  Hcnley-upon-'riiamcs,  1823. 

Duncker  (d/f6ng'-kir),  Maximilian  WolfKang,  Ger- 
man historical  writer,  was  born  at  Berlin,  1811. 
He  became  professor  of  history  at  Halle  in  1842; 
sat  in  the  national  assembly,  1848,  and  as  a 
liberal  in  the  Prussian  cliambier,  1849-52;  was 
called  to  a  Tiibingen  chair  in  1857,  and  thence 
recalled  in  1859  to  Berlin  to  fill  a  post  in  the 
ministry  of  state.  From  1867  to  1874  he  was 
director  of  the  state  archives  of  Prussia.  His 
greatest  work  is  his  History  of  Antiquity,  though 
in  1883-86  he  published  the  translation  of  an 
admirable  history  of  Greece  to  the  end  of  the 
Persian  war.     Died,  1886. 

Dundonald  (dUn-ddn'-ald),  Thomas  Cochrane, 
tenth  Earl  of,  English  seaman,  was  bom  in  1775. 
Entering  the  navy  when  a  Doy,  he  early  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  the  destruction  of  th« 
French  fleet  in  Basque  roads  by  fireships,  1809. 
In  1814  he  was  accused  of  complicity  in  orieinat- 
ing  a  false  report  of  Napoleon  s  death,  and  was 
imprisoned  and  expelled  from  the  navy.  lie 
was  commander-in-chief  of  the  Chilian  navy, 
1818-22;  secured  the  independence  of  Chili, 
and,  in  1823,  having  offered  his  services  to  Brazil 
in  her  war  against  Portugal,  he  swept  the  Portu- 
guese fleet  from  Brazilian  waters.  In  1827  he 
commanded  the  Greek  navy  in  the  war  of  inde- 

Eendence.  After  the  accession  of  Queen  Victoria 
e  was  restored  to  his  full  rank  and  honors  in 
the  Enghsh  nav>-.     He  died  in  1860. 

Dtmgllson  (dung'-gll-siin),  Bobley,  medical  pro- 
fessor and  author,  was  born  in  England  in  1708. 
He  studied  medicine  in  London  and  Erlangen, 
Germany;  received  his  degree  at  the  latter 
university,  1823,  and  was  appointed  professor  of 
medicine  in  the  university  of  Virginia,  1824. 
He  served  there  until  1833;  was  professor  of 
materia  medica  and  therapeutics  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Maryland,  1833-36,  and  of  the  institutes 
of  medicine  in  Jefferson  medical  college,  Phila- 
delphia, 1836-68.  He  translated  and  edited  a 
number  of  foreign  medical  works,  published 
about  twenty  original  volumes,  among  which 
were  his  well-known  Medical  Dictionary  and 
Therapeutics  and  Materia  Medica.     Died,   1869. 

Dunne  (dUn),  Flnlej  Peter,  joumalist  author,  was 
bom  in  Chicago,  1867;  educated  in  Chicago 
public  schools;  entered  newspaper  life  as  reporter 
m  1885;  served  on  various  papers;  on  editorial 
staff  of  Chicago  Evening  Post  and  Time»-Herald, 
1892-97;  editor  of  Chicago  Journal,  1897-1900. 
Author:  Mr.  Dooley  in  Peace  and  in  War;  Mr. 
Dooley  in  the  Hearts  of  His  Countrymen;  Mr. 
Doolnf's  Philosophy;  Mr.  Dooley'a  Opinions; 
Observations  by  Mr.  Dooley;  etc. 

Dunning,  William  Archibald,  historian,  educator, 
professor  of  history,  Columbia  university,  since 
1891,  was  bom  in"  Plalnfield,  N.  J. ;  graduated 
from  Columbia,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D. ;  was  managing 
editor  of  Political  Science  Quarterly,  1894-1903. 
Author:  Essays  on  the  Civil  War  and  the  Recon- 
struction; History  of  Political  Theories;  Reeon' 
struction,  Political  and  Eeonomie;  etc. 


662 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Dnnols  (du'-ntDd')t  Jean,  Count  of  Dunois  and 
LonKueTiUev  was  born  in  Paris,  1402,  the  natural 
son  of  Louis,  duke  of  Orleans,  brother  of  Charles 
VI.  His  first  great  achievement  was  the  defeat 
of  the  English  at  Montargis,  1427;  next  he 
threw  himself  into  Orleans  with  a  small  force, 
and  defended  it  until  its  relief  by  Joan  of  Arc 
forced  the  English  to  raise  the  siege.  In  1429 
Dunois  and  the  maid  of  Orleans  won  th«  battle 
of  Patay,  after  which  he  marched  through  the 
provinces  overrun  by  the  English,  and  took  the 
fortified  towns.  Shortly  after  Joan's  tragical 
death.  Dunois  took  Chartres,  the  key  of  Paris, 
forced  Bedford  to  raise  the  siege  of  Lagny. 
chased  the  enemy  from  Paris,  and  soon  deprived 
them  of  all  their  conquests  except  Normandy 
and  Guienne.  In  1448-50  he  drove  them  from 
Normandy,  and  in  1455  from  Guienne  also,  and 
secured  the  freedom  of  France.  For  joining  the 
league  of  the  nobles  against  Louis  XI.  he  was 
deprived  of  all  his  possessions,  which  were,  how- 
ever, restored  to  him  in  1465.  He  died  in  1468. 
No  French  hero  is  more  popular  than  Dunois. 

Duns  Scotus  (dUm  skd'-iiis),  John,  famous  Francis- 
can monk  and  divine,  was  born  about  1265.  He 
appears  to  have  been  educated  at  Oxford,  where 
in  1301  he  became  professor  of  theology.  He 
afterward  removed  to  Paris,  and  then  to  Cologne, 
where  he  died  in  1308.  Duns  Scotus,  as  one  of 
the  most  eminent  of  the  Franciscans,  was  a 
chief  opponent  of  the  teachings  of  the  Dominicans, 
the  two  parties  representing  at  that  time  two 
different  schools  of  theology.  He  was  also  a 
chief  advocate  of  reaUsm,  as  opposed  to  nominal- 
ism.    His  writings  occupy  many  volumes. 

Dunstan  (diin'-stan).  Saint,  English  prelate,  was 
born  in  -925,  died  in  988.  Under  several  kings 
he  wielded  great  influence.  He  was  made  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  in  959  by  Edgar,  whom  he 
absolutely  ruled.  On  Edgar's  death  he  raised 
Edward  to  the  throne,  but  on  the  accession  of 
Ethelred  his  power  was  broken.  Dunstan  built 
up  the  power  of  the  church,  introduced  the 
Benedictines,  and  meted  out  justice  with  a 
stern  hand. 

Du  Pont,  Henry  Algernon,  United  States  senator, 
soldier,  was  born  near  Wilmington,  Del.,  1838; 
graduated  at  West  Point,  1861,  at  head  of  class, 
and  served  throughout  the  civil  war.  in  which 
he  gained  the  rank  of  colonel.  He  resigned  from 
the  army  in  1875,  and  was  president  and  general 
manager  of  the  Wilmington  and  Northern  rail- 
road company,  1879-99.  Engaged  chiefly  in 
agricultural  pursuits  since  his  retirement  from 
business,  1902.  Elected  United  States  senator, 
1906,  for  the  term  1906-11;  reelected,  1911. 

Dupont,  Samuel  Francis,  American  rear-admiral, 
was  bom  at  Bergen  Point,  N.  J.,  1803.  In  the 
summer  of  1861  he  was  given  command  of  the 
Atlantic  blockading  squadron.  He  also  com- 
manded the  expedition  which  captured  Port 
Royal  harbor  in  the  same  year.  He  was  made 
rear-admiral  in  1862,  and  the  next  year  com- 
manded the  fleet  of  ironclads  which  attacked 
Charleston,  S.  C,  where  he  was  defeated.  He 
resigned  his  command  in  1863,  and  died  at  Phila- 
delphia in  1865. 

Dupr£  (du'-prd'),  Jules,  celebrated  French  painter, 
was  bom  in  1812.  He  excels  as  a  landscape 
painter,   and  his  work  is  noted  for  its  refined 

Soetic  taste  as  well  as  for  its  bold  and  vigorous 
rawing.  Many  of  his  pictures  are  owned  in  the 
United  States.  He  died  in  1889. 
Duquesne  {du'-kdn'),  Abraham,  Marquis,  French 
naval  oflScer,  was  bom  at  Dieppe,  P>ance,  1610, 
and  first  distinguished  himself  in  1637—43  in  the 
war  with  Spain.  In  the  Swedish  service  he  rose 
to  vice-admiral;  and  then,  returning  to  France, 
reduced  Bordeaux,  which  had  declared  for  the 
Fronde.     He    defeated    De    Ruyter    and    Van 


Tromp  several  times  in  1672-73,  and  the  united 
fleets  of  Spain  and  Holland  on  Sicily  in  1676. 
On  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes, 
Duquesne  was  the  only  Protestant  excepted. 
Died,  1688. 
Dtlrer  (dii'-rir),  Albrecht,  Germtin  artist,  was  born 
at  Nuremberg  in  1471.     He  was  apprenticed  to  a 

Eainter  in  his  native  town,  and  some  years  later 
egan  designing  on  wood  and  engraving  on 
copper.  In  1505  he  proceeded  to  Venice,  and 
after  his  return  painted  his  "Adam  and  Eve," 
and  "Assumption  of  the  Virgin,"  one  of  his 
finest  works.  He  was  much  employed  by  the 
emperor  Maximilian  I.  In  1520  he  went  to  the 
Netherlands  and  painted  the  portrait  of  Erasmus, 
and  while  there  ne  was  appointed  court  painter 
by  Charles  V.  He  died  at  Nuremberg  in  1528. 
Besides  being  the  founder  of  the  German  school 
of  art,  Diirer  ranks  even  higher  as  an  engraver 
on  metal  and  designer  of  woodcuts. 

Duse  (diSO'-zd),  Elenora,  Italian  actress,  was  bom 
in  Vigevano,  1861.  She  appeared  about  1880  on 
the  Italian,  chiefly  the  Roman  stage,  as  leading 
lady  in  the  plays  of  Dumas  and  Sardou,  but 
afterward  played  parts  of  greater  depth.  She 
earned  high  praise  by  her  combined  force  and 
gracefulness.  In  1892  she  appeared  at  Vienna 
and  Berlin:  in  1893  at  New  York,  and  more 
recently  in  England,  she  reaffirmed  her  triumphs. 
Although  she  appears  chiefly  in  tragedy,  her 
versatility  has  also  allowed  her  to  please  in  the 
lighter  vein  of  Dumas'  Francillon,  and  as  the 
hosteM  in  Goldoni's  Locandiera.  aer  latest  suc- 
cesses are  D'Annunsio's  Gioconda  and  Francesca 
da  Rimini. 

Dvorak  (dvdr'-ihak),  Antonin,  compKwer,  was  bom 
at  Muhlhausen,  Bohemia,  1841.  In  1873,  after 
years  of  hack  work,  he  composed  a  hymn  which 
attracted  attention.  Brahms  introduced  his 
compositions  to  Vienna:  but  the  work  which 
won  for  him  the  ear  of  ail  Europe  was  his  Stabat 
Mater,  which  was  first  performed  in  London  in 
1883.  His  most  ambitious  work  is  orchestral 
and  choral  —  a  cantata,  the  Spectre's  Bride,  an 
oratoria,  St.  LudmiUa,  and  several  operas  — 
none  of  them  really  successful.  In  1892-95  he 
was  director  of  the  conservatory  at  New  York, 
where  he  wrote  an  American  symphony.  He  sub- 
sequently Uved  at  Prague,  where  he  diedfin  1904. 

Dwight,  Theodore  William,  jurist,  professor,  and 
editor,  was  bom  in  1822  at  Catskill,  N.  Y.: 
graduated  at  Hamilton  college,  1840,  and  studied 
at  Yale  law  school.  In  1846  he  was  elected 
Maynard  professor  of  law  in  Hamilton;. college, 
and  there  established  a  law  school.  In  1858  lie 
was  chosen  professor  of  municipal  law  in  Coliun- 
bia  college.  He  pubUshed  an  Argument  in  the 
Rose  Wiu  Case,  and  other  arguments  in  leading 
law  cases,  and  edited  Maine's  Ancient  Law.  I« 
1874  he  was  appointed  by  Governor  Dix,  of 
New  York,  a  judge  of  the  commission  of  appeals. 
Died,  1892. 

Dwlght,  Timothy,  educator,  theologian,  was  bom 
at  Northampton,  Mass.,  1752;  graduated  from 
Yale  college.  He  was  minister  of  Greenfield 
Hill,  Conn.,  1783,  where  he  also  successfully 
conducted  an  academy.  In  1795  he  was  elected 
president  of  Yale  college,  which  position  he  held 
until  his  death.  His  principal  works  are  his 
Theology  Explained  and  Defended,  The  Conquest 
of  Canaan,  an  ambitious  epic  poem,  and  Travds 
in  New  England  and  New  York.     Died,  1817. 

Dwight,  Timothy,  educator,  theologian,  was  bom 
at  Norwich,  Coim.,  1828;  grandson  of  the  above; 
graduated  from  Yale,  1849;  D.  D.,  LL.  D.; 
studied  theology  at  Yale,  1850-53;  tutor  at 
Yale,  1851-55;  studied  at  Bonn  and  Berlin, 
1856-58;  professor  of  sacred  literature  and  new 
testament  Greek,  Yale  theological  seminary, 
1868-86;    president  of  Yale  universitv,  1886-99. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


» 


Member  of  American  committee  for  revision 
of  English  version  of  the  Bible.  Author: 
Thoughts  of  and  for  the  Inner  Life,  Memoira  of 
Yale  Life  and  Men,  and  numerous  articles  on 
theological  and  educational  subjects. 

Badle  (e'-di),  John,  British  clergyman  and  writer, 
was  born  at  Alva,   Scotland,   1810;    studied  at 
Glasgow,    and    in    1835    became    minister   of    a 
Glasgow  United  Presbyterian  congregation;  from 
1843  he  also  lectured  on  exegesis  in  the  college 
of  his  church.     He  was  a  member  of  the  New 
Testament  Revision  company.     His  chief  works 
are   Biblical   Cydopoedia,    Ecclesiastical   Encyclo- 
pcedia,  and  a  number  of  commentaries.     Died  at 
Glasgow,  1876. 
Eads  {edz),  James  Buchanan,  American  engineer, 
was  born  at  Lawrenceburg,  Ind.,  1820.     He  con- 
structed   the   steel   bridge    over   the   Mississippi 
river  at  St.   Louis,   completed  in   1874;    partly 
carried  out  a  plan  of  deepening  the  Mississippi 
by   means   of   jetties,    and  was   engaged   at   nis 
death  in  planning  a  ship-canal  over  the  isthmus 
of  Tehuantepec.     Died,  1887. 
Games     {amz),    Emma,    American    prima    donna 
soprano,  was  born  at  Shanghai,  China,  of  Ameri- 
can parentage,  1867.     In  1891  she  married  Julian 
Story,  the  well-known  painter,  from   whom  she 
is    divorced.      In    1911  she    married    Emilio    de 
Gogorza.      Made  her  d(5but  at  the  Paris  grand 
opera,  1889;    Covent  Garden,  London,  in  r61e  of 
Marguerite   in   Faust,    1891;     sang   regularly   in 
London   and    New   York   during   the   respective 
seasons  after  1893,   and  retired  from  the  stage 
in  1908.     She  resides  chiefly  at  Torre  di   Cam- 
piglioni  Vallombrosa,  Italy. 
Earle,   George  H.,  Jr.,   banker,   lawyer,   manufac- 
turer,   was    born    in    Philadelphia,    Pa.,    1856; 
graduated  from  Harvard,  1879,  hon.  A.  M.,  1904; 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  1879.     He  is  president 
of   the    Finance    company   of    Pennsylvania    at 
Philadelphia,  South  Chester  tube  company,    and 
Pennsylvania    warehousing    and     saife     deposit 
company;  vice-president  Market  Street  national 
bank    and     Tradesmen's    national     bank;    was 
receiver  and  is  now  president  of  Real  Estate  trust 
company  of  Philadelphia;    receiver   of  Chestnut 
Street  national  bank ;  is  active  in  a  number  of 
other  financial  institutions. 
Earle,  John,  English  scholar,  was  bom  at  Elston, 
South  Devon,  1824 ;  was  educated  at  Plymstock, 
Plymouth,     Kingsbridge,     and     Magdalen     hall, 
Oxford,  and  became  professor  of  Anglo-Saxon  at 
Oxford,    1849-54,   and  again  permanently  from 
1876,  being  also  a  prebendary  of  Wells  cathedral. 
Among    his    books    are:     The   Philology   of  the 
English  Tongue;    Anglo-Saxon  Literature;    Book 
jor  the  Beginner  in  Anglo-Saxon;   English  Prose; 
etc.     Died  at  Oxford,  1903. 
Early,  Jubal  Anderson,   soldier  and  lawyer,  was 
born  in  Virginia,    1816;    was  graduated  at  the 
United   States   military  academy,   1837;    served 
through  the  Seminole  war,    1837-38;      resigned 
in  the  latter  year,  and  studied  and  practiced  law 
in  Virginia.     He"'  was  a  major  of  Virginia  volun- 
teers during  the  Mexican  war.       At  the  opening 
of   the   civil  war  he  was  appointed  a  colonel  in 
the  confederate  army;    commanded  a  brigade  at 
Bull  Run  and  Williamsburg,  1862 ;  was  promoted 
brigadier-general,   1863;    commanded  a  division 
at  Fredericksburg  and  Gettysburg;    sent  a  body 
of    cavalry    into    Pennsylvania    which    burned 
Chambersburg ;    was  defeated  by  Sheridan  near 
Winchester  and  at  Fisher's  Hill,  Va.,  1864,  and 
was    completely   routed   by   General    Custer   at 
Waynesborough,     1865,     after    which     he    was 
relieved    of    his    command.     He    subseauently 
practiced   law   in   Richmond,    and   publisned  A 
Memoir  of  the   Last  Year  of   the   War  for   In- 


d^pmdenee    in    the    Coi^ederaU    StaU$.      Died, 

10tf4. 

East,  Alfred,  English  landscape  painter  and  etcher, 
was  born  at  Kettering,   1849.     He  received  his 
art  education  at  the  government  aobool  of  •rt, 
Glasgow,   afterward  at   Ecolo  dea  Beaux  Art*- 
also    studied    under    Fleury    and    Boucuanau.' 
Paris;   has  exhibited  at  the  royal  academy  ^^hr* 
1882,  and  became  an  aaaoeiate  in  1890;  la  now 
president  of  the  royal  society  of  British  artisU. 
Among   his   chief  works   are   "Returning   from 
Church,"   Carnegie  art  gallery,  Pittaburgh,  Pa. ; 
A  Passing  Storm  "  Luxembourg,  Paris;    "I^n- 
don  at  Night,"   Milan  national  gallery;    "Gib- 
^^L^A    ^™'"     Algeciras."     Liverpool.     Author: 
7  he  Art  of  Landscape  Painting  in  Oil  Colour. 
Eastlake,  Sir  Charles  Lock,  English  painter,  was 
bom  at  Plymouth,  1793.     From  180«  be  studied 
under  Haydon,  in  the  royal  academy  schools, 
and  in  Paris.     When  the   BeUerophon    put  into 
Plymouth,    Eastlake    took    a   number    of    rapid 
sketches  from  a  shore-boat,  and  produced  two 
full-length   portraits   of   Napoleon.     From    1818 
to   1830  he  lived  in  Rome,   executing  banditti 
pictures,  "Pilgrims  in  Sight  of  Rome,     etc.     In 
1839  appeared  "Christ  Blessing  Little  Children," 
now  in  the   national   gallery,  London.     He  was 
knighted   in   1850,   and  in   1855  was  appointed 
director  of    the  national  gallery.      He  died   at 
Pisa,  1865. 
Eastman,  George,  inventor,  was  bom  in  Waterville, 
N.  Y.,  1854;    was  educated  in  Rochester.  New 
York,    and    first    became    an    amateur    pliotog- 
rapher.     He  subsequently  carried  on  a  series  of 
experiments    in    photography    and    perfected    a 
process  for  making  dry  plates:    began  to  manu- 
facture dry  plates  on  small  scale,  1880  •   inventor 
of  the  kodak,  and  entered  extensively  into  ita 
manufacture;  now  treasurer  and  general  manaxrer 
of  Eastman  kodak  company,  Rochester,  N.  Y. ; 
managing  director  of  Kodak  company,  London, 
England ;  president  of  Eastman  kodak  company 
of  New  Jersey,  etc. 
Eaton,   Arthur  Wentworth   Hamilton,    Protestant 
Episcopal    clergyman,    was    bom    in    Kentville, 
Nova  Scotia;    graduated  from   Harvard,    1880 
D.  C.  L..  King's  university.   Nova  Scotia,  1905 
Ordainea  deacon,  1884,  priest,  1885,  in  New  York 
priest  in  charge  of  parish,  Chestnut  Hill,  Mass. 
1885-86.     Author:     The    Heart    of  the    Creeda] 
Historical  Religion  in  the  Light  of  Modem  Thought, 
Acadian  Legends  and  Lyrics;   Tales  o/"  a  Gamson 
Town    (with    Craven    Langstroth    Betts),    etc.: 
also   many   poems,    historical    monographs,  ana 
magazine  articles,   besides  e<iiting  a  number  of 
English  classics  and  anthologies. 
Eaton,    Wyatt,    American    artist,    was    bom    at 
Phillipsbur^,  Canada,  1849.     He  studied  in  New 
York,  and  in  Paris  with  G^r6me.     After  spend- 
ing some  years  in  study,  sketching  and  traveling 
in  France  and  England,  he  Of>ened  a  studio  in 
New  York;    was  one  of  the  founders  and   the 
first  secretary  of  the  society  of  American  artists, 
and   achieved  success   as   a  portrait  and    figure 
landscape  painter.      Among   his  paintings  are: 
"Farmer's  Bov";    "Reverie";       Harveatera  at 
Rest";   "Boy  Whittling";   " Portrait  of  William 
Cullen  Bryant " ;  and  "Grandmother  and  Child." 
Died  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  1896. 
Ebers  {i'-birs),  Cieorg  Morltx,  German  novelist  and 
Egyptologist,  was  bom  at  Berlin,  1837;   studied 
jurisprudence  at  Gottingen     and    oriental    lan- 
guages and  archsBology  at  Berlin.     In  1870  he 
was  made  professor  of  Egyptoloey  at  Leipzig. 
His  most  important  works  are:    Egypt  ana  the 
Books  of  Moses;    Through  Goshen  to  Sinai;    the 
famous    novel    Uarda;     An    Egyptian   Princess; 
Homo    Sum;      The    Burgomasters    Wife;     and 
The   Emperor.     Be    died    at   Tutaing,   Bavaria, 
1808. 


664 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Ebner-Eschenbach  (ob'-ner-ish'-en-baK),  Marie, 
Baroness  voa,  Austrian  novelist  and  poet,  was 
born  in  Moravia,  1830.  Since  1848  she  has  lived 
principally  in  Vienna.  Her  first  publications,  a 
drama  and  some  comedies,  are  now  unimportant. 
Her  fame  rests  on  her  prose  fiction,  which  was 
begun  in  ErzafUungen  in  1875,  and  continued  in 
Lotti,  die  Uhrmaclierin,  Alte  Schule,  Agave,  and 
Die  arme  Kleine.  She  also  wrote  a  popular 
collection  of  Aphorismen,  and  Parabeln,  Marchen 
und  Gedichte.  She  is  the  foremost  German 
woman  writer  of  the  day,  pos.sessing  remarkable 
power  of  description,  keen  humor,  and  polished 
precision  of  style.  Her  novels  are  especially 
notable  for  their  psychological  insight,  and  for 
the  exact  sense  of  proportion  shown  in  their 
construction. 

Eck  {ik),  Jobann  Maler  von,  German  monk  and 
theologian,  was  bom  at  Eck,  in  Swabia,  1486. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  peasant,  but  raised  liimself 
by  his  abilities  to  the  professorship  of  theology 
in  the  university  of  Ingolstadt.  He  took  ,a 
prominent  part  in  opposition  to  Luther  in  the 
diet  at  Augsburg,  153U,  and  in  the  conferences  of 
Worms  and  Kati.sbon,  1540  and  1541.  The 
name  of  Lutherans,  which  was  at  first  given  to 
the  party  of  the  reformation  as  a  nickname, 
was  given  to  them  by  Eck.     Died,  1543. 

Eckermann  {Ikf-ir^m&n),  Jobann  Peter,  German 
writer  and  literary  executor  of  Goethe,  was  bom 
in  Winsen,  Germany,  1792.  After  serving  in  the 
war  of  1813-14,  he  was  employed  in  uje  war 
office  at  Hanover,  and  studied  at  Gottingen. 
The  publication  of  his  Beitr&ge  zur  Poesie  in  1823 
led  to  his  removal  to  Weimar,  where  he  assisted 
Goethe  in  preparing  the  final  e<lition  of  his  works. 
He  has  won  for  hiiii.sclf  a  lusting  name  by  his  in- 
valuable Conversatiuns  with  GotU/ie.      Died,  1854. 

Eddy,  Mary  Baker  Glover,  religious  leader,  founder 
of  Christian  Science,  was  born  in  Bow,  N.  H., 
1821.  She  receivecl  her  education  in  public 
schools,  in  an  academy,  and  under  private  tutors. 
She  was  connected  with  the  Congregational 
church  until  18(>f>,  when  she  discovered  what 
are  known  as  the  principles  of  Christian  Science. 
In  18G7  she  began  to  teach  them,  and  in  1879 
founded  the  church  of  Christ  in  Boston,  Mass. 
In  1881  she  was  ordained  to  the  ministry;  in 
the  same  year  established  the  Massachusetts 
metaphysical  college  in  Boston;  and  in  1883 
started  the  Christian  Science  Journal.  She  is 
the  author  of  Science  and  Health,  With  Key  to  the 
Scriptures,  the  Christian  Scien6e  text-book; 
Unity  of  Good;  No  and  Yes;  Rudimental  Divine 
Science;  Manual  of  the  Mother  Church,  and  other 
works  on  related  subjects.  In  1907  she  was 
decorated  by  the  French  government  as  an 
officier  d'acaa^mie.  In  1908,  after  a  residence 
of  nineteen  years,  she  removed  from  Concord, 
N.  H.,  to  Brookline,  Mass.  Mrs.  Eddy  left  her 
entire  fortune  to  the  Christian  Science  Church, 
specifying  that  $100,000  be  used  for  the  benefit 
of  indigent,  educated,  well-qualified  persons  who 
desire  to  enter  the  Christian  Science  work,  while 
the  residue  of  her  fortune  is  to  be  used  by  the 
Church  for  furthering  the  Christian  Science 
movement.     Died,  1910. 

Edeson,  Robert,  actor,  was  bom  at  New  Orleans, 
La.,  1868.  He  was  educated  in  the  pubUc 
schools  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and  made  his  first 
appearance  on  the  stage  in  Fascination  at  the 
Park  theater,  New  York,  1887.  Later  he 
appeared  in  A  Night  Off,  The  Dark  Secret,  Incog., 
and  Under  the  Red  Robe.  He  has  also  starred  in 
The  Climbers,  Soldiers  of  Fortune,  Strongheart, 
and  Classmates,  and  ranks  among  the  leading 
American  members  of  his  profession. 

Edgeworth,  Maria,  EngUsh  novelist,  was  bom  at 
Oxfordshire,  1767.  She  began  to  WTite  fiction 
early  in  the  nineteenth  century,  though  she  had 


j  previously  taken  an  interest  in  educational 
topics.  Her  chief  books,  wiiich  treat  mainly  of 
I  the  virtues  and  vices  of  humanity  with  a  nigh 
!  moral  aim,  embrace  Popular  Tatea;  Moral  Tales; 
I  Castle  Rackrent;  Belinda  Ormond;  Tales  of 
I       Fashionable  Life,  with  an  Essay  on  Irish  Bulla. 

Died  in  Ireland,  1849. 
I  Edison,  Thomas  Alva,  celebrated  American  inven- 
tor and  electrician,  was  born  at  Milan,  Ohio, 
1  1847;  received  some  instruction  from  his  jnother; 
at  twelve  years  of  age  he  became  newsboy  on 
,  Grand  Trunk  railway;  later  learned  telegraphy* 
I  worked  as  operator  at  various  places  in  United 
States  and  Canada;  invented  many  telegraphic 
j  appliances,  including  automatic  repeater,  quad- 
ruplex  telegraph,  printing  telegraph,  etc.  Estab- 
I  lisned  workshop  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  removing  to 
I  Menlo  Park,  N.  J.,  1876,  and  later  to  West 
I  Orange,  N.  J.  Invente*!  machines  for  quadru- 
plex  and  sextuplex  telegraphic  transmission; 
I  the  carbon  telegraph  transmitter-  the  raicro- 
tasimeter  for  detection  of  small  changes  in 
temperature;  the  megaphone,  to  magnify  sound; 
the  phonograph:  the  aerophone;  the  incan- 
descent lamp  and  light  system ;  the  kinetoscope; 
also  scores  of  other  inventions.  Was  made 
chevalier,  officer,  and  aft(>rward  commander  of 
legion  of  honor,  by  French  government*  was 
given  the  honorary  degree  of  Ph.  D.  by  Union 
university,  1878,  and  has  been  variously  honored 
by  numerous  scientific,  educational,  and  other 
iKxlies;  apj>ointetl,  1903,  honorary  chief  con- 
sulting engineer  of  Louisiana  Purchase  exposi- 
tion, St.  Louis.  He  invented  a  talking  moving 
picture  machine,  1912. 
Edmund,  or  Eadmund,  king  of  the  English,  known 
as  Ironside,  was  born  about  981.  lie  was  the 
son  of  Ethelred  "the  unready,"  and  was  chosen 
king  by  the  Londoners  on  nis  father's  death, 
1016,  while  Canute  was  elected  at  Southampton 
by  the  witan.  Edmund  hastily  levied  an  army 
in  the  West,  defeated  Canute  twice,  raised  the 
siege  of  London,  and  again  routed  the  Danes. 
Levying  a  fresh  army,  he  defeated  them  at 
Otford  —  his  last  victory.  At  Aasandun  in 
Essex,  after  a  desperate  fight,  he  was  routed. 
By  a  compromise  with  Canute,  the  latter  retained 
Mercia  and  Northumbria,  Edmund  all  the  South 
and  the  headship,  the  survivor  to  succeed  to  the 
whole.  A  few  weeks  later  Edmund  died,  1016. 
Edmunds«  George  Franklin,  American  lawyer  and 
statesman,  was  bom  at  Richmond,  Vt.,  1828; 
received  a  public  school  education,  studied  law, 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  began  practicing 
when  twenty-one  years  old ;  removed  to  BurUng- 
ton,  1851 ;  was  a  member  of  the  state  legislature, 
1854-59,  and  its  speaker  three  years;  took  his 
seat  in  the  United  States  senate  as  a  republican 
from  Vermont,  1866.  He  was  returned  1869, 
1875,  1881,  and  1887,  and  succeeded  Vice- 
president  Arthur  as  president  pro  tern,  of  the 
senate  after  the  death  of  President  Garfield, 
1881.  He  was  chairman  of  the  senate  com- 
mittee that  acted  in  conjunction  with  one  of  the 
house  in  drafting  the  bill  creating  the  electoral 
commission  of  1877,  and  was  a  member  of  that 
body;  was  author  of  the  act  to  suppress  polyg- 
amy and  disfranchise  those  who  practiced  it, 
1882;  decUned  the  appointment  of  associate 
justice  of  the  United  States  supreme  court, 
1882;  elected  president  pro  tern,  of  the  senate, 
1883,  and  was  author  of  the  act  prescribing  the 
manner  in  which  electoral  votes  for  president 
shall  be  counted,  1886.  He  resigned  the  senator- 
ship  in  1891,  and  has  since  practiced  law  in 
Philadelphia. 
Edward,  or  Eadward,  "the  confessor,"  king  of  the 
English,  was  bom  about  1004,  son  of  Ethelred 
"the  unread  J'"  and  Emma,  daughter  of  Richard 
"the  fearless,"  duke  of  Normandy;  was  brought 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


687 


up  at  the  Norman  court,  and  after  liia  accession, 
on  the  death  of  Hardicanute,  in  1042,  siiowcd  a 
preference  for  Norman  customs  and  ideas. 
Outrages  were  committed  with  impunity  by  his 
Norman  favorites,  while  the  Enelisn  earls, 
Leofric  of  Mercia,  and  Godwine  of  Wesscx,  were 
engaged  in  private  quarrels.  At  last,  in  1052, 
Godwine,  who  had  been  outlawed,  rose  in  rebel- 
lion, installed  Stigand,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
in  place  of  Robert  of  Jumicges,  who  had  fled 
with  the  other  Normans,  and  during  the  rest  of 
the  reign  all  real  power  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
house  of  Godwine.  Edward  codified  the  cus- 
tomary law  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  which  thus 
became  known  as  the  "Taws  of  King  Edward." 
Died,  1066. 

Edward  I.,  king  of  England,  was  born  in  1239, 
succeeded  his  father,  Henry  III.,  in  1272.  Im- 
bued with  high  notions  of  feudal  sovereignty,  he 
sought  to  establish  his  supremacy  throughout 
the  island  of  Britain.  His  expeditions  against 
Llewellyn-ap-Grufifydd,  prince  of  Wales,  1282, 
and  his  brother,  David,  1283,  resulted  in  the 
reduction  of  the  principality,  the  government  of 
which  he  settled  by  the  statute  of  Wales,  1284. 
The  struggle  between  John  Baliol  and  Robert 
Bruce  for  the  throne  of  Scotland  gave  him  a 
pretext  for  interfering  in  that  country,  1290. 
After  vainly  endeavonng  to  maintain  Baliol  as 
his  vassal,  he  set  to  work  to  conquer  Scotland 
for  himself,  sending  the  earl  of  Warrenne  there 
as  viceroy,  but  was  forced  to  contend  with  a 
succession  of  claimants,  and  died  near  Carlisle, 
while  marching  against  Robert  Bruce.  A  man 
of  strictly  legal,  but  somewhat  narrow  mind, 
he  secured  order  and  good  government  by 
the  statutes  of  Winchester  and  Westminster  and 
other  enactments,  and  carried  on  Simon  de 
Montfort's  work  of  molding  the  English  parlia- 
ment, 1295,  though,  at  the  same  time,  somewhat 
inclined  to  strain  the  royal  prerogative.  His  per- 
sonal character  was  extremely  high.     Died,  1307. 

Edward  II.,  king  of  England  from  1307  to  1327, 
son  of  Edward  I.,  was  bom  at  Carnarvon,  1284. 
In  1301  he  was  created  prince  of  Wales,  being 
the  first  heir  apparent  to  the  English  throne  who 
bore  that  title.  In  1308  he  went  to  France  to 
conclude  a  marriage  with  Isabella,  daughter  of 
Philip  "the  fair,"  leaving  the  dissolute  Piers  de 
Gaveston  in  charge  at  home.  The  nobles  rose 
against  the  latter,  twice  forced  Gaveston  to 
leave  England,  and  after  his  return  finally 
hanged  him  in  1312.  Two  years  later  Edward 
invaded  Scotland  with  an  immense  army,  but 
was  encountered  at  Bannockburn  on  June  24, 
1314,  by  Robert  Bruce  and  defeated  with  great 
slaughter.  The  rest  of  his  reign  was  a  succession 
of  disputes  with  the  nobles  and  with  Charles  IV. 
of  France.  Finally  his  queen  and  the  nobles 
revolted  against  him  successfully  in  1327,  and 
Edward  was  murdered  in  Berkeley  castle,  having 
been    deposed    by    parliament    several    months 

Erevious.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  who 
ad  already  been  named  as  Edward  III.  by 
parliament. 
Edward  III.,  king  of  England,  eldest  son  of  Edward 
II.  and  Isabella  of  France,  was  bom  in  1312. 
He  was  proclaimed  king,  1327,  during  his  father's 
captivity,  and  soon  after  marched  with  more 
than  40,000  men  against  the  invading  Scots,  but 
concluded  an  inglorious  campaign  by  a  treaty 
in  which  the  entire  independence  of  Scotland 
was  recognized.  The  war  was  subsequently 
renewed  by  Edward,  who  several  times  invaded 
Scotland  in  support  of  Edward  Balliol's  claims 
to  the  crown.  As  the  son  of  Isabella,  daughter 
of  Charles  IV.,  Edward  claimed  the  crown  of 
France  against  Philip  of  Valois.  Having  made 
foreign  alliances,  in  13.38  he  advanced  into 
France  with    about   50,000   men,    but    returned 


Without  an  eogamment.  Soon  after  he  defeated 
a  French  fleet  off  Sluls,  and  at  the  head  of  nearly 
200  000  men,  including  hia  Flemiah  alliea,  under- 
took the  sicgoB  of  Toumav  and  St.  Omer,  both 
of  which  were  unsucceasful.  In  1346  Edwaid 
gained  over  Philip  the  decisive  battle  of  Cr«cy, 
which  was  followed  by  the  siege  and  surrender 
of  Calais  and  a  truce  which  lasted  until  13M. 
While  Calais  was  besieged,  King  David  of  Scot- 
land invaded  Englandj  but  was  defeated  and 
captured,  and  lOdward  retaliated  by  widely 
desolating  Scotland.  The  war  was  renewed  in 
France  under  hia  son  lulward  the  Black  Prince, 
who,  in  1356,  gained  the  memorable  victory  of 
Poitiers,  in  which  he  took  King  John  of  France 
prisoner.  The  Scottish  king  wa«  ransomed  for 
100,000  pounds  in  1357;  and  in  1360  the  "great 
peace"  was  concluded  at  Brctigny,  by  which 
Edward  renounced  his  pretensions  to  the  crown 
of  France  and  restored  hia  conquests,  retaining 
only  the  full  sovereignty  of  Poitou,  Guienne, 
and  the  county  of  Ponthieu.  Edward  was  suo- 
ceeded  by  his  grandson  Richard  II.     Died,  1377. 

Edward  IV,,  king  of  England,  was  bom  in  Rouen 
in  1441  or  1442.  He  was  the  son  of  Richard, 
duke  of  York,  led  a  force  into  London  during  the 
war  of  the  Roses,  1461,  and  was  proclaimed 
king  by  parliament  while  Henry  VI.  was  still 
alive.  In  1460  the  Yorkists  had  gained  a  great 
victory  at  Northampton,  and  shortly  after  his 
accession  Edward  completely  routed  the  Lan- 
castrians in  the  bloody  battle  of  Towton.  In 
1464  he  married  Lady  Elizabeth  Grey,  which  so 
displeased  the  earl  of  Warwick  that  he  joined 
the  Lancastrians  and  raised  an  army  against 
Edward,  who  in  1470  fled  to  Holland.  Henry 
VI.  was  restored  to  the  throne,  and  Edward  was 
pronounced  a  usurper.  The  latter  returned  with 
foreign  aid,  was  greatly  reenforced  in  England, 
defeated  the  Lancastrians  at  Barnet,  April  14. 
1471,  where  Wan^'ick  was  slain,  and  remanded 
Henry  to  the  Tower.  The  Lancastrian  army, 
commanded  by  the  duke  of  Somerset,  was  again 
defeated  at  Tewkesbury,  May  4.  Margaret, 
Henry's  queen,  was  taken  prisoner  and  held  in 
captivity  for  five  years,  and  her  son.  Prince 
Edward,  was  slain.  Her  husband  perished  in 
the  Tower  a  few  weeks  after  the  battle.  In  1474 
Edward  formed  an  sdliance  with  the  duke  of 
Burgundy,  and  made  preparations  for  a  war  in 
support  of  his  claim  to  the  throne  of  France. 
He  passed  over  to  Calais,  but  the  expedition 
proved  fruitless  through  the  dereliction  of  his 
ally  Charles  the  liold  of  Burgundy,  with  whom 
the  kingdom  was  to  have  been  divided.  Edward 
then  became  involved  in  a  bitter  strife  with  his 
brother  Clarence,  who  was  put  to  death  in  1478 
on  a  charge  of  treason  for  arraigning  public 
justice.  During  the  latter  part  of  his  life  Edward 
was  sunk  in  indolence  and  pleasure.  He  left 
five  daughters,  of  whom  Elizabeth  was' afterward 
married  to  Ilenrv  VII.,  and  two  sons,  the  ill-fated 
princes,  Edward  and  Richard.     Died,  1483. 

Edward  VI„  king  of  England,  son  of  Henrv  VIII. 
by  his  third  wife.  Jane  Seymour,  was  bom  in 
1537.  He  succeeded  to  the  "throne  at  his  father's 
death  in  1547,  his  uncle,  the  carl  of  Hertford, 
being  chosen  protector  and  created  duke  of 
Somerset.  With  the  protector  Ekiward  shared 
the  religious  convictions  of  the  reformation,  and 
during  his  rule  great  strides  were  made  toward 
the  estalDlishment  of  Protestantism  in  England; 
images  were  removed  from  the  churches;  the 
laity  were  admitted  to  the  Lord's  supper: 
Henry's  famous  six  articles  were  repealed,  and 
a  new  book  of  common  prayer  was  issued. 
Edward  became  diaplca.sed  with  Somenwt  and 
had  him  executed  in  1552.  His  place  was  taken 
by  Dudlev,  the  eari  of  War^^-ick,  now  created 
duke    of  'Northumberland,    who    sucoeeded    ia 


868 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


getting  Edward  to  nominate  Lady  Jane  Grey  as 
Tub  successor  shortly  iaefore  he  died  in  1553.  His 
reign  was  marked  by  the  restoration  of  many  of 
the  grammar  schools  suppressed  by  Henry  VIII. 
Edward  VII^  king  of  the  united  kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  and  emperor  of  India  from 
1901  to  1910,  eldest  son  of  Queen  Victoria,  was 
born  at  Buckingham  palace,  1841.  He  studied 
at  Edinburgh,  and  suLscquently  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge.  As  prince  of  Wales  he  bore  his  full 
name,  Albert  Eaward.  In  18C0  he  visited  the 
United  States  and  Canada;  in  1802  traveled  with 
Dean  Stanley  in  the  East;  and  in  1863  married 
the  princess  Alexandra,  eldest  daughter  of  Chris- 
tian IX.  of  Denmark.  Besides  three  daughters, 
two  sons  were  born  of  this  marriage — the  eldest. 
Prince  Albert  Victor,  duke  of  Clarence,  and  Prince 
George  of  Wales.  The  king's  recovery  from  a 
six  weeks'  attack  of  typhoid  was  celebrated  in 
St.  Paul's  in  1872  with  ^reat  enthusiasm.  He 
made  a  visit  to  India  m  1875-76.  He  con- 
stantly manifested  a  lively  interest  in  exhibitions, 
charitable  institutions,  the  housing  of  the  poor, 
and  agriculture;  and  for  the  queen,  his  mother, 
he  as  prince  of  Wales  bore  much  of  the  burden 
of  court  ceremonials  and  public  functions.  He 
assisted  in  promoting  the  royal  college  of  music ; 
and  the  imperial  institute  was  due  to  his  sug- 
gestion. In  1900  he  was  shot  at  by  a  young 
anarchist,  Sipido,  in  a  train  at  Brussels.  On 
January  22,  1901,  he  succeeded  his  mother  as 
Edward  VII.  His  coronation,  fixed  for  June  26, 
1902,  had  to  be  postponed  on  account  of  a  severe 
surgical  operation,  but  was  carried  out  on  August 
9th.  By  visits  to  continental  capitals  the  king 
did  much  to  allay  international  animosities  and 

gromote  peace  and  goodwill,  especially  between 
>ritain  and  France.     Died,  1910. 

Edward,  the  Black  Prince,  eldest  son  of  Edward 
III.,  was  born  in  1330,  and  was  created  earl  of 
Chester,  1333,  duke  of  Cornwall,  1337,  and  prince 
of  Wales,  1343.  In  1346,  though  only  a  boy, 
he  fought  at  Cr6cy,  and  is  said  to  have  won 
from  his  black  armor  his  popular  title  —  a  title 
first  cited  in  the  sixteenth  century.  In  1355-56 
he  undertook  two  marauding  expeditions  in 
France,  the  second  signalized  oy  the  great  vic- 
tory of  Poitiers.  In  1361  he  married  his  cousin, 
Joan,  the  "fair  maid  of  Kent,"  who  bore  him 
two  sons,  Edward  and  the  future  Richard  II.; 
in  1362  his  father  created  him  prince  of  Aqui- 
taine,  and  next  year  he  departed  to  take  posses- 
sion of  his  principality.  In  1367  he  espoused 
the  cause  of  Pedro  the  Cruel,  and  at  Navarrete 
won  his  third  great  victory,  taking  Du 
Guesclin  prisoner;  in  1370,  worn  out  by 
sickness,  he  mercilessly  sacked  Limoges.  He 
died,  1376. 

Edwards,  Amelia  Blandford,  British  novelist  and 
Egyptologist,  was  born  in  London,  1831.  Her 
first  novel,  Aly  Brotlier's  Wife,  1855,  was  followed 
by  a  dozen  others,  among  them  Barbara's  History, 
Debenham'a  Vow,  and  Lord  Brackenbury.  She 
also  published  a  volume  of  Ballads,  and,  besides 
books  of  holiday  travel  in  Belgium  and  the 
Dolomites,  A  Thousand  Miles  up  the  Nile,  in 
1877.  Miss  Edwards  was  the  founder  of  the 
Egjrptian  exploration  fund,  and  contributed 
papers  on  Egyptology  to  the  principal  European 
and  American  journals.  She  visited  the  United 
States  in  1889,  lectured  at  a  number  of  places 
and  received  the  degree  of  LL.  D.  from  Columbia 
university.  She  died  at  Weston-super-Mare, 
1892. 

Edwards,  Jonathan,  celebrated  American  divine 
and  metaphysician,  was  bom  at  East  Windsor, 
Conn.,  1703.  He  was  graduated  from  Yale  in  1720, 
and  toward  the  close  of  1723  was  appointed 
tutor  in  Yale  college.  In  1726  he  accepted  an 
invitation  to  become  colleague  to  his  maternal 


grandfather,  Solomon  Stoddard,  in  a  church  at 
Northampton,  Mass.,  and  was  ordained  in  1727. 
Here  he  labored  with  intense  zeal  for  more  than 
twenty-three  years,  at  the  end  of  which  period 
he  was  dismisscnl  by  his  congregation.  The 
immediate  cause  of  the  rupture  between  him  and 
his  hearers  was  his  insistence  that  no  unconverted 
persons  should  be  allowed  to  approach  the  Lord's 
table.  Eklwards  was  a  powerful  and  impressive 
preacher,  somber,  and  even  gloomy  in  his 
religious  opinions  and  sentiments,  but  earnest, 
unaffected,  and  nobly  conscientious.  During 
the  famous  revival  of  1740-41  he  was  much 
sought  after  as  a  preacher,  and  is  in  fact  often 
regarded  aa  the  originator  of  that  movement. 
As  early  as  1734  a  local  manifestation  of  religious 
enthusiasm  had  token  place  in  his  own  parish. 
of  which  he  published  an  account,  entitlea 
A  Faithful  Narrative  of  the  Surprising  Work  of 
God  in  the  Conversion  of  Many  Hundred  Souls  in 
Northampton.  After  his  dismissal  in  1750  he 
became  a  missionary  among  the  Indians  of 
Massachusetts.  Whifc  residing  at  Stockbridge, 
in  that  state,  he  cotnr>osod  his  famous  treatises 
on  the  Freedom  of  tfie  WiU,  and  Original  .Jim.  In 
1757  he  was  chosen  president  of  Princeton 
college,  New  Jersey,  but  died  in  1758. 

Edwmrds,  Julian,  American  composer,  -was  bom  in 
Manchester,  iviipland,  1855.  He  studied  music 
under  Sir  Herbert  Oakeley,  Edinburgh,  and  Sir 
George  Macfarran,  London ;  comjK>sed  operettas 
played  in  British  provinces,  and  became  conduc- 
tor of  the  Royal  English  opera  company.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1888.  Among  his 
compositions  are  the  operas  and  musical  pieces: 
Victorian;  Elfinella;  Corinne;  Jupiter;  Friend 
Fritz;  King  Rene's  Daughter;  Goddess  of  Truth; 
and  Brian  Boru.  He  is  also  author  of  Sunlight 
and  Shadow,  a  song  collection.     Dii>d,  1910. 

Egan  (f-gan^  Maurice  Francis,  educator,  author, 
diplomat,  was  born  in  Philiidelphia,  Pa.,  1852; 
graduated  at  La  Salle  college;  entered  George- 
town college,  1875;  LL.  D.,  Georgetown,  1879; 
J.  U.  D.,  Ottawa  university,  1891 ;  was  on  the 
editorial  staff  of  McGee's  Illustrated  Weekly, 
Catholic  Review,  and  Freeman's  Journal;  pro- 
fessor of  English  hterature,  university  of  Notre 
Dame,  Ind.,  1888-95;  and  at  Catholic  university 
of  America,  1896-1907.  Author:  A  Garden  of 
Roses;  Stories  of  Duty;  The  Life  Around  Us; 
The  Theater  and  Christian  Parents;  Modem 
Novelists;  Lectures  on  English  Literature;  A 
Gentleman;  Jack  Chumleigh;  Jack  Chumleigh  at 
•  Boarding  School;  A  Primer  of  English  Literature; 
The  Disappearance  of  John  Longworthy;  A  Mar- 
riage of  Reason;  The  Success  of  Patrick  Desmond; 
The  Flower  of  the  Flock;  Preludes,  poems; 
Songs  and  Sonnets,  and  other  poems;  The 
Chatelaine  of  the  Roses;  Jasper  1  home;  In  a 
Brazilian  Forest;  The  Leopard  of  Lancianus; 
Studies  in  Literature;  The  Watson  Girls;  Belinda; 
Belinda's  Cousins;  The  Sexton  Maginnis  Stories, 
etc.  One  of  the  editors  of  The  World's  Beat 
Literature,  Encyclopedia  of  Irish  Literature,  etc. 
In  1907,  appointed  United  States  minister  to 
Denmark. 

Eggieston  {^-'lz^iin\  Edward,  American  author, 
was  bom  at  Vevay,  Ind.,  1837.  He  became  a 
Methodist  preacher  in  1856,  and  subsequently 
edited  for  various  periods  the  New  York  Inde- 
pendent, Hearth  and  Home,  etc.  In  1879  he 
retired  from  the  ministry,  and  devoted  himself 
entirely  to  literature.  Among  his  best  known 
books  are  The  Hoosier  Schoolmaster;  The  Circuit 
Rider;  Roxy;  Pocahontas  and  Powhatan;  The 
Graysons;  and  History  of  United  States;  The 
Beginners  of  a  Nation,  and  The  Transit  of  Civil- 
ization.    Died,  1902. 

Egmont  (ig'-mdn';  Eng.,  ig'-mdni),  LamoraU 
Ckiunt  of,    Dutch   general,   descended   from   the 


KING  EDVARD  VII. 

From  a  photograph 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


671 


duke  of  Guilders,  waa  born  in  1522.  As  com- 
mander of  the  Spanish  cavalry  of  Charles  V., 
he  defeated  the  French,  1557-58,  but  incurring 
the  enmity  of  Philip  II.,  through  his  lenient 
treatment  of  the  Flemish  Protestants,  he  was 
put  to  death,  1568,  despite  the  remonstrances  of 
Queen  EHzabeth  of  England,  and  German  princes. 
His  fate  led  to  the  independence  of  the  Nether- 
lands. 

ElchelberKer  (iK'-«Z-?;grK'-^r),  William  Snyder,  as- 
tronomer, was  born  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  1865; 
graduated  from  Johns  Hopkins,  1886;  Ph.  D., 
1891.  He  became  assistant  in  nautical  almanac 
office,  1889-90,  1896-98;  instructor  in  mathe- 
matics and  astronomy,  Wesleyan  university. 
Conn.,  1890-96;  computor  in  United  States  naval 
observatory,  1898-1900;  professor  of  mathe- 
matics. United  States  navy,  since  1900;  head  of 
division  of  meridian  instruments.  United  States 
naval  observatory,  1902-07;  member  of  United 
States  eclipse  expedition,  Pinehurst,  N.  C,  1900; 
in  charge  of  United  States  eclipse  stations  at 
Fort  de  Kock,  Sumatra,  1901,  and  Daroca,  Spain, 
1905.  Member  of  numerous  scientific  societies, 
and  a  frequent  contributor  of  astronomical 
papers  to  government  publications  and  astro- 
nomical journals. 

dcbhorn  (iK'-hdrn),  Johann  Gottfried,  German 
scholar,  was  born  at  Dorrenzimmern,  Germany, 
1752,  and  studied  at  Gottingen.  He  first  became 
rector  of  the  school  of  Ohrdrufif,  in  the  duchy  of 
Gotha,  afterward,  in  1775,  professor  of  oriental 
languages  in  the  university  of  Jena,  and  in  1788 
removed  to  Gottingen  in  the  like  capacity.  Of 
this  university  he  continued  a  distinguished 
ornament  until  his  death  in  1827.  His  scholar- 
ship was  almost  universal,  and  he  left  numerous 
treatises  on  a  multitude  of  subjects,  both  ancient 
and  modern,  classical  and  oriental,  but  he  is 
chiefly  known  in  this  country  as  a  biblical  critic, 
and  a  chief  of  what  is  called  the  rational  school. 
His  chief  works  are  a  Universal  Ldbrary  of 
Biblical  Literature,  an  introduction  to  the  old 
testament,  an  introduction  to  the  new  testa- 
ment, and  an  introduction  to  the  apocryphal 
writings  of  the  old  testament. 

Eiffel  {S'-f&l'),  Gustave,  French  engineer,  was  bom 
at  Dijon,  1832,  and  early  gained  a  reputation  for 
bridge  construction.  In  1858  he  constructed  the 
iron  bridge  over  the  Garonne  at  Bordeaux,  and 
was  one  of  the  first  to  utilize  air-caissons.  The 
bridge  over  the  Douro  at  Oporto,  the  great 
viaduct  of  Garabit  in  Cantal,  and  that  over  the 
Tardes  near  Montlugon,  were  designed  by  him; 
while  in  the  huge  framework  erected  for  Bar- 
tholdi's  statue  of  Liberty  may  be  seen  the  germ 
of  the  iron  Eiffel  tower,  984  feet  high,  erected  in 
1887-89,  on  the  Champ-de-Mars  in  Paris,  at  a 
cost  of  200,000  pounds.  In  1893  he  was  con- 
demned to  two  years'  imprisonment  and  a  fine 
of  20,000  francs  for  breach  of  trust  in  connection 
with  the  Panama  canal  works,  but  the  sentence 
was  annulled  by  the  court  of  cassation. 

Elnhard  (In'-hart),  or  Eginhard  {a' -gin-hart). 
Prankish  scholar  and  biographer  of  Charlemagne, 
was  born  at  M^ingau  in  East  Franconia,  about 
770.  He  was  sent  to  the  court  of  Charlemagne, 
where  he  became  a  pupil  of  Alcuin  and  a  favorite 
of  the  emperor.  Louis,  successor  of  Charlemagne, 
continued  his  father's  favor.  For  years  Einhard 
was  lay  abbot  of  various  monasteries,  but  ulti- 
mately retired  to  Miihlheim.  Here  he  died  about 
840,  and  was  buried  beside  his  wife,  Emma, 
whom  a  baseless  tradition  makes  a  daughter  of 
Charlemagne.  His  Vita  Caroli  Magni  is  the 
great  biographical  work  of  the  middle  ages. 

Eldon,  John  Scott,  Lord,  celebrated  English  lawyer 
and  jurist,  was  born  at  Newcastle,   of  humble 
parentage,   1751.     He  was  educated  at  Oxford  i 
for  the  church,  but  got  into  difficulties  through  a  i 


runaway  marriage.     Ho  then  betook  hlmMlf  to 
law.  rose  rapidly  in  his  profewian.  and,  anterinc 

Parliament,  held  important  lesal  offloM  under 
itt;  waa  mode  a  baron,  1799,  and  lord  chan- 
cellor, 1801,  an  office  which  ho  held  for  twenty- 
six  years;  retired  from  public  life  in  IKirt  and  left 
a  large  fortune  at  his  deatli ;  waa  noU-d  for  tho 
shrewd  equity  of  hia  judgraenta  and  hia  delay  in 
deHvering  them.     Died,  1838. 

Eleanor  of  Aqultalne,  queen  of  France  and  of 
England,  was  born  about  1122,  and  died  in  1204. 
She  was  so  called  because  she  was  a  daughter  of 
the  duke  of  Aciuitaine.  She  first  married  Louis 
VII.  of  France,  who  divorced  her  in  1152,  and 
she  then  married  Henry  II.  of  England.  It  was 
through  her  that  the  English  kings  claimed  the 
duchy  of  Aquitaine.  Henry's  neglect  turned  her 
love  to  hatred,  and  she  stirred  up  her  nona  to 
rebel  against  him,  for  which  she  was  kept  in 
prison  about  fifteen  years.  She  afterward  ruled 
England  as  regent  when  her  son  Richard  I.  went 
to  the  holy  land,  and  when  he  was  imprisoned 
in  Germany  she  went  there  to  carry  his  ransom. 
King  John  was  also  her  son. 

Elgin  {U'-gin)  and  Kincardine  (Hn-kAr'-dln),  James 
Bruce,  Earl  of,  was  born  in  London,  1811.  and 
succeeded  his  father,  the  seventh  earl,  who  in 
1812  brought  from  Athena  the  Elgin  marbles, 
and  himself  was  first  Baron  Elgin  in  the  United 
Kingdom  peerage.  As  governor  of  Jamaica, 
1842-46,  and  as  governor-general  of  Canada, 
1847-54,  he  displayed  great  administrative  abili- 
ties. While  on  his  way  to  China  in  1857,  aa 
flenipotentiary,  he  heard  at  Singapore  of  the 
ndian  mutiny,  and  diverted  the  Chinese  expedi- 
tion thither  —  thus  delaying  his  own  operations, 
which,  after  some  military  operations  ana 
diplomacy,  issued  in  the  treaty  of  Tientsin  in 
1858.  He  also  negotiated  a  treaty  with  Japan, 
and  on  his  return  to  England  became  p>ostmaater- 
general.  In  1860  he  was  again  in  China  to  enforce 
the  treaty,  and  in  1861  became  governor-general 
of  India.     He  died,  1863. 

Elijah,  greatest  of  the  prophets  of  Israel,  was  born 
at  Tishbe,  in  Gilead,  on  the  borders  of  tho 
desert.  He  comes  upon  the  scene  in  the  same 
time  of  Ahab,  in  the  ninth  century  B.  C.  When 
that  monarch,  to  please  his  Pnccnician  wife, 
Jezebel,  had  introduced  on  an  extensive  scale 
the  worship  of  Baal,  Elijah  pronounced  a  curse 
on  the  land.  The  prophet  had  to  flee.  He 
took  refuge  by  the  brook  Cherith.  Here  he  was 
miraculously  fed  by  ravens.  He  then  went  to 
Zarephath,  a  town  lying  between  Tyre  and 
Sidon.  Here  he  lodged  with  a  widow,  pro- 
longed her  oil  and  meal,  and  brought  back  her 
son  to  health  from  the  brink  of  the  grave.  Sub- 
sequently he  made  a  temporary  reconciliation 
with  Ahab,  and  on  Mount  Carmel  executed 
dreadful  vengeance  on  the  prophets  of  Baal, 
slaying  400  with  his  own  hand.  After  the  death 
of  Ahab  he  rebuked  the  idolatries  of  his  son 
Ahaziah  in  a  solemn  fashion  and  also  de- 
nounced the  evil  doings  of  his  successor.  The 
closing  scene  of  his  life  on  earth  is  vividly  nar- 
rated. A  chariot  of  fire  and  horses  of  fire 
appeared  after  Elisha  and  he  had  crossed  the 
Jordan,  and  "Elijah  went  up  by  a  whirlwind  into 
heaven." 

Eliot,  Charles  William,  educator,  ex-president  of 
Harvard  university,  was  bom  in  1834,  and 
graduated  from  Harvard  in  1853.  He  taught 
mathematics  and  chemistry  at  Harvard,  and  in 
1863  went  to  Europe  to  study  chemistry  and  to 
investigate  the  educational  institutions  of  that 
continent.  While  at  Vienna  in  1865,  ho  was 
chosen  professor  of  analytical  chemistry  in  the 
Massachusetts  institute  of  technology,  which 
post  he  filled  for  a  period  of  four  years  and  again 
went   to    Europe    and   spent   fourteen   months, 


672 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


mainly  in  France,  in  further  investigation.  In 
1869  Dr.  Eliot  succeeded  Dr.  Tliomas  Hill  as 
president  of  Harvard  college,  and  continued  at 
its  head  until  1909.  During  his  administration 
many  notable  changes  in  the  government  of  the 
college  occurred,  its  scope  was  broadened  and 
there  was  a  great  increase  in  the  number  of  its 
professors  and  students,  while  its  wealth  by 
gifts  and  benefactions  was  greatly  increased,  so 
that  now  it  more  than  successfully  competes 
with  the  great  European  universities.  Eliot 
was  given  the  degree  of  LL.  D.  by  Williams  and 
Princeton  colleges  in  1869,  by  Yale  in  1870,  and 
by  Johns  Hopkins  in  1902.  He  is  also  an  officer 
of  the  legion  of  honor  of  France,  and  member 
of  many  scientific  and  literary  bodies.  Besides 
numerous  addresses,  chemical  memoirs,  and 
technical  investigations,  he  published  in  con- 
junction with  Professor  F.  H.  Storer  a  Manual 
of  Inorganic  Chemistry,  and  a  Manual  of  Qualita- 
tive Chemical  Analysis.  More  recently  he  pub- 
lished American  Contributions  to  Civilization; 
Educcdional  Reform;  Charles  Eliot:  Landscape 
Architect;  More  Money  for  the  Public  Schools; 
John  Gilley;  The  Happy  Life;  and  Four  Ameri- 
can Leaders. 

Eliot,  George,  is  the  nam  de  plume  of  Mary  Ann 
Evans,  a  distinguished  English  novelist,  bom  at 
Arbury,  in  Warwickshire,  1819.  She  received  a 
superior  education,  and  became  very  proficient 
in  Latin,  German,  and  the  higher  mathematics. 
She  began  her  literary  career  by  a  translation 
of  Strauss's  Life  of  Jesus,  and  became,  in  1851,  a 
contributor  to  the  Westminster  Review.  During 
this  time  she  formed  the  acquaintance  of  George 
Henry  Lewes,  with  whom  sue  ere  long  lived  as 
his  wife,  though  unmarried,  and  who,  it  would 
seem,  discovered  her  latent  faculty  for  fictional 
work.  Her  first  work  in  that  line  was  Scenes 
of  Clerical  Life,  contributed  to  Blackwood's  in 
1857.  The  stories  proved  a  signal  success,  and 
were  followed  by  a  series  of  seven  novels,  begin- 
ning in  1859  with  Adam.  Bede,  which  attained 
an  immense  success,  and  at  once  secured  for  the 
writer  almost  undisputed  rank  with  the  most 
eminent  novelists  of  the  day.  This  was  followed 
in  1860  by  The  Mill  on  the  Floss,  which  amply 
sustained  the  high  reputation  of  the  writer; 
and  in  1861  by  Silas  Mamer,  the  Weaver  of 
Raveloe,  a  tale  in  one  volume,  which,  as  to  art, 
is  perhaps  the  most  perfect  of  any  of  this  series 
of  works.  In  1861  the  Scenes  of  Clerical  Life 
was  republished  from  Blackwood's  Magazine,  to 
meet  with  a  renewal  of  the  favor  with  which 
it  was  originally  received.  In  1863  Romola 
appeared;  Felix  Holt  was  published  in  1866,  and 
Mtddlemarch  in  1872;  Daniel  Deronda  and 
Impressions  of  Theophrastus  Such  appeared  later. 
These,  with  two  volumes  of  poems,  make  up  her 
works.  Lewes  died  in  1878,  and  two  years  after 
she  formally  married  an  old  friend,  John  Cross, 
and  after  a  few  months  of  wedded  life  died  of 
inflammation  of  the  heart. 

Eliot,  Jolin,  the  "Indian  apostle,"  was  bom 
probably  at  Widford,  Herts,  England,  in  1604; 
graduated  from  Jesus  college,  Cambridge,  in 
1622,  and  after  taking  orders  quitted  England 
for  conscience'  sake,  and  landed  at  Boston  in 
1631.  Next  year  he  settled  at  Roxbury,  and  in 
1646  began  to  preach  in  the  native  dialect  to  the 
Indians  at  Nonantum,  five  miles  ofif.  He  shortly 
after  established  his  converts  in  regular  settle- 
ments; and  in  England  a  corporation  was 
founded  in  1649  for  propagating  the  gospel 
among  the  Indians  of  New  England.  In  1674 
the  number  of  "praying  Indians"  was  estimated- 
at  3600,  but  the  decay  of  the  "praying  towns" 
was  rapid  after  King  Philip's  war  in  1675,  in 
which  the  converts  suffered  equal  cruelties  at  the 
hands  of  their  countrymen  and  of  the  English. 


Eliot  died  at  Roxbury  in  1690.  He  assisted  in 
preparing  an  English  metrical  version  of  the 
psaims.  The  Bay  Psalm-Book,  the  first  book 
printed  in  New  England ;  but  his  greatest  work 
was  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  Indian 
tongue. 
EliEal>etb,  queen  of  England  from  1558  to  1603, 
was  born  at  Greenwich  in  1533.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Anne  Boleyn,  and 
was  scarcely  three  years  of  age  when  her  mother 
was  beheaded,  and  only  thirteen  at  tlie  death  of 
her  father.  As  Princess  Elizabeth,  she  had 
the  advantage  of  the  best  teachers  and  masters, 
especially  under  the  supervision  of  Catharine 
Parr,  the  last  of  Henry's  queens;  but,  during  the 
reign  of  her  half-sister,  Mary,  her  life  was  in 
imminent  danger  through  the  jealousy  of  Mary, 
though  she  was  allowed  to  remain  in  seclusion 
at  Ilatfield  until  her  accession  to  the  throne  in 
1558.  Thus  she  was  in  her  twenty-hixth  year 
when  she  obtained  the  crown.  Her  first  act  was 
to  release  the  imprisoned  Protestants,  and  to 
reestablish  Protestantism.  Next  she  concluded 
a  peace  with  France  and  Scotland,  entering  into 
an  undertaking  with  the  reformers  in  the  latter 
country  to  protect  them  from  the  Catholics; 
but  in  her  own  country,  while  zealously  main- 
taining Protestantism,  and  severe  in  her  pro- 
ceedings toward  those  of  her  subjects  who 
wlhered  to  the  formerly  established  religion,  she 
was  not  less  severe  toward  the  Puritans,  who 
were  the  most  Protestant  of  all  the  sects,  and 
who  suffered  many  things  at  her  hands.  Very 
early  in  her  reign  she  was  trouble<i  by  tlie  pre- 
tensions of  the  friends  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots, 
who  was  now  the  next  heir  to  the  throne.  As 
Mary  was  a  most  zealous  Catholic,  the  counsellors 
of  Elizabeth  were  anxious  that  she  should  marry 
in  order  to  secure  the  Protestant  succession; 
but  while  she  negotiated  and  coquetted  with  one 
person  after  another,  she  yet  finally  refused  to 
marry,  though  it  is  believed  that  she  would  have 
acceptJed  her  favorite,  the  earl  of  Leicester,  for  a 
husband,  if  she  had  not  been  prevented  by  her 
other  counsellors,  and  especially  by  Cecil,  Lord 
Burleigh,  the  greatest  of  tnem  all.  Twelve  years 
after  her  accession,  in  1570,  Elizabeth  was 
excommunicated  by  JPope  Pius  V.  Sixteen  years 
later,  in  1586,  the  Babington  conspiracy  was 
formed,  the  object  of  which  was  to  reestablish 
the  papacy,  ana  to  set  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  on 
the  throne  of  England,  but  which  led  only  to  the 
loss  of  her  life  by  Mary,  after  she  had  been 
imprisoned  in  England  for  nineteen  years.  IVo 
years  after  this  conspiracy,  in  1588,  Elizabeth 
had  to  contend  with  a  more  formidable  enemy 
in  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  who  avowed  his  resolution 
to  annihilate  Protestantism,  but  whose  threat- 
ened invasion  of  the  country  was  prevented  by 
the  defeat  and  destruction  of  the  armada. 
Thus,  a  very  considerable  portion  of  Elizabeth's 
reign  was  occupied  in  defending  her  kingdom 
against  attacks  which  were  brought  upon  her 
chiefly  because  she  adhered  to  the  reformed 
faith.  But  the  firmness  and  sagacity  of  Eliza- 
beth's advisers,  and  especially  of  Burleigh, 
protected  her  against  these  dangers;  and  at  the 
close  of  her  reign,  which  lasted  for  forty-five 
years,  England  was  stronger  and  greater  than 
it  had  ever  been  before.  To  this  reign  belong 
the  discoveries  of  Hawkins,  Drake,  and  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh.  Spenser,  Shakespeare,  and 
Bacon  belong  also  to  the  Elizabethan  age. 
Elizabeth  granted  their  first  charter  to  the  East 
India  company,  which  was  destined  to  win  a 
new  empire  for  England ;  and  the  encouragement 
she  gave  to  seamen  and  discoverers  generally 
caused  her  to  be  called  "the  restorer  of  the 
English  navy,"  and  "the  queen  of  the  northern 
seas."      But  Elizabeth  was  great  mainly  through 


QUEEN   ELIZABETH   SIGNING  DEATH  WARRANT   OF   MARY,  QUEEN   OF  SCOTS 
From  the  painting  by  J.  Schrader 


e  -c  e     c 
•  *•   e      « 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


67ft 


her  counsellors,  among  whom  were  some  of  the 
uiost  eminent  statesmen  that  England  has  pro- 
duced. She  died  1603,  and  was  buried  in  West- 
minster abbey. 

Elizabeth  Petrovna  (pd-frtfiZ-nd),  empress  of  Russia, 
W!U5  born  in  17U9,  and  died  in  17G2.  Slie  was  a 
ilaiighter  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  became  empress 
through  the  deposition  of  Ivan  in  1741.  During 
her  reign,  in  which  throughout  she  was  guided 
by  favorites,  a  war  with  Sweden  was  brought  to 
a  successful  conclusion  by  the  peace  of  Abo. 
Her  animosity  toward  Frederick  the  Great  led 
her  to  take  part  in  the  war  of  the  Austrian  suc- 
cession and  in  the  seven  years'  war. 

Elklns,  Stephen  Benton,  United  States  senator, 
was  born  in  Perry  county,  Ohio,  1841.  He  went 
to  Missouri  in  childhood;  graduated  from  uni- 
versity of  Missouri,  1860,  served  in  the  Union 
army,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1864.  He 
went  to  New  Mexico  in  1864;  member  of  terri- 
torial legislature,  1864-63;  later  territorial  dis- 
trict attorney,  attorney-general,  18G8-69,  and 
United  States  district  attorney,  1870-72;  dele- 
gate in  congress  from  New  Mexico,  1873-77. 
He  then  removed  to  West  Virginia,  and  became 
largely  interested  in  coal  mining  and  railroads. 
Founded  town  of  Elkins,  W.  Va.  Was  secretary 
of  war,  1891-93,  and,  1895-1911,  United  States 
senator  from  West  Virginia.     Died,  1911. 

Elliot,  Daniel  Giraud,  naturalist,  curator  of  zoology. 
Field  Columbian  museum,  was  born  in  New  York, 
1835.  He  studied  zoology,  traveled  in  Europe, 
Africa,  Palestine,  and  Asia  Minor,  1856—78; 
later  in  greater  part  of  United  States,  Canada, 
Alaska,  South  America.  Led  expedition  into 
interior  of  East  Africa  in  interest  of  Field  Colum- 
bian museum,  1896,  and  into  the  recesses  of  the 
Olympic  mountains,  1898,  being  first  naturalist 
to  penetrate  that  little-known  range.  Member 
of  many  learned  societies,  and  decorated  ten 
times  by  European  governments  for  labors  in 
natural  science;  Sc.  D.,  Columbia,  1906.  Author: 
Monograph  of  the  Pittidw,  or  Ant-Thrtishes; 
The  Grouse;  New  and  Heretofore  Unfigured 
Birds  of  North  America  (2  vols.) ;  The  Pfiasiani- 
dce,  or  Pheasants  (2  vols.);  Paradiscidae,  or 
Birds  of  Paradise;  The  Felidce,  or  Cats;  Bucero- 
tidce,  or  Hornbills;  Shore  Birds  of  North  America, 
etc.  Contributor  of  many  papers  to  scientific 
publications  in  America  and  Europe. 

Elliott,  Maxine,  actress,  was  bom  in  Rockland, 
Me.,  1873,  daughter  of  Thomas  Dermot.  She 
received  a  convent  education,  and  married  George 
A.  McDermott,  from  whom  she  was  divorced 
in  1896.  In  1898  she  married  Nathaniel  C. 
Goodwin,  but  was  divorced  in  1908.  Made 
d^but  with  E.  S.  Willard  in  small  parts,  1890; 
soon  after  played  leading  parts  in  Rose  Coghlan's 
company;  was  under  Augustin  Daly's  manage- 
ment playing  leading  roles  two  seasons;  became 
leading  woman  in  Nat.  Goodwin's  company, 
1898;  starred  in  Her  Own  Way,  1903-05,  Her 
Great  Match,  1905-07;  owner  and  manager  of 
Maxine  EUiotVs  theater.  New  York,  since  1908. 

Ellsworth,  Oliver,  American  statesman  and  jurist, 
was  born  in  Windsor,  Conn.,  1745.  He  became 
prominent  in  state  affairs  and  in  the  continental 
congress,  and  was  a  member  of  the  federal  con- 
vention of  1787,  which  prepared  the  constitution 
of  the  United  States.  It  was  on  his  motion  that 
the  words  "national  government"  in  that 
organic  act  were  replaced  by  the  definition 
"government  of  the  United  States."  He  became 
United  States  senator  from  Connecticut  in  1789, 
and  was  chairman  of  the  committee  which 
organized  the  federal  judicial  system.  He  led 
the  federalist  party  in  the  senate,  and  was  an 
earnest  advocate  of  Jay's  treaty  with  England 
in  1794.  From  1796  to  1800  he  was  chief-justice 
of  the  United  States  supreme  court,  and  in  1800 


negotiated,  with  Patrick  Henry  and  Governor 
Davie  a  treaty  with  France.  He  afterward 
served  on  tlio  governor's  council  of  Conuucticut, 
and  in  1807  became  chief-justice  of  the  state 
supreme  court.     Diitl,  1807. 

ElphinHtone  iJU' -fin-stun),  Muuntstuart,  English 
statesman  and  historian,  was  bom  in  1779: 
educated  at  Edinburgh  and  Kenainfcton,  and 
entered  the  Bengal  civil  service  in  1705.  In 
1803  he  served  with  distinction  on  Wellcsley'a 
staff,  and  was  appointe<i  nwident  at  Nagpur; 
in  1808  he  was  sent  as  envoy  to  Shah  Shuia  at 
Cabul;  and  as  resident  from  1810  at  Poona  both 
ended  the  Mahratta  war  of  1817  and  organi]:e<l 
the  newly  acquired  territory.  During  his  gover- 
norship of  Bombay,  1819-27,  he  founded  the 
present  system  of  administration,  and  greatly 
advanced  public  education.  He  returned  to 
England  in  1829,  and,  declining  the  governor- 
generalship  of  India,  lived  in  comparative  retire- 
ment until  his  death  at  Hookwood,  in  Limps- 
field  parish,  Surrey,  1859.  His  well-known 
History  of  India  appeared  in  1841. 

Elphlnstone,  William,  Scottish  prelate  and  states- 
man, was  born  in  1431.  He  took  liis  M.  A.  at 
Glasgow  in  1452,  was  ordained  priest,  8f>ent  five 
years  in  France,  and  lectured  on  law  at  Paris 
and  Orleans.  He  returned  to  Scotland,  and 
became  rector  of  the  university  and  official- 
general  of  the  diocese  of  Glasgow,  official  of 
Lothian,  bishop  of  Ross  and  of  Aberdeen.  He 
was  then  engaged  in  embassies,  and  for  four 
months  before  the  death  of  James  III.,  in  1488, 
was  chancellor.  Under  James  IV.  he  was 
ambassador  to  France,  and  keeper  of  the  pri\-^ 
seal  from  1492.  It  was  chiefly  through  his 
influence  that  the  first  printing  press  —  that  of 
Chepman  and  Myllar  —  was  estaolished  in  Scot- 
land. The  university  of  Aberdeen  (King's 
college)  was  founded  by  him  in  1500.  Additions 
to  the  cathedral  and  a  stone  bridge  over  the  Dee 
were  also  due  to  him.  The  fatal  battle  of  Flodden 
broke  his  spirit,  and  he  died  at  Edinburgh  in  1514. 

Ely,  Richard  Theodore,  educator,  author,  was 
born  in  Ripley,  N.  Y.,  1854.  He  was  graduated 
from  Columbia,  1876;  Ph.  D.,  Heidelberg 
university,  1879;  LL.  D.,  Hobart  college,  1892; 
professor  of  political  economy,  Johns  Hopkins, 
1881-92;  professor  of  poHtical  economy,  univer- 
.sity  of  Wisconsin,  since  1892 ;  founder,  secretary, 
1885-92,  president,  1899-1901,  American  eco- 
nomic association.  Member  of  Baltimore  tax 
commission,  1885-86;  Maryland  tax  commia- 
sion,  1886-88;  founder,  1904,  and  since  director 
of  American  bureau  of  industrial  research. 
Author:  French  and  German  Socialism  in  Modem 
Times;  Taxation  in  American  States  and  Cities; 
Introduction  to  Political  Economy;  Outlines  of 
Economics;  The  Social  Law  of  Service;  Monop- 
olies and  Trusts;  Labor  Movement  in  America; 
Past  and  Present  of  Political  Economy;  Problems 
of  To-day;  Social  Aspects  of  Christianity;  Social- 
ism and  Social  Reform;  The  Coming  City;  Studies 
in  the  Evolution  of  Industrial  Society,  etc. 

Emanuel  I.  (S-man^-u-il),  king  of  Portugal,  called 
"the  great,"  or  "  the  fortunate,"  was  bom  in  1469, 
and  became  king  in  1495.  His  reign  is  known 
as  the  golden  age  of  Portugal.  He  prepared  the 
code  of  laws  which  bears  his  name,  and  made  his 
court  a  center  of  chivalrj',  of  art,  and  of  science. 
Vasco  da  Gama's  voyage  round  the  cape  of 
Good  Hope,  Cabral's  discovery  of  Brazil,  and 
the  expeditions  of  Albuquerque  and  others  that 
so  widened  Portuguese  possessions  were  all  sent 
out  and  encouraged  by  Emanuel.  It  was  he 
who  made  Portugal  the  first  naval  power  of  the 
world,  as  well  as  its  great  commercial  center. 
He  died  at  Lisbon    1521. 

Emanuel,  FJllbcrt  duke  of  Savoy,  son  of  Charles 
III.,  was  bom  in  1528;  was  commander-in-chief 


676 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


of  the  imperial  troops  in  Italy  against  the  French, 
who,  on  his  father's  death,  seized  most  of  his 
inheritance.  Appointed  governor  of  the  Nether- 
lands by  Philip  11.  in  1556,  he  attacked  France, 
winning  the  battle  of  St.  Quentin,  and  by  the 
treaty  of  Ch&teau-Cambresis,  1559,  recovered  his 
ancestral  domains,  and  married  Marguerite, 
sister  of  the  king  of  France.  He  applied  himself 
to  the  administrative  and  military  organization 
of  his  country,  and  is  considered  the  founder  of 
the  Sardinian  monarchy.      Died,  1580. 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo.     See  page  112. 

Emerton,  Ephraira,  educator,  nistorian,  professor 
of  ecclesiastical  history,  Harvard,  since  1882, 
was  bom  in  Salem,  Mass.,  1851.  He  was  grad- 
uated from  Harvard  in  1871;  Ph.  D.,  Leipzig, 
1876.  Member  of  Massachusetts  historical  so- 
ciety, American  academy  of  arts  and  sciences, 
American  historical  association,  and  correspond- 
ing member  of  Institut  Gen^vois.  Author: 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Middle  Ages; 
Sipiopsia  of  the  History  of  Continental  Europe; 
Mediceval  Europe,  814—1300;  Desiderius  Eratmua; 
etc. 

Emin  Pasha  (d'-men  pd-ahd'),  or  Bey,  proper  name 
Eduard  Schnitzer,  was  bom  at  Oppeln,  Silesia, 
in  1840.  He  studied  medicine  and  m  1864  went 
to  Turkey,  where  he  became  a  well-known 
physician.  He  learned  to  speak  Turkish  and 
Arabic  easily,  and  adopted  Turkish  habits  and 
customs.  He  also  adopted  the  name  Emin. 
which  means  "faithful  one."  In  1876  he  joinea 
the  Egyptian  service  and  proceeded  as  chief 
physician  to  the  equatorial  province,  of  which 
he  was  made  governor  in  1878  oy  ''Chinese"  Gor- 
don. Here  on  the  sudden  uprising  of  the  Mahdi, 
his  rescue  reached  him  in  May,  1888.  In  1890 
he  entered  the  German  service  and  at  once  made 
his  way  again  to  central  Africa.  He  was  killed, 
however,  in  1892  by  Arabs  near  Nyangwe. 

Enunet,  Bobert,  Irish  enthu.siast  and  revolutionist, 
was  born  at  Dublin  in  1778,  the  son  of  a  Dublin 
doctor.  He  was  expelled  from  Dublin  university 
in  1798  owing  to  his  anti-English  sympathies, 
and  was  henceforth  an  ardent  though  misguided 
partisan  of  Irish  independence.  His  impulsive 
patriotism  in  1803  led  him  to  make  an  unsuccess- 
ful attack  on  Dublin  castle,  but  he  escap>ed  into 
Wicklow.  He  was  subsequently  captured  and 
executed  the  same  year.  His  fate  is  the  subject 
of  a  famous  poem  by  Moore. 

Empedocles  (Sm-^d'-o-kliz),  Greek  philosopher, 
was  bom  in  Sicily  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth 
century  B.  C.  He  was  poet,  priest,  physician, 
and  philosopher,  and  foUowea  Pythagoras  in  his 
teaching.  He  was  very  vain,  and  used  to  move 
about  among  the  people  dressed  in  long  purple 
robes  with  a  golden  girdle,  his  flowing  hair  bound 
with  a  garland,  a  branch  of  laurel  in  his  hand, 
and  sandals  of  brass  on  his  feet,  while  a  proces- 
sion of  slaves  followed  him.  Strange  stories  are 
told  of  his  death,  one  being  that  he  had  thrown 
himself   into   the   crater   of    Etna,    hoping   that 

Eeople  would  think  he  had  been  translated  to 
eaven. 
Encke  (Sng'-kS),  Johann  Franz,  German  astron- 
omer, was  bom  at  Hamburg  in  1791.  In  1825, 
chiefly  at  the  instigation  of  Bessel,  he  was  called 
to  Berlin  as  director  of  the  observatory.  While 
at  Gotha  the  astronomical  prize  was  awarded  to 
Encke  by  the  judges,  Gauss  and  Gibers,  for  his 
determination  of  the  orbit  of  the  comet  of  1680. 
This  led  him  to  solve  another  problem,  which 
had  been  proposed  along  with  the  other  —  viz., 
the  distance  of  the  sun  —  and  his  value  of  the 
solar  parallax,  giving  a  distance  of  about  95,000,- 
000  miles,  was  for  a  long  time  accepted  as  the 
best  known.  In  1819  he  showed  that  the  comet 
discovered  by  Pons  in  1818  revolved  round  the 
stin  in  the  remarkably  short  time  of  3.3  years. 


being  identical  with  those  observed  in  1786, 
1795,  and  1805,  and  this  comet  has  ever  since 
been  known  by  Encke's  name.  He  was  an 
indefatigable  computer  and  did  great  service  by 
developing  and  putting  into  convenient  shape 
for  use  the  new  method  of  least  squares  dis- 
covered by  Gauss.     Died,  18G5. 

Endlcott  (Sn'-dl-kdt),  or  Endecott,  John,  Puritan 
governor  of  Massachusetts,  was  born  at  Dor- 
chester, England,  about  1588.  He  landed  as 
manager  of  a  plantation  near  Salem  in  1628; 
headed  a  sanguinary  expedition  against  the 
Indians  in  1636;  was  deputy-governor  in  1641- 
44,  1650,  and  1654,  and  governor  six  times  from 
1644  to  1665.  In  1658  he  was  president  of  the 
united  colonies  of  New  England.  He  died  at 
Boston,  1665. 

Endicott,  William  Crowning hield,  descendant  of 
the  foregoing,  was  born  in  Salem,  Mass.,  1827; 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1847,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  Massachusetts  bar.  From  1873 
to  1882  he  was  a  judge  of  the  Massachusetts 
supreme  court.  In  1884  he  ran  for  governor 
of  Massachusetts  on  the  democratic  ticket,  but 
was  defeated:  In  1885  he  became  secretary  of 
war  in  the  cabinet  of  President  Cleveland.  He 
died  in  Boston,  1900. 

Endllcber  {(nf4lx-ir),  Stephan  Ladlslaus,  Hun- 
garian botanist  and  linguist,  was  born  in  Pres- 
burg  in  1804.  In  1836  ne  was  appointed  keeper 
of  the  court  cabinet  of  natural  historyj  Vienna, 
and  in  1840  professor  of  botany  and  director  of 
the  botanic  garden  of  the  university.  He  was  a 
chief  founder  of  the  Vienna  academy  and  of  the 
Annalen  dea  Wiener  Muaeurm,  made  valuable 
contributions  to  the  study  of  old  German  and 
classic  literature,  pointed  out  new  sources  of 
Hungarian  history,  and  published  several  lin- 
guistic works.  Tne  most  important  of  his 
botanical  works  is  bis  Genera  Plantarum,  in 
which  he  lays  down  a  new  system  of  classification. 
Died,  1849. 

Ennlus  (J^'-{-fi«),  Qulntus,  Roman  poet,  the 
father  of  Roman  literature,  was  born  in  239 
B.  C.  Cato  "the  elder"  took  him  to  Rome, 
where  he  taught  Greek  and  Latin,  and  gained 
the  friendship  of  the  noblest  Romans  of  his  day. 
He  was  famous  for  his  learning  and  his  charming 
conversation.  His  writings  were  a  poem  on 
Roman  history,  plays  for  the  theater,  many  of 
them  adapted  from  the  finest  Greek  plays,  and 
short  poems,  a  few  of  which  remain.  He  died 
in  Rome,  169  B.  C. 

EOtvOs  (iU'-vil«A),  J6zsef,  distinguished  Hungarian 
author,  was  bom  at  Buda,  1813.  He  became 
an  advocate  in  1833,  but  soon  resolved  to  devote 
himself  exclusively  to  literature,  in  which  field 
he  had  already  won  a  great  reputation  by  his 
comedies.  After  his  return  from  a  journey 
through  Germany,  France,  England,  Switzerland, 
and  the  Netherlands,  he  published  his  Prison 
Reform,  which  was  instrumental  in  bringing 
about  many  wholesome  improvements  in  regard 
to  prisons.  In  1867  he  was  appointed  minister 
of  religion  and  education,  and  m  that  capacity 
engaged  actively  in  the  work  of  reform.  Died 
at  Pesth,  1871. 

Epaminondas  (e-p&m'-Hr^n&n'-das),  greatest  of 
Theban  generals  and  statesmen,  was  bom  about 
418  B.  C,  and  led  a  retired  life  until  his  fortieth 
year.  After  the  stratagem  by  which  his  fellow 
citizens  expelled  the  Spartans  in  379,  he  joined 
the  patriots;  and,  when  sent  to  Sparta  in  371  to 
negotiate  peace,  displayed  as  much  firmness  as 
eloquence.  When  war  was  resumed,  he  received 
the  conmiand,  and  with  6,000  men  defeated 
twice  that  number  at  Leuctra.  Two  years  later, 
with  Pelopidas,  he  marched  into  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, and  incited  several  of  the  allied  tribes  to 
desert  Sparta.     On  his  return  to  Thebes,  he  was 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


•77 


accused  of  having  retained  the  supreme  power 
beyond  the  lawful  time,  but  was  acquitted  in 
consequence  of  his  able  defense.  In  368  war 
was  renewed,  and  Epaminondiis  made  a  some- 
what unsuccessful  invasion  into  the  Peloponnesus. 
To  atone  for  this  he  advanced  with  33,000  men 
into  Arcadia,  and  near  Mantinea  broke  the 
Spartan  phalanx,  but  was  mortally  wounded. 
Died,  362  B.  C. 

£p4e,  de  la'  {dS  Id'-pd'),  Charles  Michel  Abb£,  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  system  of  instruction 
for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  was  born  at  Versailles, 
France,  1712.  In  1755  he  first  began  to  occupy 
himself  with  the  education  of  two  deaf  and 
dumb  girls.  At  his  own  expense  he  founded 
an  institution  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and 
labored  with  unwearied  zeal  for  its  prosperity. 
Died,  17S9. 

Eplctetus  {Sp'-ik-te'-tHs),  celebrated  stoic  philoso- 
pher, who  flourished  in  the  first  century,  was 
bom  at  Hierapolis,  in  Phrygia,  and  was  originally 
a  slave  to  Epaphroditus,  one  of  Nero's  freedmen. 
Having  obtained  his  freedom,  he  retired  to  a 
hut  and  gave  himself  up  wholly  to  the  study  of 
philosophy.  His  lessons  were  greatly  admired, 
and  his  life  afforded  an  example  of  unblemished 
virtue.  Being  banished  from  Rome,  with  the 
other  philosophers,  by  Domitian,  he  settled  at 
Nicopolis,  in  Epirus.  Whether  he  ever  returned 
to  the  Roman  capital  is  uncertain;  nor  do  we 
know  the  period  at  which  he  died.  His  memory 
was  so  much  venerated  that  the  earthen  lamp 
which  gave  him  light  was  sold  for  more  than 
ninety  pounds.  His  admirable  Enchiridion,  a 
manual  of  morality,  is  highly  esteemed  even 
to-day.  His  teachings  approach  very  nearly  the 
precepts  of  Christianity. 

Epicurus  (JtTp'-l-ku'-rus),  Greek  philosopher,  was 
bom  about  342  B.  C.  It  is  douijtful  whether  his 
birth  occurred  before  or  after  his  parents'  removal 
from  Gargettus,  in  Attica,  to  Samos.  His  youth 
was  spent  in  that  island,  whence  he  removed  to 
Athens,  when  about  eighteen,  and  afterward 
taught  at  Colophon,  Mitylene,  and  Lampsacus. 
He  returned  to  Athens  about  306,  and  remained 
there  until  his  death.  He  was  founder  of  the 
Epicurean  school,  who  hold  that  the  aummum 
bonum  consists  in  pleasure  —  chiefly  mental 
pleasure.     Died,  270  B.  C. 

£pinay,  d'  (da'  pe'-nS'),  Madame,  French  writer, 
was  born  about  1725.  In  1745  she  formed  a 
close  intimacy  with  Rousseau,  and  presented 
him  with  a  small  house,  the  now  famous  Hermit- 
age, which  stood  on  one  of  her  husband's  estates 
in  the  woods  of  Montmorency.  An  unfortunate 
jealousy,  however,  which  Rousseau  conceived  for 
Grimm,  another  friend  of  Madame  d'Epinay, 
was  followed  by  an  open  rupture  with  his  bene- 
factress, and  in  his  Confessions  he  scrupled  not 
to  malign  her  by  way  of  vengeance.  Died, 
1783. 

Eraslstratus  (Sr-a-sis'-tra-tiis),  one  of  the  rnost 
famous  physicians  and  anatomists  of  ancient 
times,  flourished  in  the  third  century  B.  C,  and 
is  supposed  to  have  been  bom  at  lulls,  in  the 
island  of  Ceos.  He  resided  for  some  time  at  the 
court  of  Seleucus  Nicator,  king  of  Syria.  He 
founded  a  school  of  medicine,  wrote  several 
works  on  anatomy,  practical  medicine,  and 
pharmacy. 

Erasmus  (e^&z'-mus),  Deslderlus,  one  of  the 
greatest  scholars  of  the  renaissance,  was  bom  in 
Rotterdam  about  1467;  on  his  parents'  death  he 
entered  a  monastery,  which  he  left  to  become  a 
teacher  at  Paris,  and  at  the  invitation  of  his 
pupil.  Lord  Mount]  oy,  came  to  England.  He 
settled  at  Oxford,  where  he  became  the  friend 
of  More,  and  studied  divinity  under  Colet,  and 
Greek  under  Grocyn  and  Linacre.  In  1506  he 
visited   Italy,    staying   at   Bologna   and   Rome, 


where  he  was  warmly  raodved,  but  raturaad  to 
England,  and  waa  made  Marsaret  profeMor  of 

divmity  and  professor  of  Qreek  at  Cambridge. 
He  returntHl  to  the  continent,  and  after  a  ioumey 
to  the  low  countries,  settlea  at  Baael,  wnere  hie 

iiublished  his  edition  of  the  new  testament. 
<>a.smu8  was  in  favor  of  moderate  reform  in  the 
church,  as  is  shown  b^  his  Enchiridion  AftZitie 
Christiani  and  Encomium  Moricr,  but  he  nve 
little  support  to  Luther,  although  he  refused  to 
write  against  him.     Dietl,  l.'>;'/6. 

Eratosthenes  {hr'-d-tHs'-thi-niz),  eminent  Greek 
writer,  called,  on  account  of  hla  varied  eruditioiif 
the  philologist,  was  bom  at  Cvrene  about  276 
B.  C.  By  Ptolemy  Euergetes  ne  was  called  to 
Alexandria  to  superintend  his  great  library. 
Here  he  died  of  voluntary  starvation,  at  the  age 
of  eighty,  having  become  blind  and  wearied  of 
life.  As  an  astronomer  he  holds  an  eminent 
rank  among  ancient  astronomers.  He  measured 
the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  and  the  result  at 
which  he  arrived  —  viz.,  that  it  was  23"  61'  20* 
—  must  be  reckoned  a  very  fair  observation, 
considering  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  Hippar- 
chus  used  it,  and  so  did  the  celebrated  astronomer 
Ptolemy.  A  letter  to  Ptolemy,  king  of  Egypt,  on 
the  duplication  of  the  cube,  is  the  only  complete 
writing  of  his  that  we  possess.  Eratosthenes' 
greatest  claim  to  distinction,  however,  is  as  a 
geometer. 

Erckmann-Chatrlan  {h-W-m&n-sha.'-tri'-lis')  (Emile 
Erckmann  and  Alexandre  Chatrian),  two  French 
men  of  letters,  the  first  of  whom  was  bom  at 
Phalsbourg,  1822;  the  second  in  the  village  of 
Soldatenthal,  1826.  The  two  friends  employed 
their  pens  in  the  same  works^  which  they  signed 
with  the  two  names  united  in  one;  and  it  was 
only  about  1863  that  the  authors  informed  their 
readers  that  the  numerous  works  of  fiction, 
which  had  obtained  a  widespread  popularity, 
and  were  supposed  by  the  general  public  to  be 
the  work  of  a  single  writer,  were  the  fmits  of 
their  friendly  collaboration.  In  1848  they  pub- 
lished several  feuilletons  in  the  DemocraU  du 
Rhin,  which  had  just  been  started;  Le  Sacrifice 
d'  Abraham,  Le  Bourgmestre  en  Bouteille.  At 
the  same  time  thev  wrote  a  drama,  Le  C/ujMeur 
des  Ruines.  Le  Joueur  de  ClarinetU,  a  simple 
story  of  a  musician,  and  Les  Amoureux  d» 
Catherine,  another  tale  of  village  life  in  the  same 
volume,  are  nearly  perfect  as  literary  efforts. 
Erckmann  died  in  1899;   Chatrian,  1890. 

Eric  (jtr'-'ik)  the  Red,  Norwegian  navigator,  was 
bom  about  950  and  died  about  1000.  In  982  he 
located  on  the  island  of  Iceland,  and  in  983 
sailed  from  Bredifiord  to  reach  some  western  shore 
said  to  have  been  visited  by  one  of  his  country- 
men in  former  times.  On  the  voyage  he  PM^d 
Cape  Farewell,  and  on  the  coast  met  with  rein- 
deer. He  named  the  country  Greenland  and  the 
inlet  Ericfiord.  Returning  to  Iceland  in  985,  he 
interested  the  people  of  the  island  in  his  dis- 
covery, and  with  twenty-five  sail  set  out  for  the 
voyage.  Some  of  the  ships  were  lost  in  a  storm. 
and  others  were  driven  home;  but  he  succeeded 
in  reaching  the  Greenland  coast  with  fourteen, 
and  locat^  on  the  fiord  at  some  distance  from 
the  ocean  where  there  was  grass  and  trees. 
About  twelve  years  later  his  son  Lief  is  said  to 
have  discovered  the  continent  of  North  America, 
which  he  called  Markland  and  Vinland. 

Ericsson  (ir'-Vcsiin),  John,  Swedish-American 
engineer,  was  bom  in  Lanzbanshyttan,  Sweden, 
1803.  At  the  age  of  twelve  he  became  cadet  of 
engineers,  and  at  seventeen  entered  the  Swedish 
army:  in  1826  he  was  promoted  to  captain.  In 
18^  he  constracted  a  flame  engine  and  went  to 
London  to  introduce  it,  resigning  his  captaincy 
in  the  army.  He  also  protluced  in  succceslon 
an  instrument  for  sesr^ounding,   a  hydroatatio 


<  "5 


2 


o 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


681 


ture  of  Cadiz  in  1596.  He  quarreled  with  the 
queen  about  an  appointment,  turning  his  buck 
upon  her  in  the  presence  of  her  ministers,  and 
wnen  she  resented  the  indignity  with  a  box  on 
the  ear,  drew  his  sword,  swearing  that  he  would 
not  endure  such  treatment  from  Henry  VIH. 
himself.  They  were  never  reallv  reconciled. 
After  failing  as  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  he 
formed  a  wild  scheme  to  get  rid  of  Elizabeth's 
councilors,  who  were  opposed  to  him.  He 
entered  London  at  the  heaa  of  300  men,  expect- 
ing the  people  to  rise  in  his  favor,  but  was 
disappointed  and  forced  to  surrender.  He  was 
tried  for  treason,  condemned,  and  beheaded  in 
1601. 

Estaing  (&'-<4n')»  Charles  Hector,  Count  d% 
French  admiral,  was  born  in  1729.  After  serv- 
ing in  the  army  in  India,  under  the  Marquis  de 
Bussy,  and  being  made  prisoner  at  the  siege  of 
Madras,  he  entered  the  navy  and  led  an  expe- 
dition to  Sumatra,  capturing  several  English 
forts.  He  was  then  placed  in  command  of  a 
squadron  sent  to  aid  the  United  States  against 
England,  captured  the  island  of  Grenada,  but 
ultimately  met  with  reverses,  and  returned  to 
France  in  disgrace.  He  was  guillotined  during 
the  revolution.     Died,  1794. 

Esterh&zy  (Jts'-ter-haf-ze),  Nicholas  de,  Hungarian 
patron  of  arts  and  sciences,  was  bom  in  1765, 
traveled  over  a  great  part  of  Europe,  and  resided 
for  a  considerable  time  in  England,  France,  and 
Italy.  He  founded  the  splendid  collection  of 
pictures  at  Vienna.  He  also  made  a  choice 
collection  of  drawings  and  engravings.  When 
Napoleon,  in  1S09,  entertained  the  notion  of 
weakening  Austria  by  the  separation  of  Hungary, 
he  made  overtures  to  Prince  Esterhazy  respect- 
ing the  crown  of  Hungary,  which,  however, 
were  declined.  Haydn  composed  most  of  his 
works  at  the  court  of  Prince  Nicholas.  Died, 
1833. 

Esterhdzy,  Prince  Paul  Anton,  Austrian  diplomat, 
was  born  in  1786.  He  entered  at  an  early  age 
on  a  diplomatic  career.  After  the  peace  of 
Vienna  he  went  as  ambassador  to  the  court  of 
Westphalia.  From  1815  to  1818  he  represented 
the  Austrian  government  at  London.  He  filled 
the  same  oflBce  between  1830  and  1838,  and 
distinguished  himseK  by  his  diplomatic  tact  and 
ability.  In  1842  he  returned  home  and  continued 
to  exert  himself  in  the  cause  of  political  and 
literary  progress.  In  March,  1848,  he  became 
minister  of  foreign  affairs;  but  when  the  struggle 
between  Austria  and  Hungary  broke  out  he 
exhibited  more  prudence  than  heroism  by 
retiring  from  public  life  altogether.  He  died 
in  1866. 

Esther,  the  Persian  name  of  Hadassah,  daughter 
of  Abihail,  a  Beniamite.  She  was  an  orphan, 
and  brought  up  by  her  cousin  Mordecai,  an 
officer  in  the  household  of  the  Persian  monarch, 
Abasuerus.  Her  history  is  extremely  interesting, 
and  set  out  in  detail  in  the  biblical  book  of  that 
name.  When  the  misconduct  of  Vashti  had 
cost  her  her  "royal  estate,"  all  "the  fair  virgins" 
of  the  kingdom  were  gathered  together,  that 
Ahasuerus  might  clioose  a  successor.  He  selected 
Hadassah,  who  received  the  name  of  Esther  on 
account  of  her  loveliness.  The  great  event  of 
her  life  was  the  saving  of  her  Jewish  countrymen 
from  the  horrors  of  that  universal  massacre 
planned  by  the  malice  of  Haman,  and  consented 
to  by  the  thoughtless  cruelty  of  an  oriental 
despot.  Esther  is  not  mentioned  in  profane 
history,  whence  it  has  been  inferred  by  some 
that  she  was  not  the  only  wife  of  Ahasuerus 
(Xerxes),  but  rather  the  favorite  of  his  house- 
hold, to  which  she  undoubtedly  belonged. 

Bthelbert  (Jith'-U-hert),  first  Christian  king  of  Kent, 
England,   was   bom   about   552.     He  was   con- 


verted by  his  wife,  Bertha,  of  France^  and  by 
St.  Augustine.  He  gave  the  KngUah  the  firat 
written  code  of  laws.     Reigned  from  000  to  616. 

Euclid  (u'-A:{{(f),  eminent  geonietrici«n,  \»  ndd  by 
Pappus  and  Froclus  to  have  been  a  native  of 
Alexandria,  in  wliich  city  he  taught  mathemattcs. 
during  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Lague,  about  800 
B.  C.  It  was  he  who  finit  estabusbed  a  mathe- 
matical school  there.  He  wrote  on  muaic,  optica, 
catoptrics,  and  other  subjects;  but  the  work 
whicn  has  immortalized  his  name  is  The  EUmetUa 
of  Geometry.  Of  the  fifteen  books  which  com- 
pose these  elements,  however,  the  last  two  are 
supposed  to  be  the  production  of  Ilypsicles. 

Eudocla  {u-do'shl-d),  Byzantine  princess,  wife  of 
the  emperor  Theodosius  II.,  was  bom  ^x>ut 
393,  the  daughter  of  the  sophist  Leontius  or 
Leon,  who  instructed  her  in  the  literature  of 
Greece  and  Rome,  in  rhetoric,  geometry,  arith- 
metic, and  astronomy.  Her  accomplummenta 
and  her  singular  beauty  were  reckonea  by  Leon- 
tius a  sufficient  fortune,  for  at  his  death  he  left 
all  his  property  to  her  two  brothers.  Eudocla 
appealed  to  the  emperor  at  Constantinople. 
Pulcheria,  the  sister  of  Theodosius,  was  interested 
in  the  maiden,  and  thought  she  would  make  a 
suitable  wife  for  the  emperor,  to  whom  she  was 
married,  421.  For  many  years,  however.  Pul- 
cheria ruled  in  the  imperial  household  and 
councils,  Eudocia,  according  to  Nicephorus, 
"submitting  to  her  as  mother  and  Augusta"; 
but  in  447  a  quarrel  broke  out  between  them  in 
regard  to  the  Eutychian  heresy,  of  which  Eu- 
docia had  become  a  supporter.  At  first  Eudocia 
was  triumphant,  and  Pulcheria  was  banished: 
but  in  a  short  time  the  emperor  was  reconciled 
to  his  sister,  and  treated  Eudocia  so  sharply 
that  she  retired  to  Jerusalem,  where  she  died, 
460  or  461.  Eudocia  was  a  poetess  of  consider- 
able merit. 

Eugene,  Francois,  usually  called  Prince  Eugene  of 
Savoy,  celebrated  Austrian  general,  was  bom  in 
Paris,  1663.  He  was  a  son  of  Eugene  Maurice, 
count  of  Soissons,  who  was  grandson  of  the  duke 
of  Savoy,  Charles  Emmanuel  I.;  but  his  appli- 
cation for  a  commission  in  the  army  of  France 
having  been  refused,  in  consequence  of  a  differ- 
ence between  Louis  XIV.  and  Eugene's  mother, 
a  niece  of  Cardinal  Mazarin,  he  left  France  for 
Vienna,  and  offered  his  services  to  the  emperor 
of  Austria,  in  whose  court  and  army  he  spent 
the  whole  of  his  remaining  life.  For  fifty  years, 
and  under  three  emperors,  he  was  one  of  the 
greatest  and  most  successful  of  the  Austrian 
generals,  and  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  soldiers  of  his  time.  He  was  also 
eminent  as  a  statesman,  and  inaugurated  some 
important  reforms  in  the  con.stitution  of  the 
Austrian  monarchy.  In  later  life  he  took  much 
interest  in  art  and  learning,  and  formed  a  val- 
uable collection  of  engravings  and  books.  Died 
in  Vienna,  1736. 

Eug€nle-Marie  de  Montijo  {H'-th&'-^ni  md'-r#'  d* 
mdTir4e'-h6),  ex-empress  of  the  French,  was  bom 
in  Spain,  1826.  She  was  the  granddaughter  of 
William  Kirkpatrick,  American  consul  at  Malaga, 
whose  daughter  married  Count  de  Montijo,  an 
officer  in  the  Spanish  army.  Her  mother,  the 
Comtesse  Teba,  took  her  to  Paris,  where  she 
attracted  great  attention  at  the  balls  given  at 
the  Tuilenes  by  Louis  Napoleon,  then  prince 
president.  The  latter,  after  he  made  himself 
emperor,  began  negotiations  for  a  union  with 
the  princess  Carola  Wasa  of  Sweden,  which  were 
peremptorily  rejected.  He  made  overtures  to 
other  reigning  houses  and,  being  each  time  refused, 
proposed  to  the  charming  young  Spaniard, 
whom  he  married  in  1853.  The  empress  became 
the  leader  of  the  fashions  of  Europe,  and  main- 
tained a  brilliant  court,  but  not  content  with  her 


682 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


triumphs  in  this  line  she  interfered  in  politics, 
and  with  most  disastrous  results.  She  forced 
on  the  war  with  Germany,  which  she  spoke  of  as 
"my  war,"  and  in  many  ways  her  influence  was 
bad  for  France.  She  was  ay)pointed  regent  when 
Napoleon  III.  went  to  fight  the  Germans,  and 
was  in  Paris  when  the  revolution  broke  out  after 
Sedan.  In  1870  she  escai>ed  from  the  Tuileries 
and  sought  refuge  in  England  where  she  now 
resides. 

Euler  (oi'-lSr),  Leonard,  distinguished  mathema- 
tician, was  bom  at  Basel,  Switzerland,  1707,  and 
at  the  time  of  his  death  in  1783  was  director  of 
the  mathematical  department  of  the  academy 
of  St.  Petersburg,  having  been  previously  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  in  tlie  academy  of  sciences 
in  Berlin.  His  works  on  algebra  and  other 
branches  of  pure  mathematics  are  very  numerous 
and  of  great  value,  notwithstanding  that  many 
of  the  later  years  of  bis  life  were  spent  in  total 
blindness. 

Euripides  (u-rlp'-i^z),  the  latest  of  the  three 
Greek  tragedians,  was  bom  at  Salamis,  480  B.  C, 
on  the  very  day  of  the  great  victory  gained  bv 
the  Greeks  over  the  Persians  near  the  island. 
The  Arundel  marbles,  however,  gives  485  B.  C. 
as  the  date  of  his  birth.  The  first  play  of  Eurip- 
ides' which  was  performed  was  the  Peliadea. 
In  441  B.  C.  he  gained  the  first  prize  for  tragedy, 
and  continued  to  write  for  the  Athenian  stage 
until  408  B.  C,  when  he  accepted  an  invitation 
to  the  court  of  Archelaus,  kin^  of  Macedonia. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  killed  m  406  B.  C.  by 
dogs,  which  were  set  upon  him  by  two  brother- 
poets  who  envied  him  his  reputation.  Among 
nis  works  are  the  Alcestis,  Hecuba,  and  Medea. 

Eusebius  (u-si'-bl-u8)  of  Ciesarea,  father  of 
ecclesiastical  history,  was  bom  in  Palestine  about 
264,  and  died  about  340.  He  took  the  name  of 
PamphiU.  In  313  he  succeeded  Agapius  as 
bishop  of  Coesarea,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  council  of  Nice.  Constantine  declared  that 
he  was  fit  to  be  bishop  of  the  world.  Eusebius 
was  the  most  learned  father  of  the  church  after 
Origen. 

Eustachio  (d'-^a-ta'-kyo),  or  Eustachlus,  Barto- 
lommeo,  Italian  anatomist,  was  bom  in  1510. 
Few  particulars  are  known  regarding  his  fife, 
but  we  learn  from  the  introduction  to  one  of  his 
works  that  in  1562  he  was  professor  of  medicine 
in  the  CoUegio  della  Sapienza  at  Rome.  His 
name  is  indelibly  associated  with  smatomical 
science  through  his  discoveries  of  the  tube  in  the 
auditory  apparatus,  and  the  valvular  structure 
in  the  heart,  which  have  been  called  after  him. 
He  was  tlie  first  to  give  an  accurate  description 
of  the  thoracic  duct,  and  was  probably  the 
first  to  notice  and  describe  the  stapes.  Died, 
1574. 

Evans,  Mary  Ann  or  Marian.     See  Ellot,  George. 

Evans,  Bobley  Dungllson,  American  admiral,  was 
bom  in  Floyd  county,  Va.,  1846.  He  was 
appointed  to  the  United  States  navy  from  Utah, 
and  graduated  from  the  United  States  naval 
academy  in  1803;  rear-admiral  1901.  During 
the  civil  war  he  participated  in  both  attacks  on 
Fort  Fisher,  1865,  and  in  land  attacks  received 
four  severe  rifle-shot  wounds.  When  in  com- 
mand of  the  Yorktoum  at  Valparaiso,  Chile,  1891, 
during  the  period  of  strained  relations  between 
Chile  and  the  United  States,  his  actions  in  con- 
nection with  various  incidents  earned  him  his 
gopular  name  of  "fighting  Bob."  In  war  with 
pain,  commander  of  Iowa  in  Sampson's  fleet  off 
Santiago,  taking  active  part  in  battle  with 
Cervera's  fleet,  July  3,  1898;  was  president  of 
board  of  insi>ection  and  survey;  commander-in- 
chief  at  Asiatic  station,  October,  1902-04,  and  in 
command  of  the  Asiatic  expedition,  1907-08. 
Author:  A  Sailor's  Log.     Died,  1912. 


Evans,  Very  Rev.  Thomas  Frye  Lewis,  prelate, 
dean  of  Montreal  since  1902,  was  born  at  St. 
John's  rectoiy,  Simcoe,  Ontario,  1845.  He  was 
educated  at  Upper  Canada  college,  and  Trinity 
university,  Toronto.  B.  A.,  Toronto,  1866; 
M.  A.,  1871;  hon.  D.  C.  L.,  1894;  D.  D.,  1902; 
deacon,  1869;  priest,  1870  (Huron);  missionary 
at  Norwich.  Ontario,  1869-71 ;  assistant,  Christ 
Church  cathedral,  1871-74;  hon.  canon,  Christ 
Church  cathedra^  1874;  rector  of  St.  Stephen's 
church  since  1874;  archdeacon  of  Iberville,  1882; 
archdeacon  of  Montreal,  1886. 

Evarts,  William  MaxweU,  American  lawyer  and 
stat^man  was  born  at  Boston,  Mass.,  1818,  and 
died  at  New  York  city,  1901.  He  graduated 
at  Yale,  and  was  admitted  to  the  New  York  bar 
in  1841,  where  he  built  up  a  notable  practice  — 
receiving  as  high  as  $50,000  for  an  opinion  in  a 
case.  He  was  chief  counsel  for  President  John- 
son, in  the  impeachment  trial  in  1868,  and  was 
United  States  attorney-general  to  the  close  of 
Johnson's  administration.  He  was  United  States 
counsel  before  the  Alabama  tribunal  in  1872,  and 
senior  counsel  for  Henry  Ward  Beecher  in  1875. 
In  1877-81  he  was  secretary  of  state,  and  United 
Stotes  senator  for  the  term  1885-91. 

ETelyn,  John,  English  author,  was  bom  at  Wotton, 
in  Surrey,  1620.  He  took  part  in  political  affairs 
during  the  reigns  of  Charles  I.,  Ciiarles  II.,  and 
James  II.;  was  the  author  of  several  scientific 
treatises,  written  in  a  popular  style;  but  is  now 
chiefly  remembered  for  his  Diary,  which  he  kept 
during  the  greater  part  of  his  life,  and  which 
forms  one  of  the  most  valuable  collections  of 
historical  materials  for  the  latter  half  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  It  was  pubUshed  in  1818. 
Among  his  other  works  are:  Sylva,  or  a  Discourse 
of  Forewt  Trees,  and  Numismata,  or  a  Discourse  of 
Medals.     Died,  1706. 

Everett,  Charles  Carroll,  Unitarian  theologian, 
was  bom  at  Brunswick,  Me.,  1820.  He  graduated 
at  Bowdoin  college,  1850,  and  continued  his 
studies  at  the  university  of  Berlin ;  was  professor 
of  modem  languages  at  Bowdoin,  1855-57; 
graduated  at  Harvard  divinity  school,  1859; 
held  a  pastorate  at  Bangor,  Me.,  1859-69; 
professor  of  theolo^  at  Harvard,  1869-1900, 
and  dean  of  the  divinity  school  after  1878.  He 
wrote  The  Science  of  Thought;  Religions  before 
Christianity;  Poetry,  Comedy,  and  Duty;  The 
Gospel  of  Paul,  etc.     Died,  1900. 

Everett,  Edward,  American  author,  orator,  and 
statesman,  was  bom  at  Dorchester,  Mass.,  1794. 
He  was  graduated  from  Harvard.  1811,  and  was 
for  some  time  a  Unitarian  clergyman.  He 
became  professor  of  Greek  at  Harvard  in  1815; 
traveled  in  Europe  from  1815  to  1818;  became 
editor  of  the  North  American  Review,  and  was  a 
member  of  congress  from  1824  to  1834 ;  governor 
of  Massachusetts  from  1835  to  1839;  and  from 
1840  to  1845,  minister-plenipotentiary  to  Eng- 
land, in  which  capacity  he  succeeded  in  adjusting 
several  deUcate  matters.  He  became  secretary 
of  state  in  1852,  and  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  senate  in  1853.  He  wrote  The  Dirge  of 
Alaric  the  Visigoth  (a  poem).  Lives  of  Washington 
and  General  Stark,  ana  other  works,  but  was  best 
known  as  an  orator.  He  was  made  D.  C.  L.  by 
Oxford,  and  LL.  D.,  by  Cambridge  and  Dublin 
universities.     Died,  1865. 

Ewald  (d'-valt),  Georg  Helnrich  August  von,  Ger- 
man orientalist  and  theologian,  was  born  at 
Gottingen,  1803.  In  1820  he  b^an  the  study 
of  theology,  philosophy,  and  oriental  languages, 
and  became  professor  at  Gottingen  in  1831.  He 
was  dismissed  with  six  others  in  1837  for  remon- 
strating against  the  unconstitutional  proceedings 
of  the  king  of  Hanover,  and  was  professor  at 
Tiibingen  from  1838  to  1848,  when  he  was 
reinstated  at  Gottingen.     He  was  a  member  of 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


66S 


the  North  German  and  German  parliaments. 
His  works  are  numerous,  but  he  is  Dest  known 
by  his  History  of  Israel  and  various  writings  on 
the  old  testament,  linguistic,  excgctical,  and 
critical.     Died,  1875. 

Ewell  (u'-&.),  Richard  Stoddert,  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  the  District  of  Columbia  in  1817. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1840,  and  served 
in  the  Mexican  war.  In  1861  he  entered  the 
confederate  service,  and  commanded  a  bripade 
at  Bull  Run.  In  1862  he  commanded  a  division 
in  Jackson's  campaign  in  the  Shenandoah  valley, 
and  lost  a  leg  in  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run. 
He  was  made  a  lieutenant-general  in  1863,  and 
succeeded  to  the  command  of  Jackson's  corps, 
with  which  he  was  present  at  Gettysburg,  the 
Wilderness,  and  Spottsylvania  Court  House.  In 
April,  1865,  he  surrendered  to  General  Sheridan 
at  Sailor's  Creek,  Va.     Died,  1872. 

Ewlng  (u'-ing),  Thomas,  American  politician,  was 
born  in  Ohio  county,  Va.,  1789.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Ohio  bar  in  1816,  and  from  1831  to 
1837  was  United  States  senator  from  Ohio. 
Under  Harrison  he  was  secretary  of  the  treasury 
for  a  month,  in  1841,  and  in  March,  1849,  became 
the  first  secretary  of  the  interior,  which  office  he 
held  until  September  12,  1850.  In  1850  he  was 
appointed  to  succeed  Thomas  Corwin  in  the 
senate,  but  held  office  onlv  a  year,  and  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life  in  the  practice  of  nis  pro- 
fession. He  adopted  as  a  member  of  his  family 
his  relative,  William  T.  Sherman,  afterward 
general  of  the  United  States  army,  who,  in  1850, 
married  Swing's  daughter  Ellen.     Died,  1871. 

Eyck  (ifc),  Hubert,  and  Jan  van,  two  illustrious 
painters  of  the  old  Flemish  school.  Much  dis- 
cussion has  arisen  as  to  the  time  of  the  birth  of 
these  brothers,  and  the  various  dates  assigned 
range  from  1350  to  1400.  Their  birthplace  was 
Maas-Eyck,  and  they  chiefly  resided  at  Bruges 
and  Ghent,  and  became  the  founders  of  the 
Flemish  school  of  painting.  The  masterpieces 
of  the  brothers  are  for  the  most  part  in  the  cities 
of  Ghent,  Bruges,  Antwerp,  Berlin,  Munich,  and 
Paris.     Hubert  died  in  1426,  and  Jan  in  1440. 

Eyre  (<5r),  Edward  John,  English  colonial  governor, 
was  born  in  Yorkshire,  England,  1815;  went  to 
Australia  in  1833,  and  in  1840-41  explored  the 
south  coast  of  Australia  and  discovered  Lake 
Torrens.  He  was  afterward  appointed  lieuten- 
ant-governor of  New  Zealand  and  of  the  island 
of  St.  Vincent.  In  1862  he  became  governor  of 
Jamaica,  and  in  1865  suppressed  with  severity 
a  negro  insurrection.  Martial  law  was  pro- 
claimed, and  a  wealthy  mulatto  named  Gordon, 
who  was  a  member  of  the  house  of  assembly,  was 
hanged.  Eyre  was  recalled  and  prosecuted  by  a 
committee,  of  which  John  Stuart  Mill  was  a 
member.  Such  men  as  Carlyle,  Charles  Blingsley, 
and  Sir  Roderick  Murchison  defended  EjTe,  and 
he  was  acquitted  by  a  jury.     Died,  1901. 

Ezekiel,  one  of  the  four  great  Hebrew  prophets, 
was  the  son  of  Buzi,  and  one  of  the  sacerdotal 
race.  He  was  carried  to  Babylon  as  a  captive 
by  Nebuchadnezzar,  598  B.  C.  Favored  by  the 
Lord  with  the  gift  "of  prophecy,  he  soothed,  com- 
forted, and  amnonished  his  countrymen,  until 
at  length  he  was  stoned  to  death  by  order  of  the 
Babylonian  authorities. 

Ezekiel,  Moses,  American  sculptor,  was  bom  at 
Richmond,  Va.,  1844.  After  service  with  a  corps 
of  cadets  in  Confederate  States  army,  he  grad- 
uated from  Virginia  military  institute,  1866; 
studied  anatomy  at  medical  college  of  Virginia; 
removed  to  Cincinnati,  1868;  visited  Berlin, 
Germany,  1869,  where  he  studied  at  royal 
academy  of  art  under  Professor  Albert  Wolf; 
admitted  into  society  of  artists,  Berlin,  on  the 
merits  of  his  colossal  bust  of  Washington,  and 
was  the  first  foreigner  to  win  Michael  Beer  pri«e. 


He  executed  the  marble  icroup  raprcaentinc 
religious  liberty,  for  the  Centennial  exhibition, 
now  in  Fairmount  park,  Philadelphia;  monu- 
ment to  Jessie  Seligmann  for  orphan  aaylum. 
New  York.  After  1880  his  work  becam*  ohiefly 
ideal.  Among  his  protluctions  are  busta  ot  Liait 
and  Cardinal  Uohcnluhc,  Eve,  Homer,  David, 
Judith,  Christ  in  the  tomb,  statue  of  Mrs.  Andrew 
D.  White  for  Cornell  university:  "Faith," 
in  cemetery  at  Rome;  "Madonna,''  for  chureb 
in  Tivoli;  "Apollo  and  Mercury,"  In  Berlin; 
"Robert  E.  Lee";  "Pan  and  Amor":  "The 
Fountain  of  Neptune,"  for  town  of  Neptune, 
Italy;  bust  of  Lord  Sherbrooke,  for  St.  Margaret, 
Westminster,  London,  and  scores  of  busta  ana 
reliefs,  and  JeiTerson  monument,  for  Louisville, 
Ky. ;  Homer  group  for  university  of  Virginia; 
"Virginia  Mourning  Her  Dead"  at  LexiiurtOD, 
Va.;  "Napoleon  I.  at  St.  Helena,"  etc. 
Ezra,  the  scribe,  was  living  in  Babylon  during  the 
reign  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  who  commis- 
sioned him  to  lead  a  band  of  his  fellow  country- 
men from  Babylon  to  Jerusalem  in  468  B.  C., 
there  to  reorganize  the  returned  Jews.  He  is 
believed  to  have  arranged  the  books  of  the 
Mosaic  law  —  the  pentateuch  —  as  it  is  now. 
The  book  which  bears  his  name  was  anciently 
and  justly  regarded  as  forming  one  book  witn 
Nehetniah;  and  in  their  present  shape  Eera  and 
Nehemiah  are  simply  the  continuation  of  Chron- 
icles. 

Faber  (fd'-bir),  Frederick  William,  English  h>Tnn- 
writer,  was  born  at  Calverley  in  Yorkshire,  1814; 
graduated  from  Balliol  college,  Oxford,  and  in 
1834  was  elected  a  scholar  of  Llniversity  college, 
in  1837  a  fellow.  He  had  already  come  under 
the  influence  of  Newman,  and  in  1845j  after  three 
years'  tenure  of  the  rectory  of  Elton  in  Hunting- 
donshire, he  followed  him  into  the  fold  of  Cathol- 
icism. He  founded  a  community  of  converts  at 
Birmingham  —  "the  Wilfridians"  —  he  him- 
self being  Brother  Wilfrid,  from  his  Life  of  St. 
Wilfrid.  With  his  companions  he  joined  in 
1848  the  oratory  of  St.  Philip  Neri;  next  year  a 
branch  under  his  care  was  established  in  London, 
and  finally  located  at  Brompton  in  1854,  where 
he  died  in  1863.  Faber  wrote  many  theological 
works:  but  his  fame  will  rest  upon  his  hyoms. 
"The  Pilgrims  of  the  Night,"  "The  Land  beyond 
the  Sea,"  etc. 

Fablus  (Ja'-blrHs),  Maxlmus  Qulntus,  Roman 
general,  was  bom  about  275  B.  C.  He  was 
sumamed  Cunctator  because,  having  in  217 
been  appointed  dictator  for  the  second  time  and 
intmsted  with  the  defense  of  Italy  against  the 
victorious  Hannibal,  he  pursued  a  course  of 
cautious  and  patient  generalship,  never  risking 
a  general  engagement  with  his  opponent,  but 
cutting  off  his  supplies,  and  gradually  wearing 
him  out,  and  meeting  with  signal  succeea. 
Before  his  appointment  to  the  dictatorship  he 
was  five  times  consul.     Died,  203  B.  C. 

Fabriclus  {fd-brish'-Uiu),  or  Fabriilo  (/&-brit'-4y6), 
Girolamo,  commonly  named  from  his  birthpwce 
Fabricius  ab  Aquapendente,  celebrated  anatomist 
and  surgeon,  was  bom  in  1537,  and  died  in  1619. 
He  graduated  from  the  university  of  Padua, 
where,  in  addition  to  the  usual  instruction  in  the 
classics,  he  studied  anatomy  and  surgery  under 
the  celebrated  Fallopius.  On  the  death  of  the 
latter  in  1562,  Fabricius  was  appointed  to  fill  the 
vacant  professorship.  Among  nis  students  was 
William  Harvey,  who  attended  his  prelections  in 
1598,  and  who  derived  from  Fabricius'  observa- 
tions on  the  valves  of  the  veins  the  first  clue  to 
his  great  discovery.  He  was  a  most  laborious 
investigator  in  comparative  anatomy,  and  made 
comparative  studies  of  the  eye,  the  larynx,  the 
ear,  the  intestinal  canal,  the  development  of  the 


684 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


foetus,  and  many  other  subjects.  The  improve- 
ments which  his  knowledge  of  anatomy  enabled 
him  to  introduce  into  the  practice  of  surgery 
were  very  great.  His  chief  work  was  his  Opera 
Chirurgica. 

Faed  (J&d),  John,  Scottish  painter,  was  bom  in 
1819.  In  1841  he  settled  in  Edinburgh,  where 
his  talents  won  him  a  high  reputation.  Plis 
pictures  include :  "The  Cruel  Sisters";  "Shakes- 
peare and  his  Contemporaries";  "The  Cotter's 
Saturday  Night";  "The  Soldier's  Return"; 
"The  W appenschaw  " ;  "The  Old  Stvle  " ;  "Tam 
o'  Shanter";  "Iladden  Hall  of  Old";  "The 
Stirrup  Cup";  " John  Anderson  my  Jo " ;  "The 
Gamekeeper's  Daughter,"  and  "The  Hiring 
Fair."     Died,  1902. 

Faed,  Thomas,  brother  of  the  preceding,  and  also 
an  artist,  was  bom  in  1826.  In  1849  he  executed 
a  very  attractive  work,  entitled  "Scott  and  his 
Friends  at  Abbotsford."  In  1852  he  removed 
to  London,  where  his  "Mitherless  Bairn,"  exhib- 
ited in  1855,  was  declared  by  the  critics  to  be 
"the  picture  of  the  season.  His  subsequent 
works  include  "Home  and  the  Homeless";  "The 
First  Break  in  the  Family";  "Sunday  in  the 
Backwood.'j " ;  "From  Dawn  to  Sunset " ;  " Baith 
Faither  and  Mither,"  and  "The  Last  o'  the  Clan." 
He  was  made  an  R.  A.  in  1864.     Died,  1900. 

Fahrenheit  (Jd'-ren-hit),  Gabriel  Daniel,  physicist, 
improver  of  the  thermometer,  was  bom  at 
Dantzic,  Germany,  1686.  In  1720  he  first  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  using  quicksilver  instead  of 
spirits  of  wine  in  the  construction  of  thermome- 
ters, by  means  of  which  the  accuracy  of  the 
instrument  was  very  much  improved.  His 
thermometer,  since  its  introduction,  has  been  in 
general  use  in  Holland,  Great  Britain,  the  United 
States,  and  other  countries.     Died,  1736. 

Faidherbe  iji'-dirb'),  Louis  Lfon  C^sar,  French 
general,  was  born  at  Lille,  France,  1818,  and 
entered  the  French  army  in  1842.  His  earliest 
service  was  in  Algeria,  and  in  1851  he  took  part 
in  the  campaign  against  the  Kabyles,  and  a  year 
later  in  the  disastrous  expedition  in  the  highland-s 
imder  General  Bosquet.  He  was  subsequently 
sent  to  Senegal,  was  invested  with  the  government 
of  the  French  possessions  there,  and  after  seven 
years'  hard  worJc  renovated  the  colony.  During 
the  Franco-Prussian  war  he  was  in  command  of 
the  army  of  the  North  and  fought  several  battles. 
He  subsequently  went  on  a  scientific  mission  to 
upper  Egypt,  was  elected  to  the  assembly  in 
1871,  and  became  a  senator  in  1879.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  number  of  works  on  military  and 
archaeological  subjects.     Died,  1889. 

Fairbairn  (/dr'-Mm),  Andrew  Martin,  Scottish 
theologian  and  principal  emeritus  of  Mansfield 
college,  Oxford,  190!>-12,  was  bom  near  Edin- 
burgh, Scotland,  1838.  He  was  educated  at 
the  universities  of  Edinburgh  and  BerUn,  and 
at  the  Evangelical  Union  theological  academy, 
Glasgow.  For  a  time  he  held  charges  at 
Bathgate  and  Aberdeen,  and  from  1877  to  1886 
was  principal  of  Airedale  college.  In  the  latter 
year  he  was  elected  principal,  on  its  foundation, 
of  Mansfield  college,  Oxford,  where  his  labors 
as  a  metaphysician  and  theologian  have  made 
him  famous.  His  books  embrace:  Studies  in 
the  Philosophy  of  Religion  and  History;  Studies 
in  the  Life  of  Christ;  The  City  of  God;  Christ 
in  Modem  Theology;  Christ  in  the  Centuries; 
Religion  in  History  and  in  Modem  Life;  Philoso- 
phy of  the  Christian  Religion,  etc.  He  visited  the 
United  States  as  Lyman  Beecher  lecturer  at  Yale ; 
lectured  also  in  India,  at  Edinburgh  university, 
and  at  Aberdeen  university.     Died,  1912. 

Fairbairn,  Sir  William,  Scottish  engineer,  was  bom 
at  Kelso,  Scotland,  1789.  He  was  the  first  to 
use  iron  instead  of  wood  in  the  shafting  of  cotton 
mills.     He  was  also  among  the  earliest  of  iron 


shipbuilders,  and  made  many  improvements. 
Fairbairn  built  the  tubular  bridge  across  the 
Menai  strait,  after  a  plan  of  Robert  Stc'phenson'.s, 
the  Britannia  and  Conway  bridges,  and  more 
than  a  thousand  other  bridges.  He  also  devised 
improvements  for  steamboilers  and  other  steam 
machinery.  In  1869  he  was  niade  a  baronet, 
and  also  a  chevaUer  of  the  legion  of  honor. 
He  pubUshed  many  works  and  papers  on  iron, 
bridges,  boilers,  mills,  etc.  He  died  at  Moor 
Park,  Surrey,  England,  1874. 

Fairbanlts,  Arthur,  educator,  author,  was  bom  in 
Hanover,  N.  H.,  1864;  graduated  from  Dart- 
mouth college,  1886;  Yale  divinity  school, 
1887-88,  Union  theological  seminarv,  1888-89, 
Beriin  and  Freiburg,  1889-90;  Ph.  D.,  Freiburg 
in  Breisgau,  1890;  professor  of  Greek  literature 
and  arcnsology,  university  of  Iowa,  1900-06; 
professor  of  Greek  and  Greek  archaK)logy,  uni- 
versity of  Michigan,  1906-07;  director  of  Boston 
museum  of  fine  arts  since  1907.  Editor  of 
The  CUuncal  Journal.  Author:  Introduction  to 
Sociology;  First  Philosophers  of  Greece;  A  Study 
of  the  Greek  Paan;  The  Mythology  of  Greece  and 
Rome;  Handbook  of  Greek  Religion,  etc.  Trans- 
lator of  Riehl's  Introduction  to  the  Theory  of 
Science  and  Metaphysics. 

Fairbanks,  Charles  Warren,  lawyer,  ex-vice- 
preeident  of  the  United  States,  was  bom  on  a 
farm  near  Unionville  Center,  Union  county,  Ohio, 
1852;  gratluatetl  from  Ohio  Weslevan  university, 
1872;  admitted  to  Ohio  bar,  18^4,  and  estab- 
lished j)ractice  at  Indianapolis.  Was  republican 
caucus  nominee  for  United  States  senator,  1S03, 
but  was  defeated  by  David  Turpie,  democrat. 
Appointed  in  1898  member  of  joint  high  British- 
American  commission,  and  chairman  of  American 
commissioners.  Elected  United  States  senator 
from  Indiana,  1897,  and  reelected  in  1903;  vice- 
president  of  the  United  States  1904-09;  repro- 
(M>ntative  of  United  States  at  the  tercentenary 
celebration  of  Quebec,  1908. 

Fairfax,  Thomas,  Lord,  an  English  general,  was 
bom  in  Yorkshire,  1612.  After  serving  with 
distinction  in  Holland,  Lord  Fairfax  was  declared 
general-in-chief  of  the  parUament  army  at  the 
opening  of  the  civil  war  in  1642^  and  again  in 
1645.  He  distinguished  himself  in  most  of  the 
great  battles  and  sieges  of  that  struggle,  and 
after  its  close  refused  to  act  as  one  of  the  judges 
of  Charles  I.  In  1659  Lord  Fairfax  used  all  nis 
influence  with  the  army  to  promote  the  restora- 
tion of  Charies  II.     Died,  1671. 

Falconlo  (Jdl-kd'^nU^i),  Dlomede,  cardinal  since 
1911;  was  bom  in  Pescocostanzo,  in  the  Abruzzi, 
Italy,  1842.  He  entered  the  Franciscan  order, 
1860;  on  completion  of  studies  in  1865  he  was 
sent  as  a  missionary  to  the  United  States;  or- 
dained priest,  1866,  by  Bishop  Timon,  of  Buffalo; 
professor  of  philosophy  and  vice-president  of  St. 
Bonaventure  s  college.  New  York,  1866;  pro- 
fessor of  theology  and  secretary  of  Franciscan 
province  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  1867; 
president  of  the  college  and  seminary  of  St. 
Bonaventure,  1868;  became  citizen  of  United 
States,  1868;  secretary  and  administrator  of 
cathedral  at  Harbor  Grace,  Newfoundland, 
1872-82;  in  United  States,  1882-83;  returned 
to  Italy,  1883,  and  elected  provincial  of  Francis- 
cans in  the  Abruzzi;  later  reelected  and  was 
also  conunissary  and  visitor-general,  province  of 
Naples,  1888;  synodical  examiner  in  diocese  of 
Aquila;  commissary  and  visitor-general  Francis- 
can province  in  Puglia,  1889;  procurator- 
general  Franciscan  order  and  visitor-general  in 
various  provinces  of  the  order,  1889-92.  Conse- 
crated, 1892,  bishop  of  Lacedonia,  and  was 
raised  in  1895  to  be  archbishop  of  Acerenza  and 
Matera,  in  BasiUcata;  apostolic  delegate  to 
Canada,  1899-1902 ;   apostohc  delegate  to  United 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


«M 


States,  1902-11.  A  volume  of  his  Pastoral 
Letters  (translated  into  French)  was  published  in 
Canada,  1900. 

Falk  (/dlk),  Adalbert,  Prussian  statesman,  was  bom 
at  Metschkau  in  Silesia,  1827,  and  as  minister  of 
public  worship  and  education,  in  1872.  was  instru- 
mental in  carrying  the  "May  laws  (passed  in 
May,  1873,  1874,  and  1875)  against  the  hierarchi- 
cal supremacy  of  the  church  of  Rome.  When 
Bismarck  made  overtures  for  the  support  of  the 
clerical  party,  Falk  resigned  in  1879,  and  retired 
from  political  life.     He  died  in  1900. 

Falll£res  (fdl'-ydr'),  Clement  Armand,  French 
statesman,  president  of  the  French  republic, 
1906-13,  was  born  near  Agen,  South  France, 
1841.  He  received  his  education  at  Angoultmc 
and  Paris;  settled  at  N6rac  as  a  barrister,  and 
became  mayor;  elected  to  the  chamber  of 
deputies,  1876 ;  undcr-secretary  of  state  at  home 
office,  1880 ;  has  been  minister  of  the  interior,  of 
justice,  and  of  education,  and  prime  minister, 
and  was  eight  times  reelected  president  of  the 
senate.  He  was  elected  -president  of  France  in 
1906,  in  succession  to  M.  Loubet.  He  is  a  man 
of  simple  habits,  great  uprightness,  and  delights  in 
supervising  work  on  his  vineyards,  the  Loupillon 
estate,  in  his  native  district.  He  is  a  lover  of 
books,  and  has  written  verse  both  in  French  and 
in  the  Languedocien  dialect.  He  married  Mile. 
Besson,  daughter  of  a  solicitor,  and  has  two 
children  —  a  son,  who  is  a  barrister,  and  a 
daughter. 

Fallopius  (Jol-io'-pl-us),  Gabriel,  Italian  anatomist, 
physician,  and  naturalist  of  celebrity,  was  born 
at  Modena  in  1523,  in  the  cathedral  of  which 
city  he  commenced  his  career  as  an  ecclesiastic. 
He  abandoned  thfe  priesthood  for  the  pursuit  of 
science,  which  he  studied  at  Ferrara  and  Padua. 
At  Pisa  he  was  for  three  years  professor  of 
anatomy,  and  afterward  went  to  Padua  to  fill 
the  chair  of  anatomy  and  surgery,  and  to  take 
charge  of  the  first  botanical  garden  established 
there.  He  died  there  in  1562.  He  acquired 
great  fame  by  being  the  first  to  describe  the 
anatomical  structure  of  the  foetus.  Observa- 
tiones  Anatomicce  is  his  principal  work.  Cuvier 
characterizes  him  as  one  of  the  three  savants  who 
restored,  rather  than  created,  the  science  of 
anatomy  in  the  sixteenth  century,  the  other  two 
being  Vesalius  and  Eustachius. 

Faneull  (Jiln"l  oTfdn'-yel),  Peter,  founder  of  Faneuil 
hall,  Boston,  Mass.,  was  born  in  New  Rochelle, 
N.  Y.,  1700.  He  was  a  rich  merchant  in  Boston, 
and  gave  to  the  city  a  building  for  a  market  and 
town-hall.  The  building,  which  was  finished 
just  before  his  death  in  1743,  was  burned  in 
1761,  and  the  present  one  was  built  two  years 
after  by  the  town.  So  many  important  patriotic 
meetings  were  held  in  Faneuil  hall  during  the 
revolution  that  it  has  been  called  the  "cradle  of 
American  liberty." 

Faraday  (f&r'-d-dd),  Michael,  distinguished  English 
chemist  and  natural  philosopher,  a  splendid 
instance  of  success  obtained  by  patience,  perse- 
verance, and  genius  over  obstacles  of  birth, 
education,  and  fprtune,  was  born  in  1791  near 
London.  He  was  largely  self-educated,  and  in 
1833  became  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  royal 
institution,  London,  where  his  lectures  attracted 
the  admiration  of  both  Europe  and  America. 
His  Christmas  lectures  at  the  royal  institute 
were  professedly  addressed  to  the  young,  but 
contain  in  reality  much  that  naay  well  be  pon- 
dered by  the  old.  His  manner,  his  unvarying 
success  in  illustration,  and  his  felicitous  choice 
of  expression,  though  the  subjects  were  often  of 
the  most  abstruse  nature,  were  such  as  to  charm 
and  attract  all  classes  of  hearers.  Besides  two 
sets  on  chemical  subjects,  we  have  his  Lectures 
on  the  Physical  Forces,   a  simple  work,   but  in  ; 


reality  mo8t  profound,  even  in  it*  aUgbtcst 
renaarks.  But  the  grvat  work  of  hia  Ufeb  the 
seriea  of  Experimental  ReaearehM  in  BUetrieUy, 
published  in  the  Philn»opfvieal  TrmuaeHon*. 
Fully  to  understand  all  the  diaooveriw  ffontdncd 
in  that  extraordinarv  lua  of  paper*  would  r«quii« 
a  knowledge  of  all  that  has  been  dlaoovcred 
during  that  time  aa  to  electricity,  '"rigifti\nm, 
electro-magnetism,  and diamagnetism.  DtedLlSOT. 

Farel  {f&'-rU'),  Guillaump,  Swiaa  reformer,  was 
born  m  Dauphin*:-,  in  1489,  and  studied  at  Paris. 
A  convert  to  Protestantism,  he,  In  1624,  sustained 
at  Basel  many  Protestant  theses.  After  being 
twice  compelled  to  leave  Geneva,  he  once  mur« 
entered  it  m  1534 ;  and  in  1535  the  town-council 
proclaimed  the  reformation.  The  organisation 
of  the  Genevan  church  was  undertaken  by 
Calvin,  and  the  severity  of  the  ecclesiastical 
discipline  produced  a  reaction,  so  that  In  1638 
the  two  reformers  were  expelled  from  the  city. 
In  1557,  together  with  Beia,  Farel  was  sent  to  the 
Protestant  princes  of  Germany  to  implore  their 
aid  for  the  Waldenses;  and  he  next  laborc<l  in 
the  Jura  mountains.  In  1500  he  was  in  Dauphin6 
preaching  against  Catholicism;  and  in  1501  was 
thrown  into  prison.     He  died  at  NeuchAtel,  1565. 

Famese  (fdr-nd'-sd),  Alessandro.  See  Paul  111^ 
Pope. 

Farragut  (fdr'-d-giU),  David  Glasgoe,  American 
admiral,  was  born  near  Knoxville,  Tenn.,  1801. 
At  the  age  of  nine  years  he  entered  the  navy  as 
midshipman,  under  Captain  David  Porter,  of  the 
frigate  Essex.  At  the  age  of  twenty-five  he  was 
made  lieutenant,  and  appointed  to  the  Norfolk 
navy-yard;  in  1833  he  commanded  the  Natchci, 
on  the  Brazil  station,  and  in  1838  in  the  West 
Indies;  in  1847  he  was  appointed  to  the  sloo[>- 
oi-w&T  Saratoga;  in  1851  made  assistant-inspector 
of  ordnance;  in  1854  he  was  sent  to  construct  a 
navy-yard  in  California,  and  in  1858,  with  the 
rank  of  captain,  was  appointed  to  the  steam 
frigate  Brooklyn  in  the  home  Sfjuadron.  In  18(32 
he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  a  navul 
expedition  to  act  against  the  confederates  in  the 
gulf  of  Mexico.  On  April  24th,  after  a  heavy 
cannonade,  his  squadron  passed  the  forts  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  and  on  the  28th  he 
received  the  surrender  of  New  Orleans.  Ascend- 
ing the  Mississippi  he  took  Natchez.  Raised  to 
the  rank  of  vice-admiral  in  March,  ISG.'i,  he  once 
more  passed  up  the  Mississippi,  successfully  ran 
past  the  confeKlerate  batteries  of  Fort  Hudson, 
and  aided  General  Grant  in  the  combined  attack 
on  Vicksburg,  which  resulted  in  its  capitulation 
July  4th.  In  August,  1864,  after  a  furious 
engagement  between  his  fleet  and  the  confederate 
forts  and  vessels  at  Mobile,  in  which  the  monitor 
Tecumseh  was  sunk  by  a  torpedo,  with  the  loss 
of  all  on  board,  he  succeeded  in  capturing  the 
forts,  which  led  to  the  fall  of  the  city.  In  1866 
he  attained  the  rank  of  admiral,  and  a  purse  of 
$50,000  was  presented  to  him  by  New  York 
merchants.     He  died  in  1870. 

Farrar  (fdr'-dr),  Frederick  WUIiam,  English 
clergyman  and  author,  was  bom  in  Bombay, 
India,  1831;  educated  at  London  and  Cam- 
bridge, and  was  ordained  in  the  church  of 
England  in  1854.  He  became  a  master  of 
Harrow,  and  from  1871  to  1876  was  head  master 
of  Marlborough  college.  In  1876  he  became 
canon  of  Westminster,  in  1883  archdeacon,  and 
in  1895  dean  of  Canterbury.  He  rwaka  among 
the  most  eloquent  of  English  pulpit  orators,  and 
published  many  works  on  educational,  theo- 
logical, and  other  subjects.  Chief  of  these  are: 
Seekers  After  God;  Witness  of  History  to  Chriat; 
The  Silence  and  Voices  of  God;  and  the  Life  of 
Chriat.  His  work  Eternal  Hope  created  a  sen- 
sation on  account  of  its  broad  \new8  concerning 
future  punishment.     Died,  1903. 


686 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Farrar,  Geraldlne,  grand  opera  singer,  was  bom 
at  Melrose,  Mass.,  1882,  daughter  of  Sydney  and 
Henrietta  (Barnes^  Farrar:  graduated  at  Mel- 
rose, Mass.,  public  school,  and  received  her 
musical  education  at  Paris  and  Berlin.  Made 
d6but,  Royal  opera  house,  BerHn,  as  Marguerite 
in  Faust,  October,  1901.  She  sang  with  the 
Berlin  royal  opera  in  and  after  1901;  with 
Metropolitan  opera  from  1906,  and  has  appeared 
frequently  both  in  Europe  and  United  States  in 
concert. 

Fassett  (fda'-it),  Jacob  Sloat,  lawyer,  capitalist, 
former  member  of  congress,  was  born  in  Elmira, 
N.  Y.,  1853 ;  graduated  from  Rochester  university, 
1875 :  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1878;  district  attorney  of  Chemung  county, 
1878-80;  studied  law  and  political  economy, 
Heidelberg  university,  1880-81 ;  state  senator. 
New  York,  1884-91 ;  temporary  chairman  of 
republican  national  convention,  Minneapolis, 
1892;  secretary  of  republican  national  com- 
mittee, 1888-92:  republican  nominee  for  gov- 
ernor of  New  York,  1891,  but  defeated.  Has 
large  mining,  cattle  ranch,  banking,  and  other 
interests  in  West.  Member  of  congress,  thirty- 
third  New  York  district,  1905-11. 

Faunce  (J6ns),  William  Herbert  Perry,  educator, 

C resident  of  Brown  university  since  1899,  was 
orn  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  1859.  He  was  grad- 
uated from  Brown  university,  1880;  Newton 
theological  seminary,  1884;  D.  D.,  Brown, 
1897;  Yale,  1901;  Harvard,  1904;  LL.  D., 
Baylor,  1904;  Alabama,  1905.  Instructor  in 
mathematics,  Brown  universitv,  1881-82-  pastor 
of  State  Street  Baptist  church,  Springfiela,  Mass., 
1884-89;  pastor  of  P'ifth  Avenue  Baptist  church. 
New  York  city,  1889-99;  lecturer  in  university 
of  Chicago,  1897-98;  Lyman  Beecher  lecturer, 
Yale  university,  1907-08.  Author:  The  Educes 
tional  Ideal  in  the  Ministry,  and  many  contribu- 
tions to  religious  and  educational  penodicals. 

Faure  (for),  Francois  F^llx,  president  of  France, 
was  born  in  Paris,  1841.  A  Roman  Catholic, 
though  of  Protestant  ancestry,  and  a  moderate 
republican,  he  was  a  self-made  man,  having 
been  first  a  journeyman  currier  in  Touraine,  but 
ultimately  a  merchant  and  shipowner  at  Havre. 
He  served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  Franco-German 
war.  in  1881  became  deputy  for  Havre,  and  after 
holding  posts  in  several  administrations,  in 
January,  1895,  succeeded  Casimir-Perier  as  presi- 
dent.    He  died  of  apoplexy  in  1899. 

Faust  (Joust),  Dr.  Johann,  "famous  magician  and 
dealer  in  the  black  art,  lived  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  He  has  been  made  a  noted  character 
in  literature,  and  became  the  hero  of  Goethe's 
Faust.  Luther  spoke  of  him  as  the  type  of  the 
"infidel  and  impious  man."  The  story  is  that 
he  obtained  his  art  from  Satan,  making  a  con- 
tract that  the  devil  should  serve  him  for  twenty- 
four  years,  and  at  the  end  of  that  time  should 
have  possession  of  his  soul.  The  contract  was 
signed  with  his  own  blood.  Marlowe  and  Goethe 
have  both  made  the  story  the  subject  of  a  drama. 
He  is  said  to  have  died  in  1540. 

Faust,  or  Fust,  Johann,  German  printerj  was  bom 
in  Mainz,  Germany,  was  associated  with  Guten- 
berg in  the  first  introduction  of  printing.  He 
probably  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  invention 
of  printing,  but  furnished  the  capital  to  intro- 
duce the  new  art.  The  process  was  kept  secret 
at  first,  but,  at  the  sacking  of  Mainz  in  1462, 
Faust's  workmen  were  scattered  and  the  new 
art  became  public  property.  A  Latin  Bible  in 
the  Mazarin  library  is  thought  to  have  been 
printed  by  Gutenberg  and  Faust.  Probable 
date  of  death,  at  Paris,  1466. 

Favart  (fd'-vdr'),  Charles  Simon,  French  dramatist, 
was  born  at  Paris,  1710.  In  1745,  as  director  of 
the  Op4ra  Comique,  he  and  his  wife  made  the 


first  attempt  to  harmonize  the  actors'  costumes 
with  their  impersonations.  This  excited  the 
jealousy  of  the  other  theaters,  and  the  Op>6ra 
Comique  was  closed  in  its  first  year.  After 
spending  some  time  in  Flanders  in  the  army  under 
Marshal  Saxe,  Favart  returned  to  Paris  and  con- 
tinued to  write  operas.  His  most  celebrated 
pieces  are  Le  Cog  du  Viilage;  Bastien  et  Baatienne; 
Ninette  it  la  Cour;  Les  Trois  Sultanes;  and 
L' Anglais  d.  Bordeaux.     Died,  1792. 

Favre  (Jd-vr'),  Jules  Claude  Gabriel,  French 
statesman  and  orator,  was  born  at  Lyons,  1809, 
studied  for  the  bar,  and  was  engaged  in  the  July 
revolution  of  1830.  After  this  he  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  politics  as  an  uneompromisine 
repubbcan.  The  coup  d'itat  closed  his  politicu 
career,  and  he  returned  to  his  profession.  In 
1858  he  defended  Orsini ;  this  procured  his 
election  to  the  legislature  for  Paris,  and  he 
became  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  republicans 
against  Napoleon  III.  In  September,  1870. 
after  the  fall  of  the  empire,  he  was  appointea 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and  in  1871  settled 
the  terms  for  the  capitulation  of  the  capital.  He 
resigned  office  in  July,  1871,  resumed  practice  at 
the  bar,  and  died  in  1880. 

Fawcett  (J&sH),  Henry,  English  statesman,  was 
bom  at  Salisbury'  in  1833.  He  graduated  at 
Cambridge  in  1856,  and  commenced  to  read  for 
the  bar.  In  September,  1858,  when  they  were 
shooting,  shots  from  his  father's  gun  entered  both 
Fawcett  s  eyes,  totally  blinding  him.  His 
Manual  of  Political  Economy  led  to  his; election 
to  the  chair  of  political  economy  at  Cambridge 
in  1863,  a  i>ost  which  he  held  until  his  deatn. 
Other  writings  are  The  Economic  Position  of  the 
British  Labourer  and  Protection  and  Free  Trade. 
He  was  elected  to  parliament  in  1865,  and  again 
in  1868.  He  urgea  measures  for  the  abolition  of 
religious  tests  at  the  universities,  the  extension 
of  the  factory  acts  to  agricultural  children,  the 
promotion  of  compulsory  education,  the  preserva- 
tion of  commons  and  open  spaces,  and  the  better 
government  of  India.  He  strongly  opposed,  in 
1873,  Gladstone's  Irish  university  bill.  In  1874 
he  lost  his  seat  for  Brighton,  but  was  elected  for 
Hackney.  He  opposed  legislative  restrictions 
upon  the  industry  of  women,  and  was  a  warm 
supporter  of  their  claims  to  representation.  In 
1880  he  was  again  elected  for  Hackney,  and 
Gladstone  offered  him  the  postmaster-generalship, 
which  he  accepted.  Here  he  carried  several 
reforms  —  the  introduction  of  the  parcel  post, 
postal  orders,  and  sixpenny  telegrams.  He  died 
in  1884. 

Fawcett,  Mlllicent  Garrett,  widow  of  Henry 
Fawcett,  was  bom  at  Aldeburgh,  Suffolk,  1847. 
She  has  taken  a  keen  interest  in  the  higher  educa- 
tion of  women  and  the  extension  of  the  franchise 
to  women,  and  received  the  degree  of  LL.  D. 
from  St.  Andrews  university.  She  was  made 
president  of  the  women's  unionist  association 
m  1889.  Author :  Political  Economy  for  Begin- 
ners;  Tales  in  Political  Economy;  Essays  and 
Lectures  (jointly  with  Henry  Fawcett) ;  Some 
Eminent  Women  of  our  Time;  Life  of  Queen 
Victoria;  Five  Famous  French  Women,    etc. 

Fawkes  (Jdks),  Guy,  properly  Guido,  the  head  of 
the  conspiracy  known  as  the  gunpowder  plot, 
was  born  of  a  Protestant  family  in  Yorkshire  in 
the  year  1570.  He  became  a  Roman  CathoUc 
at  an  early  age  and  served  in  the  Spanish  army 
in  the  Netherlands.  Inspired  with  fanatical  zeal 
for  his  new  religion,  on  his  return  to  England 
he  entered  into  a  plot  to  blow  up  the  king,  his 
ministers,  and  the  members  of  both  houses  of 
parliament,  November  5,  1605.  He  was  taken 
with  the  burning  match  in  his  hand,  tried,  and, 
after  having  been  put  to  the  torture,  was  pub- 
licly executed  in  1606. 


i 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


687 


Ferhner  (fSK'-nSr),  Gustav  Theodor,  physicist  and 
psychophysicist,  was  born  at  Gross-Siirclien,  in 
lower  Lusatia,  1801 ;  became  professor  of 
physics  at  Leipzig  in  1834,  but  afterward  devoted 
himself  to  psychology;  laid  the  foundations  of 
the  science  of  psychophysics  in  his  Elementa  of 
Psychophysics;  wrote  besides  on  the  theory  of 
color  and  galvanism,  as  well  as  poems  and  essays. 
Died,  1887. 

Felix  (Je'4lks),  Antonius,  or  Claudius,  Roman  gov- 
ernor of  Judea  at  the  time  of  the  apostle  Paul. 
His  wife  was  Drusilla,  according  to  Tacitus  a 
granddaughter  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra.  He  was 
an  energetic  ruler,  clearing  the  country  of  the  rob- 
ber bands  that  abounded,  and  holding  the  sedi- 
tious Jews  in  check.  When  Paul  was  brought 
before  him  as  a  prisoner,  and  he  heard  him  "con- 
cerning the  faith  in  Christ,"  he  trembled  and 
said:  "Go  thy  way  for  this  time.  When  I  have 
a  convenient  season  I  will  call  for  thee."  When 
Felix  was  recalled  in  62  A.  D.  to  Rome,  he  left 
Paul  in  prison  to  please  the  Jews. 

Felton  {JW-tun),  Cornelius  Conway,  American 
scholar,  was  bom  in  West  Newbury,  Mass.,  1807 ; 
died  in  Chester,  Pa.,  1862.  He  was  graduated 
from  Harvard  in  1827,  and  in  1834  received  the 
Eliot  professorship  of  Greek  literature.  Later  he 
became  a  regent  of  the  university.  In  1853-54 
he  visited  Europe  and  studied  modem  Greek. 
In  1858  he  made  a  second  visit  to  Europe  and  in 
1860  was  chosen  president  of  Harvard,  in  which 
office  he  continued  until  the  time  of  his  death. 
He  was  also  one  of  the  regents  of  the  Smithsonian 
institution.  President  Felton  made  many  con- 
tributions to  literature  in  the  leading  magazines 
and  reviews,  and  published  translations  of  modem 
European  works  arid  editions  of  Greek  classics. 

F^nelon  (Ja'-ne'-l6N'),  Francois  de  Sallgnac  de  La 
Mothe,  eminent  French  preacher  and  author, 
archbishop  of  Cambray  from  1695  to  the  time  of 
his  death,  was  born  at  the  Chdteau  de  F6nelon,  in 
P^rigord,  France,  1651,  and  died  at  Cambray, 
1715.  As  a  preacher  he  was  remarkable  for  his 
persuasive  eloquence;  as  a  writer  he  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  tender  and  mystic  devotion, 
and  for  the  purity  of  his  style.  Before  his  eleva- 
tion to  the  archbishopric,  he  was  tutor  to  the 
grandsons  of  Louis  XIV.,  for  whom  he  composed 
several  works,  among  them  his  best-known 
work,  Telemachus.  He  was  also  the  author  of 
Maxims  of  the  Saints  in  the  Interior  Life,  for 
which  he  was  strongly  denounced  by  his  great 
contemporary,  Bossuet,  and  which  was  con- 
demned, on  account  of  its  tendency  to  mysticism, 
by  Pope  Innocent  XII.  As  a  man,  F^nelon  was 
distinguished  for  the  simplicity  of  his  character, 
and  for  his  Christian  piety  and  charity. 

Fenn,  William  Wallace,  theologian,  Bussey  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Harvard  university  smce 
1901,  was  bom  m  Boston,  Mass.,  1862;  gradu- 
ated from  Harvard,  1884;  A.  M.,  1887;  Harvard 
divinity  school,  1887;  D.  D.,  1908.  Entered 
the  Unitarian  ministry,  1887;  minister  of  Unity 
church,  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  1887-91,  First  Unita- 
rian society,  Chicago,  1891-1901;  Shaw  lecturer 
biblical  literature,  Meadville  theological  school, 
1892-1901,  1905-07;  preacher  to  Harvard, 
1896-98,  1902-05;  dean  of  Harvard  divinity 
school  since  1906.  Author:  Lessons  on  Luke; 
Lessons  on  Acts;  The  Flowering  of  the  Hebrew 
Religion;  Lessons  on  Psalms,  etc. 

Ferdinand  I^  emperor  of  Germany,  son  of  Philip  I. 
of  Spain  and  younger  brother  of  Charles  V.,  of 
Germany,  was  bom  in  1503.  On  the  death  of 
his  grandfather  Maximilian,  he  received  the 
archduchy  of  Austria  and  the  other  German 
possessions  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  brother-in-law  Louis  II.  of  Bohemia 
and  Hungary,  and  waged  a  long  and  bloody  war 
with  Zapolya  for  the  possession  of  Hungary,  only 


partially  sucoeedlnff.  In  1631  Ferdliuuul  wm 
elected  king  of  the  Romans,  luid  in  lAAO  b«  auo- 
ceeded  Charles  V.  as  emperor.  He  was  toknmnt  to 
the  Protestants,  whom  be  tried  to  reooneile  with 

Rome.     Died,  1664. 

Ferdinand  II,,  em]x>ror  of  Germany  and  king  of 
Hungary  and  Bohemia,  was  bom  in  1678.  He 
was  a  grandson  of  Ferdinand  I.,  and  duke  of 
Styria.  His  cousin,  the  emperor  Matthias,  in 
1617  surrendered  to  him  the  mle  of  Ikihemia,  and 
he  succeeded  him  as  emperor  in  1619.  His 
intolerance  had  shortly  before  kindled  the  thirty 
years'  war.  The  Bohemians  now  ofTerp<l  tlx-ir 
crown  to  the  elector  palatine  Fretlerick  V.,  and 
joined  forces  with  Bethlen  Gabor  of  Transyl- 
vania. After  the  overthrow  of  Frederick  in 
1620,  Ferdinand  abolished  the  charter  of  Bo- 
hemia, oppressed  the  Protestants,  and  prosecuted 
the  war  under  Tilly,  Wallenstein,  and  others. 
Died,  1637. 

Ferdinand  I,,  the  Great,  king  of  Castile  and  Leon, 
was  the  second  son  of  Sancho  111.,  king  of 
Navarre  and  Castile,  and  succeeded  to  the  latter 
kingdom  in  1037.  His  success  against  the 
Moors  extended  the  Christian  frontiers  to  the 
Mondego,  and  by  him  also  the  rulers  of  Toledo, 
Saragossa,  and  Seville  were  reduced  to  vassalage. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  monarchs  ofnis 
age,  and  dis^iuted  with  Henry  III.  of  Germany 
for  the  imperial  crown.  In  1056  he  assumed  the 
title  of  emperor  of  Spain.     Died,  1065. 

Ferdinand  IVm  king  of  Naples  and  afterward  king 
of  the  Two  Sicilies  as  Ferdinand  I.,  was  bom  in 
1751.  He  became  king  in  1759,  but  his  imi)erious 
wife,  Carolina  Maria,  daughter  of  Maria  Tneresa, 
and  her  favorite  minister,  Acton,  ruled  the  court 
in  the  interest  of  the  cabinets  of  Vienna  and 
London,  and  against  France.  In  1799  the 
French  occupied  his  capital  and  Ferdinand 
retired  to  Sicily.  The  Parthenopean  republic 
was  established,  but  after  a  few  montlis  Ferdinand 
was  restored,  and  a  reign  of  terror  was  inaugu- 
rated. In  1801  he  was  obliged  to  yield  to  French 
domination.  In  1805  he  was  driven  from  the 
throne  of  Naples,  which  was  given  by  Napoleon 
to  his  brother,  Joseph.  In  1812  he  granted  his 
Sicilian  subjects  a  constitution,  in  1815  was 
restored  to  his  former  throne,  ana  in  1816  united 
Sicily  and  Naples  into  a  single  state.  His 
despotism  provoked  the  revolution  of  1820, 
which  was  suppressed  by  Austrian  intervention. 
Died,  1825. 

Ferdinand  II„  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  grandson 
of  the  preceding,  was  bom  in  1810.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Francis  I.  in  1830,  and  at  first 
introduced  reforms  and  liberal  measures,  but 
soon  adopted  the  principles  of  absolutism.  The 
history  of  the  kingdom  from  that  time  ia  a  series 
of  conspiracies  and  rebellion.^,  followed  by  trials 
and  executions.  In  1848  a  general  insurrection 
broke  out  in  Sicily,  followed  by  movements  in 
Naples,  and  a  constitution  was  granted,  but 
soon  abrogated  in  Naples,  and  after  a  pro- 
tracted stmggle  the  old  order  was  restored  in 
Sicily.  From  his  having  ordered  the  bombard- 
ment of  his  principal  cities,  he  received  the 
designation  bombardatore,  abbreviated  Into 
Bomba.  His  harsh  treatment  of  political 
prisoners  led  in  1857  to  a  diplomatic  rupture  with 
Sardinia,  France,  and  England.     Died,  1869. 

Ferdinand  V.  of  Castile,  III.  of  Naples,  and  II.  of 
Aragon  and  Sicily,  sumamed  the  Catholic, 
son  of  John  II.,  was  born  in  1452,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  father  on  the  throne  of  Aragon  and 
Sicily  in  1466.  In  1469  he  was  married  to 
Isabella,  sister  of  Henry  IV.  of  Castile,  and  in 
1479  became,  through  her,  Idng  of  Castile, 
Isabella  sharing  with  him  the  royal  dijjnity. 
The  reign  of  P'erdinand  and  Isabella  wa.s  signal- 
ized by  the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus. 


688 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Ferdinand  died  in  1516,  Isabella  having  died 
twelve  years  before  him.  After  the  death  of 
Isabella  he  acted  simply  as  regent  of  the  king- 
dom, having  handed  over  the  crown  to  his  daugh- 
ter Juana,  in  accordance  with  the  will  of  Isabella. 

Ferguson  (f6r'-gu-8iin),  John,  senior  physician, 
Toronto  Western  hospital,  editor  of  Tne  Canada 
Lancet,  was  born  at  Glasgow,  Scotland,  1854. 
lie  was  graduated  from  the  university  of  Toronto, 
and  later  studied  at  Edinburgh  and  London. 
Was  demonstrator  of  anatomy  in  medical  depart- 
ment, Toronto  university,  for  eleven  years; 
lectured  on  nervous  diseases,  and  was  for  some 
years  examiner  in  anatomy;  took  an  active  part 
in  the  organization  of  the  Excelsior  life  insurance 
company,  the  Ontario  publishing  company,  the 
Toronto  Western  hospital,  and  of  the  Ontario 
hospital  association,  and  has  been  in  medical 
practice  for  twenty-five  years.  Besides  editing 
Tlie  Canada  Lancet,  be  has  published  numerous 
articles  and  addresses. 

FergruBsoiu  James,  Scottish  historian  of  architec- 
ture, was  bom  at  Ayr,  Scotland,  1808.  After 
ten  years  as  an  indigo  planter  in  Bengal,  he 
explored  nearly  every  corner  of  India,  studying 
the  rock-temples,  which  were  illustrated  in  his 
earliest  works.  His  History  of  Architecture 
appeared  first  as  a  handbook  in  1855.  Besides 
works  on  fortification,  he  also  published  The 
Palaces  of  Nineveh  and  Peraepolia  Restored,  Tree 
and  Serpent  Worship,  and  Rude  Stone  Monu- 
ments,    lie  died  in  1886. 

Ferrari  (Jir-rd'-re),  Giuseppe,  Italian  philosopher, 
was  bom  in  Milan,  1812;  studied  law  at  Pavia, 
but  afterward  devoted  himself  to  literature. 
He  first  won  notice  by  his  edition  of  Vico's  works. 
After  a  sojourn  in  France  he  was  professor  of 
philosophy  at  college  of  Rochefort,  and  afterward 
at  Strassburg.  In  1859  he  returned  to  Italy, 
becoming  successively  professor  at  Turin  ana 
Milan,  lie  died  at  Rome  in  1876.  Among  his 
principal  writings  are:  Essai  sur  le  Principe  et  i 
les  Limites  de  la  Philosophic  de  I'Histoire,  Filosofia 
della  Rivoluzione,  and  Corso  di  Lezioni  augli  I 
Scrittori  Politici  Italiani. 

Ferrelra    (fir-ri'-e-ra),   Antonio,    Portuguese   poet, 
was  bom  at  Lisbon  in  1528.     He  is  consiaered  | 
the  reformer  of  the  national  poetry  of  Portugal,  1 
and  as  the  Portuguese  Horace.     He  was  brought  i 
up  to  the  law,  but  devoted  his  attention  mainly  j 
to  literature.     He  obtained  an  important  situa-  j 
tion  at  court,  and  his  Inez  de  Castro,  the  second  | 
regular   tragedy   produced   after   the   revival   of 
letters  in  Europe,  gave  him  great  celebrity.     He 
died  in  1569. 

Ferrero  (Jir-ra'-ro),  Guglielmo,  Italian  historian, 
was  bom  in  1872.  He  lectured  at  Milan  on 
militarism,  and  in  the  College  de  France,  Paris, 
on  Roman  history,  and  while  there  received  the 
cross  of  the  legion  of  honor.  He  has  traveled 
extensively  in  Europe  and  America,  and  is  known 
in  the  latter  country  for  his  very  acute  observa- 
tions on  American  manners  and  institutions. 
Author:  Symbols,  The  Greatness  and  Decline  of 
Rome,  and  collaborated  with  Professor  Lombroso 
in  the  Female  Offender. 

Ferry,  Jules  Francois  Camllle,  distinguished  French 
statesman,  was  born  at  Saint  Di6,  in  the  Vosges, 
1832.  Admitted  to  the  Paris  bar  in  1854,  he 
speedily  plunged  into  the  politics  of  the  time,  and 
offered  uncompromising  opposition  to  the  party 
of  Louis  Napoleon;  as  a  member  of  the  corp>s 
l^gislatif  he  opposed  the  war  with  Prussia,  but 
as  central  mayor  of  Paris  rendered  signal  service 
during  the  siege  by  the  Germans;  during  his 
tenure  of  oflBce  as  minister  of  public  instruction, 
in  1879  was  instrumental  in  bringing  about  the 
expulsion  of  the  Jesuits;  as  prime  minister  in 
1880  and  again  in  1883-85  he  inaugurated  a 
spirited  colonial  policy,  which  involved  France 


in  war  in  Madagascar,  and  brought  about  his  down- 
fall. Elected  to  the  senate,  1890,  and  became  its 
president  one  month  before  his  death,  1893. 

Fesch  (fSsh),  Joseph,  cardinal  archbishop  of  Lyons, 
was  born  in  Ajaccio,  1763,  the  half-brother  of 
Letizia  Ramolino,  Bonaparte's  mother.  He  took 
holy  orders,  but  became  commissary  to  the 
revolutionary  army  of  the  Alps  in  Italy.  Having 
resumed  the  clerical  habit,  he  helped  on  the 
concordat  with  Pope  Pius  VII.  in  1801,  and  was 
raised  to  be  archbishop  of  Lyons,  1802,  and 
cardinal,  1803.  In  1804  he  was  French  ambas- 
sador to  Rome,  and  two  years  later  he  was 
appointed  associate  and  succe.ssor  of  Dalberg, 
prince  primate  of  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine. 
At  a  conference  of  clergy  in  Paris  in  1810  he  gave 
utterance  to  views  which  lost  him  the  favor  of 
Napoleon,  who  was  further  exasperated  by  his 
letter  to  the  pope,  then  in  captivity  at  Fontaine- 
bleau.  He  retired  to  Lyons,  and,  at  the  approach 
of  the  Austrians  in  1814,  he  fled  to  Rome,  where 
he  died  in  1839. 

Fessenden  (JW-en-den),  William  Pitt,  American 
statesman,  was  born  in  New  Hampshire  in  1806. 
He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  college  in  1823,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1827.  He  entered 
congress  in  1841,  served  one  term  and  was 
United  States  senator,  1854-64;  secretarj'  of 
the  treasury,  1864-65;  and  again  United  States 
senator^  1865-69.  He  voted  for  the  acquittal 
of  President  Johnson;  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  republican  party,  and  distinguished  him- 
self as  a  debater  in  the  senate.  He  ranked 
among  the  first  lawyers  of  his  time,  and  made 
a  notable  reputation  before  the  United  States 
supreme  court.     Died,  1869. 

Fetter,  Frank  Albert,  educator,  economist,  was 
bom  in  Peru,  Ind..  1863;  graduated  at  Indiana 
university,  1891;  Ph.  M.,  Cornell,  1892;  Ph.  D., 
Halle,  1894;  LL.  D.,  Colgate,  1909  ;  post-graduate 
studies  at  the  Sorbonne  and  Ecole  de  Droit, 
Paris,  1892-93,  and  Halle,  1893-94;  was  a  book- 
seller, 1883-90,  Peru,  Ind. ;  wnner  interstate  ora- 
torical contest,  Des  Moines,  la.,  1891 ;  instructor 
of  political  economy,  Cornell,  1894-95;  professor 
of  Indiana  university,  1895-98,  Leiand  Stanford 
Jr.,  1898-1900;  professor  of  political  economy 
and  finance,  1901-10,  economics  and  distribution, 
1910-11,  Cornell;  professor  of  economics  and  head 
department  history,  politics  and  economics  since 
1911,  Princeton.  Author:  Rdationa  Betvoeen 
Rent  and  Interest;  The  Principles  of  Economics; 
articles,  monographs,  etc.,  on  economic  subjects. 

Fetterolf,  Adam  H^  educator,  president  of  Girard 
college,  1882-1910,  was  born  at  Perkiomen,  Pa., 
1841;  graduate  of  Ursinus  college;  A.  M.,  1865, 
Ph.  D.,  1878.  Lafayette  college;  LL.  D.,  1886, 
Delaware  college.  Was  vice-president  of  Girard 
college,  1880-82.  Member  of  the  historical 
society  of  Pennsj'lvania,  American  academy  of 
political  and  social  science,  etc.      Died,  1912. 

Feuerbach  (foi'-ir-bdK),  Ludwlg  Andreas,  German 
philosopher,  was  bom  at  Landshut,  1804,  and 
studied  at  Heidelberg.  For  a  time  he  engaged  in 
business,  devoting  his  leisure  to  literary  pursuits; 
but  the  greater  part  of  his  life  was  spent  in  retire- 
ment. His  works  include  a  history  of  modem 
philosophy  from  Bacon  to  Spinoza,  an  explosion 
of  the  philosophy  of  Leibnitz,  The  Essence  of 
Christianity,  The  Essence  of  Religion,  and  God, 
Freedom,  and  Immortality.  The  leading  principle 
of  his  philosophy,  a  naturalistic  development  of 
Hegelianism,  is  that  there  is  no  God  distinct  from 
nature  and  man.      Died,  1872. 

Feuerbach,  Paul  Johann  Ansehn  von,  jurist,  father 
of  the  preceding,  was  bom  at  Jena,  1775,  where 
he  studied  law.  He  had  made  a  brilliant  repu- 
tation by  his  Kritik  des  natiirlichen  Rechts,  and 
his  Anii-Hobbes.  His  Lehrbuch  des  gemeinen 
peinlichen  Rechts  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  new 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


ew 


school  of  rigorists.  His  penal  code  for  Bavaria 
was  taken  as  a  basis  for  amending  the  criminal 
law  of  several  other  countries.     In   1808-11   he 

fiublished  a  great  collection  of  criminal  cases, 
n  his  Geschworenengericht  he  maintained  that 
the  verdict  of  a  jury  is  not  adequate  legal  proof 
of  a  crime.  Appomted  a  judge  at  Bamberg, 
1814,  and  at  Anspach,  1817.  He  died  at  Frank- 
fort, 18.33. 
FealUet  (/il'-j/g').  Octave,  French  novelist,  was  born 
at  Saint-L6,  in  La  Manche,  1821.  He  started  his 
literarv  career  as  one  of  Dumas's  assistants,  but 
made  nis  first  independent  success  in  the  lievue 
des  Deux  Mondes  by  a  series  of  tales  and  romances 
begim  in  1848.  In  1802  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  academy,  and  later  became  librarian  to 
Louis  Napoleon ;  his  novels,  of  which  Le  Roman 
d'un  Jeune  Homme  Pauvre  and  Sibylle  are  the 
most  noted,  are  graceful  in  style,  and  reveal  con- 
siderable dramatic  force,  but  often  lapse  into 
sentimentality,  and  too  often  treat  of  indelicate 
subjects,  although  in  no  spirit  of  coarseness. 
Died,  1890. 
Ficbte  (fiK'-te),  Johann  Gottlieb,  German  philoso- 
pher, was  born  at  llammenau,  in  upper  Lusatia. 
1762.  During  the  years  1784-88  he  supported 
himself  in  a  precarious  way  as  tutor  in  various 
Saxon  families.  In  1791  he  obtained  a  tutorship 
at  Warsaw,  in  the  house  of  a  Polish  nobleman. 
The  situation,  however,  proved  disagreeable, 
and  was  given  up  by  the  fastidious  philosopher, 
who  next  proceeded  to  Konigsberg,  where  he  had 
an  interview  with  Kant,  of  whom  he  had  become 
an  ardent  disciple.  Here  he  wrote,  in  1792,  his 
Critique  of  all  Revelation.     In  1794  he  was  ap- 

Eointed  to  the  chair  of  philosophy  at  Jena,  where 
e  commenced  to  expound  with  extraordinary 
zeal  his  system  of  transcendental  idealism  In 
1798  he  removed  to  Berlin,  where  he  delivered 
lectures  on  philosophy  to  a  select  auditory.  In 
1800  there  appeared  his  work  On  the  Destiny  of 
Man.  In  1805  he  obtained  the  chair  of  philoso- 
phy at  Erlangen,  with  the  privilege  of  residing  at 
Berlin  in  the  winter.  Here  he  delivered  his 
celebrated  lectures  On  the  Natiire  of  the  Scholar. 
The  victories  of  Napoleon  at  Auerstadt  and  Jena 
drew  forth  Addresses  to  the  Germans.  These 
addresses  were  full  of  the  most  exalted  enthu- 
siasm. The  Prussian  king  appreciated  the  zeal 
of  the  eloquent  metaphysician,  and,  on  the 
restoration  of  peace,  requested  him  to  draw  up  a 
new  constitution  for  the  Berlin  university.  In 
1810  the  university  was  opened  with  a  host  of 
brilliant  names,  Fichte,  Wolff,  Miiller,  Humboldt, 
De  Wette,  Schleiermacher,  Neander,  Klaproth, 
and  Savngny.  By  the  votes  of  his  colleagues 
Fichte  was  unanimously  elected  rector.  He 
died  in  1814. 

Flck,  August,  German  philologist,  was  bom  near 
Minden,  1833,  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  became 
professor  there  in  1876,  and  at  Breslau  in  1887. 
He  retired  in  1891.  His  great  comparative  Indo- 
Germanic  dictionary  has  been  followed  by  works 
on  Greek  personal  names,  the  original  language 
of  the  Iliad,  etc. 

Field,  Cyrus  West,  founder  of  the  Atlantic  cable 
company  was  bom  at  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  1819. 
He  first  became  a  clerk  in  New  York,  but  soon 
had  a  prosperpus  business  of  his  own.  Being 
joined  by  Peter  Cooper,  Moses  Taylor,  and  other 
American  capitalists,  he  organized,  in  1854,  the 
New  York,  Newfoundland,  and  London  tele- 
graphic company,  and,  in  1856,  the  Atlantic 
telegraph  company.  Devoting  himself  entirely 
to  the  work  of  uniting  the  old  and  new  worlds, 
he  crossed  the  ocean  nearly  thirty  times  in  its 
prosecution ;  and  on  the  laying  of  the  first  cable, 
1858,  was  received  by  his  countrymen  with 
enthusiastic  plaudits.  He  continued  his  exer- 
tions, and  on  the  success  of  the  cable  of  1866 


received  a  gold  medal  from  congrcM  and  •  vot« 
of  thanks  from  the  Amcriowi  nation.  In  1871 
Field  was  one  of  the  origiDatora  of  the  oompany 
which  undertook  to  lay  a  cable  acroM  the  Paelfio 
ocean  via  the  Sandwich  inlands  to  China  and 
Japan.  From  1876-80  he  was  acUvelv  engaged 
in  the  rapid-transit  problcma  in  New  York,  and 
became  largely  identirie<l  with  the  elevated 
railway  interests  of  that  city.     Died,  1892. 

Field,  David  Dudley,  American  jurist,  was  bom  at 
Haddam,  Conn.,  1805,  cntcn-il  Wiliiama  college, 
1821,  studied  law,  and  waa  adniittinl  to  the  bar 
in  1828.  He  settled  in  New  York,  and  aoon 
made  his  way  into  the  front  rank  of  his  profeaaion. 
In  1847  he  was  appointed  by  the  Icgudature  of 
New  York  one  of  a  commission  to  reform  the 
practice  of  the  state.  In  this  work  he  waa 
engaged  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century,  carrying  it 
on  at  the  same  time  with  a  large  profeasional 
practice.  In  1866  he  brought  before  the  British 
association  for  social  science  a  proposition  to 
frame  an  international  code.  This  led  to  the 
preparation  by  him  of  what  was  really  a  complete 
work  on  international  law,  though  entitled  Draft 
Ovdines  of  an  International  Code,  one  feature  of 
which  was  the  principle  of  arbitration  to  settle 
disputes  between  nations.     Died.  1894. 

Field,  Eugene,  American  poet  and  journalist,  was 
bom  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  1850.  He  moved  to  New 
England,  but  was  educated  later  in  Missouri. 
He  entered  journalism  at  the  age  of  twenty-three, 
ten  years  later  becoming  editor  of  the  "Sharps 
and  Flats"  column  of  tne  Chicago  Daily  Newt. 
His  humorous  sayings  therein  during  the  follow- 
ing decade  established  his  reputation  in  news- 
paper work.  He  was  an  author  and  poet  of  rare 
sympathy,  his  poems  of  childhood  exhibiting 
rare  qualities  of  appreciation  and  power  of  expres- 
sion, and  gaining  for  him  the  title,  "The  Child's 
Poet."  Among  his  works  are:  The  Denver 
Tribune  Primer;  Culture's  Garland;  Love  Affairs 
of  a  Bibliomaniac;  Little  Book  of  Western  verse; 
With  Trumpet  and  Drum,  etc.     He  died  in  1895. 

Field,  Marshall,  merchant,  philanthropist,  was 
born  at  Conway,  Mass.,  1835.  He  spent  his 
boyhood  on  a  farm;  studied  at  academy  until 
1852,  and  then  became  a  dry  goods  clerk  at 
Pittsfield,  Mass.,  1852-56;  in  Chicago,  1856-60. 
He  was  junior  partner,  1860-65,  then  senior 
partner  in  house,  which  became,  1865,  Field, 
Palmer,  and  Leiter.  Potter  Palmer  retired, 
1867,  and  Levi  Z.  Leiter,  1881,  Field  becom- 
ing head  of  Marshall  Field  and  Company,  now 
having  the  largest  wholesale  and  retail  dry  floods 
business  in  the  world.  Founded,  with  gift  of 
$1,000,000,  the  Field  Columbian  museum  of 
Chicago ;  gave  money  and  land  to  the  amount  of 
$450,000  to  university  of  Chicago.  Twice 
married;  second  time  in  London,  1905,  to  Mrs. 
Delia  Spencer  Caton,  of  Chicago.  Died  in  1906, 
leaving  an  immense  fortune. 

Field,  Stephen  Johnson,  American  jurist,  was  bom 
at  Haddam,  Conn.,  1816,  son  of  David  Dudley 
Field.  He  studied  law  and  took  up  its  practice 
in  California.  Chief-justice  of  California,  185&- 
63 ;  associate  justice  of  the  United  States  supreme 
court,  1863-97.  He  was  a  member  of  the  elec- 
toral commission,  1877,  which  decided  the  presi- 
dency in  favor  of  Rutherford  B.  Hayes.  Died 
at  Washington,  1899. 

Fielding,  Henry,  famous  English  novelist,  was  bom 
ne^r  Glastonbury,  England,  1707.  He  was  early 
sent  to  school  at  Eton,  and  afterward  to  the 
university  of  Leyden.  On  his  return  from 
Leyden  he  commenced  writing  for  the  stage,  and 
for  ten  years  was  a  prolific  play-writer.  In  1737 
he  entered  as  a  student  of  the  Middle  Temple,  and 
in  1740  was  admitted  to  the  bar;  but  nis  new 
profession  not  proving  remunerative  he  returned 
to  literature,  and  in  his  remaining  years  produced 


eoo 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


the  works  with  which  his  name  is  now  principally 
associated.  Chief  of  these  are  Joseph  Andrews; 
The  History  of  Jonathan  Wild;  Tom  Jones;  and 
Amelia.  Unfortunately,  all  Fielding's  works  are 
offensive  on  account  of  coarseness,  but  their 
genius,  and  especially  their  humor,  are  undeni- 
able. In  his  later  years  he  received  a  pension, 
and  was  appointed  a  justice  of  the  peace,  in  return 
for  the  loyalty  to  the  Hanoverian  succession 
which  he  evinced  in  a  publication  called  The 
Jacobite  Journal;  but  illness,  the  result  of  early 
dissipation,  drove  him  at  last  to  Lisbon,  where  he 
died  in  1754. 

Fielding,  William  Stevens,  Canadian  statesman  and 
journalist,  former  minister  of  finance  in  the  Csma- 
dian  cabinet,  was  bom  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia, 
1848.  He  was  educated  at  Halifax;  D.  C.  L.. 
Acadia  university;  LL.  D^  Queen's,  McGill  and 
Dalhousie  universities.  For  twenty  years  he 
was  connected  with  the  Halifax  Morning  Chron- 
icle; represented  city  and  county  of  Halifax  in  the 
provincial  legislature,  1882-96;  member  of  the 
provincial  cabinet  a  few  months  after  bis  election, 
and  prime  minister,  1884-96,  when  he  resigned  to 
become  minister  of  finance  in  the  cabinet  of  Sir 
Wilfrid  Laurier.  As  minister  of  finance  was 
particularly  charged  with  the  readjustment  of 
the  Canadian  tariff.  He  was  a  representative 
of  Ctinada  at  the  colonial  conference,  London, 
1902;  one  of  his  majesty's  plenipotentiaries  for 
the  negotiation  of  the  Franco-Canadian  com- 
mercial treaty,  Paris,  1907.  He  also  represented 
the  electoral  district  of  Shelbume  and  Queen's 
in  the  Dominion  parliament,  1896-1911. 

Ftesole,  Fra  Giovanni  Da.     See  Angelico,  Fra. 

FIgueras  (Je-ga' -r&s),  Estanislao,  Spanish  states- 
man, was  bom  at  Barcelona,  1819.  For  taking  part 
in  republican  plots  in  1866  he  was  imprisoned; 
but  after  the  expulsion  of  Isabella  he  became  a 
member  of  the  republican  government.  On 
the  abdication  of  King  Amadeus  in  1873  he 
became  president  of  the  Spanish  republic,  but 
resigned  soon  after.     He  died  in  Madrid,  1882. 

Fiides  (/iidz).  Sir  Luke,  English  painter,  was  bom 
at    liiverpool,    England,    1844.     He    received    a 
private  education;    studied  at  South  Kensington 
art  schools  and  roval  academy,  London;    illus- 
trator of  books  and  magazines  for  several  years ; 
afterward    painted    English   and    Venetian   sub- 
jects;    latterly  portraits.     Among  his  paintings 
are:     "Fair,    Quiet,    and    Sweet    Rest'  ;     "The 
Casual  Ward";    "The  Return  of  the  Penitent" 
"The    Widower";      "The    Village    Wedding" 
"Venetian   Life";     "The   Al   Fresco  Toilette" 
"The    Doctor";     "The    State    Portrait    of    the 
King";   " The  State  Portrait  of  the  Queen,"  etc. 
He  was  elected  R.  A.  in  1887. 

Fillmore,  Millard,  American  statesman,  thirteenth 
president  of  the  United  States,  was  bom  in  Sum- 
merhill,  N.  Y.,  1800.  He  was  apprenticed  to 
a  wool  carder,  but  became  a  clerk  m  a  judge's 
office;  removed  to  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  1823,  and 
then  found  entrance  to  the  bar.  He  entered 
congress  in  1832,  was  appointed  chairman  of  the 
conmaittee  of  ways  and  means  in  1840,  and  was 
author  of  the  tariff  in  1842.  He  became  comp- 
troller of  the  state  of  New  York  in  1847,  was 
elected   vice-president   of   the  United   States   in 

1848,  and  succeeded  to  the  presidency  on  the 
death  of  General  Taylor  in  1850.  By  signing  the 
act  for  the  surrender  of  fugitive  slaves  he  brought 
about  the  utter  defeat  of  the  whig  party  in  1852. 
In  1856  he  was  nominated  for  the  presidency,  but 
received  only  scanty  support.     Died,  1874. 

Finch,  Francis  MUes,  jurist  and  poet,  was  bom  at 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  1827.     He  was  graduated  at  Yale, 

1849,  studied  law  and  enterea  upon  its  practice 
at  Ithaca.  In  1880  he  was  appointed  to  the 
New  York  court  of  appeals  to  fill  a  vacancy,  and 
in  the  following  year  elected  for  the  term  of  1881- 


95.  He  assisted  materially  in  the  organization 
of  Cornell  university,  of  which  he  was  an  original 
trustee.  In  1892  he  became  dean  of  the  Cornell 
law  school.  Besides  some  legal  compilations 
he  wrote  numerous  poems,  including  Nathan 
Hale  and  The  Blue  and  the  Gray.  The  latter 
poem,  published  in  1867,  did  much  toward 
nealing  the  breach  between  the  North  and  the 
South.      Died,  1907. 

Finck,  Henry  Theopbilus,  author,  musical  critic  of 
New  York  Evening  Post  since  1881,  was  bom  at 
Bethel,  Mo.,  1854.  He  was  graduated  at  Har- 
vard in  1876;  resident  graduate,  Cambridge, 
1877-78.  studying  sociology ;  studied  psychology 
at  Berlin,  Heidelberg,  Vienna,  1878-81.  As 
musical  critic,  he  is  a  special  partisan  of  Wagner, 
Chopin,  Liszt,  Grieg,  MacDowell.  He  is  also  the 
originator  of  the  theory  that  romantic  love  is  a 
modem  sentiment,  unknown  to  savages  and  the 
ancient  civilized  nations.  Author:  Romantic 
Love  and  Personal  Beauty;  Chopin,  and  Other 
Musical  Essays;  Pacific  Coast  Scenic  Tours; 
Spain  and  Morocco;  Wagner  and  His  Works; 
Lotos  Time  in  Japan;  Pictorial  Wagner;  Anton 
J^eidl;  Primitive  Love  and  Love  Stories;  Songs 
and  Song  Writers;  Fifty  Mastersongs;  Fifty 
Schubert  Songs;   Edvard  Grieg,   etc. 

Finlay,  (Scorse,  distinguished  English  historian, 
was  bom  at  Faversham,  Kent,  1799,  of  Scotch 
parents.  He  received  a  university  training  at 
Glasgow  and  Gottingen,  and  in  1822  went  to 
Greece,  where  he  met  Byron  and  fought  in  the 
war  of  independence.  Henceforth  Greece  became 
his  home,  and  there,  after  an  unavailing  effort 
to  promote  agriculture,  he  betook  himself  to  a 
studious  life  and  to  writing  the  history  of  his 
adopted  country ;  his  valuable  history*,  published 
in  various  parts,  traces  the  national  life  of  Greece 
from  146  B.  C.  to  A.  D.  1864.  Died  at  Athens, 
1875. 

Finley,  John  Huston,  educator,  was  bom  at  Grand 
Ridge,  III.,  1863.  He  was  graduated  at  Knox 
college,  1887;  studied  at  Johns  Hopkins,  1887- 
89;  non.  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.  He  was  secretary  of 
state  charities  aid  organization.  New  York, 
1889-92;  founder  and  editor  of  State  Charities 
Record  and  The  Charities  Review  of  New  York. 
President  of  Knox  college,  1892-99;  editor  of 
Harper's  Weekly  and  McClure's  Magazine,  1899- 
1900;  professor  of  politics,  Princeton,  1900-03; 
president  of  college  of  the  city  of  New  York  since 
1903.  Co-author  with  Richard  T.  Ely:  ToxatMrn 
in  American  States  and  Cities. 

Finley,  Martha,  "Martha  Farquharson,"  author, 
was  born  at  Chillicothe,  Ohio,  1828.  She  was 
educated  in  the  schools  of  Philadelphia,  after 
which  she  became  a  teacher.  She  is  well  known 
for  her  numerous  Sunday  school  books,  and 
especially  for  the  twenty-eight  "Elsie  Books," 
and  a  companion  series  of  seven,  the  "Mildred 
Books  " ;  also.  Wanted  —  A  Pedigree;  Signing 
the  Contract;  The  Thorn  in  the  Nest,  etc.  Died, 
1909. 

Finley,  William  Wilson,  president  of  Southern 
railway,  was  bom  at  Pass  Christian,  Miss.,  1853 ; 
served  from  vice-president's  stenographer  to 
assistant  general  freight  agent.  New  Orleans, 
Jackson  and  Great  Northern,  and  Chicago,  St. 
Louis  and  New  Orleans  railroads,  1873-83; 
assistant  general  freight  agent,  Texas  and 
Pacific  railway.  New  Orleans  division,  1883-85; 
assistant  general  freight  agent  for  receiver  of 
same,  1885-86.  general  freight  agent,  1886-«8; 
general  freight  agent  of  "Pan-Handle  route," 
1888-89 ;  chairman  of  Trans-Missouri  traffic  asso- 
ciation,at  Kansas  City,  1889-90;  chairman  of  West- 
em  passenger  association,  1890-92;  general  traffic 
manager  of  Great  Northern  and  Montana  Central 
railroad,  1892-95;  third  vice-president  of  South- 
em  railway,    1895-96;    second  vice-president  of 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


Ml 


Great  Northern  railway,  May  to  September, 
1896;  second  vice-president  of  Soutliern  railway, 
1896-1906;  president  of  same  since  December, 
1906. 

Fliuiey«  Charles  Grandlson,  American  clergyman 
and  educator,  was  born  in  Connecticut,  1792. 
He  began  to  preach  in  the  Presbyterian  church 
in  1824,  and  was  very  successful  as  an  evangelist. 
In  1835  he  became  professor  of  theology  at 
Oberlin  college,  and  from  1851  to  1866  was 
president  of  that  institution.  He  was  an  aboli- 
tionist and  an  advocate  of  total  abstinence.  He 
published  Lectures  on  Revivals,  Sermons,  Theology, 
etc.     Died  at  Oberlin,  Ohio,  1875. 

Flrdausl  (Jer-dou'-se),  or  Flrdusl  (Jer-ddH'-si), 
pseudonym  of  Abu  '1  Kasim  Mansur,  the  groat 
poet  of  Persia,  born  near  Tus,  in  Khorassan, 
about  940.  He  spent  thirty  years  in  writing  the 
Shah  Namah,  or  Book  of  Kings,  a  national  epic, 
but,    having   been   cheated   out   of   the   reward 

Eromised  by  Sultan  Mahmud,  he  gave  vent  to 
itter  satire  against  his  royal  master  and  fled 
from  the  court.  For  some  time  he  led  a  wan- 
dering life,  until  at  length  he  returned  to  his 
birthplace,  where  he  died  about  1020. 

Fischer,  Emil,  a  noted  German  chemist,  waa  bom 
at  Euskirchen,  1852.  Educated  at  Strassbui^. 
Formerly  professor  at  Munich,  Erlangen,  and 
Wiirzburg  respectively.  Professor  of  organic 
chemistry  at  university  of  Berlin  since  1892. 
The  synthetic  production  of  the  simple  sugars 
and  the  complete  demonstration  of  their  chemical 
constitution  is  his  most  important  achievement. 
His  Ardeitung  zur  Darstellung  organischer  Pr&par- 
ate  is  a  work  well  known  to  every  student  of 
organic  chemistry.  Received,  in  1902,  Nobel 
prize  for  distingubhed  research  in  chemistry. 

Fischer,  Ernst  Kuno  Berthold,  German  historian  of 
philosophy,  was  born  at  Sandewalde,  Silesia, 
1824.  As  a  student  of  Erdmann  at  Halle  he  was 
smitten  with  the  love  of  philosophy,  and  gave  his 
life  to  the  study  of  it.  After  graduating  he  went 
to  Heidelberg  and  there  estabushed  himself  as  a 
private  lecturer,  in  which  capacity  he  was  emi- 
nently successful,  but  in  1853  was  deprived  of 
his  status  by  the  government,  probably  on 
account  of  the  alleged  pantheistic  trend  of  his 
teaching.  In  1856,  however,  he  was  elected  to 
the  chair  of  philosophy  in  Jena,  and  sixteen  years 
later  was  called  back  to  Heidelberg  as  Zeller's 
successor.  His  chief  work  is  a  History  of  Modem 
Philosophy.     Died,  1907. 

Fish,  Hamilton,  American  statesman  and  diplomat, 
was  bom  at  New  York  in  1808.  He  graduated 
at  Columbia  in  1827,  and,  admitted  to  the  bar, 
was  elected  congressman  in  1842,  lieutenant- 
governor  of  the  state  in  1847,  governor  in  1848, 
and  in  1851  a  member  of  the  United  States 
senate.  As  secretary  of  state  under  Grant  from 
1869  to  1877,  he  signed  the  Washington  treaty 
of  1871,  and  completed  the  settlement  of  the 
Alabama  question.     Died,  1893. 

Fish,  Stuy  vesant,  banker,  railway  official,  was  bom 
in  New  York,  1851 ;  graduated  at  Columbia, 
1871,  A.  M.,  1874.  In  1871  he  became  clerk  in 
New  York  office  of  Illinois  Central  railroad; 
secretary  to  president,  1872;  clerk  for  Morton, 
Bliss  and  Company,  New  York,  and  Morton, 
Rose  and  Company,  London,  1872-77;  became 
director  of  Illinois  Central  railroad  company, 
1876;  also  treasurer  and  purchasing  agent  of 
New  Orleans,  Jackson  and  Great  Northern  rail- 
road; 1877-82,  secretary,  and  1882-84,  vice- 
president  of  Chicago,  St.  Louis  and  New  Orleans 
railroad;  second  vice-president,  1883-84,  vice- 
president,  1884-87,  president,  1887-1906.  of 
Illinois  Central  railroaid;  trustee  of  Mutual  life 
insurance  company  of  New  York,  1883-1906; 
trustee  of  New  York  life  insurance  and  trust 
company ;  vice-president  and  director  of  National 


Park  bank,  and  director  la  othar  eorporatloiM. 
Member  of  monetary  oonuniadon  or«at«d  by 
Indianapolis  monetary  oonference,  1897;  prc«i- 
dent  of  American  railway  awooiation,  1904-06; 
chaimian  of  seventh  interaational  railway  ooo- 
gress,  Washington,  1905. 

Fisher,  Georse  Park,  luMtoriau,  theologian,  pro- 
fessor of  divinitv,  1854-61,  and  profeaaor  of 
ecclesiastical  history,  Yale,  1861-1909,  waa  born 
at  Wrentham,  Mass.,  1827;  graduated  from 
Brown,  1847;  studied  theology,  YaU  divinity 
school,  and  at  Andover  and  in  Germany :  D  D 
Harvard,  Brown  1866,  ICdiuburgh,  1886,  Prinoe^ 
ton,  1896;  LL.  D.,  Yale,  ISDl,  Princeton,  1806. 
Author:  The  Supcrnalurul  Orimn  of  Chriatiamt^; 
History  of  the  Riformation;  The  Beginningt  of 
Christianity;  Faith  and  Rationaliam;  LHteutiotu 
in  History  and  Theology;  The  Christian  Religion; 
The  Grounds  of  Theistic  and  Christian  Belief; 
Outlines  of  Universal  History;  History  of  iKs 
Christian  Church;  Manual  of  Christian  EvideneM; 
Nature  and  Method  of  Revelation;  Mantud  of 
Natural  Theology;  Colonial  History  of  the  United 
States;  History  of  Christian  Doctrine;  Brief 
History  of  Nations,  etc..  and  many  articles  in 
Bibliotheca  Sacra,  North  American  Review,  British 
Quarterly  Review,  New  Englander,  Century 
Magazine,  etc.      Died,  1909. 

Fisher,  Harrison,  American  illustrator,  was  bom 
in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1875.  He  was  educated  in 
San  Francisco,  and  soon  evinced  fine  capabilities 
in  drawing  and  illustration.  He  has  illustrated 
the  following  books:  The  Market  Place,  by 
Harold  Frederic;  Three  Men  on  Wfieels,  by 
Jerome  K.  Jerome ;  The  Eagle's  Heart,  by  Hamlin 
Garland  •  Long;fellow's  Hiawatha,  etc. ;  much  of 
his  work  has  appeared  also  in  the  Saturday 
Evening  Post,  McC lure's  Magazine,  Life,  Puck, 
Ladies'  Home  Journal,  Scribner's,  etc.  Author: 
Tfie  Harrison  Fisher  Book,  a  collection  of  draw- 
ings, and  Bachelor  Belles. 

Fisher,  Irving,  economist,  professor  of  political 
economy  at  Yale  since  1898,  was  born  at  Sauger- 
ties,  N.  Y.,  1867.  Studied  at  Berlin  and  Paris, 
1893-94.  Tutor  of  mathematics,  1891-93,  assist- 
ant professor  of  same,  1893-95,  assistant  pro- 
fessor of  pKjlitical  economy,  1895-98,  Yale;  spent 
1898-1901  in  Colorado  and  California  regaining 
lost  health;  resumed  work  at  Yale,  1901.  Mem- 
ber of  many  economic  and  other  learned  societies. 
Editor  of  Yale  Review  1896-1910;  contributor  to. 
economic  journals.  Chairman  of  "committee  of 
100"  of  American  a.<3sociation  to  advocate  the 
establishment  of  a  national  department  of  health. 
Author:  Elements  of  Geometry  (with  Professor  A. 
W.  Phillips) ,  A  Brief  Introduction  to  the  Infini- 
tesimal Calculus;  The  Nature  of  Capital  and 
Income;  The  Rate  of  Interest,  and  numeroos 
articles,  monographs,  etc. 

Fisher,  Jotin,  bishop  of  Rochester,  waa  bom  about 
1459  at  Beverley,  Yorkshire,  England.  In  1483 
he  entered  Michaelhouse,  now  part  of  Trinity 
college,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  became  a  fellow 
in  1491,  and  master  in  1497.  In  1502  Margaret, 
countess  of  Riclunond,  Henry  VII.'s  mother, 
made  him  her  chaplain  and  confessor:  and  in 
1503  he  was  appointed  first  Lady  Margaret 
professor  of  divinity.  Next  year  he  was  eleieted 
chancellor  of  the  university,  and  consecrated  to 
the  see  of  Rochester.  He  zealously  promoted  the 
new  learning,  and  advocated  reformation  from 
within;  as  aealously  he  resisted  the  Lutheran 
schism.  In  1527  he  pronounced  firmly  against 
the  divorce  of  Henry  VIII. ;  and,  having  lent  too 
ready  an  ear  to  the  "revelations"  of  the  holy 
maid  of  Kent,  Elizabeth  Barton,  In  1634  he  was 
attainted  of  treason,  and,  for  refusing  the  oeth 
of  succession,  was  sent  with  More  to  the  Tower. 
In  Mav,  1535,  Pope  Paul  III.  made  him  a  cardinal: 
on  June  17th  the  old  man,  worn  by  sickness  ana 


W2 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


ill-usage,  was  tried  for  denial  of  the  king's 
supremacy;  on  the  22d  he  was  beheaded  on 
Tower  hill. 
Fisher,  Sir  John  Arbuthnot,  admiral  of  the  British 
navy,  senior  naval  lord  on  the  board  of  admiralty, 
1904-10;  was  bom  in  1841.  He  entered  the 
navy  in  1854,  saw  service  in  the  Chinese  and 
Crimean  wars,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the 
Egyptian  war  of  1882.  He  was  appointed 
director  of  naval  ordnance  and  torpedoes  in  1886; 
rear-admiral,  1890;  admiral  superintendent 
Portsmouth  dockyard,  1891 ;  controller  of  the 
navy,  1892;  commander-in-chief  of  North 
American  and  West  Indies  station,  1897;  naval 
delegate  to  The  Hague  peace  conference,  1899; 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Mediterranean,  1899, 
Portsmouth,  1903;  first  sea  lord,  1904,  and 
admiral  of  the  fleet,  1905.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Esher  war  office  committee,    1904.      Ap- 

Eointed  first  and  principal  naval  aide-de-camp  to 
is  majesty  the  king,  1904.  He  received  the 
degree  LL.  D.  from  Cambridge  university. 
Fisher,  Sydney  Arthur,  minister  of  agriculture, 
Canada,  1896-1911;  was  bom  at  Montreal,  |pan- 
ada,  1850;  graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Cam- 
bridge, and  adopted  farming  at  Knowlton,  in 
eastern  townships,  province  of  Quebec;  entered 
parliament  of  Canaaa  as  M.  P.  for  County  Brome, 

1882,  and  has  been  continuously  returned  with 
the  exception  of  1891  and  1911. 

Flsber,  Walter  Lowrle,  lawyer,  was  bom  at 
Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  1862;  educated  in  public 
schools,  at  Marietta  preparatory  school  and 
college,  and  at  Hanover  college,  Indiana.  He 
moved  Co  Chicago  in  1884,  read  law  and  was 
admitted  to  the  oar  in  1888;  member  of  firm 
Matz,  Fisher,  and  Bovden.  He  was  special 
assessment  attorney  of  Chicago,  1888-89;  secre- 
tary of  municipal  voters'  league,  1901-06,  presi- 
dent, 1906;  special  traction  counsel  of  city  of 
Chicago,  1906-11.  In  1911  he  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  interior  by  President  faft  to 
succeed  Richard  A.  Ballinger. 

FIske,  Harrison  Grey,  editor  and  proprietor  New 
York  Dramatic  Mirror,  was  bom  at  Harrison, 
N.  Y.,  1861.  He  was  educated  in  private  schools 
and  two  years  in  New  York  university ;  married, 
1890,  Minnie  Maddem,  the  well-known  actress. 
Was  editorial  writer  and  dramatic  critic,  Jersey 
City  Argus,  and  later  on  New  York  Star;  became 
contributor  to  New  York  Dramatic  Mirror,  1879, 
and  soon  after  became  a  stockholder  and  editor 
of  the  paper.      He  obtained  a  controlling  interest, 

1883,  and  became  sole  proprietor,  1888.  He  is 
manager  of  Mrs.  P'iske,  the  Manhattan  company, 
and  other  dramatic  organizations. 

Fiske,  John,  whose  original  name  was  Edmund 
Fiske  Green,  was  bom  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  1842. 
He  was  graduated  from  Harvard  in  1863,  and 
from  Harvard  law  school  in  1865.  From  1869 
to  1871  he  was  lecturer  on  philosophy  at  Harvard, 
and  assistant  librarian,  1872-79.  He  wrote  much 
on  evolution  —  his  Cosmic  Philosophy  is  an 
expansion  of  Herbert  Spencer,  and  in  Man's 
Destiny  he  defended  spiritual  religion.  His 
Discovery  of  America  was  but  one  of  a  long  series 
of  important  works  on  American  history.  His 
chief  works  are:  Myths  and  Mythmakers;  Out- 
lines of  Cosmic  Philosophy;  The  Unseen  World; 
Darwinism,  and  other  Essays;  Excursions  of  an 
Evolutionist;  The  Destiny  of  Man;  The  Idea  of 
God;  American  Political  Idea^,  and  The  Critical 
Period  of  American  History.     Died,  1901. 

Fiske,  Minnie  Maddem,  American  actress,  was  bom 
in  New  Orleans,  La.,  1865,  daughter  of  Thomas 
W.  and  Elizabeth  (Maddem)  Davey.  She 
appeared  in  child's  part  when  three  years  old; 
at  twelve  was  alternately  playing  leading  r61es  j 
and  old  women  parts,  and  at  fifteen  became  a 
star,  under  the  name  of  Minnie  Maddem.     Re-  i 


tired  about  1890  for  five  years;  married,  1890, 
Harrison  Grey  Fiske,  journalist  and  playwright, 
in  whose  Hester  Crewe  she  returned  to  the  stage; 
since  then  she  has  starred  in  various  plays. 

Fitch,  John,  American  inventor,  was  bom  in  Con- 
necticut, 1743.  He  was  gunsmith  to  the  Ameri- 
can troops.  In  1785  he  completed  his  model 
steam-boat  with  wheels  at  the  sides;  larger 
vessels  were  built  in  1788-90.  In  1793  he  went 
to  France,  to  find  his  projects  frustrated  by  the 
revolution;  but  it  is  said  that  his  plans  were 
shown  to  liobert  Fulton.  Penniless,  Fitch 
worked  his  passage  back  to  America,  and  there 
poisoned  himself,  1798. 

Fitch,  William  Clyde,  author  and  playwright,  was 
bom  in  New  York  in  1865.  He  was  graduated 
at  Amherst,  1886;  A.  M.,  1902.  Author:  A 
Wave  of  Life;  The  Knighting  of  the  Twins; 
Some  Correspondence,  and  Six  Conversations; 
The  Smart  Set;  Nathan  Hale;  Barbara  Frietchie; 
Captain  Jinks  of  the  Horse  Marines.  Original 
plays:  Beau  Brummdl;  Betty's  Finish;  Frederic 
Liemaitre;  A  Modem  Match;  Pamela's  Prodigy; 
April  Weather;  Hi*  Grace  de  Gratnmont;  Trie 
Career  of  Betty  Singleton,  or  Mistress  Betty;  The 
Moth  and  the  Flame;  The  Cow-boy  and  The  Lady; 
The  Climbers;  Lover's  Lane;  The  Girl  and  tlie 
Judge;  The  Way  of  the  World;  The  Last  of  the 
Dandies;  The  Stubbornness  of  Geraldine;  The 
Girl  with  the  Green  Eyes;  Her  Own  Way;  Major 
Andre;  Glad  of  It;  The  Coronet  of  the  Duchess; 
The  Woman  in  the  Case,  and  Girls.  Adaptations : 
The  Masked  Ball;  Bohemia;  The  Frisky  Mrs. 
Johnaon;  The  Head  of  the  Family;  Granny; 
Couein  Billy;  The  House  of  Mirth,  etc.  Died, 
1909. 

Fltsgerald,  Edward,  English  scholar,  was  bom  at 
Bredficld  house  in  Suffolk,  1809.  He  entered 
Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his 
degree  in  1830.  With  the  exception  of  periodical 
visits  to  London,  he  led  a  quiet  country  life,  his 
chief  amusements  gardening  and  yachting.  He 
published  anonymously  his  dialogue  on  youth, 
Euphranor,  1851,  which  was  followed  by  Poloniua 
in  1852.  A  translation  of  six  of  Calderon's 
dramas  was  soon  withdrawn  from  circulation. 
About  this  time  he  took  up  Persian,  and  in  1856 
published  an  anonymous  version  of  Jdml's 
Saldmdn  and  Absdl.  The  quatrains  of  Omar 
Khavy&m  were  then  little  known,  but  Fite- 
gerald  at  once  recognized  their  beauty,  and  his 
and  Omar's  names  will  remain  indissolubly 
linked  together  through  his  rendering  of  them. 
Died,  1883. 

Fltsgerald,  Lord  Edward,  Irish  revolutionist,  was 
bom  in  1763,  son  of  the  duke  of  Leinster.  After 
a  brief  service  in  the  British  army  during  the 
American  war,  he  entered  the  Irish  house  of 
commons  in  1784,  where  he  joined  the  party  in 
opposition.  In  1791-92  he  visited  France,  frater- 
nized with  the  leading  republicans,  and  married 
the  reputed  daughter  of  the  Due  d'Orleans  and 
Mme.  de  Genlis.  In  1796  he  joined  the  "society 
of  united  Irishmen,"  became  its  agent  in  France, 
and  promoted  the  insurrection  of  1798.  Arrested 
on  a  charge  of  high  treason,  he  died  in  prison, 
1798. 

Fitzgerald,  John  Joseph,  lawyer,  congressman,  was 
bom  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1872.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  Manhattan  college.  New  York ;  studied 
law  at  the  New  York  law  school,  LL.  B. ;  was 
admitted  to  the  bar,  1893,  and  since  in  practice 
at  Brooklyn ;  was  member  of  congress  from  the 
second  New  York  district,  1899-1903,  and 
seventh  district  since  1903.  He  has  been  a 
conspicuous  member  of  the  house,  and  is  known 
as  an  able  and  resourceful  debater.  Director 
of  People's  home  realty  company. 

Fitipatrlck,  Sir  Charles,  Canadian  jurist,  chief- 
justice  of   Canada  and  deputy  of  the  governor- 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


eo8 


feneral  since  1906,  was  born  at  Quebec  in  1853. 
le  was  educated  at  Quebec  seminary;  Laval 
university,  B.  A.  and  LL.  B. ;  admitted  to  the 
bar,  1876;  crown-prosecutor  for  citj'  and  district 
of  Quebec,  1879;  leading  counsel  for  Riel,  1885; 
member  of  provincial  legislature  for  county  of 
Quebec,  1890;  reelected,  1892;  on  formation  of 
De  Boucherville  government,  1891,  refused 
portfolio  of  attorney-general;  resigned  as  pro- 
vincial member  for  Quebec  county,  1896;  and 
was  elected  to  sit  as  member  for  Quebec  county 
in  Dominion  parliament;  solicitor-general,  1896- 
1902;  minister  of  justice,  Dominion  of  Canada, 
1901-06. 

FlaKler,  Henry  M^  capitalist,  was  bom  at  Canan- 
daigua,  N.  Y.,  1830;  became  clerk  in  country 
store;  went  to  Saginaw.  Mich.,  and  became  salt 
manufacturer;  removed  to  Cleveland,  becoming 
partner  in  Rockefeller,  Andrews,  and  Flagler,  ou 
refiners,  who  were  succeeded  by  the  Standard 
oil  company,  with  management  of  which  he 
was  continuously  connected.  Owned  Ponce  de 
Lecn  and  Alcazar  hotels,  Florida,  which  he  built 
at  a  cost  of  $3,000,000;  also  owned  about  600 
miles  of  railroad  in  Florida.  Director  of  Stand- 
ard oil  company  to  1911  when  he  resigned;  was 
chairman  board  of  directors  Florida  East  Coast 
railway  company,  director  Western  Union  tele- 
graph company.  Peninsular  and  Occidental  steam- 
ship company,  Cuba  company,  etc.     Died,  1913. 

Flammarlon  (fld'-md'-re'-di^'),  Camille,  French 
astronomer,  was  born  at  Montigny-le-Roi,  1842. 
He  was  educated  at  Langres,  the  Paris  observa- 
tory, and  at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris;  entered  the 
Paris  observatory  in  1858.  Some  of  his  books 
are:  The  Plurality  of  Inhabited  Worlds;  God  in 
Nature;  Celestial  Marvels;  Studies  and  Lectures 
on  Astronomy;  The  Atmosphere;  The  Lands  of 
the  Heavens;  The  Planet  Mars;  Popular  AstroTi- 
omy;  Lumen,  and  The  Unknown.  He  also  wrote 
a  work  on  ballooning  entitled  Travels  in  the 
Air. 

Flamsteed  (Jldm'-sted),  John,  first  astronomer-royal 
of  England,  was  born  at  Denby  near  Derby, 
1646.  His  success  in  mathematics  and  astronomy 
procured  for  him  the  appointment  of  astronomer 
to  the  king  in  1675.  Next  year  Greenwich 
observatory  was  built,  and  Flamsteed  began  the 
observations  that  mark  the  rise  of  modern 
practical  astronomy.  He  formed  the  first  trust- 
worthy catalogue  of  the  fixed  stars,  and  furnished 
those  observations  by  which  Newton  verified  his 
lunar  theory.  His  great  work  is  Historia 
Caslestis  Britannica,  an  account  of  astronomical 
observation.  He  took  holy  orders,  and  from 
1684  until  his  death  in  1719  held  the  Surrey 
living  of  Burstow. 

Flanagan,  John,  American  sculptor,  was  bom  at 
Newark,  N.  J.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Augustus  Saint 
Gaudens,  New  York,  and  of  Henry  Chapu  and 

\^Alexandre  Falgui^re,  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts, 
Paris.  Executed  monumental  clock,  library  of 
congress,  Washington;  statue  of  Joseph  Henry 
and  decorative  groups  for  St.  Louis  exposition; 
tinted  marble  relief  "Aphrodite"  in  Knicker- 
bocker hotel.  New  york;  commemorative  medal 
to  Dr.  Daniel  Garrison  Brinton,  Philadelphia; 
/three  reliefs  for  interior  of  Scroll  and  Key  society, 
/Yale  college;  high  relief  in  bronze  for  free  public 
I  library,  Newark,  N.  J. ;  pediment  and  two  seated 
figures  in  marble  for  Shelby  county  c«urt  house, 
1  Memphis,  Tenn.,  etc. 

I9andrin  {JlaN'-drdN'),  Jean  Hippolyte,  French 
\painter,  was  bom  at  Lyons,  1809.  In  1832  he 
vwon  the  prix  de  Rome,  and  during  his  five  years' 
residence  in  Italy  produced  "St.  Clare  healing 
the  Blind,"  now  in  Nantes  cathedral.  In  1842 
he  began  his  great  frescoes  in  the  church  of  St. 
Ge^nain-des-Pr^s,  Paris.  After  this  he  was 
jooiiinly  engaged  in  frescoe  painting,  although  he 


executed  many  fine  portraits.     He  died  at  Rome, 

18G4. 

Flaubert  (fld'-bAr'),  Guatave,  French  novelist,  was 
born  at  Rouen,  1821.  After  long  hesiUtion 
between  medicine  and  literature  he  chose  litera- 
ture, beginning  with  iKM>try,  which  he  soon  gave 
up  for  prose.  Flaubert's  life  was  extremely 
uneventful;  in  his  youth  some  obscure  form  of 
brain-disease  to  some  extent  arrested  his  intel- 
lectual development.  He  was  a  very  late  pro- 
■  ducer,  and  his  works,  when  they  tiid  anpear, 
were  marked  by  a  strong  and  morbid  idiosyn- 
crasy. His  works  include  Madame  Bovary; 
Salammbd;  L'Education  SentimetUaU;  La  TentO' 
tion  de  St.  Antoine;  Le  Candidal;  Troia  ConU*, 
and  Bouvard  et  Picuchet.     Died,  1880. 

Flaxman,  John,  greatest  o£  English  sculptors,  was 
born  at  York,  1755.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  be 
became  a  student  in  the  royal  academy,  but 
never  worked  in  the  studio  of  any  master.  He 
was  elected  an  associate  of  the  royal  academy 
in  1797,  royal  academician  in  1800,  and  in  1810 
was  appointed  professor  of  sculptor  to  that 
institution.  Of  his  sculptures,  the  best  known 
in  England  are  his  monument  to  the  poet  Collins 
at  Chichester,  the  monument  to  Lord  Mansfield, 
and  that  to  the  Baring  family  at  Micheldean 
church,  Hampshire.  His  model  for  the  shield 
of  Achilles,  taken  from  the  eighteenth  book  of 
the  Iliad,  is  one  of  the  finest  achievements  of 
modem  art.  He  produced  two  series  of  outline 
illustrations  of  Homer  and  ./Eschylus,  a  series  of 
illustrations  of  Dante,  and  also  one  of  scriptural 
compositions.     Died,  1826. 

Fleming,  Sir  Sandford,  chancellor  of  Queen's  uni- 
versity, Canada,  since  1880,  was  bom  in  Scot- 
land in  1827.  He  has  lived  in  Canada  since 
1845;  extensive  practice  as  chief  engineer  of 
railway  and  other  public  works;  constructed 
the  Inter-Colonial  railway  through  provinces  of 
Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  and  Quebec; 
engineer-in-chief  of  Canadian  Pacific  railway, 
1871-80;  president  of  royal  society  of  Canada. 
1888-89;  has  for  many  years  taken  a  special 
interest  in  the  movement  for  establishing  the 
Pacific  cable  and  a  pan-Britannic  telegraph 
service,  having  state-owned  tel^raph  conunu- 
nications  encircling  globe,  and  constituting  a 
great  imperial  intelligence  union,  in  the  unifica- 
tion of  time  reckoning  throughout  the  world. 
Author:  The  Inter-Colonial:  a  History,  1832-76; 
England  and  Canada;  Old  to  New  WestminaUr; 
Time  and  Its  Notation;  Memoirs  on  Univeraal 
Time  and  a  Prime  Meridian  for  All  Nations; 
The  New  Time  Reckoning. 

Fletcher,  Andrew,  Scotch  patriot  and  publicist, 
was  bom  in  Saltoun,  East  Lothian,  1655.  After 
some  years  of  travel  he  sat  in  the  Scottish  par- 
liament in  1681,  arid  offered  so  determined  an 
opposition  to  the  measures  of  the  duke  of  York 
that  he  had  to  flee  to  England,  and  thence  to 
Holland.  Here  he  formed  fast  friendship  with 
the  refugee  English  patriots,  and  on  his  return 
to  England  in  1683  shared  the  counsels  of  Russell, 
Sidney,  and  others.  After  the  Rye-house  plot, 
Fletcher  fled  to  Holland,  returned  as  a  volunteer 
with  Monmouth,  but  having  shot  the  mayor  of 
Lyme  in  a  quarrel,  fled  to  Spain,  was  imprisoned, 
but  delivered.  He  fought  in  Hungary  against 
the  Turks,  and  returned  to  Scotland  at  the 
revolution.  His  orations  in  the  Scottish  par- 
liament still  glow  with  eloquence,  and  carry  the 
stamp  of  genuine  sincerity.  After  the  union  of 
Scotland  with  England,  he  retired  in  disgust 
from  public  life,  devoting  himself  to  promoting 
agriculture.     He  died  at  London  in  1716. 

Fletcher,  Duncan  Cpshaw,  lawyer.  United  States 
senator,  was  bom  in  Sumter  county,  Ga.,  1859. 
He  was  graduated  from  Vanderbilt  university. 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  1880;    studied  law  there,  and 


694 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


has  practiced  law  in  Jacksonville  since  1881,  in 
state  and  federal  courts,  including  the  United 
States  supreme  court.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Florida  legislature  in  1893;  mayor  of  Jack- 
sonville, 1893-95,  and  1901-03;  chairman  of 
board  of  public  instruction,  Duval  county,  1900- 
06;  chairman  of  democratic  state  executive 
committee,  1905-08,  and  was  elected  United 
States  senator  for  the  term  1909-15. 

Fletcher,  Horace,  author,  lecturer,  was  bom  at 
Lawrence,  Mass.,  1849.  He  was  educated  at 
Dartmouth  college;  has  traveled  to  all  parts 
of  the  world  since  1865,  and  engaged  in  numerous 
occupations.  Since  1895  he  has  devoted  his 
attention  to  sociology,  and  especially  to  scientific 
research  in  human  nutrition,  in  chemical-physio- 
logical laboratories  of  university  of  Cambridge, 
England,  and  Yale  university.  Author:  A  B  C 
of  Snap  Shooting;  Menticidture;  Happiness; 
That  Last  Waif,  or  Social  Quarantine;  What 
Sense?  or  Economic  Nutrition;  Nature's  Food 
Filter,  or  What  and  When  to  Swallow;  Glutton  or 
Epicure;   A  B-Z  Our  Own  Nutrition. 

Fletcher,  John,  English  dramatist,  whose  name  is 
inseparably  associated  with  that  of  his  friend 
and  co-worker.  Francis  Beaumont,  was  bom  in 
Northamptonshire,  in  1579.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge  with  Beaumont,  and  it  was  there 
the  intimacy  began  that  led  to  their  future 
collaborations.  It  is  said  that  Beaumont  sup- 
plied the  judgment  and  Fletcher  the  fancy. 
The  chief  piece  of  his  own  unaided  composition 
is  a  dramatic  pastoral  entitled  The  Faithful 
Shepherdess.  The  collaborated  plays,  such  as 
The  Scornful  Lady,  and  Hule  a  Wife  and  Have  a 
Wife,  were  during  two  centuries  the  delight  of 
the  stage.     Died,  1625. 

Fleury  {flU'^i'),  Andr£  Hercule  de.  Cardinal, 
French  statesman  and  prelate,  was  bom  at 
Lodfeve,  1653.  He  became  almoner  to  Louis 
XIV.,  in  1698  bishop  of  Fr^jus,  and  preceptor 
to  Louis  XV.,  who  in  1726  made  him  prime 
minister.  In  the  same  year  he  received  the 
cardinal's  hat.  He  was  honest  and  well-meaning, 
but  his  statesmanship  is  often  criticised.  In 
foreign  affairs  he  earnestly  desired  peace,  but 
was  dragged  by  court  intrigues  into  the  war 
of  the  Austrian  succession.     Died,  1743. 

Fleury,  Claude,  French  historian  and  ecclesiastic, 
was  born  at  Paris,  1640;  was  tutor  to  various 
princes,  prior  of  Argenteuil,  and  confessor  to 
young  Louis  XV.  Among  his  numerous  works 
were:  Maeurs  des  IsraUites;  Maeurs  des  Chritiens; 
Droit  Ecclisiastique;  and  the  great  Histoire 
Ecdisiastique  —  really  the  first  complete  church 
history,  on  which  he  labored  thirty  years. 
Fleury's  avra  work  only  reached  to  1414;  it  was 
continued  to  1778  by  others.     Died,  1723. 

Flexner,  Simon,  American  physician,  was  bom  at 
Louisville,  Ky.,  1863.  He  graduated  at  the 
university  of  Louisville,  M.  D.,  1889;  post- 
graduate student  of  Johns  Hopkins,  universities 
of  Strassburg  and  Berlin;  D.  Sc,  Harvard,  1906; 
was  associate  professor  and  professor  of  patho- 
logical anatomy,  Johns  Hopkins,  1891-99;  pro- 
fessor of  pathology,  university  of  Pennsylvania, 
1899-1904;  director  of  Ayer  clinical  laboratory, 
Pennsylvania  hospital,  1901 ;  pathologist.  Uni- 
versity hospital  and  Philadelphia  hospital, 
1900,  and  director  of  laboratories  of  Rockefeller 
institute  for  medical  research.  New  York,  since 
1903.  He  is  the  author  of  various  monographs 
and  papers  relating  to  pathology  and  bacteriology, 
snake  venom,  bubonic  plague,  cerebro-spinal 
meningitis,  bacillary  dysentery,  infantile  par- 
alysis, and  other  infectious  diseases,  etc. 

Flint,  Austin,  American  physician  and  medical 
writer,  was  bom  at  Petersham,  Mass.,  1812. 
After  graduation  from  the  medical  department 
of  Harvard,  he  settled  to  practice  in  his  native 


state.  In  1836  he  moved  to  Buffalo,  N.  Y., 
where,  in  1847,  he  assisted  in  founding  the 
medical  department  of  the  university  of  Buffalo, 
filling  the  chair  of  principles  and  practice  of 
medicine.  In  1859  he  moved  to  New  York.  He 
was  president  of  the  New  York  academy  of 
medicine,  1872—85.  He  is  the  author  of  a  treatise 
on  the  diseases  of  the  heart,  Principles  and 
Practice  of  Medicine,  and  Manual  of  Ausculia- 
tioii  and  Percussion.     Died,  at  New   York,    1886. 

Flint,  Austin,  American  phvsician  and  physiolo- 
gist, son  of  preceding,  was  born  in  Northampton, 
Mass.,  1836.  He  removed  to  Buffalo  in  infancy; 
was  educated  at  private  schools,  Buffalo,  and  at 
Harvard  college;  studied  medicine  in  office  and 
at  medical  department,  university  of  Louisville, 
1854-56;  graduate  of  Jefferson  medical  college, 
1857;  LL.  D.,  1885;  nracticeti  in  Buffalo, 
1857-59;  editor  of  Buffalo  Medical  Journal, 
1857-60;  professor  of  physiology,  medical  depart- 
ment, university  of  Buffalo,  1858-59,  visiting 
surgeon,  Buffalo  general  hospital,  1858.  Re- 
moved to  New  York,  1859;  professor  of  physi- 
ology, New  York  medical  college,  1859-60,  New 
Orleans  school  of  medicine,  1860-61 ;  acting- 
assistant  surgeon,  United  States  army  at  general 
hospital.  New  York,  1862-65.  One  of  founders 
and  professor  of  physiology,  1861-98,  Bellevue 
hospital  medical  college;  professor  of  physi- 
ology. Long  Island  college  hospital,  1862^68; 
Cornell  university  medical  college  since  1898. 
Author:  Physiology  of  M an,  five  vols. ;  Chemical 
Examination  of  the  Urine  in  Disease ;  Physiologi- 
cal Effects  of  Severe  and  Prolonged  Muscular 
Strain;  Text-Book  of  Human  Physiology;  Source 
of  Muscular  Power;  Handbook  of  Phynology,  etc. 
Also  many  articles  on  medical  and  physiological 
subjects  in  medical  periodicals  and  transactions. 

Flint,  Cbaiies  Ranlett,  merchant,  banker,  was  bom 
at  Thomaston,  Me.,  1850.  He  was  euucated  at 
the  polytechnic  institute,  Brooklyn.  Organized 
firm  of  Gilchrist,  Flint  and  Company,  ship 
chandlers,  1871;  firm  of  W.  R.  Grace  and  Com- 
pany, 1872;  Chilean  consul.  New  York,  1877-79; 
consul  of  Nicaragua  at  New  York,  1880;  presi- 
dent of  United  States  electric  lighting  company, 
1885;  joined  firm  Flint  and  Company,  1885; 
consul-general  of  Costa  Rica  at  New  York, 
1889-90;  United  States  delegate  international 
conference  American  republics,  1889-90;  fitted  out 
fleet  of  war  vessels  for  Brazilian  republic,  1895: 
purchased  cruiser  Esmeralda  from  Chile  and 
delivered  to  Japan  during  Chinese-Japanese  war, 
1896;  established  Pacific  Coast  clipper  line 
between  New  York  and  San  Francisco,  1896. 
Confidential  agent  of  United  States  in  negotiating 
for  war  vessels  preparatory  to  the  war  with 
Spain ;  has  devoted  much  time  to  the  consolida- 
tion of  industrial  concerns,  which  has  caused  him 
to  be  known  as  the  "father  of  trusts." 

Flint,  Frank  Putnam,  lawyer,  ex-United  States 
senator,  was  bom  in  North  Reading,  Mass.,  1862. 
In  1869  his  parents  moved  to  San  Francisco, 
where  he  was  educated  in  the  public  schools.  In 
1888  he  moved  to  Los  Angeles,  was  admitted  to 
practice  law  and  appointed  assistant  United 
States  attorney  in  1892.  In  1897  was  appointed 
United  States  district  attorney  for  the  southern 
district  of  California,  1897-1901,  and  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  senate  in  1905,  to  succeed 
Hon.  Thtomas  R.  Bard. 

Flint,  Robert,  British  educator  and  philosophical 
writer,  was  bom  in  Dumfriesshire,  Scotland,  1838. 
He  was  educated  at  Glasgow  university,  and 
became  parish  minister.  East  church,  Aberdeen, 
1859-62,  Kilconquhar,  1862-64;  professor  of 
moral  philosophy  and  political  economy,  St. 
Andrews  university,  1864-76;  Baird  lecturer, 
1876-77;  Stone  lecturer,  Princeton  university, 
1880;      Croall     lecturer,     Edinburgh,     1887-88; 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


606 


professor  of  divinity,  Edinburgh  university, 
1876-1903 ;  was  correspondent  of  the  institute  of' 
France.  Author:  Christ's  Kingdom  on  Earth; 
Philosophy  of  History  in  Europe;  Theism;  Anti- 
Theistic  Theories;  Historical  Philosophy  in 
France;  Socialism;  Sermons  and  Addresses; 
Agnosticism;  and  a  volume  on  theological, 
biblical,  and  other  subjects.  He  was  also  a  con- 
tributor to  a  number  of  encyclopedias  and 
various  periodicals.     Died,  1910. 

Flotow  (flo'-to),  Friedrlcli,  Frclhcrr  von,  German 
composer,  was  born  at  Teutondorf  in  Mecklen- 
burg, 1812.  He  studied  music  under  Reicha,  in 
Pans,  and  made  his  reputation  by  Le  Naufrage 
de  la  Mlduse,  Stradella,  and  Mart/ia,  the  last  two 
characterized  by  pleasing  melody.  His  later 
operas  were /ruira,  La  Veuve  Grapin,  and  L'Ojntrc. 
From  1856  to  1863  he  was  director  of  the  theater  at 
Schwerin.   He  died  at  Darmstadt,  Germany,  1883. 

Flourens  (JlSd'-r&iis'),  Marie  Jean  Pierre,  French 
physiologist,  was  born  at  Maureilhan,  France, 
1794.  He  attracted  attention  by  works  on  the 
nervous  system,  and,  after  lecturing  for  Cuvier, 
1828-30,  became  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
academy  of  sciences,  1833,  professor  at  the 
College  de  France,  1835,  and  member  of  the 
academy,  1840.  He  was  elected  to  the  chamber 
of  deputies  in  1838,  and  made  a  peer  of  France 
in  1846.  He  wrote  on  the  development  and 
nutrition  of  the  bones,  the  skin,  and  mucous 
membranes,  the  longevity  of  man,  and  animal 
instinct,  besides  a  series  of  Elogea  Historiques. 
Died,  1867. 

Flower,  Sir  William  Henry,  English  zoologist,  was 
born  at  Stratford-on-Avon,  1831.  He  served  as 
assistant  surgeon  in  the  Crimean  war,  and 
became  demonstrator  of  anatomy  at  the  Mid- 
dlesex hospital.  He  was  appointed  in  1861 
conservator  of  the  Hunterian  museum,  in  1869 
Hunterian  professor  of  comparative  anatomy 
and  physiology,  and  in  1884-98  was  natural 
history  director  at  the  British  museum.  He 
wrote  on  anatomy,  zoology,  anthropology,  the 
osteology  of  mammalia,  etc.  In  1892  he  was 
created  a  K.  C.  B.     Died  at  London,  1899. 

Foley  (Jd'4l),  John  Henry,  Irish  sculptor,  was  bom 
in  Dublin,  1818.  He  was  elected  in  1849  an 
associate,  and  in  1858  a  member  of  the  royal 
academy.  His  works  are  very  numerous. 
Among  them  are  the  statues  of  Hampden  and 
Selden  in  the  houses  of  parliament  at  Westmins- 
ter, and  that  of  Prince  Albert,  which  forms  a  part 
of  the  Albert  memorial  in  Hvde  Park,  London. 
Statues  of  Burke,  J.  S.  Mill,  Goldsmith,  and 
others  brought  him  further  fame.  His  vigor  and 
genius  were  further  revealed  in  the  noble  eques- 
trian statues  of  Hardinge  and  Outram.  He 
designed  the  seal  of  the  Confederate  States  of 
America,  and  executed  a  statue  of  Stonewall 
Jackson  for  the  state  of  South  Carolina.  Died, 
1874. 

Folk,  Joseph  Wlngate,  lawj'er,  former  governor  of 
Missouri,  was  bom  in  Brownsville,  Tenn.,  1869. 
He  was  graduated  at  Vanderbilt  university, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1890.  He  was 
circuit  attorney,  -St.  Louis,  1900-04,  and  prose- 
cuted mmaerous  bribery  cases.  From  1905  to 
1909  he  was  governor  of  Missouri. 

Fontana  (fon-ta' -na),  Domenico,  celebrated  Italian 
architect,  was  born  on  the  borders  of  Lake  Como 
in  1543.  He  obtained  the  favorable  notice  of 
Cardinal  Montalto,  who  engaged  him  to  plan  the 
dome  and  lantern  on  St.  Peter's  according  to 
Michaelangelo's  design,  and  to  erect  the  Capella 
del  Principlo  in  Santa  Maria  del  Maggiore  and 
also  the  Villa  Negroni.  He  erected  the  obeHsk 
near  St.  Peter's,  Rome,  in  1586,  and  built  the 
Lateran  palace  and  Vatican  Ubrary.  Other 
important  works  were  also  confided  to  him  by 
the  pope.     He  died  in  1607. 


FonteneUe    (/dsf-nil'),     Beraard    le    Bovfer  da, 

eminent  French  writer,  was  bom  at  Rouen,  1657. 
He  was  a  nephew  of  Corneille,  the  great  tragic 
poet,  and  in  1699  was  appointed  perpetual 
secretary  of  the  academy  of  sciences.  Uia 
reputation  rests  chieflv  upon  Dialogues  of  th$ 
Dead,  Discourse  on  the  Plurality  of  Worldt,  and  an 
Essay  on  the  Geometry  of  the  Infinite.  Hl»  long 
life,  extending  over  nearly  one  hundred  yeari, 
was  filled  with  literary  activities,  and,  aa  a  man 
of  the  world,  liis  brilliant,  though  somewhat 
cynical  wit,  gave  him  a  great  reputation  among 
his  contemporaries.     Died,  1757. 

Foote,  Andrew  Hull,  American  naval  officer,  waa 
bom  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1806.  Entering  the 
United  States  navy  in  1822,  he  became  a  com- 
mander in  1852,  saw  service  in  China  in  1856, 
and,  after  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war,  actea 
with  signal  credit  in  the  reduction  of  Forts  Henry 
and  Donaldson,  1862.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
promoted  to  rear-admiral.     Died,  1863. 

Foote,  Mary  Hallock,  author,  artist,  was  bom  In 
Milton,  N.  Y.,  1847.  She  married  Arthur  D. 
Foote,  a  civil  engineer,  and  lived  some  years  in 
Colorado,  Idaho,  and  California.  Studied  art 
in  New  York;  has  done  much  work  in  black  and 
white  for  magazines  and  book  illustration. 
Author:  The  Led  Horse  Claim;  John  Bodewin'a 
Testimony;  The  Last  Assembly  Ball;  The  Chosen 
Valley;  In  Exile,  and  Other  Stories;  Cceur 
d'Alene;  The  Cup  of  Trembling,  and  Other 
Stones;  The  Little  Fia  Tree  Stories;  The  Prodi- 
gal; The  Desert  and  the  Sown;  A  Touch  of  Sun, 
and  Other  Stories. 

Foraker  (fdr'-d-ker),  Joseph  Benson,  lawyer, 
iurist.  United  States  senator,  1897-1909,  was 
bom  in  1846,  on  farm  near  Rainsboro,  Plighland 
county,  Ohio.  Enlisted  July  14.  1862,  m  the 
89th  Ohio  volimteer  infantry,  ana  served  to  end 
of  war,  becoming  first  lieutenant  and  brevet 
captain;  graduated  at  Cornell,  1869;  admitted 
to  bar  and  began  practice  at  Cincinnati,  1869; 
judge  of  superior  court,  Cincinnati,  1879-82; 
resigned  on  account  of  ill-health;  republican 
candidate  for  governor  of  Ohio,  1883;  defeated, 
but  elected  governor  in  1885  and  1887;  again 
defeated,  1889,  for  same  office;  chairman  of 
republican  conventions,  Ohio,  1886,  1890,  1896, 
1900;  delegate-at-large  from  Ohio  republican 
national  conventions,  1884-1904;  m  con- 
ventions of  1892  and  1896,  served  as  chairman  of 
conamittee  on  resolutions,  and  as  such  reported 
the  platform  each  time  to  the  convention; 
presented  name  of  William  McKinley  to  the 
conventions  of  1896  and  1900  for  nomination  to 
the  presidency.  He  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  senate  in  1896,  reelected  in  1902,  and 
served  as  one  of  the  conspicuous  members  of 
that  body  until  1909. 

Forbes,  Archibald,  British  war  correspondent, 
special  correspondent  of  the  London  Dauy  News, 
was  bom  at  Boharm  Manse,  Keith,  Scotland. 
1838.  He  was  for  some  years  in  the  royal 
dragoons,  but  in  1870-71  went  through  the 
Franco-German  war  as  war-correspondent;  and 
thenceforward,  whether  in  Spain  with  the  Carlista, 
in  Cvprus,  in  the  Russo-Turkish  campaign,  or  in 
the  ^ulu  war  of  1879,  he  accustomed  the  British 
public  to  expect  feats  of  unexampled  audacity, 
swiftness,  tact,  and  pluck  in  securing  and  trans- 
mitting his  vivid  notes  of  events  at  the  front. 
He  lectured  in  Great  Britain,  America,  and 
Australia,  and  wrote  Drawn  from  Life;  Ghmpsea 
Through  the  Cannon  Smoke;  Chinese  Gordon; 
Studies  of  War  and  Peace;  Napoleon  III.,  etc. 
Died,  1900. 

Forbes-Robertson,  Johnston,  English  actor,  was 
bom  in  London  in  1853.  He  was  educated  at 
Charterhouse,  London,  at  Rouen,  and  at  the 
royal  academy  of  arts.     Actor  from  the  age  of 


696 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


twenty-one;  eventually  the  leading  actor  at 
Bancroft's  and  Hare's  theaters,  in  London.  He 
has  been  theatrical  manager  since  1896.  His 
first  success  was  the  part  of  Sir  Horace  Welby  in 
Forgel-me-^not.  He  subsequently  played  Romeo, 
Hamlet,  and  Macbeth  in  a  most  impressive  man- 
ner. He  was  the  chief  support  of  Mrs.  Patrick 
Campbell  in  her  tour  of  the  United  States. 
Appeared  in  Passing  of  the  Third  Floor  Back  in 
London  and  America,  1908-11. 

Ford,  John,  EnglLsh  dramatist,  was  bom  at  Ilsing- 
ton,  Devonshire,  1586 ;  studied  at  Exeter  col'ege, 
Oxford,  and  entered  the  Middle  Temple  in  1602. 
His  first  work  was  an  elegy  on  the  earl  of  Devon- 
shire, entitled  Fame's  Memorial.  Among  those 
following  were:  Honour  Triumphant;  An  III  Be- 
ginning Has  a  Good  End;  The  Lover's  Melancholy; 
The  Broken  Heart;  Love's  Sacrifice;  The  Chronide 
History  of  Perkin  Warbeck;  The  Fancies  Chaste 
and  Noble,  and  The  Lady's  Trial.  His  two  great 
tragedies,  'Tis  Pity  and  The  Broken  Heart,  are 
not  far  inferior  to  Webster's  masterpieces.  Died, 
1039. 

Ford,  Paul  Leicester,  American  author,  was  bom 
in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1865.  He  was  educated 
privately,  owing  to  physical  deformity,  and  early 
devoted  himself  to  literature.  Author:  The 
Honorable  Peter  Stirling;  The  True  George  Wash- 
ington; The  Many  Sided  Franklin;  Janice 
Meredith;  Wanted:  A  Chaperon,  etc.  Died  at 
New  York,  1902. 

Fordney,  Joseph  Warren,  lawyer,  congressman, 
was  born  in  Blackford  county,  Ind.,  1853; 
received  a  common  school  education,  living  with 
his  parents  on  a  farm  until  sixteen  vears  of  age; 
removed  to  Saginaw,  Mich.,  1869;  began  life  in 
the  lumber  woods,  logging  and  estimating  pine 
timber,  thus  acquiring  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  pine  land  and  lumber  industry,  which  has 
occupied  his  attention  since-  was  vice-president 
of  the  Saginaw  board  of  trade ;  elected  alderman 
in  1895  and  reelected  in  1897;  has  served  as 
member  of  congress  conthiuously  since  1899. 

Forgan,  James  Berwick,  financier,  president  of 
First  national  bank,  Chicago,  was  bom  at  St. 
Andrews,  Scotland,  1852.  lie  was  educated  at 
Madras  college  and  Forres  academy,  Scotland. 
His  first  employment  was  with  the  royal  bank 
of  Scotland  for  about  three  years;  later  with 
bank  of  British  North  America,  with  assignments 
to  Montreal,  New  York,  and  Halifax;  was  later 
paying  teller,  afterward  inspector  of  agencies. 
Dank  of  Nova  Scotia;  established  agency  in 
Minneapolis,  of  which  he  was  manager  for  three 
years.  About  1888  he  became  cashier  and 
manager  of  the  Northwestern  national  bank; 
came  to  First  national  bank,  Chicago,  as  vice- 
president,  1892.  He  succeeded  Lyman  J.  Gage 
as  president  of  the  latter. 

Forrest,  Edwin,  celebrated  American  actor,  was 
born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1806.  He  went  on  the 
stage  at  fourteen,  and  finally  made  his  way  to 
New  York,  where  his  rendering  of  Othello  at  the 
age  of  twenty  raised  him  to  the  front  rank 
among  actors.  He  made  three  tours  in  England, 
but  during  his  last  in  1845  he  entirely  lost  the 
popular  favor  through  his  conduct  in  an  embit- 
tered quarrel  with  Macready.  After  his  final 
appearance  on  the  stage  in  1871  he  continued  for 
a  short  time  to  give  Shakespearian  readings.  In 
the  parts  of  Richard  III.,  Macbeth,  and  Othello, 
his  acting  was  of  the  highest  order,  and  in  his 
profession  he  ama-ssed  a  large  fortune.  He  built 
a  stone  castle  on  the  Hudson,  now  a  Catholic 
convent,  and  established  an  asylum  for  aged 
and  indigent  actors.  He  left  a  splendid  library 
exceedingly  rich  in  Shakespearean  literature, 
which  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1873.     Died,  1872. 

Forster,  John,  English  political  and  historical 
writer,  was  bom  at  Newcastle,   1812.     He  was 


educated  for  the  bar,  but  in  1832  became  the 
dramatic  critic  of  the  True  Sun.  His  political 
articles  in  the  London  Examiner  attracted  atten- 
tion; and  he  edited  successively  the  Foreign 
Quarterly  Review,  the  Daily  News,  and,  1847-56, 
the  Examiner.  He  was  the  author  of  many 
admirable  biographical  and  historical  essavs: 
Lives  of  the  Stalesmcn  of  tfic  Commonwealth; 
Debates  on  the  Grand  Remonstrance;  Arrest  of  the 
Five  Members,  and  Sir  John  Eliot,  a  Biography. 
His  literary  memoirs  are  Life  and  Times  of 
Goldsmith;  Landor;  Life  of  Dickens,  and  a  Life 
of  Swift.  He  was  appointed  secretary  to  the 
commissioners  in  lunacy  in  1855,  and  commis- 
sioner in  1861.     He  died  in  1876. 

ForKter,  William  Edward,  English  statesman,  waa 
born  of  Quaker  parentage  at  Brad  pole,  Dorset- 
shire, 1818.  He  abandoned  the  bar  for  a  post 
in  a  worsted  manufactory  at  Burley-in-Wharfe- 
dale  near  Bradford.  In  1861  he  entered  parlia- 
ment for  Bradford.  Under-secretary  for  the 
colonies,  1865-66,  he  became  in  1868  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  council  on  education  and  a  privy- 
councillor.  In  1870  he  accepted  a  seat  m  the 
cabinet,  and  carried  the  elementarv  education 
bill;  in  1872  he  piloted  the  ballot  bill  through 
the  commons.  In  1874  he  visited  the  United 
States.  On  Gladstone's  retirement  from  the 
liberal  leadership  in  1875,  Forster  and  Lord 
Hartington  were  named  for  the  post,  but  Forster 
decUned  it,  on  the  ground  that  he  could  not  hope 
to  unite  the  various  sections  of  the  party.  That 
year  he  was  elected  lord  rector  of  Aberdeen 
university.  Under  the  Gladstone  administration 
of  1880  I'^'orster  was  chief -secretary  for  Ireland  in 
troublous  times.  He  was  attacked  unceasingly 
in  parliament  by  the  Irish  members,  and  his  life 
was  threatened  by  the  "invincibles."  A  land 
act  was  passed  m  1881,  but  a  coercion  act 
seemed  necessary;  and  when  the  land  league 
issued  its  "no  rent"  manifesto,  Forster  pro- 
claimed the  league  illegal.  Pamell  and  several 
of  his  party  were  arrested.  When,  in  April, 
1882,  a  majority  of  the  cabinet  determinea  to 
release  the  suspects,  Forster  and  Lord  Cowper 
(the  lord-lieutenant)  resigned.  A  strong  oppo- 
nent of  home  rule,  he  died  in  London,  1886. 

Forsyth  (fOr-sith'),  John,  American  statesman,  was 
bom  in  Virginia,  1780.  He  practiced  law  in 
Georgia,  was  elected  attorney-general  of  that 
state  in  1808,  and  sat  in  congress  from  1813  to 
1818,  when  he  became  United  States  senator. 
In  1819  he  resigned  to  become  minister  to  Spain, 
and  negotiated  the  Florida  cession  with  that 
country.  From  1823  to  1827  he  was  again  in 
congress,  then  governor  of  Georgia  one  term, 
and  in  1829  was  again  elected  senator.  In  1834 
he  resigned  and  served  as  secretary  of  state 
iinder  Jackson  and  his  successor,  van  Buren, 
imtil  1841.     He  died  in  1841. 

Fortescue  (J6r'-Vts-ku),  Sir  John,  English  jurist, 
was  born  in  Somerset  about  1394,  and  educated 
at  Exeter  college,  Oxford.  Admitted  to  the  bar, 
he  was  in  1441  made  sergeant-at-law,  and  in 
1442  lord  chief-justice  of  the  king's  bench. 
Adhering  to  the  house  of  Lancaster,  he  was 
accused  of  treason  under  Edward  IV.  He 
accompanied  Margaret  of  Anjou  and  her  son  into 
Scotland,  and  there  was  probably  appointed 
lord  chancellor  by  Henry  VI.  In  1463  he 
embarked  with  them  for  Holland,  and  during 
his  exile  wrote  his  celebrated  De  Laudibus  Legum 
AnglicB  for  the  instruction  of  Prince  Edward. 
On  the  final  defeat  of  the  Lancastrians  at  Tewkes- 
burj',  1471,  Fortescue  submitted  to  Edward  IV. 
The  De  Laudibus  was  not  printed  until  1537; 
another  valuable  work  is  Tfie  Governance  of 
England.     Died,  1476. 

Fortuny  (/or-WB'-w*),  Mariano,  Spanish  painter, 
was  bom  at  Reus  in  Tarragona,   1839.     When 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


007 


Spain  declared  war  asainst  Morocco,  Fortunv 
followed  the  arm}',  and  filled  liis  portfolios  with 
studies  of  eastern  life.  His  celebrated  pictures 
are  "The  Spanish  Marriage,"  "Book-lover  in  the 
Library  of  Richelieu,"  and  "Academicians 
Choosing  a  Model."  He  died  at  Home  in 
1874. 
Foscarl  {fds'-k&-re),  Francesco,  was  born  about 
1372.  He  was  named  procurator  to  St.  Mark's 
at  Venice  in  1415,  and  became  doge  of  that  city 
in  1423.  His  armies  defeated  the  Turks.  His 
son  James  was  accused  by  his  enemies  of  having 
assassinated  Ermolao  Donati,  a  senator,  and  he 
was  in  consequence  sent  into  exile,  where  he 
died.  This  event  caused  such  affliction  to  the 
doge  that  it  drove  him  mad,  and  he  was  forced 
to  abdicate  in  1457.  He  survived  his  loss  of 
power  but  two  days. 
Foss,  Eugene  Noble,  manufacturer,  governor,  was 
bom  in  West  Berkshire,  Vt.,  1858;  studied  at 
university  of  Vermont;  entered  manufactory  at 
Boston,  1882;  treasurer  and  general  manager 
B.  F.  Sturtevant  and  Co. ;  president  of  Becker 
milling  machine  company,  Mead-Morrison  manu- 
facturing company;  director  of  Chicago  Junction 
railwavs  and  Union  stock  yards  company, 
Brooklyn  rapid  transit  company,  Manhattan 
railway  company,  Hyde  Park  national  bank. 
Elected  to  congress  from  Massachusetts,  1910, 
and  governor  of  state  in  same  year;  reelected 
governor  1911  and  1912.  Prominent  in  advocacy 
of  tariff  revision  and  reciprocity. 
Foss,  George  Edmund,  lawyer,  ex-congressman, 
was  born  at  Berkslij re,  Franklin  county,  Vt.,  1863. 
He  graduated  from  Harvard  university  in  1885: 
attended  the  Columbia  law  school  and  school 
of  political  science  in  New  York  city;  graduated 
from  the  Union  college  of  law  of  Chicago  in 
1889;  admitted  to  the  bar  the  same  year  and 
began  the  practice  of  law  in  Chicago.  He  never 
held  any  political  office  until  elected  to  the 
fifty-fourth  congress,  1895.  He  subsequently 
represented  the  7th  lUinois  district,  1895-1903, 
and  the  10th  district,  1903-13. 
Foss,  Sam  Walter,  poet,  librarian,  was  bom  at 
Candia,  N.  H.,  1858;  graduated  at  Brown,  1882; 
editor,  1883-94;  general  writer,  1894-98; 
librarian,  Somerville,  Mass.,  public  library, 
1898-1911.  Was  lecturer  and  reader  of  his  own 
poems.  Author:  Back  Country  Poems;  Whiffs 
from  Wild  Meadows;  Dreams  in  Homespun; 
Songs  of  War  and  Peace;  Songs  of  the  Average 
Man,  etc.  Died,  1911. 
Foster,  George  Eulas,  minister  of  trade  and  com- 
merce, Canada,  since  1911;  member  of  parliament, 
North  Toronto,  since  1904 ;  was  born  in  New  Bruns- 
wick, Canada,  1847;  educated  at  the  university 
of  New  Brunswick,  Edinburgh  university,  and 
Heidelberg.  Professor  of  classics,  university 
of  New  Brunswick,  1872-79;  entered  politics, 
1882,  and  represented  Kings,  New  Brunswick, 
1882-96;  ran  for  York,  1896,  and  sat  for  that 
constituency  until  1900;  contested  city  of  St. 
John,  New  Brunswick,  1900;  became  minister 
of  marine  in  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald's  govern- 
ment, 1885;  finance  minister,  1888,  in  same 
ministry,  and  since  under  Sir  John  Abbott,  Sir 
John  Thompson,  Sir  Mackenzie  Bowell,  and  Sir 
Charles  Tupper.  He  is  a  strong  supporter  of 
adequate  protection  for  Canadian  industries, 
the  development  of  Canada  by  railway  and 
steamship  facilities. 
Foster,  John  Watson,  lawyer,  diplomat,  was  bom 
in  Pike  county,  Ind.,  1836.  He  was  graduated 
from  Indiana  university,  1855;  student  one 
year  at  Harvard  law  school;  LL.  D.,  Princeton, 
iPennsylvania,  Yale,  Wabash  college;  admitted 
to  Indiana  bar,  and  practiced  at  Evansville, 
1857-61;  entered  the  Union  army  in  1861  as 
major  of  the  25th  Indiana  volunteers,  and  was 


fromoted  to  Ueutenant-rolonel  and  colonel  in 
ndiana  regiment*,  and  brevplU-d  brigii<li«T- 
general.  After  the  war,  etlitor  of  Ex<anKfUU 
Daily  Journal,  1865-69;  postmaster,  KvanBville, 
1869-73;  minister  to  Mexico,  1873-80;  to 
Russia,  1880-81.  Established,  1881,  in  practice 
in  international  cases  in  Wa/thittgton,  representinc 
foreign  legations  before  commissions,  arbitratioD 
boards,  etc.  Minister  to  Spain,  1883-85;  special 
plenipotentiary  to  negotiate  reciprocity  treaties 
with  Brazil,  Spain,  Germany,  BritUh  West 
Indies,  etc.,  1891;  secretary  of  state,  United 
States,  1892-03;  agent  for  United  States  in 
Bering  sea  arbitration,  at  Paris,  1893;  invited 
by  emperor  of  China  and  participated  in  peace 
negotiations  with  Japan;  ambasstuior  on  special 
mission  to  Great  Britain  and  Russia,  1897; 
member  of  Anglo-Canadian  commission,  1898; 
agent  for  United  States  Alaskan  boundary 
tribunal,  London,  1903.  Author:  Biography 
of  Matthew  Watson  Foster;  A  Century  of  Amrrt- 
can  Diplomacy;  American  Diplomacy  in  the 
Orient;  Arbitration  and  The  Hague  Court;  The 
Practice  of  Diplomacy;   Memoirs,   etc. 

Foster,  Judith  Ellen  Horton,  lecturer,  was  bom  at 
Lowell,  Mass.,  1840;  daughter  of  Rev.  Jotham 
and  Judith  (Delano)  Horton.  She  was  educated 
in  New  England  schools  and  Genesee  Wesleyan 
seminarj',  Lima,  N.  Y.,  1855-56;  removed  to 
Clinton,'  Iowa;  married  E.  C.  Foster,  lawyer, 
1869.  Studied  law;  admitted  to  Iowa  bar,  1872, 
and  practiced  law.  Became  prominent  in 
Woman's  Christian  temperance  union:  was 
superintendent  legislative  department  and  popu- 
lar lecturer;  and  when  that  organization  was 
affiliated  with  the  prohibition  party,  identified 
herself  with  the  non-partisan  Woman's  Christian 
temperance  union,  to  whose  presidency  she 
was  elected.  Also  well  known  as  republican 
campaign  orator.  Author:  The  Crime  Against 
Ireland.      Died,  1910. 

Foster,  Sir  Michael,  English  physiologist,  was  bom 
at  Huntington,  1836;  practiced  there  as  a  sur- 
geon, 186CP66 ;  appointed  professor  of  phvsiology 
at  University  college,  London,  1869.  In  1870 
became  lecturer  on  physiology  at  Trinity  college, 
Cambridge,  and  was  professor  of  physiology  in 
the  universitv,  1883-1903.  His  best  known 
work  is  his  text-book  of  Physiology.  He  was 
secretary  of  the  royal  society,  18i81-1903,  and 
represented  London  university  in  parliament 
from  1900  to  1906.     He  died  in  1907. 

Foster,  Murphy  J,,  lawyer,  ex-United  States  senator, 
was  bora  at  Franklin,  La.,  1849;  ^aduated  at 
Cumberland  university,  Lebanon,  Fenn.,  1870, 
and  from  the  law  school  of  Tulane  university, 
New  Orleans,  1871.  Afterward  engaged  in  law 
practice  at  Frankiin,  La.  In  1879  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  senate  of  Louisiana,  and  was 
returaed  for  three  consecutive  terms  of  four 
years  each ;  president  pro  tempore  of  the  senate, 
1888-90;  led  the  anti-lottery  fight  in  the 
legislature  in  1890;  govemor  of  Louisiana, 
1892-1900;  United  States  senator  from  Louisi- 
ana, 1901-13. 

Foster,  Stephen  Collins,  American  song  writer,  was 
bom  in  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  1826.  He  first  wrote 
negro  melodies,  "Old  Uncle  Ned,"  and  '  Oh, 
Susanna,"  which  immediately  gained  a  wide 
popularity.  On  the  song  "Old  Folks  at  Home" 
he  made  $15,000.  "Nelly  Bly,"  "Mv  Old  Ken- 
tucky Home,"  and  "O  Boys,  Carry  Me  'Long, 
were  just  as  popular.  He  wrote  more  than  one 
hundred  songs,  most  of  which  have  been  trans- 
lated into  other  languages.  He  died  in  New 
York,  1864. 

Foucault    (jS!>'-k5'\   Jean   Bernard   Lfon,   French 

Ehysicist,  was  bom  at  Paris,  1819.     From  1856 
eheld  an  appointment  in  the  Paris  observatory. 
He  demonstrated  the  rotation  of  the  earth  by 


098 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


means  of  a  graduated  disk,  invented  the  gyroscope 
and  introduced  physics  into  the  study  of  as- 
tronomy.    Died,  1808. 

Fouch6  (Jdb'-afM'),  Joseph,  duke  of  Otranto, 
French  revolutionist  and  statesman,  was  bom 
near  Nantes  in  1763.  In  1792  lie  obtained  a  seat 
in  the  national  convention,  and  on  the  trial  of 
Louis  XVI.  voted  for  death  without  appeal. 
He  became  president  of  the  Jacobins  in  1794, 
but  lost  that  situation  through  the  fall  of  Robes- 
pierre, when  he  was  imprisoned  as  a  dangerous 
terrorist.  At  a  later  period  he  became  Napoleon 
Bonaparte's  minister  of  police,  and  in  1809  was 
created  duke  of  Otranto.  He  incurred  Bona- 
parte's displeasure  by  using  on  one  occasion 
these  words  —  "Let  us  prove  that  Napoleon'.s 
presence  is  not  necessary  to  repel  our  enemies." 
Subsequently,  Bonaparte  having  returned  from 
Elba,  Fouch6  again  became  minister  of  police. 
He  advised  Bonaparte  to  abdicate  after  the  battle 
of  Waterloo,  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  pro- 
visional government  bj"  the  chambers,  and  nego- 
tiated with  the  allies.  He  was  sent  as  ambassa- 
dor to  Dresden.  In  1816  he  was  deprived  of  his 
estates.     Died,  1820. 

Foulke  (Jolk),  William  Dudley,  author,  pub- 
licist, was  born  in  New  York,  1848.  He  was 
graduated  from  Colunabia,  1869,  and  Columbia 
law  school,  1871.  Removed  to  Indiana,  1876; 
member  of  state  senate,  1883-85;  formerly  presi- 
dent of  Indiana  civil  8er^-ice  reform  association, 
American  woman's  suffrage  association ,  Ameri- 
can proportional  representation  league;  chair- 
man of  suffrage  congress.  World's  Columbian 
exposition,  1893.  United  States  civil  service 
commissioner,  1901-03.  Author:  Slav  or  Saxon; 
Life  of  Oliver  P.  Morton;  Maya,  a  Story  of 
Yiicalan;  Protean  Papirs;  frequent  contributor 
to  magazines  on  history  and  other  subjects. 

Fouqu£  (j^'-ka'),  Frledrich  Helnrlch  Karl  de  la 
Motte,  famous  German  novelist  and  poet,  was 
born  in  Brandenburg,  1777.  When  young  he 
was  a  soldier  and  fought  against  Napoleon,  but 
his  health  obliged  him  to  leave  the  army.  He 
then  gave  himself  up  to  study,  and  wrote  many 
charming  stories.  Undine  and  Sintram  are  the 
best ;  they  are  read  and  loved  by  both  young  and 
old.     He  died  in  Berlin,  1843. 

Fourier  (J<5d'-re-a'),  Francois  Marie  Charles,  famous 
French  socialist,  was  bom  in  Besangon,  1772. 
He  served  on  the  Rhine  during  the  revolutionary 
period,  and  afterward  embarked  in  trade,  at 
the  same  time  earnestly  studying  the  problem 
involved  in  the  modem  social  system  of  man- 
kind. In  1808  he  disseminated  his  peculiar  views 
on  socialism  by  the  publication  of  a  work  entitled 
A  Theory  of  Four  Movements  and  General  Desti- 
nies, which  in  1822  was  reproduced  in  a  completed 
form  under  the  name  of  A  Treatise  on  Domestic 
and  Agricultural  Association.  A  supplement  to  it 
appeared  later,  styled  The  New  World  of  Industry 
and  Society.  In  1831  he  established  a  news- 
paper called  the  Phalange,  for  the  better  exposi- 
tion of  his  doctrines,  w'hence  he  has  been  some- 
times called  "the  Phalansterian."     Died,   1837. 

Fourier,  Jean  Baptiste  Joseph,  baron,  celebrated 
French  geometrician,  was  born  at  Auxerre  in 
1768.  When  eighteen  years  of  age  he  filled  the 
chair  of  mathematics  at  the  military  school  of  I 
that  place,  and  was  named  professor  to  the  j 
polytechnic  school.  He  accompanied  the  French 
expedition  to  Egypt,  where  his  labors  were  not 
unimportant.  In  1802  he  was  appointed  prefect 
of  the  Is^re,  and  in  1815  of  the  Rh6rie.  Being 
afterward  displaced,  he  gave  himself  up  entirely 
to  scientific  studies;  was  admitted  in  1817  -a 
inember  of  the  academy  of  sciences,  and  exer- 
cised with  Cuvier  the '  functions  of  perpetual 
secretary.  His  chief  works  are  Annnles  de 
Physique,     Thiorie    Analytique     de    la    Chaleur, 


RSeherchea  Statisquea  mr  la  Ville  de  Paris,  and 
the  Analyse  des  Equations  dUerminies.  The  last 
work  is  posthumous,  being  completed  under  the 
inspection  of  M.  Navier,  and  published  in  Paris 
in  1831.     He  died  in  1830. 

Fowler,  Charles  Newell,  lawyer,  former  member 
of  congress,  was  bom  at  Lena,  III.,  1852;  gradu- 
ated from  Yale  university,  1876,  Chicago  law 
school,  1878.  He  was  a  rnember  of  the  United 
States  house  of  representatives  from  New  Jersey 
from  1895-1911,  and  was  a  pronainent  advocate 
of  financial  reform. 

Fox,  Charles  James,  English  statesman,  was  bom 
in  Westminster.  1749,  the  third  son  of  Henry 
Fox,  Lord  Holland,  who  early  inducted  him 
into  gambling  and  the  other  fashionable  vices, 
which  clung  to  him  through  life.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  at  Hertford  college,  Oxford, 
entered  parliament  at  the  age  of  nineteen  as 
member  for  Midhurst,  and,  having  immediately 
made  his  mark  as  a  debater,  became  a  lord  of 
the  admiralty,  and  was  in  1773  nominated  lord 
of  the  treasury.  However,  he  soon  quarreled 
with  Lord  North.  In  1782  he  became  secretary 
of  state  under  Lord  Rockingham,  but  on  the 
latter's  death,  in  the  same  year,  refused  to  serve 
under  Lord  Shelburne.  His  name  was  struck 
off  the  list  of  privy  councillors,  and  in  1797  he 
retire*!  from  parliamentary  Ufe  to  superintend 
the  education  of  his  nephew.  Lord  Holland,  and 
to  write  the  History  of  the  Reign  of  James  II. 
When  his  great  rival,  Pitt,  formed  his  last  admin- 
istration, he  wished  Fox  to  join  it,  but  the  king 
gave  a  steady  refusal.  The  regency,  the  trial  of 
Warren  Hastings,  the  French  revolution,  and 
the  events  whicn  followed  it  gave  ample  scope 
to  the  talents  and  energies  of  Fox,  and  on  all 
occasions  he  employed  his  influence  to  modify, 
if  not  to  counteract,  the  policy  of  his  great  rival. 
He  was  a  strenuous  opponent  of  the  war  with 
France,  and  an  advocate  of  those  non-interven- 
tion views  which  find  greater  favor  in  our  day 
than  they  did  in  his.  On  Pitt's  death^  in  1806, 
the  king  was  at  last  obliged  to  admit  him  to 
office,  and  Fox  became  foreign  secretarj'  in 
Grenville's  ministry.  But  the  term  of  his  life 
had  nearly  run  out,  and  he  had  no  time  to 
realize  the  high  expectations  of  his  followers. 
His  last  motion  in  parUament  was  directed 
against  the  slave  trade,  and  he  died  at  Chiswick 
in  1806,  a  few  months  before  the  measure  founded 
upon  it  passed  into  law.  He  was  admittedly 
the  first  orator  of  his  time;  was  also  a  man  of 
wide  reading,  and  showed  himself  equal  to 
sacrifices  to  principle  such  as  few  statesmen 
have  cared  to  make. 

Fox,  George,  founder  of  the  society  of  Friends, 
was  bom  in  County  Leicester,  England,  1624. 
Early  adopting  the  peculiar  tenets  and  manners 
kno\\'n  as  Quakerism,  he  suffered  for  many  years 
continual  persecution.  His  leading  doctrines  or 
convictions  were  the  futility  of  learning  for  the 
work  of  the  ministry,  the  presence  of  Christ  in 
the  heart  as  the  "inner  light"  superseding  all 
other  lights,  and  the  necessity  of  trying  men's 
opinions  and  religions  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  and 
not  by  the  scriptures.  In  1655  he  was  brought 
to  London  and  examined  before  Cromwell,  who 
quickly  saw  that  there  was  nothing  in  Quakerism 
to  excite  his  apprehensions,  and  pronounced  the 
doctrines  and  the  character  of  its  founder  to  be 
irreproachable.  In  1671  he  sailed  for  the  West 
Indies  and  the  American  colonies,  to  propagate 
the  doctrines  of  the  sect  he  had  originated;  and 
on  his  return  to  England,  in  1673,  he  was  again 
imprisoned,  but  soon  released  through  the  influ- 
ence of  William  Penn.  After  the  accession  of 
William  III.  to  the  throne,  the  public  worship 
of  the  society  of  Friends  became  tolerated  and 
legalized.     He  died  in  London,  1691. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


eoB 


Fox«  John,  Jfm  American  novelist,  was  bom  in 
Kentucky,  1863.  and  was  graduated  from  Har- 
vard in  1S83.  After  some  experience  in  iournal- 
ism,  he  traveled  in  southern  states  and  California, 
and  afterward  engaged  in  business  at  Cumber- 
land Gap,  where  Re  had  ample  opportunity  for 
the  study  of  mountain  life.  Author:  A  Moun- 
tain Europa;  A  Cumberland  Vendetta;  Hell-for- 
Sartain;  The  Kentuckians;  Crittenden;  Blue 
Grass  and  Rfiododendron;  The  Little  Shepherd  of 
Kingdom  Come;  Follouring  the  Sun  Flag;  Knight 
o/"  the  Cumberland;  The  Trail  of  the  Lonesome 
Pine,  etc. 

Foxe,  John,  English  martyrologist,  was  born  at 
Boston,  in  Lincolnshire,  1516.  At  sixteen  he 
entered  Brasenose  college,  Oxford,  and  was  a 
fellow  of  Magdalen,  1538-46;  was  tutor  to  the 
son  of  the  earl  of  Surrey,  executed  in  1547. 
During  the  reign  of  Mary  he  retired  to  the  conti- 
nent, where  he  met  Knox,  Grindal,  and  Whit- 
tingham.  On  Queen  Elizabeth's  accession  he 
was  pensioned  by  his  old  pupil,  the  duke  of 
Norfolk,  and  received  a  prebend  of  Salisbury 
cathedral,  1563.  He  lived  chiefly  in  London, 
and  often  preached.  For  a  year  he  held  a  stall 
at  Durham,  but  was  debarred  from  further 
preferment  by  objection  to  the  surplice.  He 
published  numerous  books,  but  the  one  upon 
which  his  fame  rests  is  popularly  known  as 
Foxe' 8  Book  of  Martyrs.     Died,  1587. 

Fragonard  (frd'-go'-nar'),  Jean  Honor£,  French 
painter,  was  born  at  Grasse,  1732,  and  gained 
the  prix  de  Rome  in  1752.  In  1765  he  received 
2,400  francs  from  Louis  XV.  for  his  "Callirrhoe," 
commissioned  for  reproduction  in  Gobelins 
tapestry.  He  painted,  with  a  loose  touch  and 
luscious  coloring,  genre  pictures  of  contemporary 
life,  and  is  also  known  by  his  landscapes.  He  is 
represented  in  the  Louvre  by  such  works  as 
"Bacchante  Endormie"  and  "La  Chemise 
Enl^vee."     Died,  1806. 

France  (/rciNs),  Jacques  Anatole  Thibault,  French 
author,  member  of  French  academy,  was  bom 
in  Paris,  1844,  and  educated  at  College  Stanislaus. 
Author:  Le  Crime  de  Sylvestre  Bonnard;  La 
Rdtisserie  de  la  reine  Pldauque;  La  Lys  Rouge; 
L'Etui  de  nacre;  Balthazar;  Thais;  La  Vie 
Littiraire;  Le  Mannequin  d'Osier;  Vie  de  Jeanne 
d'Arc,  and  many  other  books.  Received  Nobel 
prize  for  literature,  1912. 

Francia  (Jran'-se-a),  Jos6  Caspar  Sodri^ez,  dic- 
tator of  Paraguay,  was  born  near  Asuncion, 
about  1757.  He  studied  theology,  took  his 
degree  as  doctor,  and  was  a  professor  of  divinity. 
Next  he  practiced  law  for  thirty  years  with  a 
high  reputation.  He  was  past  fifty  when  the 
revolution  which  shattered  the  Spanish  yoke  in 
South  America  broke  out.  He  took  a  leading 
part  in  the  movement  in  Paraguay,  and  on  the 
declaration  of  independence  in  1811  became 
secretary  of  the  national  junta,  in  1813  one  of 
the  two  consuls,  and  in  1814  dictator  —  first  for 
three  years,  and  then  for  life.  Under  his  firm 
rule,  which  excluded  all  foreign  intercourse, 
Paraguay  rapidly  improved.  Though  politically 
despotic,  he  improved  agriculture,  promoted 
education,  repressed  superstition,  and  enforced 
strict  justice  in  his  law-courts,  however  little  he 
regarded  it  for  himself.     Died,  1840. 

Francis  1^  king  of  France,  was  born  at  Cognac, 
France,  1494,  and  became  king  in  1515.  His 
first  act  was  to  reconquer  Milan.  Charles  V'., 
Henry  VIII.,  and  the  pope  were  in  alliance 
against  him,  driving  his  troops  out  of  Italy  and 
invading  France  on  the  nortn.  Taken  prisoner 
at  the  battle  of  Pavia,  1525,  Francis  was  kept  a 
year  at  Madrid,  gaining  his  freedom  only  by 
renouncing  Flanders,  Artois,  the  duchy  of  Bur- 
gimdy,  and  all  his  Italian  possessions.  His 
Btruggles  with   Charles   V.    continued   until   the 


peace  of  Crespy,  1644.  His  reign  is  marked  by 
the  French  renaissance,  the  beginning  of  the 
Protestant  reformation,  and  the  strengthening 
of  the  power  of  the  monarchy.  He  fostered 
learning  and  art,  invited  painters  and  scholars 
to  his  kmgdom,  founded  libraries,  opened  schools, 
and  built  several  of  the  finest  palaces  in  France; 
but  his  persecution  of  the  Vaudois  has  left  a 
stain  on  his  memory.     He  died  in  1547. 

Francis  I.,  emperor  of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1708, 
eldest  son  of  Leopold,  duke  of  Lorraine.  On 
the  death  of  his  father,  1729,  Francis  succeeded 
him  in  the  dukedom,  which,  in  1735,  he  ceded 
to  Stanislaus  Leszczynski,  father-in-law  of  Louis 
XV.,  to  revert  after  his  death  to  the  crown  of 
France.  In  1736  he  married  Maria  Theresa  of 
Austria,  the  only  daughter  and  heiress  of  the 
emperor  Charles  VI.  In  1740  Charles  died,  and 
Maria  Theresa  succeedcnl  him ;  she  made  her  bus- 
band  co-regent  with  herself,  but  gave  him  little 
share  in  the  administration.  Francis  fought 
bravely  for  his  wife's  rights  in  the  wars  cameid 
on  against  Frederick  the  Great.  In  1745  he  was 
elected  to  the  once  important  dignity  of  emperor 
of  Germany,  and  cro'mied  at  Frankfurt.  The 
famous  seven  years'  war,  1756-63.  now  broke 
out  between  Austria  and  Prussia;  out  the  cares 
which  it  imposed  fell  mainly  upon  his  leonine 
consort,  Maria  Theresa.  Francis  died  at  Inns- 
bruck, 1765.     His  son  Joseph  succeeded  him. 

Francis  II.,  emperor  of  Germany,  and  I.  of  Austria, 
was  bom  at  Florence.  Italy,  1768,  and  succeeded 
his  father,  Leopold  II.,  in  1792.  His  reign  was  a 
series  of  wars  against  Napoleon,  in  which,  with 
the  exception  of  the  last,  he  was  beaten.  In 
1806  he  formally  abdicated  the  crown  of  the 
holy  Roman  empire.  Although  narrow-minded, 
Francis  was  a  popular  ruler.  He  died  at  Vienna, 
1835. 

Francis  Ferdinand  of  Austria,  archduke,  son  of  the 
late  archduke  Charles  Louis,  by  his  second  mar- 
riage with  the  princess  Maria  Annonciata, 
daughter  of  Ferdinand  II.,  king  of  the  Two 
Sicifies,  was  bom  at  Gratz^  1863.  Until  recently 
he  has  been  a  conservative  figure  in  Austrian 
society,  and,  of  course,  holds  aloof  from  politics 
because  of  his  p>osition.  By  the  death  of  Crown 
Prince  Rudolph  and  the  abdication  of  his  father, 
who  died  in  1896,  he  became  the  heir  apparent 
to  the  Austrian  throne.  On  July  1,  1900,  he 
contracted  a  morganatic  marriage  with  Countess 
Sophia  Chotek,  a  member  of  one  of  the  noblest 
Austrian  families,  and  formally  declared  that 
neither  his  wife  nor  any  children  of  the  marriage 
could  have  the  rights  of  equal  birth  or  any 
claim  to  succeed  to  the  throne.  Before  the 
ceremony  the  emperor  made  the  bride  Princess 
von  Hohenberg. 

Francis  Joseph  Charles,  emperor  of  Austria  and 
king  of  Hungarv,  was  bom  in  1830,  son  of  the 
archduke  Francis  Charles,  and  grandson  of  the 
emperor  Francis  I.,  and  nephew  of  the  emperor 
Ferdinand  I.  The  revolution  of  1848  compelled 
Ferdinand  to  abdicate,  and  his  brother  resigning 
his  claims  to  the  throne  in  favor  of  his  own  son. 
the  latter  was  at  the  early  age  of  eighteen  callea 
to  rule  an  empire  shaken  by  civil  war.  He  took 
part  in  the  campaign  against  the  Hungarians, 
and  was  present  at  the  capture  of  Raab  in  June, 
1849.  Restored  to  the  mastery  of  his  dominions, 
he  proceeded  to  undo  the  work  of  1848.  The 
Hungarian  constitution  was  suspended,  the 
absolute  authoritv  of  the  Habsburg  monarchy 
in  the  Austrian  dominions  proclaimed,  and  the 
imperial  ministers  were  declared  responsible  only 
to  the  emperor.  The  absolute  regime  was  main- 
tained during  the  first  ten  years  of  his  reign, 
though  his  own  sentiments  inclined  to  a  more 
liberal  rule.  It  was  not  until  AiLstria  had  sustained 
severe  reverses  abroad  that  the  system  fell.     The 


700 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


demand  of  Napoleon  III.  that  the  question  of 
the  Lombardo-Venctian  states  should  be  referred 
to  a  European  conference  being  refused,  war  waa 
declared.  The  Austrians  were  defeated  at  the 
battle  of  Solferino  on  June  24,  1859,  and  the 
emperor  was  compelled  to  sign  the  treaty  of 
Villafranca,  by  which  all  claims  to  Lombardy 
were  resigned.  A  partial  return  to  constitution- 
aliem  was  then  attempted,  and  representative 
diets  were  restored  in  the  difTerent  states,  but 
the  Hungarians  did  not  cease  to  demand  restora- 
tion of  their  old  national  institutions  in  their 
integrity.  A  dispute  between  Austria  and 
Prussia  as  to  Schleswig-Holstein  led  to  war 
between  the  two  nations  in  1866.  Here  again 
the  Austrians  were  completely  defeated,  and 
were  compelled  to  accept  the  North  German  con- 
federation under  the  leadership  of  Prussia,  and 
to  give  up  Venice  to  Italy.  After  these  disasters 
the  emperor  restored  national  self-government 
to  Hungary,  and  in  June,  1867,  was  declared 
king  of  that  country.  In  later  years  the  emper- 
or's influence  in  foreign  politics  has  been  chiefly 
directed  to  forming  a  closer  alliance  with  Germany 
and  Italy.  In  1878  the  treaty  of  Berlin  allowed 
Austria  to  occupy  Bosnia  and  the  Herzegovina. 
In  1887  the  emperor  took  part  in  a  series  of  mili- 
tary councils  held  to  provide  for  the  defense  of 
Galicia  against  Russia.  By  the  suicide  of 
Crown  Pnnce  Rudolph  in  January,  1889,  he 
was  deprived  of  all  hope  of  a  direct  successor, 
and  the  crowTi  will  pass,  on  his  death,  to  his 
nephew,  Francis  Ferdinand,  son  of  his  brother, 
Charles  Louis. 

Francis,  Charles  Spencer,  journalist,  diplomat,  was 
bom  in  Troy,  N.  Y.,  1853;  graduated  from 
Cornell  university,  1877;  while  at  college  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  an  athlete  and  established 
the  world's  intercollegiate  record  for  single  sculls. 
Was  secretary  to  his  father  during  the  latter' s 
three  years'  residence  at  Athens  as  United  States 
minister  to  Greece.  Was  officer  on  staff  of  Gov- 
ernor Alonzo  B.  Cornell,  of  New  York.  On  his 
father's  death,  1897,  succeeded  to  editorial 
direction  and  sole  ownership  of  Troy  Timeg; 
regent  of  university  of  the  state  of  New  York, 
1903-06.  United  States  minister  to  Greece, 
Rumania,  and  Ser^^a,  1900-02;  ambassador  to 
Austria-Hungar>',  1906-10.     Died,  1911. 

Francis,  David  Bowland,  merchant,  ex-governor 
of  Missouri,  was  bom  at  Richmond,  Ky.,  1850. 
He  was  graduated  at  Washington  university, 
1870;  LL.  D.,  university  of  Missouri,  1892, 
Shurtleflf  college,  1903,  St.  Louis  university, 
1904,  Washington  university,  1905.  Became 
clerk  and  afterward  partner  in  a  commission 
house ;  in  1877  established  what  became  Francis, 
Brother  and  Co.,  and  D.  R.  Francis  and  Brother 
commission  company,  grain  merchants,  of  which 
he  is  president:  vice-president  of  Merchants- 
Laclede  national  bank;  president  of  Madison 
County  ferry  Company;  director  of  Mississippi 
Valley  trust  companj';  trustee  of  New  York  life 
insurance  company.  President  of  merchants' 
exchange,  St.  Louis,  1884 ;  president  of  Hospital 
Saturday  and  Sunday  association;  member  of 
executive  committee  national  civic  federation. 
Mayor  of  St.  Louis,  1885-89;  governor  of  Mis- 
souri, 1889-93 ;  secretary  of  the  interior.  United 
States,  1896-97.  He  was  president  of  the  Louisi- 
ana Purchase  centennial  exposition  of  1904,  and 
was  decorated  by  rulers  of  the  principal  countries 
of  Europe  and  Asia. 

Francis,  Sir  Philip,  reputed  author  of  the  "Junius 
letters,"  was  bom  in  Dublin,  1740.  Lea\'ing 
Ireland  at  twelve,  he  entered  St.  Paul's  school 
in  London,  and  at  sixteen  became  a  junior  clerk 
in  the  secretary  of  state's  office.  In  1758  he 
was  a  secretary  in  the  expedition  against  Cher- 
bourg;   in  1760  he  was  secretary  on  a  mission  to 


Portugal;  in  1761  he  acted  an  amanuensis  to  the 
elder  Pitt;  and  in  1762  he  was  made  first  clerk 
in  the  war  office.  In  1773  Lord  North  made  him 
a  member  of  the  council  of  Bengal;  in  1780  he 
fought  a  duel  with  Warren  Hastings,  with  whom 
he  was  always  at  enmity,  and  was  seriously 
wounded.  He  entercni  parliament  in  1784,  and 
was  energetic  in  the  proceedings  against  Hastings, 
wrote  many  pamphlets,  was  eager  to  be  governor- 
general  of  India,  and  was  made  a  K.  C.  B.  in 
1806.  In  1816  John  Tavlor  wrote  a  book 
identifying  Francis  with  "Junius,"  but  Francis 
never  acknowledged  having  written  the  seventy 
letters,  which  app>eared  in  the  Public  Advertiser 
1772,  and  were  reprinted  in  1812  with  113 
additional  letters.     He  died  in  1818. 

Francia  de  Sales  {/rtis'-sis'  de  sal).  Saint,  an  eminent 
theologian,  orator,  and  writer,  bishop  of  Geneva, 
was  bom  at  Sales,  near  Geneva,  1567,  died,  1622, 
and  was  canonized  in  1665.  He  was  a  Savoy- 
ard, coa<ljutor  bishop,  1599,  bishop  of  Geneva, 
1602,  and  co-founder  of  the  order  of  the  visita- 
tion, 1610. 

Francis  of  Assisi  (Qs-»i'-zi),  Saint.     See  page  227. 

Francis  of  Paola  (pou'4&).  Saint,  founder  of  the 
Minims,  was  bom  in  1416  at  Paola  in  Calabria. 
At  thirteen  he  was  a  Franciscan;  and  at  nine- 
teen he  retired  to  a  cave  and  inflicted  on  himself 
every  species  of  self-mortification.  The  fame  of 
his  piety  having  attracted  emulators,  he  obtained 
permission  to  erect  a  convent,  and  tne  new  order 
came  to  be  known  as  Minim-Hermits  of  St. 
Francis  of  Paola.  Communities  were  established 
throughout  Euro|>e,  but  not  in  the  British  islands. 
Louis  XI.  of  France  summoned  St.  Francis  to 
bis  death-bed,  and  Charles  VIII.  and  Louis  XII. 
built  him  convents  at  Plessis-les-Tours  and 
Amboise.  He  died  at  Plessis  on  Good  Friday, 
1507,  and  was  canonized  in  1519. 

Francis  Xavler,  Saint.     See  Xavier. 

Franclte  {Jr&n^-kt),  Kuno,  educator,  literary  critic, 
professor  of  German  culture,  and  curator  of  the 
Germanic  museum.  Harvard  university,  was 
bom  at  Kiel,  Germany,  1855 ;  graduated  gymna- 
sium, Kiel,  1873;  Ph.  D.,  university  of  Munich, 
1878;  LL.  D.,  university  of  Wisconsin,  1904; 
chevalier  of  the  royal  Prussian  order  of  the 
red  eagle  and  of  the  order  of  the  crown.  Mem- 
ber of  American  philosophical  society,  American 
academy  of  arts  and  sciences,  modem  language 
association  of  America.  Author:  Social  Forces 
in  German  Literature;  Glimpses  of  Modem  Get' 
man  Culture;  History  of  German  Literature; 
Handbook  of  the  Germanic  Museum;  German 
Ideals  of  To-day,  etc. 

Frank,  Henry,  lecturer,  author,  was  bom  at 
Lafayette,  Ind.,  1854;  graduated  from  Phillips 
academy,  Andover,  Mass.,  1874 ;  student  at 
Harvard,  1874.  Was  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  then  pastor  of  Congregational  church, 
Jamestown,  N.  Y.,  1886;  renounced  orthodoxy 
and  originated  Independent  Congregational 
church, Jamestown, N.Y.,  1888;  founded,  1897, and 
since  lecturer  Metropolitan  (Independent  liberal) 
society.  Lyric  hall,  New  York.  Was  director 
of  world  new  thought  federation.  Actively 
engaged  in  social  reform,  and  ethical  forward 
movements.  Editor  The  Rostrum,  Jamestown, 
N.  Y.,  1889,  Independent  Thinker,  New  York, 
1900-01 ;  associate  editor  of  Metaphysical  Maga- 
zine, 1901-02.  Author:  Skeleton  and  the  Rose; 
His  Bold  Experiment  (a  sociological  novel); 
Conquests  of  Love;  Doom  of  Dogma  and  Dawn  of 
Truth;  The  Shrine  of  Silence;  Vision  of  the 
Invisible;  Science  and  Immortality;  The  Kingdom 
of  Love.  He  is  a  frequent  contributor  to  maga- 
zines. 

Franldand,  Percy  Faraday,  English  chemist,  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry,  the  university,  Birmingham, 
since  1900,  was  bom  at  London,  1858.     He  waa 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


701 


educated  at  University  college  school,  London, 
royal  school  of  mines,  and  Wiirzburg  university; 
was  demonstrator  and  lecturer  on  chemistry, 
royal  school  of  mines,  1880-88;  professor  of 
chemistry.  University  college,  Dundee,  1888-94; 
and  in  the  Mason  college,  Birmingham,  1894- 
1900.  Inaugurated  monthly  systematic  bacteri- 
ological examinations  of  London  water-supply 
for  local  government  board.  President  of  the 
institute  of  chemistry,  1906;  member  of  council 
of  royal  society,  1903.  Author  of  over  eighty 
original  memoirs  published  in  Philosophical 
Transactions  Royal  Society,  etc.,  dealing  with 
chemical  aspects  of  fermentation,  stereo-chemis- 
try, and  application  of  bacteriology  to  air,  water, 
and  the  sand  filtration  of  water,  and  the  bacte- 
rial treatment  of  sewage;  Agricultural  Chemical 
Analysis;  Our  Secret  Friends  and  Foes;  Micro- 
organisms in  Water;  Life  of  Pasteur,  etc. 

Franklin,  Benjamin.     See  page  401. 

Franklin,  Fabian,  mathematician,  editor  Balti- 
more News  1895-1908;  associate  editor.  New  York 
Evening  Post,  since  1909;  was  born  at  Eger,  Hun- 
gary, 1853 ;  graduated  at  Columbian  (now  George 
Washington)  university,  1869;  Ph.  D.,  Johns 
Hopkins,  1880;  LL.  D.,  George  Washington 
university,  1904.  Engaged  in  civil  engineering 
and  surveying,  1869-77 ;  fellow  of  Johns  Hopkins, 
1877-79;  associate  professor  and  professor  of 
mathematics,  Johns  Hopkins,  1879-95;  contribu- 
tor of  mathematical  papers  to  the  American 
Journal  of  Mathematics,  and  other  mathematical 
journals;  also  contributed  to  The  Intellectual 
Powers  ofWoman,  to  the  North  American  Review, 
and  editorial  and  other  articles  to  The  Nation. 

Franklin,  Sir  John,  English  rear-admiral,  Arctic 
explorer,  and  colonial  governor,  was  bom  in 
Lincolnshire,  England,  1786.  He  was  appointed 
to  command  the  Trent,  in  the  expedition  sent 
out  in  1818  for  the  discovery  of  a  northwest 
passage.  He  made  a  second  expedition  during 
1825-27,  and  for  his  achievements  was  knighted 
in  1829.  In  1845  he  commanded  another  expe- 
dition for  the  discovery  of  the  northwest  passage. 
He  had  with  him  two  ships,  the  Erebus  and  the 
Terror,  with  134  chosen  officers  and  men,  and 
sailed  from  Greenhithe,  May  19,  1845,  and  was 
last  seen  July  26.  Many  expeditions  were  sent 
out  in  search  of  the  missing  boats  and  their 
crews,  and  the  relics  and  skeletons  found  proved 
that  Sir  John  Franklin  and  his  men  had  perished 
by  starvation  and  exposure  in  1847.  He  is 
entitled  to  the  honor  of  being  the  first  discov- 
erer of  the  northwest  passage.  A  monument 
was  erected  to  him,  1875,  in  Westminster  abbey. 

Franklin,  WiUiam  Suddards,  educator,  electrician, 
was  born  in  Geary  City,  Kansas,  1863.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  university  of  Kansas,  1887; 
M.  S.,  1888;  student  of  Cornell,  winters  of  1892- 
96;  D.  Sc,  1901;  student  of  university  of 
Berlin,  1890-91 ;  assistant  professor  of  physics, 
university  of  Kansas,  1887-90;  professor  of 
physics  and  electrical  engineering,  Iowa  state 
college,  1892-97;  Lehigh  university,  1897- 
1903;  professor  of  physics,  Lehigh,  since  1903. 
Joint  author :  Elements  of  Physics;  The  Elements 
of  Alternating  Currents;  The  Elements  of  Elec- 
trical Engineering;  The  Elements  of  Mechanics 
(with  Barry  MacNutt),  and  contributor  of 
numerous  papers  to  Science,  American  Journal 
of  Science,  and  Physical  Review. 

Franz  (frdnts),  Bobert,  German  composer,  was 
born,  lived,  and  died  at  Halle,  1815-r92.  He 
published  upward  of  300  songs,  a  kyrie,  chorales, 
and  arrangements  of  the  vocal  masterpieces  of 
Bach  and  Handel.  Franz's  best  songs  rank 
with  those  of  Schubert  and  Schumann.  His 
published  works  first  appeared  in  1843. 

Franz£n  (fran-san'),  Frans  Michael.  Swedish  poet, 
was  bom  in  Ule&borg,  Finland,   1772.     He  was 


educated  at  Abo,  became  librarian  of  the  univer- 
sity there,  and  in  1801  profensor  of  history  and 
ethics.  After  the  conquest  of  Finland,  he  settled 
in  Sweden  as  a  clergyman,  finally  removing  to 
Stockholm  where  he  was  nuule  bishop.  Ho 
wrote:  Emili,  or  an  Evening  in  Lapland;  Colum- 
bus; Gustav  Adolf  in  Germany,  and  many  religious 
songs.     Died,  1847. 

Francos  (frdn'-tsda),  Kari  £mil,  Austrian  novelist, 
was  bom  in  Russian  Podolia  of  Jewish  parentage, 
1848.  He  passed  his  earliest  years  in  the  Polinh- 
Jewish  village  of  Czortckow  in  Galiciu,  the 
Bamow  of  his  novels.  Left  an  orphan  at  an 
early  age,  he  was  educated  at  tne  German 
gymnasium  at  Czemowitz.  He  studied  juris- 
prudence, but  afterward  settled  as  a  journalist 
m  Vienna.  Among  his  principal  works  is  Aua 
Halbasien,  sketches  of  South  Russia  and  Ruma- 
nia, and  the  novels  Junge  Liebe;  The  Jews  of 
Bamow;  Moschko  von  Parma;  For  the  Right; 
Der  Pr&sident;  Die  Reise  nach  dem  Schickaal; 
Tragische  NoveUen,  and  Der  Wahrheitaticher. 
Franzos's  tales  are  full  of  deep  pathos.  Died,  1904. 

Fraser,  Alexander  Campbell,  British  author  and 
educator,  professor  emeritus  of  logic  and  meta- 
physics, and  formerly  Gififord  lecturer,  in  Edin- 
burgh university,  was  bom  at  Ardchattan 
manse.  County  Argyll,  1819.  Educated  privately 
and  at  Edinburgh  university;  D.  C.  L.,  Oxford; 
LL.  D.,  Princeton,  Glasgow,  Edinburgh;  Litt.  D., 
Dublin.  Professor  of  logic,  New  college,  Ekiin- 
burgh,  1846-56;  editor  of  North  British  Review, 
1850-57;  professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in 
the  university  of  Edinburgh  in  succession  to  Sir 
William  Hamilton,  1856-91,  and  now  professor 
emeritus;  Gifford  lecturer  on  natural  theologjr 
in  Edinburgh,  in  succession  to  Professor  Pflei- 
derer  of  Berlin,  1894-96.  Author:  Essays  in 
Philosophy;  Essays,  Philosophical  and  Miscel- 
laneous; Collected  Works  of  Bishop  Berkeley, 
annotated ;  Life  and  Letters  of  Berkeley;  Locke  s 
Essay  on  Human  Under  standing,  with  Proleg- 
omena, Notes  and  Dissertations;  Thomas  Reid, 
a  Biography;  Philosophy  of  Theism;  Biogrnphia 
Philosophica ;  a  Personal  Retrospect;  Berkeley  and 
Spiritual  Realism,  and  various  minor  publications. 

Fraser,  Mrs.  Hugh,  novelist  and  writer  of  travels, 
was  born  at  Rome,  Italy,  daughter  of  Thomas 
Crawford,  sculptor,  and  Louisa  Cutler  Ward; 
sister  of  Marion  Crawford ;  married  Hugh  Fraser, 
British  minister  to  Japan.  She  was  educated 
at  Bonchurch,  by  Miss  E.  M.  Sewell,  and  in 
Rome.  Accompanied  her  husband  to  China, 
South  America,  and  Japan,  as  well  as  to  various 
courts  of  Europe;  has  traveled  much  in  the 
United  States;  became  a  Catholic  in  1884,  and 
a  widow  in  1894.  Author:  The  Brown  Ambas- 
sador; Palladia;  A  Chapter  of  Accidents:  The 
Looms  of  Time;  A  Diplomatists  Wife  in  Japan; 
Tlie  Customs  of  the  Country,  or  Tales  of  New 
Japan;  The  Splendid  Porsenna;  A  Little  Grey 
Sheep;  Marna's  Mutiny;  The  Stolen  Emperor; 
a  Tale  of  Old  Japan;  The  Slaking  of  the  Sword; 
A  Diplomatist's  Wife  in  Many  Lands,  etc. 

Fraunhofer  (Jroun'-ho-ftr),  Joseph  von,  German 
optician,  was  bom  at  Straubing  in  Bavaria,  1787. 
In  1807  he  was  employed  to  found  an  optical 
institute  at  Benediktbeuem,  which  under  his 
management  was  in  1819  removed  to  Munich 
He  invented  many  optical  instruments,  but  ia 
most  celebrated  for  his  improvements  in  tele- 
scope prisms  and  in  the  mechanism  for  manipu- 
lating large  telescopes,  and  above  all  for  his 
discovery  of  the  dark  lines  in  the  sun's  spectrum, 
called  Fraimhofer's  lines.     Died,  1826. 

Frazier,  James  B.,  lawyer,  ex-United  States  senator, 
was  born  in  Pikeville,  Tenn.,  1856;  graduated  in 
arts  and  law,  university  of  Tennessee ;  practiced 
law  at  Chattanooga  since  1881 ;  elected  governor 
of     Tennessee     for     terms     1903-05,     1905-07; 


700 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


1 


demand  of  Napoleon  III.  that  the  auestion  of 
the  Lombardo-Venctian  states  should  be  referred 
to  a  European  conference  being  refused,  war  was 
declared.  The  Austrians  were  defeated  at  the 
battle  of  Solferino  on  June  24,  1859,  and  the 
emperor  was  compelled  to  sign  the  treaty  of 
Villafranca,  by  which  all  claims  to  Lombardy 
were  resigned.  A  partial  return  to  constitution- 
alism was  then  attempted,  and  representative 
diets  were  restored  in  the  different  states,  but 
the  Hungarians  did  not  cease  to  demand  restora- 
tion of  their  old  national  institutions  in  their 
integrity.  A  dispute  between  Austria  and 
Prussia  as  to  Schleswig-Holstein  led  to  war 
between  the  two  nations  in  18C6.  Here  again 
the  Austrians  were  completely  defeated,  and 
were  compelled  to  accept  the  North  Cierman  con- 
federation under  the  leadership  of  Prussia,  and 
to  give  up  Venice  to  Italy.  After  these  disastem 
the  emperor  restored  national  self-government 
to  Hungary,  and  in  June,  18G7,  was  declared 
king  of  that  country.  In  later  years  the  emper- 
or's influence  in  foreign  politics  has  been  chiefly 
directed  to  forming  a  closer  alliance  with  Germany 
and  Italy.  In  1878  the  treaty  of  Berlin  allowed 
Austria  to  occupy  Bosnia  and  the  Herzegovina. 
In  1887  the  emperor  took  part  in  a  series  of  mili- 
tary councils  held  to  provide  for  the  defense  of 
Gulicia  against  Russia.  By  the  suicide  of 
Crown  Pnnce  Rudolph  in  January,  1889,  he 
was  deprived  of  all  hope  of  a  direct  successor, 
and  the  crown  will  pass,  on  his  death,  to  his 
nephew,  Francis  P'erdinand,  son  of  his  brother, 
Charles  Louis. 

Francis,  Charles  Spencer,  journalist,  diplomat,  was 
born  in  Troy,  N.  Y.,  1853;  graduated  from 
Cornell  university,  1877;  while  at  college  dis- 
tinguished himseff  as  an  athlete  and  established 
the  world's  intercollegiate  record  for  single  sculLs. 
Was  secretary  to  his  father  during  the  latter's 
three  years'  residence  at  Athens  as  United  States 
minister  to  Greeco.  Was  officer  on  staff  of  Gov- 
ernor Alonzo  B.  Cornell,  of  New  York.  On  his 
father's  death,  1897,  succeeded  to  editorial 
direction  and  sole  ownership  of  Troy  Times; 
regent  of  university  of  the  state  of  New  York, 
1903-06.  United  States  minister  to  Greece, 
Rumania,  and  Servaa,  1900-02;  ambassador  to 
Austria-Hungary-,  1906-10.     Died,  1911. 

Francis,  David  Rowland,  merchant,  ex-govemor 
of  Missouri,  was  born  at  Richmond,  Ky.,  1850. 
He  was  graduated  at  Washington  university, 
1870;  LL.  D.,  university  of  Missouri,  1892, 
Shurtleff  college,  1903,  St.  Louis  university, 
1904,  Washington  university,  1905.  Became 
clerk  and  afterward  partner  in  a  commission 
house;  in  1877  established  what  became  Francis, 
Brother  and  Co.,  and  D.  R.  Francis  and  Brother 
commission  company,  grain  merchants,  of  which 
he  is  president;  vice-president  of  Merchants- 
Laclede  national  bank;  president  of  Madison 
County  ferry  Company;  director  of  Mississippi 
Valley  trust  company;  trustee  of  New  York  life 
insurance  company.  President  of  merchants' 
exchange,  St.  Louis,  1884 ;  president  of  Hospital 
Saturday  and  Sunday  association;  member  of 
executive  committee  national  civic  federation. 
Mayor  of  St.  Louis,  1885-89;  governor  of  Mis- 
souri, 1889-93 ;  secretary  of  the  interior.  United 
States,  1896-97.  He  was  president  of  the  Louisi- 
ana Purchase  centennial  exposition  of  1904,  and 
was  decorated  by  rulers  of  the  principal  countries 
of  Europe  and  Asia. 

Francis,  Sir  Philip,  reputed  author  of  the  "Junivia 
letters,"  was  bom  in  Dublin,  1740.  Leaving 
Ireland  at  twelve,  he  entered  St.  Paul's  school 
in  London,  and  at  sixteen  became  a  junior  clerk 
in  the  secretary  of  state's  office.  In  1758  he 
was  a  secretary  in  the  expedition  against  Cher- 
bourg;   in  1760  he  was  secretary  on  a  mission  to 


Portugal;  in  1761  he  acted  as  amanuensis  to  the 
elder  ritt;  and  in  1762  he  was  made  first  clerk 
in  the  war  office.  In  1773  Lord  North  made  him 
a  member  of  the  council  of  Bengal;  in  1780  he 
fought  a  duel  with  Warren  Hastings,  with  whom 
he  was  always  at  enmity,  and  was  seriously 
wounded.  He  entered  parliament  in  1784,  and 
waa  energetic  in  the  proceedings  against  Hastings, 
wrote  many  pamphlets,  was  eager  to  be  governor- 
general  of  India,  and  was  made  a  K.  C.  B.  in 
1806.  In  1816  John  Tavlor  wrote  a  book 
identifying  Francis  with  "Junius,"  but  Francis 
never  acknowledged  having  written  the  seventy 
letters,  which  appeared  in  the  Public  Advertiier, 
1772,  and  were  reprinted  in  1812  with  113 
additional  letters.     He  died  in  1818. 

Francis  de  Sales  (fr6ti'-sis'  de  aid).  Saint,  an  eminent 
theologian,  orator,  and  writer,  bishop  of  Geneva, 
waa  bom  at  Sales,  near  Geneva,  1567,  died,  1622, 
and  was  canonized  in  1665.  He  was  a  Savoy- 
ard, coadjutor  bisliop,  1599,  bishop  of  Geneva, 
1602,  and  co-founder  of  the  order  of  the  visita- 
tion, 1610. 

Francis  of  Asstsl  (6»-gi'-zi),  Saint.     See  page  227. 

Francis  of  Facia  (,pou'-l&).  Saint,  founder  of  the 
Minims,  was  bom  in  1416  at  Paola  in  Calabria. 
At  thirteen  he  was  a  Franciscan;  and  at  nine- 
teen he  retired  to  a  cave  and  inflicted  on  himself 
every  species  of  self-nriortification.  The  fame  of 
his  piety  having  attracted  emulators,  he  obtained 
permission  to  erect  a  convent,  and  tne  new  order 
came  to  be  known  as  Minim-Hermits  of  St. 
Francis  of  Paola.  Communities  were  established 
throughout  Europe,  but  not  in  the  British  islands. 
Louis  XI.  of  France  summoned  St.  Francis  to 
his  death-bed,  and  Charles  VIII.  and  Louis  XII. 
built  him  convents  at  Plessis-les-Tours  and 
Amboise.  He  died  at  Plessis  on  Good  Friday, 
1507,  and  was  canonized  in  1519. 

Francis  Xavler,  Saint.     See  Xavler. 

Franclce  (/r&ng'-ki),  Kuno,  educator,  literary  critic, 
professor  of  German  culture,  and  curator  of  the 
Germanic  museum.  Harvard  university,  waa 
bom  at  Kiel,  Germany,  1855 ;  graduated  gymna- 
sium, Kiel,  1873;  Ph.  D.,  university  of  Munich, 
1878;  LL.  D.,  university  of  Wisconsin,  1904; 
chevalier  of  the  royal  Prussian  order  of  the 
red  eagle  and  of  the  order  of  the  crown.  Mem- 
ber of  American  philosophical  society,  American 
academy  of  arts  and  sciences,  modem  language 
association  of  America.  Author:  Social  forces 
in  German  Literature;  Glimpaea  of  Modem  Ger- 
man  Culture;  History  of  German  Literature; 
Handbook  of  the  Germanic  Museum;  German 
Ideals  of  To-day,  etc. 

Franic,  Henry,  lecturer,  author,  waa  bom  at 
Lafayette,  Ind.,  1854;  graduated  from  Phillips 
academy,  Andover,  Mass.,  1874 ;  student  at 
Harvard,  1874.  Was  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  then  pastor  of  Congregational  church, 
Jamestown,  N.  Y.,  1886;  renounced  orthodoxy 
and  originated  Independent  CongrcKational 
church, Jamestown, N.Y.,  1888;  founded,  1897, and 
since  lecturer  Metropolitan  (lndep>endent  liberal) 
society.  Lyric  hall,  New  York.  Was  director 
of  world  new  thought  federation.  Actively 
engaged  in  social  reform,  and  ethical  forward 
movements.  Editor  The  Rostrum,  Jamestown, 
N.  Y.,  1889,  IrtdcpenderU  Thinker,  New  York, 
1900-01 ;  associate  editor  of  Metaphysical  Maga>- 
zine,  1901-02.  Author:  Skeleton  and  the  Rose; 
His  Bold  Experiment  (a  sociological  novel); 
Conquests  of  Love;  Doom  of  Dogma  and  Davm  of 
Truth;  The-  Shrine  of  Silence;  Vision  of  the 
Invisible;  Science  and  Immortality;  The  Kingdom 
of  Love.  He  is  a  frequent  contributor  to  maga- 
zines. 

Franldand,  Percy  Faraday,  English  chemist,  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry,  the  university,  Birmingham, 
since  1900,  was  bom  at  London,  1858.     He  waa 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


701 


educated  at  University  college  school,  London, 
royal  school  of  mines,  and  Wiirzburg  university; 
was  demonstrator  and  lecturer  on  chemistry, 
royal  school  of  mines,  1880-88;  professor  of 
chemistry,  University  college,  Dundee,  1888-94 ; 
and  in  the  Mason  college,  Birniingham,  1894- 
1900.  Inaugurated  monthly  systematic  bacteri- 
ological examinations  of  London  water-supply 
for  local  government  board.  President  of  the 
institute  of  chemistry,  1906;  member  of  council 
of  royal  society,  1903.  Author  of  over  eighty 
original  memoirs  published  in  Philosophical 
Transactions  Royal  Society,  etc.,  dealing  with 
chemical  aspects  of  fermentation,  stereo-chemis- 
try, and  application  of  bacteriology  to  air,  water, 
and  the  sand  filtration  of  water,  and  the  bacte- 
rial treatment  of  sewage;  Agricultural  Chemical 
Analysis;  Our  Secret  Friends  and  Foes;  Micro- 
organisms in  Water;  Life  of  Pasteur,  etc. 

Franklin,  Benjamin.     See  page  4G1. 

Franklin,  Fabian,  mathematician,  editor  Balti- 
more News  1895-1908;  associate  editor.  New  York 
Evening  Post,  since  1909;  was  bom  at  Eger,  Hun- 
gary, 1853 ;  graduated  at  Columbian  (now  George 
Washington)  university,  1869;  Ph.  D.,  Johns 
Hopkins,  1880;  LL.  D.,  George  Washington 
university,  1904.  Engaged  in  civil  engineering 
and  surveying,  1869-77:  fellow  of  Johns  Hopkins, 
1877-79;  associate  professor  and  professor  of 
mathematics,  Johns  Hopkins,  1879-95;  contribu- 
tor of  mathematical  papers  to  the  American 
Journal  of  Mathematics,  and  other  mathematical 
journals;  also  contributed  to  The  Intellectual 
Powers  of  Woman,  to  the  North  American  Review, 
and  editorial  and  other  articles  to  The  Nation. 

Franklin,  Sir  John,  English  rear-admiral,  Arctic 
explorer,  and  colonial  governor,  was  bom  in 
Lincolnshire,  England,  1786.  He  was  appointed 
to  command  the  Trent,  in  the  expedition  sent 
out  in  1818  for  the  discovery  of  a  northwest 
passage.  He  made  a  second  expedition  during 
1825-27,  and  for  his  acliievements  was  knighted 
in  1829.  In  1845  he  commanded  another  expe- 
dition for  the  discovery  of  the  northwest  passage. 
He  had  with  him  two  ships,  the  Erebus  and  the 
Terror,  with  134  chosen  officers  and  men,  and 
sailed  from  Greenhithe,  May  19,  1845,  and  was 
last  seen  July  26.  Many  expeditions  were  sent 
out  in  search  of  the  missing  boats  and  their 
crews,  and  the  relics  and  skeletons  found  proved 
that  Sir  John  Franklin  and  his  men  had  perished 
by  starvation  and  exposure  in  1847.  He  is 
entitled  to  the  honor  of  being  the  first  discov- 
erer of  the  northwest  passage.  A  monument 
was  erected  to  him,  1875,  in  Westminster  abbey. 

Franklin,  William  Suddards,  educator,  electrician, 
was  born  in  Geary  City,  Kansas,  1863.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  university  of  Kansas,  1887; 
M.  S.,  1888;  student  of  Cornell,  winters  of  1892- 
96;  D.  Sc,  1901;  student  of  university  of 
Berlin,  1890-91 ;  assistant  professor  of  physics, 
university  of  Kansas,  1887-90;  professor  of 
physics  and  electrical  engineering,  Iowa  state 
college,  1892-97;  Lehigh  university,  1897- 
1903;  professor  of  physics,  Lehigh,  since  1903. 
Joint  author :  Elements  of  Physics;  The  Elements 
of  Alternating  Currents;  The  Elements  of  Elec- 
trical Engineering;  The  Elements  of  Mechanics 
(with  Barry  MacNutt),  and  contributor  of 
nimierous  papers  to  Science,  American  Journal  \ 
of  Science,  and  Physical  Review.  j 

Franz  (/rants),  Robert,  German  composer,  was ! 
born,  lived,  and  died  at  Halle,  1815^92.  He  \ 
published  upward  of  300  songs,  a  kyrie,  chorales,  ; 
and  arrangements  of  the  vocal  masterpieces  of 
Bach  and  Handel.  Franz's  best  songs  rank 
with  those  of  Schubert  and  Schumann.  His  j 
published  works  first  appeared  in  1843.  i 

Franz^n  (frdn-sdn'),  Frans  MichaeU  Swedish  poet,  j 
was  bom  in  Ule4borg,  Finland,   1772.     He  was 


educated  at  Abo,  became  librarian  of  the  univer- 
sity there,  and  in  1801  professor  of  history  and 
ethics.  After  the  conquest  of  Finland,  he  settled 
in  Sweden  as  a  clergyman,  finally  removing  to 
Stockholm  where  he  was  made  bishop.  IIo 
wrote:  Emili,  or  an  Evening  in  Ixipland;  Column 
bus;  Gustav  Adolf  in  Germany,  and  many  religious 
songs.     Died,  1847. 

Franzos  (/rdn'-teds),  Karl  £mll,  Austrian  novelist, 
was  bom  in  Russian  Podolia  of  Jewish  parentage, 
1848.  He  passed  his  earliest  years  in  the  Polinh- 
Jewish  village  of  Czortckow  in  Galicia,  the 
Bamow  of  his  novels.  Left  an  orphan  at  an 
early  age,  he  was  educated  at  tne  German 
gymnasium  at  Czemowitz.  He  studied  juris- 
prudence, but  afterward  settled  as  a  journalist 
in  Vienna.  Among  his  principal  works  is  Au» 
Halbasien,  sketches  of  South  Russia  and  Ruma- 
nia, and  the  novels  Junge  Liebe;  The  Jews  of 
Bamow;  Moschko  von  Parma;  For  the  Right; 
Der  Prasident;  Die  Reiae  nach  dem  Schickacd; 
Tragische  Novellen,  and  Der  Wahrheitaueher. 
Franzos's  tales  are  full  of  deep  pathos.  Died,  1904. 

Fraser,  Alexander  Campbell,  British  author  and 
educator,  professor  emeritus  of  logic  and  meta- 

Ehysics,  and  formerly  Gilford  lecturer,  in  Edin- 
urgh  university,  was  bom  at  Ardchattan 
manse,  County  Argyll,  1819.  Educated  privately 
and  at  Edinburgh  university;  D.  C.  L.,  Oxford; 
LL.  D.,  Princeton,  Glasgow,  Edinburgh;  Litt.  D., 
Dublin.  Professor  of  logic.  New  college,  Ekiin- 
burgh,  1846-56;  editor  of  North  British  Review, 
1850-57;  professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in 
the  university  of  Edinburgh  in  succession  to  Sir 
William  Hamilton,  1856-91,  and  now  professor 
emeritus;  Gifford  lecturer  on  natural  theology 
in  Edinburgh,  in  succession  to  Professor  Pflei- 
derer  of  Berlin,  1894-96.  Author:  Essaijs  in 
Philosophy;  Essays,  Philosophical  and  Miscel- 
laneous; Collected  Works  of  Bishop  Berkeley, 
annotated ;  Life  and  Letters  of  Berkeley;  Locke  a 
Essay  on  Human  Understanding,  with  Proleg- 
omena, Notes  and  Dissertations;  Thomas  Reid, 
a  Biography;  Philosophy  of  Theism;  Biographia 
Philosophica ;  a  Personal  Retrospect;  Berkeley  and 
Spiritual  Realism,  and  various  minor  publications. 

Fraser,  Mrs.  Hugh,  novelist  and  writer  of  travels, 
was  bom  at  Rome,  Italy,  daughter  of  Thomas 
Crawford,  sculptor,  and  Louisa  Cutler  Ward; 
sister  of  Marion  Crawford ;  married  Hugh  Fraser, 
British  minister  to  Japan.  She  was  educated 
at  Bonchurch,  by  Miss  E.  M.  Sewell,  and  in 
Rome.  Accompanied  her  husband  to  China, 
South  America,  and  Japan,  as  well  as  to  various 
courts  of  Europe;  has  traveled  much  in  the 
United  States;  became  a  Catholic  in  1884,  and 
a  widow  in  1894.  Author:  The  Brown  Ambaa- 
sador;  Palladia;  A  Chapter  of  Accidents:  The 
Looms  of  Time;  A  Diplomatist's  Wife  in  Japan; 
Tfie  Customs  of  the  Country,  or  Tales  of  New 
Japan;  The  Splendid  Porsenna;  A  LUUe  Grey 
Sheep;  Marna's  Mutiny;  The  Stolen  Emperor; 
a  Tale  of  Old  Japan;  The  Slaking  of  the  Sword; 
A  Diplomatist's  Wife  in  Many  Lands,  etc. 

Fraunhofer  {froun' -ho-ftr),  Josepti  von,  German 
optician,  was  bom  at  Straubing  in  Bavaria,  1787. 
In  1807  he  was  employed  to  found  an  optical 
institute  at  Benediktbeuem,  which  under  his 
management  was  in  1819  removed  to  Munich. 
He  invented  many  optical  instruments,  but  is 
most  celebrated  for  his  improvements  in  tele- 
scope prisms  and  in  the  mechanism  for  manipu- 
lating large  telescopes,  and  above  all  for  his 
discovery  of  the  dark  lines  in  the  sun's  spectrum, 
called  Fraunhofer's  lines.     Died,  1826. 

Frazler,  James  B.,  lawyer,  ex-United  States  senator, 
was  born  in  Pikeville,  Tenn.,  1856;  graduated  in 
arts  and  law,  university  of  Tennessee;  practiced 
law  at  Chattanooga  since  1881;  elected  governor 
of    Tennessee     for     terms     1903-05,     1905-07; 


702 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


resigned,  1906,  and  vras  elected  United  States 
senator  to  succeed  W.  B.  Bate:  term  expired, 
1911, 

Frear  (/rer),  Walter  Francis,  governor,  jurist,  was 
bom  in  Grass  Valley,  Cal.,  1863;  graduated 
from  Oahu  college,  Honolulu,  1881;  Yale  uni- 
versity, 1883;  Yale  law  school,  1890;  taught 
Greek,  mathematics,  and  political  economy,  Otuiu 
college,  1886-88;  second  judge,  first  circuit, 
kingdom  of  Hawaii,  1893;  second  associate 
justice  of  supreme  court,  provisional  government, 
Hawaii,  1893;  first  associate  justice  of  supreme 
court,  republic  of  Hawaii,  1896;  member  of 
Hawaiian  commission  to  recommend  to  congress 
legislation  concerning  Hawaii,  1898;  acting  cnief- 
justice,  supreme  court,  republic  of  Hawaii, 
1899-1900;  chief-justice,  1900-07;  governor  of 
Hawaii  territory  since  1907. 

Frederick  Im  called  Barbarossa  or  Redbeard,  wa« 
bom  about  1121,  and  became  emperor  of  Ger- 
many in  1152.  His  reign  was  a  long  struggle, 
with  powerful  vassals  at  home,  and  with  Lom- 
bardy  and  the  pope  in  Italy.  He  captured  and 
razed  Milan  in  1162,  and  took  Rome  by  storm 
five  years  later.  His  army  was,  however, 
smitten  with  the  plague,  and  Lombardy  again 
revolted;  in  1176  ne  was  defeated  at  Legnano. 
At  home  he  managed  his  vassals  by  a  system  of 
conciliation,  and  by  keeping  the  balance  of 
power  among  them  equal.  He  asserted  his 
power,  moreover,  over  Poland,  Hungary,  Den- 
mark, and  Burgundy.  At  the  height  of  his  fame 
and  influence,  he  took  the  cross  to  fight  against 
Saladin.  He  defeated  the  Mohammedans  in  two 
battles,  but  was  himself  drowned  in  Pisidia,  1190. 

Frederick  II.,  of  Germany,  son  of  Emperor  Henry 
VI.,  was  born  at  Jesi  near  Ancona,  1194.  In  bis 
fourth  year  his  father  died,  leaving  him  king  of 
Sicily.  When  eighteen  he  wrested  the  imperial 
crown  from  Otto  IV.,  and  was  crowned  in  1215. 
He  ardently  desired  the  consolidation  of  the 
imperial  power  in  Italy  by  reducing  the  pontifi- 
cate to  a  mere  archiepiscopal  dignity.  Crowned 
emperor  at  Rome  in  1220,  he  devoted  himself  to 
organizing  his  Italian  territories.  He  founded 
the  university  of  Naples,  encouraged  the  medical 
school  of  Salerno,  patronized  art  and  literature, 
and  commissioned  his  chancellor  to  draw  up  a 
code  of  laws  to  suit  his  German  and  Italian 
subjects.  He  took  Jerusalem  in  1228,  and  after 
crowning  himself  king  of  Jerusalem,  1229,  he 
returned  to  Italy,  where  his  Neapolitan  domin- 
ions had  been  overrun  by  the  papal  allies. 
During  the  remainder  of  his  reign  he  was  engaged 
in  a  harassing  contest  with  the  pope,  whose 
hands  were  strengthened  by  the  accession  of  the 
revolted  Lombard  cities  and  of  several  princes 
and  towns  of  Germany,  headed  by  his  son,  Henry. 
Disaster  and  misfortune  were  gathering  around 
him,  when  he  died  at  Fiorentino  in  1250.  Intel- 
lectually, he  was  perhaps  the  most  enlightened 
man  of  his  age. 

Frederick  II,,  the  Great,  king  of  Prussia.  See  page 
406. 

Frederick  III,,  eighth  king  of  Prussia  and  emperor 
of  Germany,  son  of  William  I.,  was  bom  near 
Potsdam,  1831.  He  commanded  an  army  of 
125,000  in  the  Austro-Pmssian  war  of  1866, 
and  one  of  200,000  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war 
of  1870.  He  won  the  victories  of  Weissenburg 
and  Worth  and  bore  a  distinguished  part  in  the 
succeeding  events  of  the  war.  After  arousing 
the  world's  best  expectations  by  his  goodness 
and  wisdom  no  less  than  by  his  bravery,  he 
ascended  the  throne  in  1888,  during  his  last 
illness,  in  which  he  suffered  as  heroically  as  he 
had  fought.  He  died  when  fifty-seven  years  old, 
1888.     He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  WilUam  II. 

Frederick  VI.,  king  of  Denmark,  son  of  Christian 
VII.  and  the  princess  Caroline  Matilda,  was  bom 


in  1768.  In  1784  he  was  declared  regent,  on 
account  of  bis  father's  incapacity.  With  the 
help  of  his  minister.  Count  Bernstorff,  he  abol- 
ished serfdom,  relormed  the  criminal  code, 
removed  the  disabilities  of  the  Jews,  and  pro- 
hibited the  slave  trade.  By  the  advice  of  Bern- 
storff he  strove  to  maintain  strict  neutrality  in 
the  wars  of  the  epoch.  But  for  refusing  the 
demands  of  the  English,  the  Danish  fleet  was 
almost  destroyed  in  1801,  and  in  1807  Copen- 
hagen was  bombarded  and  the  fleet  transferred 
to  England.  Denmark  then  became  an  ally  of 
Napoleon,  and  shared  his  fortune.  Frederick 
ascended  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his  father  in 
1808.  In  1814  he  was  robbed  of  Norway,  and 
was  at  last  compelled  to  send  a  contingent  of 
10,000  men  against  the  French.  The  country 
bad  become  bankrupt  in  1813,  but  by  his  wise 
measures  financial  order  was  finally  restored. 
Died,  1839. 

Frederick  Charles,  prince  and  field-marshal  of  Ger- 
many, was  bom  in  Berlin,  1828.  He  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Prince  Charles,  brother  of  Emperor 
William  I.  Frederick  Charles  entered  the  Prus- 
sian array  when  a  boy,  served  in  the  first  8chla»- 
wig-Holstein  war,  commanded  the  right  wing  in 
the  second  Danish  war,  and  defeated  the  Aus- 
trians  at  Koniggriitz  in  18G6.  He  commanded 
the  second  army  in  1870,  drove  Bazaine  back 
Into  Metz,  and  received  the  surrender  of  that 
fortress  October  27,  1870.  Thence  he  marched 
on  Orleans,  which  he  captured,  defeated  General 
Chanzy  at  Le  Mans,  and  broke  up  the  army  of 
the  Loire.  He  was  known  as  "the  red  prince," 
from  the  fact  that  he  always  wore  a  red  hussar 
uniform.  His  daughter,  Louise  Margaret,  mar- 
ried the  duke  of  Connaught,  son  of  Queen  Victo- 
ria, in  1879.     Died,  1885. 

Frederick  WlUlam,  the  great  elector  of  Branden- 
burg, was  bom  in  1620.  On  his  accession  in  1640 
he  found  the  state  disorf^anized,  exliausted,  and 
devastated  by  the  thirty  years'  war.  He 
strenuously  regulated  the  finances,  made  a  treaty 
of  neutrality  with  Sweden,  organized  his  army, 
and  strove  to  repeople  his  deserted  towns  ami 
villages.  By  the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  1648, 
he  recovered  eastern  Pomerania,  Halberstadt, 
and  Minden,  with  the  reversion  of  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Magdeburg;  and  out  of  a  auarrel  be- 
tween Sweden  and  Poland  he  contrivea  to  secure 
the  independence  of  the  duchy  of  Prussia  from 
Poland,  1657.  After  another  fifteen  years  of 
peace,  alarmed  at  the  aggressions  of  Louis  XIV. 
on  the  Rhenish  frontier,  he  induced  the  eniperor, 
the  king  of  Denmark,  and  the  elector  of  Hesse- 
Cassel  to  make  a  league  against  France.  Incited 
by  Louis,  the  Swedes  invaded  Brandenburg,  but 
were  defeated  at  Rathenow  and  at  Fehrbellin, 
1675,  and  driven  from  the  electorate;  still, 
forsaken  by  the  emperor  and  the  other  Germaa 
princes,  the  elector  was  obliged  to  agree  to  the 
treaty  of  St.  Germain,  1679,  by  which  he  restored 
all  his  conquests  to  the  Swedes  on  the  paj'ment 
to  him  of  300,000  crowns.  From  this  time  he 
devoted  himself  to  consolidating  his  dominions 
and  developing  their  resources.  He  encouraged 
the  immigration  of  exiled  French  Protestants, 
Dutchmen,  and  other  foreigners.  He  founded 
the  royal  library  at  Berlin,  reorganized  the 
universities,  opened  canals,  established  posts, 
and  greatlj'  enlarged  Berlin.  He  left  a  well- 
filled  exchequer  and  a  highly  organized  army. 
He  made  Brandenburg  virtually  an  absolute 
monarchy  only  less  powerful  than  Austria.  He 
died  at  Potsciam  in  1688,  and  his  son  became 
King  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia. 

Frederick  William  I.,  king  of  Prussia,  son  of 
Frederick  I.,  was  bom,  1688,  and  on  his  accession 
in  1713  became  embroiled  in  the  war  waged  by 
Sweden  against  Russia,  Poland,  and  Denmark, 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


703 


at  the  end  of  which  he  acquired  Pomcrania  with 
Stettin.  The  remainder  of  his  reign  was  devoted 
to  improving  the  internal  condition  of  Prussia. 
He  was  sternly  practical,  blunt,  and  determined ; 
he  despised  the  arts  and  sciences,  was  rigidly 
economical,  and  strict  in  his  ideas  of  justice.  At 
his  death  in  1740  he  left  a  treasure  of  1,350,000 
pounds,  and  an  army  of  more  than  80,000  men, 
the  best-disciplined  force  in  Europe,  which  made 
Prussia  fourth  in  military  power.  He  fostered 
industry  and  agriculture,  introduced  the  manu- 
facture of  woolen  cloth,  and  settled  in  East 
Prussia  17,000  Protestant  refugees  from  Salzburg. 
His  rule  laid  the  foundation  upon  which  his  son 
Frederick  the  Great  built  the  subsequent  great- 
ness of  Prussia. 

Frederick  William  II.,  king  of  Prussia,  nephew 
of  Frederick  the  Great,  was  born  in  1744.  The 
abolition  of  some  of  his  predecessor's  oppressive 
measures  made  him  very  popular  at  his  accession 
in  1786.  But  he  soon  lost  the  regard  of  his  sub- 
jects by  his  predilection  for  unworthy  favorites, 
and  by  the  abrogation  of  the  freedom  of  the 
press  and  religion  in  1788.  The  millions  his 
uncle  left  in  the  treasury  he  dissipated  in  a  use- 
less war  with  Holland.  His  foreign  policy  was 
weak,  while  he  oppressed  his  subjects  with  debt 
and  increased  taxation.  He  acquired  large  areas 
of  Polish  Prussia  and  Silesia  by  the  partitions 
of  Poland  in  1793  and  1795,  as  also  Ansbach  and 
Baireuth.     He  died  in  1797. 

Frederick  William  IIIm  of  Prussia,  son  of  Frederick 
William  II.,  was  born  in  1770.  The  truculent 
policy  of  Napoleon  roused  the  spirit  of  the  nation, 
and  the  king  saw  himself  obliged,  in  1805,  to 
agree  to  a  convention  with  Russia,  the  real  object 
of  which  was  to  drive  Napoleon  out  of  Germany. 
By  the  intervention  of  the  emperor  Alexander 
of  Russia  a  peace  was  concluded,  known  as  the 
treaty  of  Tilsit,  by  which  Frederick  William  lost 
the  greater  part  of  his  realm,  and  was  deprived 
of  all  but  the  semblance  of  royalty.  The  dis- 
astrous termination  of  Napoleon's  Russian  cam- 
paign was  the  turning-point  in  the  fortunes  of 
Prussia.  The  part  taken  by  the  Prussian  army 
under  Bliicher  in  gaining  the  victory  of  Waterloo, 
by  which  Napoleon's  power  was  finally  broken, 
raised  the  kingdom  from  its  abasement.  From 
that  time  Frederick  William  devoted  himself  to 
the  improvement  of  his  exhausted  states.  He 
was  more  than  once  embroiled  with  the  pope,  on 
account  of  his  violation  of  the  concordat.  He 
concluded  the  great  German  commercial  league 
known  as  the  Zollverein,  which  organized  the 
German  customs  and  duties  in  accordance 
with  one  uniform  system.     Died,  1840. 

Freeman,  Edward  Augrustus,  eminent  English 
historian,  was  born  at  Harbome,  England,  1823. 
He  was  educated  at  Trinity  college,  Oxford. 
His  first  work  was  a  History  of  Architecture,  1849. 
After  several  minor  works,  his  most  important 
one  on  the  History  of  the  Norman  Conquest 
appeared  between  1867  and  1879,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  that  of  The  Reign  of  WUliam  Rufus  and 
Accession  of  Henry  I.  He  also  wrote  histories  of 
the  Saracens  and  of  the  Ottoman  power  in  Europe; 
General  Sketch  of  European  History;  Growth  of 
(he  English  Constitution;  Comparative  Politics; 
Historical  Geography  of  Europe;  William  the  Con- 
queror; and  various  other  works,  some  of  a  more 
popular  character,  besides  many  articles  and 
reviews.  In  1884  he  was  appointed  regius  pro- 
fessor of  modern  history  at  Oxford.     Died,  1892. 

Freeman,  John  ICipIey,  civil  and  mechanical  engi- 
neer, was  born  in  West  Bridgeton,  Me.,  1855; 
graduated  at  the  Massachusetts  institute  of  tech- 
nology, 1876;  hon.  Sc.  D.,  Brown  university, 
1904;  Tufts  college,  1905.  Principal  assistant 
engineer  Water  Power  company,  Lawrence,  Mass., 
1876-86 ;      chief    engineer    Associated    Factory  i 


mutual  insurance  companies,  1886-96;  ooniult- 
ing  engineer  on  water  power  and  mill  construction 
to  sundrv  large  manufacturing  corporations  since 
1886.  Made  extensive  studies  of  water  supply 
for  Greater  New  York,  for  finance  department, 
1899-1900 ;  chief  engineer  investigations,  Cliarles 
river  dam,  Boston  harbor,  1903;  consulting 
engineer  Boston  metropolitan  park  commission 
on  sanitary  and  drainage  problems,  1003-04; 
water  commissioner,  Win("he8ter,  Mass.,  1882-86; 
engineer  niember  of  Massachusetts  metropoUtUi 
water  board,  1895-96;  president  of  Manufactur- 
ers, Rhode  Island  Mechanics,  State,  Enterprise 
and  American  Factory  mutual  insurance  com- 
panies; director  of  Rhode  Island  Hospital  trust 
company.  Providence  national  bank  of  commerce, 
Providence  gas  company.  Consulting  engineer 
to  New  York  board  of  water  supply  smce  1905: 
consulting  engineer  isthmian  canal  locks  ana 
dams,  1907  and  1909.  Member  of  many 
engineering  and  scientific  societies. 

Freeman,  Mary  E.  Wilkin  s,  author,  was  bom  at 
Randolph,  Mass.,  1862.  She  was  educated  there 
and  at  Mt.  Holyoke  seminary,  1874;  came  Into 
prominence  as  a  writer  for  magazines  —  poems, 
short  stories,  etc.;  married  Dr.  Charles  M. 
Freeman,  1902.  Author:  A  Humble  Romance; 
A  New  England  Nun;  Young  Lucretia;  Jane 
Field;  Giles  Corey;  Pembroke;  Madelon;  Jerome; 
Silence;  Evelina  8  Garden;  The  Love  of  Parson 
Lord;  The  Hearts  Highvxiy;  The  Portion  of 
Labor;  Understudies;  Six  frees;  The  Wind  in 
the  Rose  Bush;  Tfie  Givers;  Doc  Gordon;  By  the 
Light  of  the  Soid,  etc.,  also  The  Jamesons,  and 
People  of  Our  Neighborhood,  serially  in  the  Ladies' 
Home  Journal. 

Freiligrath  (/ri'^lK-rfl^),  Ferdinand,  German  poet, 
was  born  at  Detmold,  1810,  and  was  led  by  the 
success  of  a  volume  of  poems,  published  in  1838, 
to  desert  commerce  for  literature.  In  1844  he 
attached  himself  to  the  democratic  party,  and 
for  his  radical  writings  had  to  flee  to  Belgium. 
Switzerland,  and  London.  In  1848  he  celebrated 
the  revolution  in  Die  Revolution  and  Februar- 
kl&nge,  and  returned  to  Germany,  where  he  be- 
came the  leader  of  the  democratic  party.  Im- 
peached the  same  year  for  his  poem  Die  Todten 
an  die  Lebenden,  he  was  acquitted ;  but  a  second 
prosecution  in  1851  compelled  him  to  flee  once 
more  to  London.  He  returned  in  1868,  and  died 
at  Cannstatt,  1876.  Cliief  among  his  political 
poems  are  (^a  Ira,  and  Neuere  politische  und 
soziale  Gedichte.  He  translated  Longfellow. 
Shakespeare,  etc.  His  collected  works  appeared 
in  1870. 

Frellnghuysen  (fre'-llng-hl'-zen),  Frederick,  Ameri- 
can statesman,  was  bom  in  New  Jersey,  1753. 
He  raised  a  corps  of  artillerj',  fought  in  the 
revolutionary  war,  was  a  member  of  the  con- 
tinental congress  in  1778  and  1782-83,  and  » 
United  States  senator  in  1793-96.  He  died  in 
1804. 

Frellnghuysen,  Frederick  Theodore,  nephew  of 
above,  was  bom  in  New  Jersey,  1817.  He  prac- 
ticed law  and  held  minor  oflices  in  New  Jersey, 
and  in  1861  became  attorney-general  of  that 
state.  From  1866  to  1869  he  served  as  United 
States  senator.  In  1870  he  was  nominated  and 
confirmed  as  minister  to  England,  but  declined 
the  appointment.  In  1871  he  was  again  elected 
to  the  United  States  senate,  and  served  until 
1877.  He  was  a  strong  republican,  voted  for 
the  conviction  of  Andrew  Johnson,  supported 
the  civil  rights  bill,  and  was  an  ardent  protec- 
tionist. He  was  a  member  of  the  Hayes-Tilden 
electoral  commiasion.  In  1881  he  became  secre- 
tary of  state  in  President  Arthur's  cabinet,  and 
held  office  until  his  death  in  1885. 

Frellnghuysen,  Theodoi*,  son  of  Frederick,  waa 
born  in  New  Jersey  in  1787.     He  studied  law, 


704 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


practiced  in  New  Jersey,  and  from  1817  to  1829 
waa  attorney-general  of  that  state.  In  1829 
he  was  chosen  United  States  senator,  and  served 
until  1835.  Afterward  he  was  mayor  of  Newark, 
and  in  1839  became  chancellor  of  the  university 
of  New  York.  In  May,  1844,  he  was  nominated 
for  vice-president  by  the  whigs,  Henry  Clay 
heading  tne  ticket.  In  1850  he  became  president 
of  Rutgers  college,  which  position  he  held  until 
his  death  in  1862. 

Fr^mlet  (/ra'-mj/g'),  Emmanuel,  noted  French 
sculptor,  wjs  bom  at  Paris,  1824.  He  studied  at 
La  Petite  Ecole,  and  under  Rude;  made  draw- 
ings at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  and  later  drew 
plates  for  medical  works.  His  first  sculptural 
work  was  of  a  fox  and  a  gazelle.  His  master- 
piece is  an  equestrian  statue  of  Joan  of  Arc. 
His  other  pieces  include  "Gorilla  Abducting  a 
Woman,"  St.  Michael,"  "Faun  and  Young 
Bear,"  and  "Daschshund."     Died,  1910. 

Fremont  (fre-mdnf),  John  Charles,  explorer  of  the 
Rocky  mountains,  was  born  at  Savannah,  Ga., 
1813.  For  two  years  he  taught  mathematics  on 
a  warship,  and  in  1838  began  surveying.  In 
1842  he  crossed  the  Rocky  mountains,  and 
demonstrated  the  feasibility  of  an  overland 
route  across  the  continent.  In  1843  he  explored 
Great  Salt  lake,  advancing  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia  river;  and  in  1845  examined  the 
watershed  between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Pacific. 
During  the  Mexican  war  he  cleared  northern 
California  of  Mexican  troops,  but,  quarreling 
with  his  superior  oflficers,  was  court-martialed, 
and  resigned  his  captaincy.  In  1848  he  started 
upon  a  fourth  expedition  along  the  upper  Rio 
Grande,  but  was  compelled  to  return  to  Santa 
F6,  after  unspeakable  sufferings.  In  1849  he 
crossed  over  to  California,  where  he  settled,  and 
next  year  became  United  States  senator  from 
the  new  state.  In  1853  he  conducted  a  fifth 
expedition.  In  1856  he  was  the  republican 
and  anti-slavery  candidate  for  the  presidency; 
nominated  again  in  1864,  he  withdrew  in  favor 
of  Lincoln.  In  1861-62  he  served  in  the  regular 
army  as  major-general,  but  resigned  rather  than 
serve  under  General  Pope.  He  was  governor  of 
Arizona  in  1878-82,  and  died  in  New  York,  1890. 

French,  Alice,  author,  better  known  as  Octave 
Thanet,  was  bom  at  Andover,  Mass..  1850, 
daughter  of  Hon.  George  Henry  French.  She 
was  educated  at  Abbot  academy  there,  but  her 
life  since  then  has  been  spent  in  the  South  and 
West.  Author:  Knitters  in  the  Sun;  Expiation, 
a  novelette;  Otto  the  Knight;  An  Adventure  in 
Photogra'phy;  Missionary  Sheriff;  A  Book  of 
True  Lovers;  The  Heart  of  Toil;  A  Slave  to  Duty; 
Man  of  the  Hour,  etc. 

French,  Daniel  Chester,  American  sculptor,  was 
bom  at  Exeter,  N.  H.,  1850.  He  was  educated 
in  Exeter,  N.  H.,  and  Massachusetts  institute 
of  technology,  Boston,  one  year;  A.  M.,  Dart- 
mouth college ;  studied  art  with  William  Rimmer 
in  Boston,  and  with  Thomas  Ball  in  Florence, 
Italy;  occupied  a  studio  in  Washington,  187G- 
78,  in  Boston  and  Concord,  Mass.,  1878-87,  and 
in  New  York  since  1887.  Among  his  best-known 
works  are:  "The  Minute  Man  of  Concord,"  at 
Concord,  Mass. ;  a  statue  of  General  Cass,  in  the 
capitol  at  Washington;  statue  of  Rufus  Choate, 
Boston  courthouse;  John  Harvard,  at  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  and  Thomas  Starr  King  statues; 
"Dr.  Gallaudet  and  His  First  Deaf-Mute  Pupil," 
the  Milmore  memorial;  and  colossal  "Statue  of 
the  Republic,"  at  World's  Columbian  exposition. 
Received  medal  of  honor,  Paris  exposition,  1900. 

Freneau  (fre-no'),  Philip,  American  poet,  was  bom 
in  New  York  city,  1752.  He  was  of  French 
descent,  and  was  graduated  at  Princeton  in 
1771.  In  1776  he  visited  the  West  Indies,  and 
in  1778  went  to  the  Bermuda  islands.     In  1780, 


during  the  war  of  the  revolution,  he  again  sailed 
for  the  West  Indies,  when  he  was  captured  by  a 
British  cruiser.  After  the  return  of  peace 
Freneau  became  in  succession  editor  of  a  news- 
paper, and  captain  of  a  ship  that  plied  between 
New  York,  the  West  Indies,  and  the  southern 
states.  In  1790  he  edited  the  New  York  Daily 
Advertiser.  Under  Jefferson's  administration 
Freneau  was  made  translator  for  the  state 
department,  and  also  became  editor  of  the 
National  Gazette.  Later  he  published  the  Jersey 
Chronicle,  which  in  1797  was  followed  by  the 
publication  of  the  Time-piece  and  Literary 
Companion.  From  that  time  until  his  death  he 
rarely  came  before  the  public.     Died,  1832. 

Fr*re  (jr&r),  Pierre  £douard,  French  painter,  waa 
born  at  Paris,  1819.  He  studied  under  Delaroche. 
His  paintings  are  mostly  figures  and  scenes  from 
domestic  Ufe.  They  are  good  subjects  for 
engraving,  and  are  well  known  in  art  stores. 
Ruskin  was  enthusiastic  in  praise  of  several  of 
his  works,  which  were  shown  in  the  French 
gallery  in  1857.  "The  Seamstress,"  "Little 
Gourmand,"  "Preparing  for  Church."  and  the 
"Gleaner  Boy "  are  among  his  best-known 
pictures.  "Preparing  for  Church"  is  in  the 
Corcoran  gallery  at  Washington.  He  died  at 
Ecouen,  1886. 

FrescBtaa  (frd-td'^ni-^ba),  Karl  Remlglus,  noted 
German  cnemist,  was  bom  in  1818.  He  studied 
at  Bonn  and  Giessen  under  Liebig,  and  in  1845 
became  professor  of  chemistry  at  Wiesbaden. 
The  laboratory'  founded  by  him  in  1848  subse- 
quently Kained  great  celebrity  in  chemical 
science.  He  was  a  skillful  analyst,  and  his  works 
have  been  translated  into  many  languages. 
Died,  1897. 

Fresnel  (Jr&'-7M,'\  Augustln  Jean,  eminent  French 
physicist,  was  born  at  Broglie,  Eure,  France, 
1788.  He  was  educated  at  the  polytechnic 
school  in  Paris,  and  in  1810  received  a  permanent 
appointment  there  through  the  celebrated  Arago. 
He  distinguished  himself  by  his  experiments  on 
the  inflection  and  polarization  of  light,  and  in 
1819  gained  the  prize  offered  for  the  best  treatise 
explanatory  of  the  phenomena  of  light.  He 
invented  the  compound  lighthouse  lens.  He 
died  in  1827,  and  his  works  were  published  in 
1866  by  the  French  government. 

Freund  (froint),  Wilhelm,  German  philologist,  was 
bom  of  Jewish  parents  at  Kempen  in  Posen, 
1806.  He  studied  at  Berlin  and  Breslau,  taueht 
at  Breslau,  Hirschberg,  and  Gleiwitz,  and  finally 
settled  down  at  Breslau  to  a  literary  life.  On 
his  WSrterhuch  der  lateinischen  Sprache  most 
English-Latin  dictionaries  are  based.    Died,  1894. 

Freycinet  {Jra'-se'-ni'),  Charles  Louis  de  8aulce 
de,  French  statesman,  was  bom  at  Foix,  France, 
1828.  He  was  educated  at  the  polytechnic 
school  in  Paris,  and  was  originally  an 
engineer.  In  1870  he  was  called  by  Gambetta 
to  the  war  department;  his  conduct  there  he 
described  in  La  Guerre  en  Province.  Elected  to 
the  senate  in  1876,  he  became  minister  of  public 
works  in  1877,  premier  in  1879,  1882,  1886,  and 
1890,  and  in  1892  remained  war  minister  under 
his  successor,  M.  Loubet.  The  Panama  scandal 
drove  him  to  resign  in  1893.  He  has  written  on 
engineering,  sanitation,  etc.,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  academy  of  sciences  in  1887,  and  to  the 
French  academy  in  1890. 

Freytag  (JrV-tiiK),  Gustav,  German  novelist  and 
dramatic  writer,  waa  bom  in  Silesia,  1816.  He 
studied  at  Breslau  and  Berlin,  and  lectured  on 
German  Uterature  in  the  university  at  Breslau. 
He  edited  a  newspaper  at  Leipzig,  held  a  court 
position  at  Gotha,  and  during  the  Franco- 
German  war  was  attached  for  a  period  to  the 
staff  of  the  crown  prince.  He  wrote  poema, 
successful   plays,    and  novels.     His   best-icnown 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


70S 


work  is  Debit  and  Credit,  which  has  appeared  in 
several  English  translations.  The  Lost  Manu- 
script and  a  series  called  Our  Ancestors  were 
almost  as  popular,  while  the  plays,  The  Valen- 
tine, and  Couvi  Waldcmar,  were  brilliant  suc- 
cesses. His  other  important  works  include  Die 
J cntrnalisten  and  Die  Tecknic  dea  Dramas.  He 
died  at  Wiesbaden,  1895. 

Frtck,  Henry  Clay,  manufacturer,  philanthropist, 
was  born  in  West  Overton,  Pa.,  1849.  He  began 
business  life  as  a  clerk  for  his  grandfather,  a 
flour  merchant  and  distiller;  later  embarked  in 
a  small  way  in  the  coke  business.  Was  president, 
and  since  1897  chairman  of  board  of  directors  of 
the  H.  C.  Frick  coke  company,  now  the  largest 
coke  producer  in  the  world,  operating  nearly 
40,000  acres  of  coal  and  12,000  coke  ovens,  with 
dailv  capacity  of  25,000  tons.  He  came  into 
public  notice  by  his  vigorous  management  during 
the  famous  strike  at  Homestead,  1892,  when  he 
was  several  times  shot  and  stabbed  by  one  of 
the  strikers.  He  was  chairman  of  board  of  the 
firm  of  Carnegie  Bros.,  1889-92,  chairman  of 
board  of  managers  of  the  Carnegie  steel  com- 
pany since  1892,  and  is  also  director  or  officer 
in  numerous  other  business  enterprises. 

FrSbel  (friX'-bel),  Frledrlch  Wilhelm,  founder  of  the 
famous  Kindergarten  system,  was  born  at  Ober- 
weissbach,  Germany,  1782.  He  studied  at  Jena, 
Gottingen,  and  Berlin;  served  in  the  German 
army  against  the  French,  1813-14,  and  founded 
in  1816  his  school  at  Greisheim,  which  he  removed, 
in  1817,  to  Keilhau,  near  Rudolstadt.  He  also 
founded  a  kindergarten  at  Blankenburg  in  1837. 
His  system  was  founded  on  that  of  Pestalozzi  — 
under  whom  he  worked  from  1807  to  1809  — 
which  combined  "physical,  moral,  and  intellectual 
training,  commencing  with  the  years  of  child- 
hood. His  chief  work  is  The  Education  of  Man, 
Mother's  Songs,  Games,  and  Stories,  etc.  Died, 
1852. 

Froblsher  (Jrdh' -Ish-er  or  fro' -blsh-^).  Sir  Martin, 
famous  English  navigator,  was  born  near  Don- 
caster  about  1535,  and  brought  up  to  the  sea. 
Persuaded  that  there  was  a  northwest  passage 
to  the  Indies,  and  after  many  fruitless  efforts  to 
enlist  the  merchants  in  his  cause,  he  obtained  in 
1576  from  the  government  of  Queen  Elizabeth 
three  vessels,  explored  portions  of  the  Arctic 
coast,  and,  passing  through  the  strait  which  has 
since  borne  his  name,  he  returned  to  England 
with  some  black  ore,  which  was  thought  to  con- 
tain gold,  and  was  enabled  by  the  queen  to  make 
two  more  voyages  in  1577  and  1578,  neither  of 
which  was  crowned  with  fortunate  results.  In 
1585  he  went  with  Sir  Francis  Drake  to  the  West 
Indies.  He  contributed  by  his  gallantry  toward 
the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  armada  in  1588,  and 
received  the  honor  of  knighthood.  In  1590  and  I 
1592  he  commanded  squadrons  with  success 
against  the  Spaniards;  and  in  1594,  being  sent  I 
to  the  aid  of  Henry  IV.  of  France  with  four  ships  | 
of  war,  he  was  wounded,  and  died  on  his  home-  ; 
ward  voyage. 

Frohman,  Charles,  theatrical  manager,  was  bom  at  i 
Sandusky,  Ohio,  1860.  He  was  educated  in  the  ^ 
public  schools  of  New  York ;  was  employed  in 
the  office  of  Daily  Graphic,  New  York,  and  sold 
tickets  evenings  at  Hoolev's  theater,  Brooklyn. 
In  1877  he  took  charge  of  a  company  that  was 
sent  west  to  play  Our  Boys;  was  vrith  Wm. 
Haverly's  minstrels,  1879-80,  in  United  States 
and  Europe ;  went  on  road  with  Lady  Clare  and 
Victor  Durand,  1881,  but  the  tour  was  a  failure. 
In  1888  he  saw  Shenandoah  at  Boston  museum; 
organized  a  company  and  bought  rights  to  that 
play,  outside  of  Boston;  made  great  success 
with  that  and  succeeding  ventures;  organized 
Charles  Frohman  stock  company,  1890;  now 
proprietor    and    manager    of    Empire    theater. 


Criterion,  Lyceum,  Garrick,  Savov,  and  Knicker- 
bocker theaters,  New  York,  and  Duke  of  York's, 
Comedy.  Glolie  and  Adelphi  theaters,  London; 
also  joint  manager  of  Vaudeville  theater,  Lon- 
don. 

Frohman,  Daniel,  theatrical  manager,  was  bom  at 
yandusky,  Ohio,  1853.  Received  a  common 
school  education,  and  became  office  boy  of  New 
York  Tribune,  1866.  Remained  in  newspaper 
business  for  five  years,  then  appeared  as  maiia|{er 
of  traveling  theatrical  companies  through  the 
United  States;  manager  of  Fiftli  Avenue  theater 
and  Madison  Square  tlicater.  New  York,  1870-85; 
manager  of  Lyceum  theater  since  1885;  manager 
of  Daly's  theater.  New  York,  with  the  Daniel 
Frohman  stock  company;  also  manaser  of 
English  and  American  stars  and  theatriciu  com- 
panies and  New  Lyceum  theater.  New  York. 
President  of  actors'  fund  of  America. 

Froraentln  {fro' -mas' -t&N'),  Eugene,  French  painter 
and  author,  was  bom  at  La  Rochelle,  France, 
1820.  He  was  a  pupil  of  R6mond  and  Cabat; 
traveled  in  1842-46  m  Algeria,  Egypt,  and  the 
East,  and  was  made  an  officer  of  the  legion  of 
honor,  1859.  He  wrote  the  successful  romances 
Dominique  and  Lea  Maitrea  d' Autrefois.  Some 
of  his  best  pictures  are:  "Crossing  the  Ford," 
"Arabs  Watering  Horses,"  and  "Encampment 
in  Atlas  Mountains."     Died,  1876. 

Frontenac  (Fr.  fr6N'-U-ndk';  Eng.,  frdn'-U^nHk). 
Louis  de  Buade,  Comte  de,  French  colonial 
officer,  governor  of  Canada,  was  bom  in  1621. 
He  served  in  the  French  army,  and  in  1672  was 
appointed  governor  of  the  French  possessions  in 
>forth  America.  He  was  recalled  after  ten  years 
of  quarreling  with  the  Jesuits,  but  he  had  gained 
the  confidence  of  the  settlers  and  the  respect  of 
the  Indians;  and  in  1689,  when  to  constant 
attacks  from  the  Iroquois  a  war  with  England 
was  added,  he  was  again  sent  out.  He  now  let 
loose  the  Indians  on  New  England  villages, 
repulsed  a  British  attack  on  Quebec,  and  com- 
pletely broke  the  power  of  the  Iroquois.  He 
died  at  Quebec,  1698. 

Frost,  Arthur  Burdett,  illustrator,  author,  was  bom 
at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1851.  He  was  self-taught 
in  art,  and  exhibited  at  the  Paris  exposition, 
1900.  Author:  BuU  Calf  and  Other  Tales;  Gol- 
fer's Alphabet;  Stuff  and  Nonsense;  Sports  and 
Games  in  the  Open;  Book  of  Draunngs,  etc.  He 
lives  chiefly  in  France. 

Frothingham  (frdth'-ing-am),  Octavlus  Brooks* 
clergyman  and  author,  was  bom  at  Boston, 
Mass.,  1822.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1843,  and  became  pastor  of  a  Unitarian  church  in 
Salem,  Mass.  In  1855  he  removed  to  New 
Jersey,  and  in  1859  to  New  York,  where  he  acted 
as  minister  of  an  independent  religious  organiza- 
tion for  twenty  years.  He  has  written  exten- 
sively on  theological  subjects.  His  chief  works 
are:  Religion  of  Humanity;  Transcendentalism 
in  New  England;  Life  of  Theodore  Parker;  Creed 
and  Conduct,  etc.     Died,  1895. 

Frothingham,  Paul  Revere,  clergyman,  author,  waa 
bom  at  Jamaica  Plain,  Mass.,  1864.  He  waa 
graduated  from  Har^'ard,  1886,  Harvard  divinity 
school,  A.  M.,  S.  T.  B.,  1889;  minister  of  First 
Congregational  society,  New  Bedford,  Maas., 
1889-1900;  preacher  to  Harvard  university, 
1899-1902  and  1909-10;  minister  of  Arlington 
Street  church  (Unitarian),  Boston,  since  1900. 
Author:  William  Ellcry  Channina;  His  Message* 
from  the  Spirit;  The  temple  of  Virtue,  etc. 

Froude  (JrObd),  James  Anthony,  eminent  EngUah 
historian  and  general  writer,  professor  of  history 
at  Oxford  from  1892  to  his  death,  was  born  at 
Dartington,  England,  1818.  He  was  educated 
at  Oriel  college,  Oxford,  and  destined  for  the 
church,  but  abandoned  this  and  his  fellowship 
owing   to   a   change  of   vi^ws  explained    in    hia 


706 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Nemesia  of  Faith.  His  chief  historical  work  is 
T}ie  History  of  England  from  the  full  of  Wolsey  to 
Uu  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada;  he  also  wrote 
ou  The  English  in  Ireland.  In  literature  his  best- 
known  works  are  those  on  the  Carlyle  family, 
and  Erasmus.  He  also  wrote  a  novel,  The  Two 
Chiefs  of  Dunboy,  and  many  miscellaneous  works, 
including  Ccesar;  Life  of  Lord  Beaconsfitld;  Life 
of  Carlyle;  Oceana,  etc.  His  accuracy  has  been 
greatly  criticised  In  detail,  but  his  brilliant  yet 
simple  style,  and  power  of  presenting  broad 
effects,  have  secured  for  his  histories  great 
influence  and  popularitv.     Died,  1894. 

Fry,  Sir  Edward,  English  lawyer  and  jurist,  was 
bom  at  Bristol,  England,  1827.  lie  was  educated 
at  Bristol  college,  University  college,  London, 
and  Balliol  college,  Oxford.  He  was  made  a 
barrister  in  1854 ;  Q.  C.  and  bencher  of  Lincoln's 
Inn,  1869;  judge  of  the  high  court,  chancery 
division,  1877-83;  lord  justice  of  appeal,  1883- 
92;  presided  over  the  royal  commission  on  the 
Irish  land  acts,  1897-98;  was  chairman  of  the 
court  of  arbitration  under  the  metropolis  water 
act,  1902;  and  was  legal  assessor  to  the  inter- 
national commission  on  the  North  sea  incident; 
was  chairman  of  the  royal  commission  on  Trinity 
college,  DubUn,  and  on  the  university  of  Dublin ; 
appomted  ambassador  extraordinary  and  first 
British  plenipotentiary  to  The  Hague  peace  i 
conference,  1907.  Author:  Essays  on  t}ie\ 
Accordance  of  Christianity  with  Nature  of  Man;  ' 
The  Doctrine  of  Election,  an  Essay;  A  Treatise  on  I 
the  Specific  Performance  of  Contracts;  British 
Mosses;  Studies  by  the  Way,  etc. 

Fry,  Elizabeth,  English  philanthropist,  was  bom 
near  Norfolk,  1780,  daughter  of  John  Gumey,  a 
banker.  She  had  no  deep  religious  opinions  until, 
at  the  age  of  eighteen,  a  sermon  she  heard  in  the 
Friends'  meeting  house  turned  her  thoughts  in 
that  direction.  She  began  working  among  the 
poor,  and  founded  a  school  for  poor  children, 
which  she  managed  entirely  herself,  even  when 
the  number  of  scholars  increased  to  more  than 
neventy.  She  married,  and  later  became  a 
preacher  among  the  Friends.  In  1813  she  first 
saw  the  miserable  condition  of  the  300  women, 
with  their  children,  in  the  Newgate  prison,  ana 
her  attention  was  turned  to  prison  reform.  By 
her  efforts  a  school  and  manufactory  were  begun 
in  the  prison,  an  association  formed  to  imprt)ve 
the  prisoners,  provide  them  with  religious  instruc- 
tion, and  a  matron  was  appointed.  Mrs.  Fry 
visited  prisons  in  different  parts  of  Great  Britain 
and  on  the  continent,  everywhere  effecting 
ameliorations.     She  died  at  RamMate,  1845. 

Frye,  William  Pierce,  lawyer.  United  States 
senator  from  Maine,  1881-191 1;  was  born  in 
Lewiston,  Me.,  1831.  He  was  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  college,  1850,  LL.  D.,  1889;  LL.  D., 
Bates,  1881 ;  studied  and  practiced  law.  Mem- 
ber of  Maine  legislature,  18G1,  1862,  and  1867; 
mayor  of  Lewiston,  1860-67 ;  attomev-general  of 
Maine,  1867-69;  presidential  elector,  1864; 
member  of  confess,  1871-81;  elected  United 
States  senator  in  1881  to  succeed  James  G. 
Blaine,  and  reelected  for  the  period  1883-1913. 
Was  chairman  of  commerce  commission  of  senate ; 
president  pro  tem.  of  the  senate,  1896;  reelected, 
1901  and  1907;  discharged  the  duties  of  that 
office  during  the  56th  congress;  delegate  to 
republican  national  conventions,  1872,  1876,  and 
1880.  Member  of  peace  commission,  Paris,  1898. 
Died,  1911. 

Fryer,  John,  Agassiz  professor  of  oriental  languages 
and  literature,  university  of  California,  since 
1896,  was  born  at  Hythe,  Kent,  England,  1839; 
graduated  from  Highbury  college,  London,  1860 ; 
LL.  D.,  Alfred  university.  New  York;  principal 
of  St.  Paul's  college,  Hongkong,  1861-63;  pro- 
fessor   of    English,    Tung-Wen    college,    Peking, 


China,  1863-65;  head  master  of  Anglo-Chinese 
school,  Shanghai,  1865-67;  head  of  department 
for  translation  into  Chinese  of  foreign  scientific 
books  at  imperial  govemnaent  arsenal,  Shanghai, 
1867-96;  viceroy's  examiner  at  imperial  naval 
college,  Nanking,  1894-95;  secretary  to  imperial 
Chinese  ambassador,  Kwo-Sung-Tao,  1878;  gen- 
eral editor  and  chairman  of  executive  committee 
of  educational  association  of  China,  1887-96; 
hon.  secretary  of  Chinese  polytechnic  institution, 
Shanghai,  since  1870.  Author:  Educational 
Directory  for  China;  Translator's  Vade-Mecum, 
or  Voaunuary  of  Scientific  Terms  in  Chinese  and 
English;  essays,  reports,  etc.,  and  upward  of  100 
books  published  at  Shanghai  in  Chinese  language. 

FUhrlch  (Jdo'-rlK),  Joseph  von,  Austrian  painter, 
was  born  at  Kratzau,  Bohemia,  1800.  He 
became  professor  of  painting  in  the  academy  of 
Vienna,  and  painted  many  scriptural  subjects, 
chief  of  which  was  the  Triumph  of  Christ.' 
Died,  1876. 

Fuloishlma  (JOb'-kdb-shi'^md),  Baron,  Japanese 
general,  was  oorn  at  Matsumoto,  1853.  He  began 
Ufe  as  a  drummer-boy ;  studied  in  Tokyo  univer- 
sity; entered  judicial  department,  1874;  trans- 
ferred to  general  staff  office,  1875;  visited 
Philadelphia  exhibition,  1870;  lieutenant  in 
army,  1877;  traveled  in  Mongolia,  1879;  mili- 
tary attach^,  Peking  1882-84;  sent  to  India, 
1886;  military  attache  BerUn,  1887-92;  trav- 
eled on  horseback.  Berlin  to  Vladivostock, 
through  Russia,  Sioeria,  Mongolia,  Manchuria 
(9,000  miles),  1892-93;  general  staff  officer,  5th 
division,  first  army;  then  chief  of  administrative 
bureau  of  territory  occupied  by  Japan  during 
war  with  China ;  sent  to  Egypt,  Turkey,  Persia, 
Caucasia,  Arabia,  Turkestan,  India,  Burma, 
Siam,  and  Annam,  1895-97:  in  command  of 
Japanese  contingent  until  fall  of  Tientsin,  then 
attached  to  General  Yamaguchi,  then  to  Field- 
Marshal  Waldersee  as  general  staff  officer  during 
Boxer  troubles,  1900-01 ;  attended  King  Edward's 
coronation;  general  staff  officer,  headcjuarters, 
Manchurian  army,  Russo-Japanese  war,  1904-05; 
succeeded  General  Kodama  as  vice-chief  of 
general  staff  of  the  army,  1906;  governor-general 
of  Kwantung  since  1912. 

Fuller,  George,  American  figure,  portrait,  and  land- 
scape painter,  was  bom  at  Deerfield,  Ma-ss.,  1822. 
He  studied  in  Boston,  New  York,  Ixindon,  and 
on  the  continent,  and  achieved  his  first  success 
in  1857.  Had  notable  exhibits  at  Boston  and 
New  York,  1876  and  1879,  respectively.  Chief 
paintings:  "The  Romany  Girl "  •  "And  She  was 
a  Witch";  "Maidenhood";  "'The  Quadroon"; 
"Loretti";  ""Turkey  Pasture  in  Kentucky"; 
"Winifred  Dysart";  "Fagot-Gatherers,"  etc. 
Died,  1884. 

Fuller,  Melville  Weston,  chief -justice  of  the  United 
States  supreme  court,  was  born  in  Augusta, 
Me.,  1833.  He  was  graduated  from  Bowdoin 
College  in  1853,  and  attended  a  course  of  lectures 
at  Harvard  law  school;  LL.  D.,  Bowdoin, 
Harvard,  Yale,  Dartmouth,  Northwestern;  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar,  1855;  formed  a  law  partner- 
ship at  Augusta ;  was  associate  editor  of  Tlte  Age, 
a  democratic  paper  there,  president  of  the  com- 
mon council,  and  city  solicitor.  Went  to  Chicago 
in  1856,  and  practiced  law  until  1888.  Was 
member  of  the  Illinois  state  constitutional  con- 
vention, 1862,  and  of  the  legislature,  1863-65. 
He  was  chief-justice  of  the  United  States  from 
1888-1910;  was  chancellor  of  Smithsonian 
institution;  chairman  of  trustees  of  Peabody 
education  fund ;  vice-president  of  John  P. 
Slater  fund;  member  of  board  of  trustees  of 
Bowdoin  college;  one  of  the  arbitrators  to 
settle  boundary  line  between  Venezuela  and 
British  Guiana,  Paris,  1899;  member  of  perma- 
nent court  of  arbitration.  The  Hague;    member 


THROUGHOUT  THE   WORLD 


709 


of  arbitral  tribunal  in  the  matter  of  the  Muscat 
Dowhs,  at  The  Hague,  1905.     Died,  1910. 
Fuller,     Sarah     Margaret,     Marchioness     Ossoli, 

transceiulentalist,  wa.s  born  at  Cambridgeport, 
Mass.,  1810.  At  twenty-five  she  assisted  her 
family  by  school  and  private  teaching.  In 
Boston  she  edited  The  Dial,  translated  from  the 
German,  and  wrote  Sumtner  on  the  Lakes.  In 
1844  she  published  Woman  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century,  and  in  the  same  year  proceeded  to 
New  York,  and  contributed  to  the  Tribune  a 
series  of  miscellaneous  articles,  republished  as 
Papers  on  Literature  and  Art.  In  1847  at  Rome 
she  met  the  Marquis  Osaoli,  and  married  him. 
In  1849,  during  the  siege  of  Rome,  she  took 
charge  of  a  hospital;  and  after  the  capture  of 
the  city  by  the  French  she  and  her  husband 
sailed  with  their  infant  for  America,  1850.  On 
July  16th  the  vessel  was  wrecked  on  Fire  island 
near  New  York;  the  child's  body  was  washed 
ashore,  but  nothing  was  ever  seen  of  mother  or 
father. 

Fullcrton,  George  Stuart,  professor  of  philosophy, 
Columbia  university,  since  1904,  was  born  at 
Fatehgarh,  India,  1859.  He  graduated  at  the 
university  of  Pennsylvania,  1879;  hon.  Ph.  D., 
Muhlenberg  college,  1892;  hon.  LL.  D.,  Muhlen- 
berg college,  1900;  studied  divinity,  Princeton, 
1879-80,  and  Yale,  1880-83;  instructor,  1883- 
85,  adjunct  professor,  1885-87,  professor  of 
philosophy,  1887-1904,  university  of  Pennsyl- 
vania; dean  of  department  of  philosophj^,  1889- 
90,  dean  of  college,  vice-provost  of  university, 
1894-96,  vice-provost  of  university,  1896-98,  same. 
Author:  The  Conception  of  the  Infinite;  A  Plain 
Argument  for  God;  On  Sam.eness  and  Identity; 
On  the  Perception  of  Sinall  Differences  in  Sensa- 
tion (with  Professor  Cattell);  The  Philosophy  of 
Spinoza;  On  Spinozistic  hnmortality;  A  System 
of  Metaphysics;  An  Introduction  to  Philosophy, 
etc. 

Fulton,  Robert,  celebrated  American  inventor  and 
engineer,  was  bom  at  Little  Britain,  Pa.,  1765. 
He  was  apprenticed  to  a  jeweler  in  Philadelphia 
at  an  early  age,  and  in  addition  to  his  labors  at 
this  trade  he  devoted  himself  to  painting.  The 
sale  of  his  portraits  and  landscapes  enabled  him, 
in  the  space  of  four  years,  to  purchase  a  small 
farm,  on  which  he  placed  his  mother,  his  father 
being  dead.  At  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  pro- 
ceeded to  London,  where  he  studied  painting 
under  West;  but  after  several  years  thus  spent 
he  felt  that  this  was  not  his  true  vocation. 
Accordingly,  he  abandoned  painting  and  applied 
himself  wholly  to  mechanics.  In  1794  he  ob- 
tained from  the  British  government  a  patent  for 
an  inclined  plane,  the  object  of  which  was  to  set 
aside  the  use  of  locks;  and  in  the  same  year  he 
invented  a  mill  for  sawing  and  polishing  marble. 
His  next  invention  was  a  machine  for  spinning 
flax,  followed  by  one  for  making  ropes.  He  was 
received  as  a  civil  engineer  in  1795,  and  wrotera 
■work  on  canals  in  which  he  developed  his  system. 
Accepting  an  invitation  from  the  United  States 
minister  at  Paris,  he  proceeded  to  that  city  in 
1797,  and  remained  there  for  seven  years,  devot- 
ing himself  to  new  projects  and  inventions.  In 
1803  he  constructed  a  small  steamboat,  and  his 
experiments  with  it  on  the  Seine  were  attended 
with  great  success.  He  returned  in  1806  to  New 
York  and  pursued  his  experiments  there.  In 
1807  he  launched  his  steam-vessel,  the  Clermont, 
upon  the  Hudson,  which  made  a  succe.ssful  start, 
in  the  presence  of  thousands  of  astonished  spec- 
tators. From  this  period  steamers  came  mto 
general  use  upon  the  rivers  of  the  United  States. 
In  1815  he  launched  the  war-steamer  Fulton, 
and  died  the  same  year. 

Funk,  Isaac  Kaufman,  author,  publisher,  clergy- 
man, was  born  at  Clifton,  Ohio,  1839.     He  was 


graduated  at  Wittenberg  college;  D.  D.,  1861; 
LL.  D.,  189C.  Filled  various  putonttes,  1867- 
72,  the  last  St.  Matthew's  English  Luthermn 
church,  Brooklyn.  Was  editor-in-chief  of  various 
periodicals  of  Funk  and  Wagnalls  company; 
editor-in-chief  of  Standard  Dictumary;  cbiurmMi 
of  editorial  board  that  produced  the  J0wi$k 
Encyclopa-dia;  fountler-edltor  of  The  MetropolUttn 
Pulpit,  now  the  HomUetic  Review,  1876:  In  con- 
nection with  his  house  founded  The  Voice,  1880; 
The  Misi^ionary  Review,  1888;  The  Literary 
Digest,  1889;  published  numerous  works  of 
reference;  entered  into  partncrehin  with  A.  W. 
Wagnalls  in  1878,  merging  into  the  Funk  and 
Wagnalls  companv,  1890.  I-Mitor:  Tarry  Thou 
Till  I  Come.  Author:  The  Next  Step  in  Evolu- 
ti-on;  The  Widow's  Mile,  and  Other  Payehie 
Phenomena;  The  Psychic  Riddle.     Died,  1912. 

Funston,  Fred,  brif^adier-gcncral  of  l.'nited  States 
army,  was  bom  in  Ohio,  1N65.  He  studied  in 
Kansas  state  university,  Lawrence,  two  years, 
but  was  not  graduate<l";  reporter,  Kansas  City, 
1890;  botanist  in  United  States  Death  valley 
expedition,  1891 ;  commissioner  for  department 
of  agriculture  to  explore  Alaska  and  report  on 
its  flora,  1893,  camping  on  the  Klondike  in 
winter  of  1893-94 ;  floated  down  .Yukon,  alone, 
in  a  canoe;  was  captain,  major,  and  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  the  insurgent  army  in  Cuba,  1896-97: 
served  eighteen  months;  was  wounded ;  returned 
to  United  States;  commissioned  colonel  of  20th 
Kansas  infantry,  1898;  went  to  Philippines; 
took  part  in  several  battles;  for  crossing  the 
Rio  Grande  at  Calumpit  on  small  bamboo  raft 
in  face  of  heavy  fire  and  establishing  rope  ferry, 
by  means  of  which  the  United  States  troops  were 
enabled  to  cross  and  win  the  battle,  ne  was 
promoted  to  brigadier-general  of  United  States 
volunteers,  1899.  Continued  in  active  service 
in  Philippines.  Organized  and  commanded 
expedition  resulting  in  capture  of  Aguinaldo. 
head  of  Filipino  insurrection,  and  was  appointed 
brigadier-general  of  United  States  army,  1901; 
commanded  department  of  California,  with 
headquarters  at  San  Francisco,  1905-07. 

Fumess  (fUr'-nSs),  Horace  Howard,  author,  editor, 
Shakespearian  scholar,  was  born  in  Phihulclnhia, 
Pa.,  1833;  graduated  from  Har\'ard,  1854;  Ph.D., 
university  of  Halle;  Litt.  D.,  Columbia  college 
and  Cambridge  (England);  LL.  D.,  university 
of  Pennsylvania,  Harvard,  Yale,  1901 ;  in 
Europe,  1855-56;  studied  law  in  Philadelphia; 
admitted  to  bar,  1859.  Served  on  Seybcrt  com- 
mission for  investigating  modem  spiritualism. 
Editor  of  Variorum  edition  of  Shakespeare: 
Romeo  and  Juliet;  Macbeth;  Hamlet,  2  vols.; 
King  Lear;  OtheUo;  Merchant  of  Venice;  Aa  You 
Like  It;  The  Tempest;  Midsummer  Nighfa 
Dream;  The  Winter's  Tale;  Mwh  Ado  About 
Nothing;  Twelfth  Night;  Love's  Labors  Lost.  He 
contributed  an  article  on  homoeopathy  in  Ameri- 
can edition  Encydopcedia  Britanntca.    Died,  1912. 

Fumiss  (fiXr'-nls),  Harry,  English  caricature  artist, 
author,  and  lecturer,  was  bom  at  Wexford,  1854. 
Settled  in  London  at  nineteen ;  manv  years  con- 
tributor to  Illustrated  London  News;  The  Graphic; 
Black  and  White;  lUuetrated  Sporting  and  Dra- 
matic News;  and  the  principal  magazines  in 
England  and  .■Vmerica.  Joined  Punch  staff  in  1880, 
and  has  toured  in  America,  Canada,  Australia, 
etc.  Illustrated  Happy  Thoughts;  Incompleat 
Angler;  Comic  Blackstone;  Lewi*  CarrotTa  Sj^vic 
and  Bruno;  founded  Lika  Joko  and  New  Budget. 
Author:  Romps;  Fbfing  Viaita;  Royal  Academy 
Antics;  Humours  of  Parliament;  America  in  a 
Hurry;  Illustrated  London  Letter;  Peace  vfitk 
Humour;  P.  and  O.  Sketches;  Confesaiona  of  a 
Caricaturist;  Harry  Furniaa  at  Home;  Poverty 
Bay,  a  novel;  How  to  Draw  in  Pen  and  Ink; 
Frienda  without  Faeea,  a  book  for  children,  etc. 


tio 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


FumlTaU  (fUr'-nl-val),  Frederick  James,  English 
philologiet,  was  born  at  Eghain,  Surrey,  England, 
1825.  He  was  educated  at  University  college, 
London,  and  Trinity  hall,  Cambridge,  where  he 
took  his  degree,  1846;  M.  A.,  Ph.  D.,  Litt.  D. 
In  early  life  he  associated  himself  in  philan- 
thropic work  with  Trederick  D.  Maurice,  and 
taught  in  his  workingmen's  college  every  term 
for  ten  years.  He  devoted  himself  to  English 
philology,  and  with  characteristic  energy  founded 
the  Early  English  text  society,  1864;  the 
Chaucer  society,  1868;  the  ballad  society,  1868; 
and  the  New  Shakespeare  society,  1874;  was 
active  in  starting  the  Browning  society,  1881, 
and  the  Wycliffe  society,  1882.  He  personally 
edited  many  works,  chiefly  through  the  medium 
of  some  one  of  the  above  societies,  the  most 
important  being  Saint  Graal;  Robert  of  Brunnc's 
HandlyngSynne;  Walter  Map's  Queste  del  Saint 
Graal;  T'olitical,  Religious,  and  Love  Poems; 
Bishop  Percy's  Folio  MS.  of  Ballads  and  Ro- 
mances; edited  jointly  with  J.  W.  Hales,  Ballads 
from  Manuscripts  on  the  Condition  of  Tudor  Eng- 
land, 1520-50,  and  Caxton's  Book  of  Curteseye 
His  best  works  are  his  splendid  edition  of 
Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales,  and  the  Century 
Shakespeare  in  39  vohimes.     Died,  1910. 

Fusell  (Jii'-zi4l),  John  Henry,  Swiss  painter,  was 
bom  at  Ziirich  in  1741.  He  was  at  first  a 
clergyman  and  writer  of  Zurich,  visited  Eng- 
land, afterward  studied  art  in  Italy,  returned 
to  London  in  1778,  and  executed  pictures  for 
Boydell's  Shakespeare  gallery.  In  1799  he 
exhibited  a  series  of  forty-seven  designs  on  a 
large  scale  from  Milton's  works,  and  became 
professor  of  painting  in  the  academy.  Among 
his  literary  labors  were  Lectures  on  Painting, 
and  a  translation  of  Lavater's  Aphorisms  on 
Man.     Died,  1825. 

Fustel  de  Coulanges  (fils'-tH'  di  ka>'4li-Nzh'\  Numa 
Denis  French  historian,  was  bom  at  Paris,  1830. 
He  filled  chairs  at  Amiens,  Paris,  Strassburg,  and 
from  1875  at  the  Ecole  Normale  at  Paris.  After 
the  war  of  1870  he  turned  his  attention  to  history, 
though  he  had  written  previously  C/jto  and  Polybe. 
His  first  historical  work.  La  Cit6  antique,  made  its 
author  famous.  His  Histoire  des  Institutions 
politiques  de  I'ancienne  France  is  profoundly 
learned,  and  made  him  a  member  of  the  French 
institute.     Died,  1889. 

Fyffe  (flf),  Charles  Alan,  English  historian,  was 
bom  at  Blackheath,  England,  1845.  In  1867  he 
took  classical  honors  at  Balliol  college,  Oxford, 
and  was  elected  a  fellow  of  University  college. 
During  the  Franco-German  war  he  was  war 
correspondent  for  the  London  Daily  News,  and 
was  in  Paris  during  the  commune.  In  1880-90 
he  published  his  History  of  Modem  Europe,  in 
three  volumes.     Died,  1892. 

Gabelentz    (ga'-bl-l(hits),    Hans    Conon    von    der, 

German  philologist,  was  born  at  Altenburg,  1807. 
He  was  educated  at  the  universities  of  Leipzig 
and  Gottingen;  studied  the  Finno-Tartaric 
languages,  and  published  Elements  de  la  Gram- 
maire  Mandchoue;  published  a  critical  edition 
of  the  Gothic  translation  of  the  Bible  by  Ulfilas, 
with  a  Latin  translation,  and  with  a  Gothic 
glossary  and  grammar  appended.  Besides  he 
furnished  contributions  to  periodicals  on  the 
Mordvinian  and  Samoyed  languages.  He  is  said 
to  have  known  more  than  eighty  languages. 
Died,  1874. 
Gade  (ga'-de),  Niels  WUhelm,  Danish  composer, 
was  bom,  lived,  and  died  at  Copenhagen,  1817- 
90.  He  was  court  organist  at  Copenhagen,  and 
wrote  several  symphonies,  overtures,  and  can- 
tatas, as  well  as  many  choral  and  solo  pro- 
ductions. His  overture,  Ossian,  has  received 
high   praise,  as  have   also  his  musical   sketches, 


AqxLarellen  and  Volkstanze.  He  was  one  of 
the  originators  of  the  Scandinavian  school  of 
music. 

Gadsden  (g&dz'-din),  Christopher,  American  patriot, 
was  bom  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  1724.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  first  continental  congress,  1774, 
became  brigadier-general  during  the  revolution, 
and  was  lieutenant-governor  of  South  Carolina 
at  the  time  of  the  surrender  of  Charleston  to 
Sir  Henr>'  Clinton  in  1780.     He  died  in  1805 

Gadsden,  James,  grandson  of  above,  was  born  at 
Charleston,  S.  C,  1788.  He  ser\'ed  in  the  war 
of  1812  and  against  the  Seminoles.  In  1853  he 
was  appointed  minister  to  Mexico,  and  negotiated 
the  purchase  of  part  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico, 
known  as  the  "Gadsden  purchase."  He  died  in 
1858. 

Gage,  Lyman  Judson,  financier,  was  bom  at  De 
Ruyter,  Madison  county,  N.  Y.,  1836.  He 
removed  to  Rome,  N.  Y.,  1848,  and  was  educated 
at  Rome  academy;  LL.  D.,  Beloit,  1897,  New 
York  universitv,  1903.  At  seventeen  he  entered 
Oneida  centraf  bank ;  served  as  office  boy  and 
junior  clerk  until  1855,  when  he  went  to  Chicago; 
clerk  in  planing  mill  until  1858;  bookkeeper, 
1858-01,  and  cashier,  1861-68,  Merchants'  loan 
and  trust  companv;  became,  in  1868,  cashier, 
in  1882,  vice-president,  and  in  1891,  president  of 
First  national  bank  of  Chicago.  Was  first  presi- 
dent of  board  of  directors.  World's  Columbian 
exposition;  three  times  president  of  American 
bankers'  association;  first  president  of  Chicago 
bankers'  club ;  twice  president  of  civic  federation 
of  Chicago.  Secretarv  of  United  States  treasury, 
1897-1902;  president  of  United  States  trust 
company.  New  York,  1902-06.  Retired,  1906. 
Trustee  of  Carnegie  institution,  Washington. 

Gage,  81mon  Henry,  biolo^st,  educator,  was  l>om 
in  Otsego  countv,  N.  \  .,  1851.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Cornell,  1877;  instructor,  assistant 
professor  and  full  professor  of  Cornell,  1878-1908; 
studied  in  Europe,  1889,  and  is  now  one  of  the 
editors  of  A  meriean  Journal  of  A  natomy.  Author : 
The  Microscope  and  Microscopic  Methods;  Ana- 
tomical Technology  (with  Professor  Burt  G. 
Wilder);  and  numerous  papers  on  biolc^cai 
subjects;  collaborator  or  contributor  to  Foster's 
Encydopcedic  Medical  Dictionary,  Wood's  Refer- 
ence Hand-Book  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  Johnson's 
Cyclopedia,  etc. 

Gage,  Thomas,  English  general,  last  royal  sovemor 
of  Massachusetts,  was  bom  in  1721.  In  1763 
he  was  made  commander-in-chief  of  the  British 
forces  in  America.  His  inflexible  character  led 
the  British  government  to  regard  him  as  well 
fitted  to  end  the  disturbances  in  the  American 
colonies.  In  1774  he  was  nominated  governor 
of  Massachusetts,  a  post  of  peculiar  difficulties. 
In  April,  1775,  he  dispatched  an  expedition  to 
seize  a  quantity  of  arms  which  had  been  stored 
at  Concord.  On  the  way  thither  the  detach- 
ment came  upon  a  number  of  militia  drilling, 
whom  they  attacked  because  they  refused  to 
lay  down  their  arms.  This  encounter,  known  as 
the  battle  of  Lexington,  was  the  signal  for  a 
general  rising  throughout  the  colonies.  On  June 
17th  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  was  fought,  which 
resulted  in  a  dearly  bought  victory  to  the  Eng- 
lish; but  numerous  complaints  being  lodg^ 
against  Gage,  he  was  recalled  bv  the  British 
government  in  October,  1775.     Died,  1787. 

Gagem  {gii'-ghm),  Helnrlch  Wilhelm  August,  Ger- 
man statesman,  was  bom  at  BajTeuth,  Germany. 
1799.  He  was  educated  at  the  military  school 
at  Munich.  On  Napoleon's  return  from  Elba  he 
entered  the  army  of  Nassau,  and  ser\'ed  as 
lieutenant  at  Waterloo.  He  subsequently  studied 
law  at  the  universities  of  Heidelberg,  Gottingen, 
Jena,  and  Geneva;  in  1821  he  entered  political 
life  under  the  government  of  Hesse-Darmstadt. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


711 


He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  second  chamber 
in  1832,  and  vigorously  opposed  the  piliciee  of 
the  state  governments  and  of  the  federal  diet.  In 
1836,  seeing  the  fruitlessness  of  opposition  to 
the  governmental  politics,  he  declinetl  reelection, 
and  turned  to  aignculture  on  his  father's  estate. 
In  1846  he  published  a  work  against  the  govern- 
ment of  Hesse;  in  1847  was  again  elected  to  the 
chamber  as  representative  of  Worms,  and  was 
president  of  the  Frankfort  parliament,  1848-49. 
From  1859  he  again  took  part  in  grand-ducal 
politics,  as  a  partisan  of  Austria  against  Prussia. 
Died,  1880. 

Gallor,  Thomas  Frank,  prelate,  bishop  of  Tennes- 
see since  1898,  was  born  at  Jackson,  Miss.,  1856. 
He  graduated  at  Racine  college,  and  the  General 
theological  seminary,  New  York;  D.  D.,  S.  T.  D., 
Columbia,  Trinity,  university  of  the  South. 
Rector  of  Pulaski,  Tennessee,  Episcopal  church, 
1879-82.  Professor  ecclesiastical  historv,  1882-90, 
chaplain,  1883-90,  vice-chancellor,  1890-93,  chan- 
cellor and  president  of  board  of  trustees,  university 
of  the  South,  since  1908:  declined  bishopric  of 
Georgia,  1890.  Author  of  a  Manual  of  Devotion, 
and  many  lectures  and  sermons. 

Gainsborough  {gam'-b'ro),  Thomas,  eminent  Eng- 
lish landscape  painter,  was  born  at  Sudbury, 
England,  1727.  He  early  displayed  a  decided 
talent  for  painting,  and  began  life  as  a  portrait 
painter.  His  later  genius  found  adequate  expres- 
sion in  the  delineation  of  the  rich  and  quiet 
scenery  of  his  native  country,  and  to  this  he 
mainly  devoted  himself  after  settling  in  London 
in  1774.  At  the  creation  of  the  royal  academy 
he  was  chosen  one  of  the  first  members.  Among 
his  finest  productions  are  "The  Shepherd's 
Boy,"  "The  Fight  Between  Little  Boys  and 
Dogs,"  "The  Sea^shore,"  "The  Woodman  in  a 
Storm,"  and  "Duchess  of  Devonshire."  The 
most  celebrated  of  his  pictures  is  "The  Blue 
Boy,"   in  the   Devonshire   gallery.      Died,  1788. 

Gairdner  (gard'-ner),  James,  British  historian,  was 
born  at  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  1828.  He  was 
educated  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh;  LL.  D., 
Edinburgh,  1897.  He  became  clerk  in  the  pub- 
lic record  office,  1846 ;  assistant  keeper  of  public 
records,  1859.  Edited  for  master  of  the  rolls: 
Memorials  of  Henry  VII.,  and  Letters  and  Papers 
of  the  Reigns  of  Richard  III.  and  Henry  VII.; 
appointed,  1879,  to  continue  the  Calendar  of 
Henry  VIII.,  of  which  vol.  v.  to  vol.  xxi.  have 
appeared  under  his  editorship,  completing  the 
work;  edited  the  Paston  Letters,  1872-75; 
edited  also  some  volumes  for  the  Camden 
society;  author  of  England  in  the  series  Early 
Chroniclers  of  Europe;  Life  of  Richard  III.;  The 
English  Church  in  the  Sixteenth  Century  to  tlie 
Death  of  Mary;  Studies  in  English  History;  con- 
tributed numerous  articles  to  the  Dictionary  of 
National  Biography  and  the  English  Historical 
Review.    Died,  1912. 

Gains  (gd'-yOs),  or  Caius,  Roman  jurist,  flourished 
in  the  second  century  of  our  era.  He  was  the 
author  of  more  than  fifteen  works,  of  which  the 
Institutes  was  the  most  important.  This  is  sup>- 
posed  to  have  been  the  first  instance  of  a  popular 
manual  of  Romari  law  in  the  sense  of  modem 
elementary  text  books.  It  was  incorporated 
almost  bodily  into  the  celebrated  Institutes  of 
Justinian.  The  work  was  long  lost,  but  a  large 
part  of  it  was  recovered  in  1816-17  from  a  much 
defaced  palimpsest  in  the  cathedral  library  at 
Verona,  found  by  Niebuhr. 

Galba  (g&l'-bd),  Servius  Sulplcius,  Roman  emperor, 
was  bom  B.  C.  3.  He  was  of  a  noble  and  very 
rich  famih',  and  showed  so  much  talent  when  a 
boy  that  the  emperors  Augustus  and  Tiberius 
both  predicted  that  he  would  one  day  be  at  the 
head  of  the  Roman  world.  He  was  commander 
of  the  army  in  Spain  when  the  emperor  Nero 


diet!,  in  68  A.  D.,  and  wru  no  popular  with  th» 
soldiers  that  they  made  him  emperor  when 
seventy-one  years'  old.  But  he  •con  began  to 
pursue  a  military  course  of  marked  severity, 
made  promises  to  his  friends  which  he  did  not 
keep,  and  hoarded  up  his  money  like  a  miser. 
He  was  nnirdere<l  after  a  reign  of  only  seven 
months,  in  69  A.  D. 

Gald6s  {gdl-doa'),  Benito  P«res,  Spanish  novelist 
and  dramatist,  was  born  in  the  Canary  islands, 
1845,  but  was  brought  up  at  Madrid.  His  Gloria, 
DofUi  Perfect  a,  Trafalgar,  Lion  Rock,  Marianda. 
etc.,  have  been  translated  into  English,  ana 
entitle  him  to  be  classed  among  the  most  noted 
motiern  writers.  His  later  works  follow  the 
realistic  French  school,  and  are  descriptive  of 
Spanish  customs,  manners,  and  institutions 

Galen  {ga'4in),  or  Claudius  Gal^nus.  celebrated 
Greek  pliysician,  was  bom  at  Pergamus,  in  Mysia, 
130  A.  D.  He  first  studied  medicine  at  Pergamus, 
afterward  at  Smyrna,  Corinth,  and  Alexandria. 
He  returned  to  nis  native  city  in  his  twenty- 
ninth  year,  and  was  at  once  appointed  physician 
to  the  school  of  gladiators.  In  his  thirty-fourth 
year  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  stayed  for  about 
four  years,  and  gained  such  a  reputation  that  he 
was  offered,  but  declined,  the  post  of  physician 
to  the  emperor.  He  returned  to  his  native 
country  in  his  thirty-eighth  year,  and  had 
scarcely  resumed  his  ordinary  course  of  life  when 
he  received  a  summons  from  the  emperors  M. 
Aurelius  and  L.  Verus  to  attend  them  in  the 
northeastern  frontier  of  Italy,  whither  they  had 
gone  to  make  preparations  for  a  war  with  the 
northern  tribes.  He  joined  the  camp  toward  the 
end  of  the  year  169;  but  a  pestilence  breaking 
out,  the  emperors  and  their  court  set  off  for 
Rome,  whither  Galen  accompanied  or  followed 
them.  On  the  return  of  M.  Aurelius  to  the  seat 
of  war  Galen  obtained  permission  to  be  left  at 
Rome,  alleging  that  such  was  the  will  of  .^scu- 
lapius,  as  revealed  to  him  in  a  dream,  and  the 
sons  of  M.  Aurelius  were  intrusted  to  his  care. 
The  place  and  time  of  his  death  are  alike  un- 
known, though  the  latter  is  believed  to  have 
been  201. 

Galileo  (gd'-le4d'-d).     See  page  347. 

Gall  (gd;  Ger.,  gSl),  Frans  Joseph,  German  physi- 
cian, founder  of  phrenology,  was  bom  at  'Tiefen- 
bronn,  on  the  borders  of  Baden  and  Wiirttemberg, 
1758.  In  1785  he  established  himself  as  a 
physician  in  Vienna,  where  for  many  years  ho 
carried  on  a  series  of  elaborate  investigations 
on  the  nature  of  the  brain  and  its  relation  to  the 
outer  cranium.  In  1796  he  gave  publicity  to 
his  views  in  a  series  of  lectures  in  Vienna,  which 
were,  however,  condemned  as  subversive  of 
morality  and  religion.  Being  joined  bv  Spur«- 
heim,  who  adopted  his  theories,  he  undertook  a 
lecturing  tour  through  a  large  part  of  Europe, 
and  eventually  settled  at  Paris,  where  he  pub- 
lished his  phrenological  work,  Fonctiona  du 
Cerveau.  His  chief  work,  however,  is  his  Anat- 
omy and  Physiology  of  the  Nervous  System. 
Died,  1828. 

Gallait  (gdl4d'),  Louis,  Belgian  historical  painter, 
was  bom  at  Toumay,  1810 ;  he  became  famous  by 
pictures  on  subjectis  from  the  history  of  the 
low  countries,  such  as  "The  Abdication  of 
Charles  V.";  "Alva  viewing  the  dead  bodies  of 
Egmont  and  Horn  " ;  "The  Plague  of  Toumay  " ; 
"Tasso  in  Prison";  "Temptation  of  St. 
Anthony":  "A  Gypsy  Woman  and  her  Children," 
etc.     He  died  in  1887. 

Galland  (gd'-ld:^'),  Antolne,  French  orientalist, 
was  bom  at  Rollot  in  Picardy,  1646.  Attached 
in  1670  to  the  French  embassy  at  Constantinople, 
he  traveled  in  Syria  and  the  Levant,  1673-79. 
In  1709  he  became  Arabic  professor  in  the 
CoU^e  de  France.     He  wrote  on  archeology. 


712 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Eastern  proverbs,  and  Indian  fables,  but  is 
best  known  by  his  translation  of  the  Arabian 
Nights.     Died,  1715. 

Gallatin  {gH' -&-tin),  Albert,  American  flnaneier 
and  statesman,  waa  bom  at  Geneva,  Switzer- 
land, 17G1.  He  graduated  there  in  1779,  came 
to  the  United  States  in  1780,  taught  French  at 
Harvard,  bought  land  in  Virginia  and  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  entered  political  life  in  1789.  In 
1793  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States  senate, 
but  was  not  permitted  to  retain  his  seat  on  the 
ground  of  ineligibility  under  the  constitution. 
In  1795  he  entered  congress  from  Pennsylvania, 
and  in  1801-13  was  secretary  of  the  treasury. 
He  took  an  important  part  in  the  peace  negotia- 
tions with  England  in  1814,  and  signed  the 
treaty  of  Ghent.  In  1816-23  he  was  minister 
at  Paris,  and  in  1826  at  London.  From  1827 
he  devoted  his  time  to  historical  and  ethnologi- 
cal researches,  writing  on  finance,  politics,  and 
the  Indian  tribes.  He  was  one  of  the  foimders, 
and  the  first  president  of  the  ethnological 
society  of  America.     Died,  1849. 

GaUaudet    (gdl'-d-dif),    Edward    Miner,    educator, 

? resident  of  GaUaudet  college  for  the  deaf, 
864-1911,  emeritus  president  since  1911;  was 
born  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  1837.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Trinity  college,  1856,  LL.  D.,  1869; 
also  LL.  D.,  Yale,  1895;  Ph.  D.,  Colum- 
bian, 1869;  taught  in  his  father's  institution 
for  deaf  mutes,  Hartford,  1856-57;  organized. 
1857.  Columbia  institution  for  deaf,  dumb,  ana 
blind,  at  Washington;  developed  from  it  the 
GaUaudet  college  for  the  deaf,  founded  in  1864. 
President  of  convention  of  American  institu- 
tions for  the  deaf;  in  1886,  at  the  invitation 
of  British  government,  appeared  before  the 
royal  commission  in  interest  of  deaf-mute  edu- 
cation. Author:  Popular  Manual  of  Inter- 
n/!tional  Law;    Life  of  Thomas  Hopkins  GaUaudet, 

GaUaudet,  Thomas  Hopkins,  educator,  philan- 
thropist, was  born  in  Piiiladelphia,  Pa.,  1787. 
He  was  graduated  at  Yale  college,  1805;  tutor 
there,  1808-10;  studied  at  Andover  theological 
seminary,  1811-14;  licensed  to  preach,  1814; 
studied  the  svstems  of  deaf-mute  mstruction  in 
London,  Edinburgh,  and  Paris,  1815-16;  founded 
and  became  superintendent  of  the  American 
asylum  for  deaf  mutes  at  Hartford ;  and  held  the 
office  of  president  of  the  in.stitution,  1817-30. 
resigning  on  account  of  ill  health.  He  publishetl 
numerous  sermons,  addresses,  and  juvenile 
works,  and  edited  six  volumes  of  Annals  of  the 
Deaf  and  Dumb.     Died,  1851. 

Galle  (gal'-le),  Johann  Gottfried,  German  astrono- 
mer, was  born  in  Prussian  Saxony  in  1812.  He 
studied  at  Berlin,  1830-33,  became  director  of 
the  Berlin  observatory,  and  shares  with  Leverrier 
the  honor  of  discovering  the  planet  Neptune. 
He  afterward  became  professor  of  astronomy  at 
Breslau.  He  also  discovered  three  comets, 
1839-40.  He  published  several  works  on  as- 
tronomy and  cUmatology.     Died,  1910. 

Gallinger,  Jacob  Harold,  physician.  United  States 
senator  from  New  Hampshire,  was  bom  in 
Cornwall,  Ont.,  1837.  He  received  an  academic 
education,  graduated  in  medicine,  1858,  and 
practiced  until  he  entered  public  life.  Hon. 
A.  M.,  Dartmouth,  1885.  Member  of  New 
Hampshire  lej^islature.  1872-73,  1891;  member 
of  state  constitutional  convention,  1876;  state 
senator,  1878,  1879,  1880;  president  of  state 
senate,  1879,  1880.  Surgeon-general  of  state, 
with  rank  of  brigadier-general,  1879-80;  chair- 
man of  republican  state  committee,  1882-90, 
1898-1907;  member  of  congress,  1885-89. 
Elected  to  United  States  senate,  1891,  and 
reelected  1897,  1903,  and  1909. 

Gait  (gdlt).  Sir  Alexander  Tllioclf,  Canadian  states- 
man, was  bom  at  Chelsea,  England,  1817,  and  emi- 


grated to  Canada  when  a  boy.  For  many  years 
he  was  commissioner  of  the  British  and  American 
land  company,  and  in  1849  entered  the  Canadian 
parliament  as  a  liberal.  He  was  finance  minister 
from  1858  to  1862,  again  from  1864  to  1866. 
From  July  to  November,  1867,  he  was  finance 
minister  of  the  Dominion.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  fisheries  commission  under  the  treaty  of 
Washington,  and  a  member  of  the  Halifax 
fisheries  commission.  After  1857  he  allied  him- 
self with  the  liberal-conservative  party,  and  was 
considered  one  of  the  leading  authorities  on 
finances  in  the  Dominion.  He  became  grand 
commander  of  the  order  of  St.  Michael  and  St. 
George  in  1878.  He  wrote  Canada  from  1849 
to  1859.  Died,  1893. 
Gait,  Sir  Thomas,  Canadian  jurist,  brother  of  the 
foregoing,  was  bom  in  England  in  1815,  and 
educated  in  Scotland.  He  removed  to  Canada 
in  1832,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1845. 
In  1858  he  became  queen's  counsel,  in  1869 
judge  of  the  common  pleas,  and  in  1887  chief 

iustice  of  the  court  of  common  pleas.     He  waa 
;nightod  in  1888.      Died,  1901. 

Gaiton  (gdl'-tUn),  FranciK,  English  scientist  and 
traveler,  was  bom  near  Birmingham,  England, 
1822;  cousin  of  Charles  Darwin.  He  was 
educated  at  King  Edward's  school,  Birmingham, 
and  King's  college,  London,  studied  medicine, 
and  was  graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Cam- 
bridge, 1844;  D.  C.  L.,  Oxford,  8c.  D.,  Cam- 
bridge. In  1846  he  traveled  through  North 
Africa  and  on  the  White  Nile,  1850  assisted  in 
exploring  the  unknown  Damara  and  Ovam]x> 
l.tnds  in  South  Africa,  and  soon  after  entered 
the  British  civil  service  in  the  board  of  trade. 
He  was  an  officer  and  member  of  many  scientific 
societies^  and  for  his  Narrative  of  an  Explorer 
in  Tropical  South  Africa  received  the  gold  medal 
of  the  royal  geographical  society.  Author: 
Tropical  South  Africa;  Art  of  Travel;  Vacation 
Tourists;  Hereditary  Genius;  English  Men  oj 
Science,  their  Nature  and  Nurture;  Human 
Faculty;  Natural  Inheritance;  Finger  Prints; 
Fingerprint  Directory,  and  numerous  Memoirs, 
latterly  on  eugenics,  in  1905  establishing  for  its 
studv  a  research  fellowship  in  the  university  of 
London.     Died,  1911. 

GalvaiU  (gOl-v&'-ni),  Lulgt,  Italian  physician  and 
physicist  from  whom  "galvanism"  derived  its 
name,  was  bom  in  Bologna,  1737.  He  waa 
educated  for  the  profession  of  medicine,  and 
studied  under  Beccaria,  Tacconi,  and  Galeazzi. 
In  1762  he  was  appointed  lecturer  on  anatomy 
in  the  university  of  Bolognaj  in  which  city  he 
practiced.  It  was  while  holding  this  lectureship 
that  he  made  those  discoveries,  partly  by  means 
of  experiments  on  the  muscles  ot  frogs,  which  he 
published  to  the  world  in  1791  in  his  treatise 
entitled  De  Viribus  Electricitatis  in  Motu  Mus- 
culari  Commentarius.  The  now  fully-established 
doctrine  of  animal  electricity  owes  its  origin  to 
the  patient  and  laborious  investigations  of  the 
Bologna  professor.     Died,  1798. 

Gama  {gH'-mil),  Vaseo  da,  Portuguese  navigator, 
was  bom  about  14G9  at  Sines  in  Alemtejo.  He 
early  distinguished  himself  as  an  intrepid  mariner, 
and  was  selected  by  King  Emanuel  to  discover 
the  route  to  India  around  the  cape.  The  exp>e- 
dition  of  three  vessels  with  168  men  left  Lisbon 
in  July.  1497,  but  was  four  months  in  reaching 
St.  Helena.  After  rounding  the  cape,  despite 
hurricanes  and  mutinies  he  made  Melinda  early 
in  the  following  year.  Here  he  found  a  skillful 
Indian  pilot,  crossed  the  Indian  ocean,  and 
arrived  at  Calicut  in  May,  1498.  The  ruler  of 
Calicut  soon  became  actively  hostile,  and  Da 
Gama  had  to  fight  his  way  out  of  the  harbor. 
In  September,  1499,  he  arrived  at  Lisbon,  and 
was  ennobled.     Emanuel  immediately  despatched 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


718 


a  fresh  squadron  of  thirteen  ships  under  Cabral, 
■who  founded  a  factory  at  Calicut.  But  the 
forty  Portuguese  left  there  were  murdered,  and 
to  avenge  them  the  king  fitted  out  a  S()uadron  of 
twenty  ships  under  Da  Gama,  1502.  which 
founded  the  colonies  of  Mozambique  and  Sofala, 
bombarded  Calicut,  and  reached  the  Tagus  with 
thirteen  richly-laden  vessels  in  December,  1503. 
For  twenty  years  Da  Gama  lived  inactive  at 
Evora,  while  the  extended  Portuguese  con- 
quests were  presided  over  by  five  viceroys.  The 
fifth  was  so  unfortunate  that  John  III.  in  1524 
despatched  Da  Gama  to  India,  where  he  suc- 
ceeded in  making  Portugal  once  more  respected, 
but  soon  after  his  arrival  he  died  at  Cochin, 
1524. 

Gamaliel  (gd-md'41-d),  St,  Paul's  teacher,  was  a 
prominent  Pharisee,  and  taught  "the  law"  early 
in  the  first  century.  He  was  the  grandson  of 
Hillel.  Tolerant  and  peaceful,  he  seems  to  have 
placed  Christianity  on  a  par  with  other  sects; 
and  he  exhorts  to  long-suffering  on  all  sides. 

Gambetta  {g&m-bU'-d),  L£on  Michel,  French 
lawyer,  statesman,  and  orator,  was  born  at 
Cahors,  1838.  He  studied  law,  and  in  1859 
joined  the  Paris  bar.  It  was  not  until  1868  that 
his  name  came  prominently  before  the  pubUc. 
He  then  acquired  fame  as  counsel  for  defendants 
in  political  prosecutions.  He  showed  himself  an 
able  and  determined  enemy  of  the  second  empire. 
After  Sedan  he  became  minister  of  the  interior, 
and  remained  for  some  time  in  Paris  after  it  was 
invested  by  the  Germans.  As  he  was  anxious, 
however,  to  stir  up  the  provinces,  he  contrived 
to  escape  from  the  city  by  a  balloon.  He  came 
down  to  Amiens,  and  thence  proceeded  to  Tours, 
where  he  was  intrusted  with  the  control  of  the 
war  department.  He  assumed  unlimited  power, 
and  made  every  effort  to  stir  up  the  provinces  in 
defense  of  Paris.  He  preached  war  with  the 
utmost  hostility  against  the  Germans,  and 
denounced  the  capitulation  of  Metz  as  an  act  of 
treason  on  the  part  of  Marshal  Bazaine.  When 
the  national  assembly  was  resolved  upon  in  1871, 
Gambetta  sought  by  decree  to  give  it  an  exclu- 
sively republican  character.  The  decree  was 
canceled  at  the  instigation  of  Prince  Bismarck, 
and  Gambetta  resigned  office  as  minister.  He 
subsequently  entered  the  assembly  as  a  member 
for  Paris,  became  the  leader  of  the  extreme  left, 
and  to  the  violence  of  a  speech  which  he  delivered 
at  Grenoble  was  largely  attributed  the  reaction 
which  set  in  against  republican  government  and 
the  retirement  of  M.  Thiers.  After  this  his 
political  action  became  more  skillful  and  mod- 
erate, and  to  his  leadership  the  republicans 
greatly  owed  their  success  in  the  elections  of 
1877.  He  became  premier  in  1881,  but  in  a  few 
months  resigned.     Died,  1882. 

Gambler  (g&m'-ber),  James,  Baron,  English  admiral, 
was  born  in  the  Bahamas,  1756.  He  fought  with 
distinction  off  Ushant,  under  Lord  Howe,  in 
1794;  became  rear-admiral,  1795,  vice-admiral, 
1799,  and  admiral,  1805.  He  commanded  the 
British  fleet  at  Copenhagen  in  1807,  and  was 
rewarded  with  a  peerage.  At  the  battle  of  Aix 
Roads  in  1809  he  disregarded  the  signals  of 
Dundonald  but  was  "most  honorably  acquitted" 
by  court-martial.  In  1814  he  served  on  the 
commission  which  negotiated  the  treaty  of  peace 
with  the  United  States.     Died,  1833. 

Gamble,  Robert  Jackson,  lawyer.  United  States 
senator,  was  born  in  Genesee  county,  N.  Y.,  1851. 
He  removed  to  Fox  Lake,  Wis.,  1862;  graduated 
from  Lawrence  university,  Appleton,  Wis.,  1874 ; 
located  at  Yankton,  S.  D.,  1875,  where  he  has 
since  been  engaged  in  the  practice  of  law.  He 
was  district  attorney  for  the  second  judicial 
district  of  the  territory  in  1880;  city  attorney  of 
Yankton  for  two  years;    state  senator  in  1885, 


under  the  constitution  adopted  that  year;  wa« 
elected  to  the  fifty-fourth  and  fifty-«ixth  eon- 
gresses;  elected  to  the  United  States  senate,  1901, 
and  reelected  for  the  term  1907-13. 

Gannett  (g&n'-it),  Henry,  geographer  and  atatia- 
ticiau,  United  States  geologicul  survey,  aiace 
1882,  was  bom  at  Batli,  Me.,  1846.  He  waa 
graduated  from  Lawrence  scientific  school, 
Harvard  university;  LL.  D.,  Bowdoin;  was 
civil  and  mining  engineer,  1866-70;  assistant 
Harvard  observatory,  1870-71;  topographer, 
Hayden  survey,  1872-79;  geographer,  United 
States  census,  1880-«2,  1890-92.  1900-02; 
assistant  director  census,  Philippine  islands, 
1902-03;  assistant  director  census  of  Cuba, 
1907-08.  Author:  Statistical  Atlases  of  Tenth, 
Eleventh,  and  Twelfth  Censitses;  Scribner'a  Statis- 
tical Atlas  (in  part);  Dictionary  of  Altitudes; 
Commercial  Geography;  Building  of  a  Nation; 
United  States;  Stanford  Series  of  Geography; 
Contour  Map  of  United  States;  and  many 
geographical  and  statistical  reports  and  papers. 

Garcia  {gdr-thi'-ix),  Manuel,  musical  genius,  waa 
born  at  Seville,  Spain,  1775.  After  accjuiring  » 
considerable  reputation  as  a  singer  in  Cadis  and 
Madrid,  he  went  to  Paris  in  1808,  where  he  ob- 
tained great  success  at  the  Italian  opera;  and  in 
1811  proceeded  to  Italy,  where  he  was  received 
with  equal  favor  in  Turin,  Rome,  and  Naples. 
Subsequently,  with  a  select  operatic  company, 
composed  in  part  of  members  of  his  own  family, 
he  crossed  the  Atlantic,  and  visited  the  United 
States,  Mexico,  and  South  America.  After  his 
return  to  Paris  he  became  a  vocal  teacher,  and 
many  of  his  pupils  reached  a  high  degree  of 
excellence,  but  none  equaled  his  eldest  daugliter, 
Maria,  afterward  Mme.  MaUbran.  Died  at  Paris, 
1832. 

Garcilaso  de  la  Yega  {g&r'-thi-lli'-sd  d&  la  v&'-gei), 
Spanish  soldier  and  poet,  was  bom  at  Toledo 
about  1503.  He  early  adopted  the  profession  of 
arms,  and  gained  a  distinguished  reputation  for 
bravery  in  the  wars  carried  on  by  Emperor 
Charles  V.  against  the  French  and  Turks,  but 
was  mortally  wounded  while  storming  a  castle 
near  Fr^jus,  in  the  south  of  France.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  sonnets  and  other  poems,  several 
eclogues,  and  is  sometimes  called  the  "Spanish 
Petrarch."     Died  at  Nice,  1536. 

Garcilaso  de  la  Vega,  Peruvian  historian,  known 
as  "the  Inca,"  was  bom  at  Cuzco,  in  Peru,  about 
1540.  He  was  the  son  of  Sebastian  Garcilaso 
de  la  Vega  y  Vargas,  who  married  Elizabeth 
Palla,  a  princess  of  the  race  of  the  Incas,  and 
niece  of  the  famous  Huayna  Capac,  the  last 
emperor  of  Peru.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Spain,  and  never  again  visited  America. 
During  the  greater  portion  of  his  life  he  lived  at 
Cordova,  where  he  died.  His  first  work  waa  a 
History  of  Florida,  containing  an  account  of  the 
conquest  of  the  countrjr  by  Hernando  de  Soto, 
and  was  followed  by  a  history  of  the  royal  Incas, 
his  largest  work.     Died,  1616. 

Gardener,  Helen  Hamilton,  author,  was  bom  at 
Winchester,  Va.,  1858,  daughter  of  Rev.  Alfred 
GriflSth  Chenoweth.  She  was  graduated  at 
Cincinnati  high  and  normal  schools;  pursued 
post-graduate  work  in  biology,  medicine,  and 
other  branches  in  New  York;  married  Col.  8.  A. 
Day,  United  States  army,  in  1901.  She  has 
done  much  magazine  work  as  editor  and  con- 
tributor, and  written  many  stories,  essays,  and 
scientific  articles.  Author:  Men,  Women,  and 
Gods,  essays;  Facts  and  Fictions  of  Life;  Is 
This  Your  Son.  My  Lordf  Pushed  by  Unseen 
Hands;  A  Thoughtless  Yes;  An  Unofficial 
Patriot;  Historical  Sketches  of  Our  Navy,  etc. 
She  has  been  active  in  movements  for  progress 
and  development  of  women,  and  for  social  and 
ethical  reform. 


714 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Gardiner,  Samnel  Bawson,  English  historian,  was 
born  in  1829;  was  educated  at  Winchester  and 
Christ  Church,  Oxford.  In  1884  he  was  elected 
fellow  of  All  Souls',  and  was  for  some  years  pro- 
fessor of  modern  history  at  King's  college,  Lon- 
don. His  historical  works  include  77i€  History 
of  England  from  Die  Accession  of  James  I.  to  the 
Disgrace  of  Chief  Justice  Coke;  Prince  Charles 
and  the  Spanish  Marriage;  England  Under  the 
Duke  of  Buckingham  and  Charles  I.;  The  Per- 
sorud  Government  of  Cfiarles  I.;  and  the  Fall  of 
the  Monarchy  of  Charles  I.;  all  these  being  repub- 
lished as  a  continuous  work  in  1883-84;  An 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  English  History,  with 
J.  B.  Mullinger;  History  of  the  Great  Citnl  War; 
and  a  complete  History  of  England.     Died,  1902. 

Garfield,  Harry  AuKUstus*  educator,  was  bom  at 
Hiram,  Ohio,  18G3,  the  son  of  James  Abram 
Garfield.  He  was  graduated  at  Williams  college, 
1885;  studied  law  at  Columbia  law  school  one 
year,  and  at  Oxford,  England,  and  Inns  of  Court, 
London,  but  without  matriculation  at  either  of 
the  latter  places.  He  practiced  law  as  a  member 
of  the  firm  Garfield,  Garfield,  and  Howe,  Cleve- 
land, 1888-1903;  professor  of  politics,  Princeton, 
1903-08;  elected  president  of  Williams  college, 
1907,  and  assumed  duties  in  June,  1908.  Presi- 
dent of  Cleveland  chamber  of  commerce,  1898-99, 
and  member  of  many  learned  and  other  associa- 
tions. 

Garfleld,  James  Abram,  twentieth  president  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  Orange,  Cuyahoga 
county,  Ohio,  1831.  As  a  boy  he  had  few 
adv,antages,  received  a  common  school  education, 
and  this  in  a  fragmentary  way.  He  workeu 
occasionally  at  a  carpenter  s  bench,  toiled  early 
and  late  on  the  small  maternal  farm,  and  also 
drove  a  team  of  canal  mules.  By  dint  of  hard 
work  he  persevered  until  he  entered  Williams 
college.  Mass.,  and  was  graduated  in  1856.  He 
studied  and  practiced  law,  and  was  a  member  of 
the  Ohio  senate,  1859-60;  entered  the  army  in 
1861  as  colonel  of  the  42d  Ohio  volunteers; 
served  in  southeastern  Kentucky,  and  was 
promoted  to  be  brigadier-general  of  volunteers, 
1862 j  served  at  Shiloh,  Corinth,  etc.;  was 
appomted  chief  of  staff  by  General  Rosecrans, 
1863;  and  for  gallantry  at  the  battle  of  Chicka- 
mauga  was  promoted  to  major-general  of  vol- 
unteers. He  resigned  to  occupy  a  seat  in  the 
thirty-eighth  congress,  to  which  he  had  been 
elected,  and  remained  in  congress  as  chairman 
of  important  committees,  until  elected  United 
States  senator  in  the  spring  of  1880.  He  was 
elected  to  the  presidency  at  tlie  close  of  1880,  and 
entered  upon  office  in  the  spring  of  the  following 
year;  but  on  the  2d  of  July  he  was  shot  by  the 
assassin  Guiteau,  while  at  the  Washington  station 
of  the  Baltimore  and  Potomac  railway,  and  died 
at  Elberon,  N.  J.,  after  lingering  for  nearly  three 
months.  His  early  povertj*,  nis  manly  inde- 
pendence, his  hard-won  attainments,  and  his 
mcorruptible  integrity  had  all  caused  his  career 
to  be  watched  as  that  of  a  man  of  exceptional 
powers  and  of  brilliant  promise ;  and  his  untimely 
death  was  mourned,  not  only  by  his  own  country- 
men, but  by  the  whole  civiUzed  world.  Died, 
1881 

Garfield,  James  Rudolph,  lawyer,  former  secretarv 
of  the  interior,  and  son  of  James  Abram  Garfield, 
was  born  in  Hiram,  Ohio,  1865.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  Williams  college,  Mass.,  1885;  studied  at 
Columbia  law  school;  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1888;  practiced  law  in  Ohio,  1888-1902;  was 
member  of  Ohio  senate,  1896  to  1899;  member 
of  United  States  civil  service  commission  from 
1902  to  February,  1903;  commissioner  of  cor- 
porations, department  of  commerce  and  labor, 
from  February,  1903,  to  March,  1907;  was 
secretary  of  the  interior,  1907-09. 


Garibaldi  ig&'-re-bal'-de),  Giuseppe,  Italian  patriot, 
was  bom  at  Nice,  France,  18u7,  and  began  life 
as  a  sailor.  He  associated  himself  enthusiastic- 
ally with  Mazziui  for  the  hberation  of  his  country, 
but,  being  convicted  of  conspiracy,  fled  to  South 
America,  where,  both  as  a  privateer  and  a 
soldier,  he  gave  his  services  to  the  young  repub- 
lics struggling  there  for  life.  Returning  to 
Europe,  he  took  part  in  the  defense  of  Rome 
against  France,  but,  being  defeated,  fled  to  New 
York,  to  return  to  the  isle  of  Caprera,  biding  his 
time.  He  joined  the  Piedmontese  against  Aus- 
tria, and  in  1860  set  himself  to  assist  in  the 
overthrow  of  the  kiuedom  of  Naples  and  the 
union  of  Italy  under  Victor  Emmanuel.  Land- 
ing in  Calabna,  he  entered  Naples  and  drove  the 
royal  forces  before  him  without  striking  a  blow, 
after  which  he  returned  to  his  retreat  at  Caprera, 
ready  still  to  draw  sword,  and  occaj^ionally  offer- 
ing It  again  in  the  cause  of  republicanism.  In 
1870-71  be  commanded  a  French  force  in  the 
Franco-German  war.     Died,  1882. 

Garland,  Hamlin,  American  novelist  and  short- 
storv  writer,  was  born  of  Scotch  descent  at  West 
Salem  Wis.,  1860.  Until  1881  he  worked  on  his 
father  s  farm,  spent  some  time  in  Dakota,  then 
proceeded  East,  where  he  taught  English  litera- 
ture in  private  schools  in  Boston  and  its  neighbor- 
hood, and  published  his  first  book  in  1890. 
Since  then  be  has  devoted  himself  to  lecturing 
and  writing.  Besides  a  collection  of  verse 
entitled  Prairie  Songa,  he  has  published  the 
following  books:  Rose  of  Dutchera  Coolly;  A 
Little  Norsk;  Jaaon  Edwards;  A  Member  of  the 
Third  Houae;  A  Spoil  of  Office;  Main  Traveled 
Roadaj  Crumbling  Idola;  Wayside  Courtships; 
Prairte  Folka;  Ulyaaea  Grant:  Hia  Life  and 
Character;  The  Trail  of  the  Gold  Seekera;  Boy 
LiJe  on  the  Prairie;  The  Spirit  of  Sweetwater; 
The  Eagl^a  Heart;  Her  Mountain  Lover;  The 
Captain  of  the  Gray  Horae  Troop;  Hesper;  The 
Tyranny  of  the  Dark;  The  Long  Trail;  Money 
Magic;   The  Shadow  World,  etc. 

Gamier  (pdr'-nyd'),  Jean  Ix>ula  Cbaries,  French 
architect,  was  bom  at  Paris,  France,  1825.  He 
studied  at  the  school  of  fine  arts,  and  began  to 
exhibit  water  colors  in  1853,  after  considerable 
travel  in  Italy  and  Greece.  In  1854  he  set  up 
as  an  architect  in  Paris,  and  in  1861  competed 
for  the  design  of  the  new  opera  house  in  Paris. 
His  design  was  accepted,  and  he  constructed  the 
building,  which  was  completed  in  1875.  He  also 
built  the  conservatory  at  Nice,  and  the  casino 
at  Monte  Carlo.  He  was  made  an  officer  of  the 
legion  of  honor.     Died,  1898. 

Garrelt,  R.  W.,  Canadian  physician,  professor  of 
obstetrics.  Queen's  university,  Kingston,  Canada, 
was  born  in  the  county  of  North  Ontario,  1853. 
He  was  educated  at  Ontario  college,  Picton; 
M.  A.,  Trinitv  college,  Toronto;  M.  D.,  Queen's 
university,  I^ngston,  Ontario.  After  receiving 
his  degree  in  medicine,  1882,  he  settled  in  the 
practice  of  his  profession  at  Kingston,  where  he 
was  shortly  app)ointed  professor  of  anatomy  in 
the  Women's  medical  school;  was  afterward 
appointed  demonstrator  of  anatomy  in  the  royal 
college  of  physicians  and  surgeons,  and  later  filled 
the  chair  of  professor  of  anatomj'.  Senior  sur- 
geon in  the  Kingston  general  hospital,  and  sur- 
geon-major in  the  14th  battalion  princess  of 
VV^ales' own  rifles.  Author:  Medical  and  Surgical 
Gyncccology;    editor,  Kingston  Medical  Quarterly. 

Garrlck,  David,  English  actor,  son  of  a  captain  in 
the  army,  was  bom  in  Hereford  in  1717.  He 
went  to  London  with  Dr.  Johnson  in  1736  to 
study  law ;  but  an  irresistible  instinct  urged  him 
to  tne  stage.  He  made  his  first  appearance, 
under  the  name  of  Lyddal,  at  Ipswich,  in  1741, 
and  soon  after  played  Richard  III.  in  the  theater 
of  Goodman's  Fields,  where  his  success  enabled 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


716 


him  to  get  an  engagement  at  Drury  Lane.  In 
1742  he  went  to  Dublin-  in  1747  he  became 
joint  patentee  of  Drury  Lane,  two  years  later 
marrymg  Mademoiselle  Violette.  He  acted  at 
Drury  Lane  until  1776,  when  he  retired  and  sold 
his  snare  in  the  concern.  In  1763  he  visited 
Italy,  and  in  1769  projected  and  conducted  the 
memorial  jubilee  at  Stratford-on-Avon  in  honor 
of  Shakespeare.  His  last  appearance  was  as 
Don  Felix  in  The  Wonder.  He  died  in  1779  and 
was  buried  in  Westminster  abbey. 

Garrison,  WlUiam  Lloyd,  American  abolitionist, 
was  born  at  Newburyport,  Mass.,  1805.  As  a 
young  man  he  was  chiefly  engaged  in  newspaper 
work,  and  soon  made  himself  obnoxious  to  the 
then  ruling  powers  by  the  boldness  of  his  denun- 
ciation of  slavery.  In  1829,  while  editing  The 
Genius  of  Universal  Emancipation,  which  was 
published  at  Baltimore,  his  articles  on  this  sub- 
ject led  to  his  being  convicted  and  imprisoned 
for  libel.  He  was  released  from  prison  on  the 
payment  of  his  fine  by  a  friend,  and  thereupon 
commenced  his  career  as  an  anti-slavery  lecturer, 
which  he  continued  until  such  agitation  was  no 
longer  necessary.  In  1831  he  founded  The 
Liberator,  which  he  published  at  Boston  during 
thirty-five  years.  His  whole  course  was  attended 
by  the  most  malignant  opposition  from  the  pro- 
slavery  party ;  his  life  was  frequently  threatened, 
and  more  than  once  he  was  assaulted  and  pub- 
licly handled;  but  his  courage,  energy,  and 
ability  were  inexhaustible,  and  he  lived  to  see 
the  complete  success  of  the  movement  which  he 
had  done  so  much  to  promote.  On  the  abolition 
of  slavery  in  1865,  he  was  presented  by  his 
friends  in  the  United  States  with  the  sum  of 
$30,000.  He  visited  England  in  1833,  1846, 
1848,  1867,  and  1877,  and  on  the  last  occasion 
but  one  he  was  entertained  at  a  public  breakfast 
in  St.  James's  hall,  London,  in  which  the  duke  of 
Argyll  and  Mr.  Bright,  among  others,  took  part. 
Died,  1879. 

Garth  (garth).  Sir  Samuel,  English  physician  and 
poet,  was  bom  at  Bowland  Forest,  Yorkshire, 
1661,  studied  at  Peterhouse,  Cambridge,  and 
Leyden,  graduated  M.  D.  in  1691,  and  next  year 
settled  in  London.  In  1700  he  did  himself  ever- 
lasting honor  by  providing  burial  in  Westminster 
abbey  for  the  neglected  Dryden.  He  was 
knighted  by  George  I.  and  appointed  physician 
in  ordinary,  and  physician-general  to  tne  army. 
He  published  The  Dispensary,  1699,  a  satire  on 
the  apothecaries  and  physicians  who  opposed 
giving  medicine  gratuitously  to  the  sick  poor, 
and,  in  1715,  Claremont,  a  topographical  poem. 
Died,  1719. 

Gary,  Elbert  H.,  chairman  of  board  of  directors 
and  chairman  of  finance  committee  of  United 
States  steel  corporation,  was  born  at  Wheaton. 
111.,  1846;  educated  at  Wheaton  college  ana 
Chicago  university;  graduated  from  law  school, 
university  of  Chicago,  1867.  Admitted  to  lUinois 
bar,  1867,  bar  of  United  States  supreme  court, 
1878.  First  mayor  of  Wheaton;  county  judge,  Du 
Page  county,  two  terms;  practiced  law  in  Chicago 
twenty-five  years",  chiefly  as  counsel  for  railroad 
and  manufacturing  corporations;  president  of 
Chicago  bar  association,  1893-94;  retired  from 
law  practice  to  become  president  of  Federal 
steel  company,  1898;  is  chairman  of  board  of 
directors  of  Allis-Chalmers  company,  and  several 
banks  and  other  corporations.  Trustee  of  North- 
western university. 

Gaskell,  Elizabeth  Cleghom  Stevenson,  English 
novelist,  was  bom  at  Cheyne  Row,  Chelsea,  1810. 
She  married  in  1832  William  Gaskell,  a  Unitarian 
minister  in  Manchester.  Here  she  studied  work- 
ing men  and  women.  In  1848  she  published 
anonymoiosly  Mary  Barton,  followed  by  the 
Moorland  Cottage;    Cranford;    Ruth;    North  and 


South;  Round  the  So/a;  Riaht  at  Last;  Sylvia't 
Lovers;  Cousin  Phillis,  and  Wives  and  Daughters. 
She  died  suddenly  at  Holyboume,  Alton,  in 
Hampshire,  1865,  and  was  fittingly  buried  at 
Knutsford.  Besides  her  novels  she  wrote  Ths 
Life  of  Charlotte  Bronii,  a  masterpiece  of  Engli^ 
biography. 

Gassendi  {gd'-sati'-di'),  or  Gassend,  Pierre,  French 
philosopher  and  mathematician,  was  bom  at 
Champtercier  in  Provence,  1592.  He  studied 
and  taught  at  Aix,  but  revolted  from  the  scholas* 
tic  philosophy,  and  applied  himself  to  physica 
and  astronomy.  His  examination  of  the  Aris- 
totelian system  appeared  in  Exerciiationes  Para- 
doxiccB  adversus  Anstoteleos,  1624.  In  that  year 
he  was  appointed  provost  of  DIgne  csthedural; 
and  in  1645  professor  of  mathematics  In  the 
College  Royal  at  Paris,  where  he  died,  1665. 
He  controverted  Fludd,  the  mystic,  and  Des- 
cartes|s  new  philosophy;  wrote  on  Epicurus; 
gave  in  his  Institutio  Astronomica  a  clear  view 
of  the  science  in  his  day;  and  published  lives 
of  Tycho  Brahe,  Copemicus,  and  Regiomontanus. 

Gaston  de  Folx  (g&a'-tSy'  di  fwti),  famous  French 
general,  was  bom  in  1489.  When  twentv-three 
years  old  he  was  made  commander  of  the  ^French 
army  in  Italy.  He  defeated  the  army  of  Venice, 
near  Brescia,  and  took  the  city  by  storm  on  the 
same  day.  A  few  weeks  afterward  he  won  a 
victory  at  Ravenna  over  the  enemy's  forces,  in 
one  of  the  hottest  battles  ever  fought,  20,000 
men  being  killed  on  each  side.  The  victory  was 
so  splendid  that  the  hot-blooded  young  hero 
grew  impatient  when  he  saw  some  of  the  enemy's 
infantry  leave  the  field  slowly  and  in  good  order, 
and  madly  rushed  after  them  in  person,  followed 
by  Bayard  and  about  twenty  knights.  He  broke 
the  enemy's  line,  but  his  horse  was  wounded  and 
fell;  and  when  Gaston's  friends  reached  him  he 
was  dead.     He  was  killed  in  1512. 

Gates,  Horatio,  famous  American  general,  was 
bom  in  England,  1728.  Sent  to  America  in  1755, 
as  captain  of  infantry,  he  served  under  General 
Braddock,  and  with  difficulty  escaped  in  the 
defeat  in  which  that  officer  was  slain.  On  the 
peace  of  1763  he  purchased  an  estate  in  Virania, 
where  he  resided  until  the  war  of  independence, 
when  he  sided  with  his  adopted  countiy,  and  in 
1775  was  made  adjutant-general  in  the  colonial 
army.  He  accompanied  Washington  to  Massa^ 
chusetts  in  July  of  the  same  year,  where  he 
remained  until  June,  1776,  when  he  received  the 
chief  command  of  the  army,  which  had  just 
retreated  from  Canada.  In  March,  1777,  he 
superseded  Schuyler  in  the  command  of  the  army 
of  the  North,  but  was  himself  superseded  by 
Schuyler  in  the  following  May.  In  Augtist  he 
once  more  undertook  the  command,  and  soon 
compelled  the  entire  British  army  to  surrender  at 
Saratoga.  This  brilliant  success  gained  for  him 
a  great  military  reputation,  and  his  considerate 
conduct  toward  his  compatriots  won  for  him  the 
esteem  of  even  his  enemies.  In  1780  he  was 
called  by  congress  to  the  command  of  the  army 
of  the  South,  and  in  the  unfortunate  defeat  of 
Camden  lost  the  laurels  he  had  already  won. 
He  was  superseded,  and  was  not  acquitted  of 
blame  until  1782,  after  a  protracted  trial  by 
court  martial.  He  then  retiretl  to  Virginia  until 
1790,  when  he  emancipated  all  his  slaves,  and 
settled  in  New  York.     Died,  1806. 

Gates,  John  Wame,  capitalist,  was  bom  on  a  farm 
near  Turner  Junction  (now  West  Chicago),  111.. 
1855.  He  was  educated  in  country  schools,  ana 
conducted  a  small  hardware  store  at  Turner 
Junction,  III. ;  became  salesman  in  Texas,  intro- 
ducing barbed  wire  for  I,  L.  Ellwood;  built  up 
a  large  business;  established  for  himself  in  St. 
Louis;  organized  Southern  wire  company.  1880; 
later   in   Braddock  wire  company;    sola  it   to 


716 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Federal  steel  eompmny,  IMS:  orgfaiaed  Aneri- 
etm  etegl  mod  wire  eoaqMuajr  (maw  part  of  United 
States  eteel  cariwwrlwi).  UB7;  wm  hViitified 
with  Mmeroae  Ivse  deab  in  lailiray  and  indua- 
trialatoek;  was  direetor  Bahtmore  and  (Miio  iBlt- 
road  eompany,  W  eat  em  Marjriand  railniad  eom- 
paaj,  Rtpdkme  in»  and  atea  company  of  New 
Jeraer,  Aaaerieaa  aalk  aBMyauji,  United  Statea 
realty  and  iuipim€Mieutea«painr,TfnnfBii'i>  eoal, 
iron  and  raiiroad  eompany,  Clycfe  ateamalup  eoot- 
pany.  National  bank  of  North  America,  etc.  Waa 
eofaatl  of  minofemtlilia.  1^97-1001.  Died.  191L 
Oaias.  Menfll  BAaavia*  eoucator,  author,  waa  bom 
at  WafBKW,  N.  Y^  IMS;  graduated  from  unirer- 
iity  of  Roeheater.  1870;  Ph.  D.,  mtirenttj  of 
State  of  New  York,  1880;  LL.  D.,  Prioeeton  and 
Rodicnter,  1882,  Columbia,  1801,  Williams, 
1803;  L.  H.  IX.  Columbia,  1887.  He  was 
prtneipal  of  the  Albany  boys'  academy,  1870-82; 
praidsnt  of  Ratters  coUeKe^  1882-00;  prerident 
of  Amhenfe  eoHna,  ISOCMW;  dtairman  of  United 
States  board  of  ImUaa  eomndarioners,  1800-40; 
president  of  the  American  miarionary  aaaociation, 
1802-48;  and  eig^t  Tcais  president  of  the  Lake 
Mohawk  Indian  eooiercaea.  He  is  a  uisMiber  of 
the  American  piiflosogMaal  aodety, 
bistmy 


pubBshed  his  fint 
the  strikmc  CmMriM 
reached  its  lijghest  pomt 


lone  poem,  A&erUu;  in 
ie^  U  Mm^  Bat  hia  p 
k  pomt  in  Mtmmmx  it  Cm 


waa 

Cumin, 


association;  lecturer  and  writer  upon  reiicious, 
social,  and  educational  themea.  Author:  Sidney 
Lanier,  Poet  and  Artiet;  Land  and  Late  at  Aoenia 
in  Educating  the  Indiane;  InUrmaUamal  Arbitra- 
tion: Higheet  Um  of  Wealth,  ete. 
Gatttnc  Bietaard  Jordan,  American  inrentor.  was 
bom  in  North  Carolina,  1818.  He  UxAi  his 
degree  in  medicine  about  1840,  but  did  not 
pfBctica.  In  1850  he  invented  a  hanp4»eakiiic 
machine,  and  in  1857  a  steam  ploom;   but  his 


eelebrated  invention  was  tBai  of  the 
revolving  gun^  which  bean  his  name^  the  eon- 
eepUon  of  which  came  to  him  in  1861.  In  1866 
the  gun  was  improved  and  tested,  and  was  forth- 
with brought  into  use  by  the  United  States 
service.  Several  European  covemmenta  also 
adopted  it.  Among  Dr.  GatBng's  hUer  iBTcn- 
tions  were  an  improved  method  of  resting  steel 
cannon  and  a  pneumatic  gun  for  dischaij^ng 
explosives.     Died,  1903. 

Ganss  (goua),  Karl  Frledrleh,  noted  German 
mathematician,  was  bom  in  Brunswick,  Germany, 
1777.  He  was  graduated  at  the  Collegium 
Carolinum  in  his  native  city  in  1795,  at  the 
university  of  Gottingen  in  1798,  and  then 
rrpaired  to  Helmstadt  to  avail  himself  of  the 
library  of  that  place.  Here  he  completed  his 
celebrated  Dieqttieitionet  Arithmetieig,  which 
appeared  in  1801,  and  at  once  atamped  ita  author 
as  one  of  the  most  profound  and  original  mathe- 
maticians of  any  age.  In  1809  appeared  bis 
Theoria  Motue  Corporum  CaUatium,  in  which 
was  also  contained  tlie  exposition  of  his  newly 
discovered  method  of  least  squares  for  the  treat- 
ment of  the  results  of  observations.  In  1807  he 
was  called  to  the  chair  of  mathematics  and  the 
directorship  of  the  obeervatory  in  the  univcrsitj 
of  Gottin^en,  positions  which  he  held  until  his 
death.  His  investigations  here  took  a  wide 
ranse,  and  much  of  his  time  waa  taken  op  in 
work  in  the  field  of  terrestrial  magnetism.     His 

complete  worlu,  collected  and  puuldied  by  the        

royal  society  of  sciences  of  Gdttingen,  fiD  seven  :  GararrC 
large  quarto  volumes,  with  titles  as  follows: 
Diaquieiiionee  Ariihmetiea;  Higher  Arithmetic; 
Analyeie;  Geometry  and  Method  of  Lecut  Soyaree; 
Mathematical  Phyeica;  Aatronomy;  Theoria 
Motue.     Died,  1855. 

Gautama  (gd'-td-md),  Buddha.     See  page  201. 

Gautier  {g&-tya'^^  Thfophile,  French  poet  and 
novelist,  was  bom  at  Tarbea,  1811.  From 
painting  he  turned  to  literature,  and  became  a 
"romanticist"   of    extreme   type.      In    1830   he 


AfodeaMtaeBe^lfMipM,  with  iU  defiant  preface. 
He  wrote  mamrothernovels  and  sliorter  stories  — 
Lea  Jettne  rmnee;  Portumio;  Una  Larme  de 
DiabU;  MUUema;  he  Peam  de  Tiare;  Jettatura; 
Le  CaviUnne  Fracame;  La  BeOe  Jenny;  Spirite; 
ete.  MMmte  alone  contests  with  him  the  palm 
as  the  prinee  of  writers  of  short  stories.  The 
first  hair  of  Gantier's  theatrical  critidaow  were 
collected  as  L'Hialair*  da  FAH  Dnmmatiqye  en 
Franee,  18S0.  His  artides  on  the  salon  form 
periiapa  the  best  history  of  the  Fmeh  art  of  his 
day.  His  liisiiri  fie  devoted  to  travel,  of  which 
he  pobUriwd  charaeteristie  aeeounts  in  his 
deHtfitful  CmfHett  H  Zigaaga,  ConatantinopU, 
Voysfs  «»  mmmit,  and  Voyage  en  Eapagne. 
Other  woriks  wars  an  snlarsed  edition  of  his 
Snams  at  Cmmtm:  Lea  <?r>fn|aii,  on  the  writers 
of  the  siartesnth  and  aeventeenth  centuries; 
Homari  da  Balaae;  Minagerie  Intime,  a  kind  of 
informal  autoblogranhy ;  Hiatoire  du  Roman- 
tiama;  aad  the  postliiiniiwis  worlca,  PartraiU  et 
Somwamka  litMrmkm;  mmI  L'OnamL  Be  died  at 
Ptek,187!2. 
Gay*  John,  EngMi  post,  was  bom  in  1685.  He 
wrote  a  lar:gs  mmibsr  of  poems  and  ballads, 
besides  sevenl  operas;  bat  Itttle  of  his  poetry  is 
now  read.  His  gwntest  sueessi  was  Tha  Beggar^a 
OparUf  wfaieh  ran  sixty-two  nights^  made  the 
aeton  etiebeated,  and  ia  the  popular  phrase, 
"made  Bieh  (the  maaaor)  gay,  and  Gay  (the 
author)  rich.''  HisTSss  and  hia  ballad  of 
■fffiiit  agai  Bmaa»  wiao  desenrs  iitMilioM      Died, 


1732. 
Gay,  Srdaaj 


Bamardt  Amamteatk 


jouraaliat  and 
1814. 


author,  waa  bom  at  ■  ■  i  ^,11111  ■  1 1.,  .u.^. 
Early  in  life  be  took  an  anlsiit  faitercst  hi  the 
anti^avery  cause  and  lectured  eztenaivciy, 
bcfaig  editor  alao  of  the  New  York  Amti'SUverg 
atamdard.  He  thm  became  connected  with  the 
Nsfw  York  Tribmrna  aad  waa  ita  managing  editor 
from  1802  to  1866.  For  four  years  be  was  editor 
of  the  Chicago  Tribiime,  bat  returning  to  New 
Yoric  fai  1872be  joined  tiie  staff  of  theNew  York 
Evening  Poat.  In  1876-80,  in  conjanction  with 
William  Cullen  Bryant,  he  wrote  •  Hiatory  of  the 
United  Statea,  and  in  1884  published  a  Life  of 
Jamea  Madiaon.  Died,  1888. 
Gay,  Walter,  American  artist,  was  bom  at  Hing- 
ham,  Mass.,  1856.  He  waa  educated  in  Boston 
pubUe  schools  and  Roxbury  Latin  schooL  He 
began  to  paint  flower  subjects,  1873;  went  to 
Paria,  187o,  to  study  art,  where  he  was  a  puni  of 
Bonnet,  and  was  a  eoiMtant  exhibitor  at  Paria 
salon.  He  painted  the  larse  picture  "Bene- 
dlcite,"  now  in  museum,  Amwtis,  France;  ."Laa 
Cigarreras,"  in  the  Luxembourg,  Paris*  alao 
pictures  in  the  Tate  collection,  London,  Metro* 
politan  museum  of  fine  arts.  New  Yoik^  and 
museum  of  fine  arts,  Boston.  He  recdvea  gold 
medals  at  Antwerp,  Vienna,  Berlin,  Mumcli, 
Paris,  and  Hors  Concours,  Paris.  Life  fellow  of 
the  Metropolitan  museum  of  fine  arts.  New  York; 
created  chevalier  legion  of  honor,  1894,  and  officer, 
1906.  Member  of  numeroua  art  societies,  Ameri- 
can and  foreign. 

(g6'-d'-r&^,  Charles  £tlenne  Arthnr, 
American  historian,  was  bom  in  New  Orleans, 
1805.  He  was  admitted  to  the  Phihuleliriiia  bar 
in  1829 ;  was  a  member  of  the  Louisiana  legisla- 
ture, and  judge  of  the  city  court  of  New  Oneans. 
In  1835  he  was  electedT  to  the  United  Statea 
senate,  but  on  account  of  ill  health  resigned  his 
seat.  In  1844  he  again  entered  the  state  legisla- 
ture, and  from  1846  to  1853  was  secretary  of 
state  of  Louisiana.  During  the  civil  war  he  sup- 
ported the  confederacy,  and  after  its  close  became 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


717 


reporter  of  the  state  supreme  court.  He  wrote 
the  valuable  History  of  Lortisiana,  and  several 
historical  sketches.      Died,  1895. 

Gayley,  Charles  Mills,  author,  educator,  critic, 
professor  of  English,  university  of  California, 
since  1889,  was  boru  at  Shanghai,  China,  1858. 
He  was  a  student  at  Blackheath,  England, 
1867-74,  royal  academic  institution,  Belfast, 
1874-75;  B.  A.,  university  of  Michigan,  1878; 
student  Giessen  and  Halle,  1886-87;  Litt.  D., 
Kenvon,  1900;  LL.  D^  Glasgow,  1901,  university 
of  ifichigan,  1904.  He  was  instructor  in  Latin, 
1880-84,  assistant  professor  of  Latin,  1884-86, 
assistant  professor  of  English,  1887-89,  university 
of  Michigan.  Author:  (with  F.  N.  Scott  and 
A.  A.  Stanley)  Songs  of  the  Yellow  and  Blue;  A 
Guide  to  the  Literature  of  ^^sthetics  (with  F.  N. 
Scott);  Classic  Myths  in  English  Literature; 
English  in  Secondary  Schools;  Methods  and 
Materials  of  Literary  Criticism  (with  F.  N. 
Scott) ;  Representative  English  Comedies  (5  vols.) ; 
The  Poetry  of  the  People  (with  M.  C.  Flaherty); 
The  Star  of  Bethlehem;  The  Principles  attd 
Progress  of  English  Poetry  (with  C.  C.  Young) ; 
Songs  of  California  (edited);  Plays  of  Our 
Forefathers,  etc. 

Gay-Lussac  {gd'-lii'-sdk'),  Joseph  Louis,  French 
chemist  and  physicist,  was  born  at  St.  L^nard 
in  Haute  Vienne,  1778.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Paris  pKjIytechnic  school,  passed  in  1801  to  the 
de})artment  of  ponts  et  cliauss6es,  and  began  a 
series  of  researches  on  vapor,  temperature,  and 
terrestrial  magnetism.  In  1808  he  made  the 
important  discovery  of  the  law  of  volumes;  in 
1809   he  became  professor  of  chemistry  at  the 

Polytechnic,  and  from  1832  in  the  Jardin  des 
lantes.  He  was  the  first  to  form  synthetically 
the  hydriodic  and  iodic  acids;  and  in  1815  he 
succeeded  in  isolating  cyanogen.  His  investiga- 
tions on  sulphuric  acid,  the  manufacture  of  the 
bleaching  chlorides,  the  centesimal  alcoholometer, 
and  the  assaying  of  silver  are  also  important.  In 
1818  he  became  superintendent  of  the  govern- 
ment gunpowder  factories,  and  in  1829  chief 
assayer  of  the  mint.  In  1839  he  was  made  a 
peer  of  France.  For  many  years,  in  conjunction 
with  Arago,  he  was  editor  of  the  Annales  de 
Chimie  et  de  Physique,  one  of  the  most  imp>ortant 
scientific  publications  of  France.     Died,  1850. 

Gaynor,  WUliam  Jay,  jurist,  mayor  of  New  York, 
was  bom  in  Whitesto\^^l,  Oneida  county,  N.  Y., 
1851;  educated  there  and  in  Bostoij;  worked  on 
New  York  and  Brooklyn  newspapers,  1873-75, 
while  studying  law;  admittetl  to  bar  and  began 
practice,  1875.  Became  a  national  figure  by  his 
breaking  up  of  rings  within  the  democratic  party 
and  securing  convictions  for  election  frauds; 
he  twice  declined  democratic  nomination  for 
governor;  elected  by  republicans  and  indepen- 
dent democrats  iudge  of  New  York  supreme 
court,  1893;  reelected,  1907,  and  designated 
justice  of  appellate  division  of  supreme  court ; 
received  democratic  nomination  for  mayor  of 
New  York  city,  1^09,  and  was  the  only  candidate 
on  the  ticket  elected.  An  attempt  to  assassinate 
him  failed  in  19K). 

Gata  (g&'-zd),  Theodoras,  Italian  scholar,  one  of 
the  earUest  to  revive  Greek  learning  in  the  West, 
was  born  at  Thessalonica,  1398.  He  fled  about 
1430  before  the  Turks  to  Italy,  and  became 
teacher  of  Greek  at  Ferrara,  next  of  philosophy 
at  Rome.  Cardinal  Bessarion  obtained  for  him 
a  small  benefice  in  Calabria.  His  principal 
work  was  a  Greek  grammar  i.ssued  in  1495.  He 
translated  into  Latin  jwrtions  of  Aristotle. 
Theophrastus.  St.  Chrysostom,  Hippocrates,  and 
other  Greek  writers.     Died,  1478. 

Geddes  (gld'-ls),  Patrick,  British  biologist  and 
botanist,  was  born  at  Perth.  1854.  He  was 
educated  at  the  normal  school  of  science,  Lon- 


don^ and  at  several  foreirn  universltiea;  beeara* 
professor  of  botany  at  Dundee.  Hia  aim  is  (o 
moralise  evolution  and  carrv  princlplea  from 
biology  into  history  and  sociology.  Beaidea 
important  articles  m  the  encydoiMBdiaa  and 
journals,  he  baa  written  Chapttra  in  Modem 
Botany  and  (with  J.  A.  Thomson)  Tk»  Evolution 
of  Sex.  He  is  identified  with  vast  sohemss  of 
housebuilding  in  Edinburgli,  and  of  social, 
academic,  and  economic  reform. 

Geefs  (gdfs),  GuiUaume,  Belgian  sculptor,  was  bom 
at  Antwerp,  1806.  After  studying  there  for 
some  time  he  went  to  Paris,  wHere  he  worked 
in  the  studio  of  M.  Ramey.  During  the  revolu- 
tion of  1830  he  quitted  Paris  and  returned  to 
Belgium,  and  soon  after  executed  at  Brxiasels  a 
monument  to  the  memory  of  the  victims  of  the 
revolution  of  1830.  The  most  important  of  his 
other  works  are  a  colossal  marble  statue  of  King 
Leopold,  monument  to  Count  FrW<?ric  de  M6rode, 
now  in  the  cathedral  of  Brussels,  and  statue  of 
General  Belliard.  He  executed  a  group  entitled 
"Le  Lion  Amoureux,"  which  was  shown  at  the 
exhibition  in  Paris,  1855.     He  died  in  1883. 

Gegenbaur  {gd'-gen-bour),  Karl,  German  compara- 
tive anatomist,  was  bom  at  Wiirzburg,  1826. 
He  received  a  chair  at  Jena  in  1855,  and  at 
Heidelberg  in  1873.  His  chief  works  are  Com- 
parative Anatomy  and  Human  Anatomy.  Ue 
etlited  the  Year-book  of  Morphology  in  1875,  and 
is  the  author  of  Elements  of  Comparative  Anatomy; 
Text-book  of  Human  Anatomy;  Epiglottis;  Com- 
parative Anatomy  of  the  Vertebrates  in  ReltUxon  to 
the  Invertebrates,  etc.     Died,  1903. 

Geibel  (gi'-b^l),  Emanuel  von,  German  poet,  was 
bom  at  Liibeck,  1815.  He  studied  at  Bonn  and 
BerUn,  and  afterward  went  to  Athens  as  tutor 
in  the  household  of  the  Russian  ambassador. 
He  returned  to  Liibeck  in  1840  and  published 
his  first  book  of  poems.  His  Voices  of  the  Time 
appeared  in  1841,  a  book  of  Sonnets  in  1846,  and 
Songs  of  Junius,  1848.  He  obtained  a  professor- 
ship at  Munich,  1852,  which  be  resigned,  1868. 
Among  his  later  volumes  are:  Poems  and  Leavea 
of  Thought;  Herald  Calls;  Late  Autumn  Leaves;' 
and  an  epic,  King  Sigurd's  Courting  Journey. 
He  also  wrote  several  dramas.     Died,  1884. 

Geikle  {ge'-k-i).  Sir  Archibald,  British  geologist,  was 
bom  at  Edinburgh,  1835.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Ekiinburgh  hiph  school  and  university.  In 
1855  he  was  appomted  to  the  geological  survev, 
and  in  1867  he  became  director  of  the  survey  in 
Scotland;  from  1871  to  1882  he  was  professor  of 
geology  and  mineralogy  at  Edinburgh ;  and  was 
director-general  of  the  survey  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  head  of  the  geological  museum, 
London,  1882-1901.  Among  his  works  are  the 
.Story  of  a  Boulder;  Phenomena  of  the  Glaeial 
Drift  of  Scotland:  The  Scenery  of  Scotland  Viewed 
in  Connection  xpith  its  Physiol  Ueologi/;  Memoir 
of  Sir  R.  Murchison;  Memoir  of  Sir  A.  C.  Ramaay; 
Ancient  Volcanoes  of  Britain,  etc.  He  was 
knighted  in  1891. 

Geikle,  James,  British  geologist,  brother  of  preced- 
ing, professor  of  geotogy  and  mineralogy  since 
1882  and  dean  of  the  faculty  of  science,  Edin- 
burgh university,  was  bom  at  Edinburgh,  1839. 
He  was  graduated  at  Edinburgh  universitv; 
LL.  D.,  D.  C.  L.,  London  luid  Edinburgh. 
Entered  H.  M.  geological  sur\'ey,  1861;  became 
district  surveyor,  1869;  Murchison  chair  of 
geolc»y  in  Ekiinburgh  university,  1882 ;  one  of  the 
founders  and  past  president  of  the  royal  Scottish 
geographical  society,  and  honorarj'  editor  of 
Scottish  Geograpliical  Magazine.  Author:  The 
Great  lee  Age;  Prehistoric  Evrope;  Outlines  of 
Geology;  Fraoments  of  Earth  Lore;  Songs  and 
Lyrics  by  Heinrich  Heine;  Earth  Sculpture; 
Stntctural and  Field  Geology,  etc. 

Gel€c  (sAc'-to'),  Claude.     See  Claude  of  Lorraln. 


718 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Oellert  (gU'-irt),  Christian  FOrchteKott,  German 
poet  and  moraliut,  was  born  at  Uainichen, 
Saxony,  1715.  He  was  educated  at  Leipzig,  and 
in  1751  became  a  professor  there.  He  revolted 
against  current  pedantry,  and  thus  pioneered  the 
way  for  Goethe  and  Schiller.  His  writings, 
fables,  tales,  hymns,  etc.,  were  collected  in  ten 
volumes.     He  aied  in  1769. 

Gelllus  (jSl'-i-^is),  Aulus,  Latin  author,  supposed 
to  have  been  born  at  Rome  about  117  A.  D. 
He  practiced  law  there,  after  studying  philosophy 
at  Athens,  and  wrote  the  Nodes  Alticce,  or  "Attic 
Nights,"  amedley  on  language,  antiquities,  history, 
and  literature,  m  twenty  books,  of  which  the 
eighth  is  wanting.  It  contains  many  extracts 
from  lost  Greek  and  Latin  authors.  The  best 
edition  is  by  Hertz.     He  died  about  180  A.  D. 

Gelon  (je'-ldn),  tyrant  of  Gela  and  Syracuse,  was 
the  son  of  Dcinomenes,  and  a  native  of  the 
former  city.  He  first  figures  in  hi.story  as  one 
of  the  body-guards  in  the  service  of  Hippocrates, 
tyrant  of  Gela.  On  the  death  of  the  latter  he 
oDtained  the  Supreme  power,  491  B.  C,  and  about 
485  B.  C.  made  himself  master  of  Syracuse.  His 
influence  soon  extended  itself  over  the  half  of 
Sicily.  Gelon  refused  to  aid  the  Greeks  against 
Xerxes,  as  they  declined  to  comply  with  his 
demand  that  he  should  be  apjxiinted  commander- 
in-chief.  About  the  same  time  Terillus,  ruler  of 
Himcra,  in  Sicily,  invoked  the  aid  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians against  Theron  of  Agrigentum,  who  had 
aispo.ssessed  him  of  his  state.  Gelon,  who  was 
in  alliance  with  Theron,  hastened  to  the  assist- 
ance of  the  latter,  and  on  the  same  day  on  which 
the  Greeks  won  the  battle  of  Salamis  he  gained 
a  complete  victory  over  the  invaders  at  Himera. 
The  consequence  was  an  immediate  treaty  of 
peace  between  him  and  the  Carthaginians,  who 
were  compelled  to  pay  all  the  expenses  of  the 
war.  His  clemency  and  the  wisdom  of  his 
measures  rendered  him  so  generally  beloved  that 
when  he  appeared  unarmed  in  an  assembly  of 
the  people,  and  declared  himself  ready  to  resign 
his  p)ower,  he  was  unanimously  hailed  as  the 
deliverer  and  sovereign  of  Syracuse.  Died, 
478  B.  C. 

Gen^t,  or  Genest  (z^-n2'),  Edmond  Cbaries 
£douard,  French  diplomat,  was  born  in  France 
in  1765.  He  entered  the  French  diplomatic 
service  as  chargi  d'affaires  at  St.  Petersburg  in 
1789,  but  was  sent  home  in  1791,  and  in  Decem- 
ber, 1792,  was  accredited  to  the  United  States. 
He  transgressed  the  laws  of  neutrality  by  issuing 
commissions  to  privateers  to  prey  upton  English 
commerce,  France  being  then  at  war  with  Eng- 
land. He  complained  bitterly  of  the  lack  of 
sympathy  displayed  by  the  young  republic  to  its 
old  ally,  and  did  his  best  to  embroil  the  United 
States  with  Great  Britain.  Washington  de- 
manded and  obtained  his  recall,  but  Gen^t 
decided  to  become  a  naturalized  citizen.  He 
settled  in  New  York,  and  married  a  daughter  of 
Governor  Clinton.  He  was  the  author  of  some 
historical  works,  and  translated  a  Swedish 
history.     Died  at  Scliodack,  N.  Y.,  1834. 

Genevlive  {zhtn'-vyhi').  Saint,  patroness  of  Paris, 
was  born  at  Nanterre  near  Paris,  about  422. 
She  took  the  veil,  and  acquired  an  extraordinary 
reputation  for  sanctity,  increased  by  her  assur- 
ance that  Attila  and  his  Huns  would  not  touch 
Paris,  and  by  an  expedition  for  the  relief  of  the 
starving  city  during  Childeric's  Frankish  inva- 
sion. In  460  she  built  a  church  over  the  tomb 
of  St.  Denis,  where  she  herself  was  buried. 
Died,  512. 

Genghis  Khan  (jSn'-giz  Kdn'),  celebrated  Mongol 
conqueror,  was  born  near  Lake  Baikal,  1162, 
the  son  of  a  Mongol  chief.  His  career  as  a 
soldier  began  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  an  age  at 
which  he  boldly  assumed  the  reins  of  govern- 


ment in  succession  to  hia  father.  By  his  military 
skill  and  daring  example  he  gradually  raised  his 
people  to  a  f>osition  of  supremacy  in  Asia,  and 
established  by  means  of  them  a  kingdom  which, 
at  his  death,  stretched  from  the  \  olga  to  the 
Pacific,  and  from  Siberia  to  the  Persian  gulf. 
He  regarded  himself  as  commissioned  by  heaven 
to  conquer  the  world,  a  destiny  which  he  almost 
fulfilled.     Died,  1227. 

Genseric  (iSn'sir-ik),  king  of  the  Vandals,  son  of 
Godigisdus,  founder  of  the  Vandal  kingdom  in 
Spain,  and  natural  brother  of  Gonderic,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  429,  was  born  in  406  A.  D. 
From  Spain  he  crossed  to  Africa,  and  in  con- 
junction with  the  Moors  a<lded  to  his  kingdom 
the  land  lyin^  west  of  Carthage,  ultimately 
gaining  possession  of  Carthage  itself.  He  next 
set  himself  to  organize  a  naval  force,  with  which 
he  systematically  from  year  to  year  pillaged 
Spain,  Italy,  Greece,  and  the  opp>osite  lands  of 
Asia  Minor,  sacking  Home  in  455.  He  continued 
master  of  the  seas  until  his  death  in  477,  despite 
strenuous  efforts  of  the  Roman  emperors  to 
crush  his  power. 

Gents,  Ton  (J'dn  ginW),  Frederick,  German  diplomat 
and  pubUcist,  was  born  at  lireslau,  1764.  In 
1786  he  entered  the  public  service  of  Prussia, 
but  in  1802  exchanged  into  that  of  Austria.  He 
wrote  bitterlv  against  Napoleon.  Ab  adherent 
of  Metternich  from  1810,  at  the  congress  of 
Vienna  in  1814  he  was  first  secretary,  as  also  in 
subsequent  conferences.  His  writings  are  dis- 
tinguished for  elegance,  but  his  ])en  was  on  sale 
to  the  highi-st  bidder;  and  he  drew  the  supplies 
for  his  lavish  private  expenditure  from  more 
than  one  foreign  government.     Dietl,  1832. 

Gflnunx  (ji-nUng'),  John  Franklin,  educator,  pro- 
fessor of  literature  and  biblical  interpretation, 
Amherst  college,  was  bom  at  Willsevville,  N.  Y., 
1860.  He  graduated  at  Union  college,  1870, 
Rochester  theological  seminary,  1875;  Ph.  D., 
Leipzig,  1881;  D.  D.,  Yale,  1905.  Author: 
Tennyson's  In  Memoriam — Its  Purpose  and  Its 
Structure;  Practical  Elements  of  Rhetoric;  The 
Study  of  Rhetoric  in  the  College  Course;  Hand- 
Book  of  Rhetorical  A  nalysis;  The  Epic  of  the  Inner 
Life,  Being  the  Book  of  Job;  Outlines  of  Rhetoric; 
What  a  Carpenter  Did  with  His  Bible;  The  Pass- 
ing of  Sdf:  The  Working  Principles  of  Rhetoric; 
Stevenson  s  Attitude  to  Life;  Ecclesiastes  and  Omar 
Khayyam;  Words  of  Koheleih,  Being  a  Study  and 
Translation  of  the  Book  of  Ecclesiastes;  The 
Hebrew  Literature  of  Wisdom  In  the  Light  of 
Today;    The  Idylls  and  the  Ages,  etc. 

GeofTroy  Saint-HUaire  {zh6'-frw&'  s&ii'^-lAr'\ 
Etlenne,  French  naturalist,  was  bom  at  Etampes, 
1772,  became  a  pupil  of  Haiiy  at  the  college  of 
Navarre,  Paris,  and  in  1793  professor  of  zoology 
in  the  museum  of  natural  history.  He  accom- 
panied Napoleon's  expedition  to  Egypt,  for  the 
collection  of  specimens,  and  after  his  return  laid 
the  basis  of  scientific  anatomy  by  enunciating 
his  well-known  theory  of  the  unity  of  organic 
composition.  He  fillwi  the  chair  of  zoology  at 
the  faculty  of  sciences,  1809,  and  evoked  a  great 
controversy  with  Cu\ner  by  the  publication  of 
his  Philosophic  Anatomiqxu,  1818-22.  He  was 
also  the  author  of  several  other  valuable  works 
illustrative  of  the  science  to  which  he  was  devoted. 
Died,  1844. 

George,  Grace,  actress,  was  born  in  New  York, 
1880.  She  received  a  convent  education,  and 
married  William  A.  Brady,  1899.  Made  her 
d^but  in  The  New  Boy,  New  York,  1894;  ap- 
peared in  leading  parts  in  The  Girl  I  Left  Behind 
Me;  Charley's  Aunt;  The  Wandering  Minstrd; 
The  Turtle;  Mile.  Fifi,;  starred  in  The  Princess 
Chiffon,  1899;  Her  Majesty,  1900;  Under 
Southern  Skies,  1901-02;  Frou  Frou,  1903; 
Pretty  Peggy,  1903-04;    The  Two  Orphans,  1904; 


THROUGHOUT  THE   WORLD 


719 


Abigail,  1904;  The  Marriage  of  William  Aahe, 
1905-06 ;  The  Richest  Girl,  1906 ;  Clothes,  1906 ; 
DivoTcons,  1907,  etc. 

George,  Henry,  American  ecooomiat  and  sociolo- 
gist, was  born  in  Philadelphia,  1839.  After 
being  successively  at  sea,  in  a  counting-house, 
and  a  printer's  office,  he  settled  in  California, 
and  in  1866  joined  the  staff  of  a  San  Francisco 
paper.  He  afterward  became  editor  of  two 
papers  there,  and  wrote  his  first  essay  on  the 
land  question  in  Our  Land  and  Land  Pdicy,  pub- 
lished in  1871.  In  1876  he  was  state  inspector 
of  gasmeters,  but  in  1880  removed  to  New 
York,  and  the  next  year  visited  Ireland  on 
his  way  to  England.  He  was  there  arrested  as 
a  "suspect"  under  Forster's  act,  but  was 
soon  released.  He  wrote  Progress  and  Poverty 
in  1879,  and  undertook  lecturing  tours  in 
1883  and  1889  in  support  of  his  principles. 
He  also  published  The  Irish  Land  Question,  Social 
Problems,  Protection  and  Free  Trade,  and  The 
Science  of  Political  Economy.  Candidate  for 
mayor.  New  York,  1886  and  1897.      Died,   1897. 

George  I.,  king  of  Great  Britain  from  1714  to  1727, 
was  bom  in  1660.  He  was  the  son  of  Ernest 
Augustus,  elector  of  Hanover,  and  of  Sophia, 
the  granddaughter  of  James  I.  of  England; 
and,  on  the  death  of  Anne,  he  ascended  the 
throne,  being  the  first  monarch  of  the  house  of 
Hanover.  The  early  part  of  his  reign  was 
troubled  by  the  conspiracies  and  rebellions  of  the 
Jacobites,  aggravated  by  foreign  wars;  and  in 
1720  the  collapse  of  the  famous  South  sea  scheme 
occurred,  when  thousands  of  families  were  ruined. 
In  1727  the  king  set  out  on  a  visit  to  his  Han- 
overian dominions,  but  had  only  reached  Osna- 
briick  when  he  was  struck  down  by  apoplexy.  By 
his  marriage  with  Sophia  Dorothea,  a  daughter 
of  the  duke  of  Zell,  he  left  one  son,  George 
Augustus,  who  succeeded  him,  and  one  daughter, 
Sophia  Dorothea,  who,  in  1706,  was  married  to 
Frederick  II.  of  Prussia,  and  became  the  mother 
of  Frederick  the  Great. 

George  II.,  son  and  successor  of  George  I.,  and 
king  of  Great  Britain  from  1727  to  1760,  was 
born  in  1683.  Ascending  the  throne  when  forty- 
four  years  of  age,  he  had  the  advantage  over  his 
father  of  being  able  to  speak  English,  which 
George  I.  could  never  do.  But  he  also  had  to 
cope  with  Jacobite  conspiracies,  and  to  contend 
with  Charles  Edward  Stuart,  the  young  pre- 
tender; nor  was  the  latter  entirely  defeated 
until  the  battle  of  CuUoden,  which  was  fought 
April  27,  1746.  The  war  of  the  Austrian  succes- 
sion occurred  in  this  reign,  the  object  of  which 
was  to  secure  Maria  Theresa  of  Hungary,  the 
daughter  of  Charles  VI.  of  Germany,  from  the 
partition  of  her  Austrian  dominions;  and  this 
war  was  only  brought  to  a  close  by  the  treaty  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  October  7,  1748.  In  1756  the 
seven  years'  war  broke  out,  in  which  England 
sided  with  Prussia;  and  the  last  years  of  the 
king's  reign  saw  the  British  victors  in  India,  Can- 
ada, and  on  the  seas.     He  died,  1760. 

George  III«,  king  of  Great  Britain  from  1760  to 
1820,  and  king  of  -Hanover  (elector  from  1760  to 
1815),  eldest  son  of  Frederick  Louis,  prince  of 
Wales,  was  born  in  London,  1738.  In  1761  he 
married  Princess  Charlotte  Sophia  of  Mecklen- 
burg-Strelitz,  by  whom  he  had  fifteen  children. 
More  English  in  sentiment  and  education  than 
his  two  predecessors,  George's  main  interest  was 
centered  in  his  English  kingdom,  and  never 
during  his  long  life  did  he  once  set  foot  in  his 
Hanoverian  possessions.  At  his  accession  he 
found  the  seven  years'  war  in  progress,  and  he 
was  later  involved  in  the  war  of  the  American 
revolution  and  the  Napoleonic  wars.  In  1801 
the  legislative  union  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
was  effected.     Died  at  Windsor,  1820. 


George  V^  king  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and 

emperor  of  India,  was  born  al  Marlborough 
House,  London,  1865,  the  si-cond  son  of  Edward 
VII.  The  death  of  his  elder  brother,  Albert,  in 
1892  made  him  heir  apparent  to  the  Britiah 
throne,  and  he  took  his  seat  in  the  house  of 
lords  as  duke  of  York.  Upon  the  aoceasioa 
of  Edward  VII.  in  1901,  he  received  the  title  of 
duke  of  Cornwall.  At  this  time  he  made  a  tour 
of  all  the  large  British  colonies,  gaining  great 
popularity.  On  his  return  he  was  created  prince 
of  Wales.  In  July  1893,  he  married  Prinoeas 
Victoria  May  of  Teck,  and  six  children  have  been 
born  to  them.  On  the  death  of  Edward  VII., 
the  new  king  ascended  the  throne  under  the  title 
of  George  V.,  May  7,  1910.  The  coronation  took 
place,  June  22,  1911.  He  was  crowned  emperor 
of  India  at  the  durbar  at  Delhi,  December  12, 
1911.  The  early  months  of  his  reign  were  marked 
by  the  agitation  against  the  house  of  lords,  which 
resulted  finally  m  the  abolition  of  the  veto 
powers  of  the  upper  house. 

George  I„  king  of  Greece,  was  bom  at  Copenhagen, 
1845.  He  was  a  brother  of  the  dowager  empreaa 
of  Russia,  Queen  Alexandra,  and  King  Frederick 
of  Denmark.  Chosen  king  of  Greece  in  1863, 
in  succession  to  Otho  I.  Married  Princess  Olga, 
daughter  of  the  Russian  Grand  Duke  Constan- 
tine,  1867,  and  had  five  sons  and  one  daughter. 
An  attempt  to  assassinate  him  was  made  in 
1898,  but  happily  failed.  The  kin^  was  of  the 
Lutheran  faith,  but  by  the  constitution  his  heirs 
and  successors  must  be  members  of  the  Greek 
orthodox  church.  He  was  assassinated,  1913. 
His  eldest  son,  Constantine,  succeeded  to  the 
throne,  March  18.    1913. 

George,  Saint,  the  patron  saint  of  England.  His 
true  history  is  not  clearly  known.  A  story  is  told 
about  him  that  he  slew  a  dragon,  which  had  been 
sent  by  a  magician  to  devour  an  Egyptian  prin- 
cess, and  in  pictures  he  is  generally  shown  in 
the  act  of  killing  the  monster.  Some  say  the 
real  Saint  George  was  a  soldier  in  the  army  of 
Diocletian,  300  A.  D.,  and  that  he  suffered  death 
for  the  Christian  faith.  English  crusaders 
brought  home  his  fame  from  the  East,  and 
Edward  III.  made  him  patron  of  his  new  order 
of  the  garter.  His  name  became  the  Engli.sh 
battle-cry.  and  since  then  he  has  been  considered 
the  especial  saint  of  Russia,  and  the  Russians 
have  an  order  of  Saint  George. 

G£rard  (zha'-rdr'),  £:tienne  Maurice,  Count,  marshal 
of  France,  was  bom  in  Lorraine,  1773.  He 
specially  distinguished  himself  at  Austerlitz, 
Halle,  Jena,  Erfurt,  Lintz,  and  Wagram.  On  the 
morning  after  this  last  battle  he  received  the  title 
of  baron  of  the  empire.  In  1831  Louis  Philippe 
appointed  Gerard  a  marshal  of  FrancCj  and  gave 
him  command  of  the  expedition  to  Belgium,  in  the 
course  of  which  he  distinguished  himself  by  taking 
Antwerp  in  1832.      Died,  1852. 

G«rard,  Francois  Pascal,  Baron,  French  painter, 
was  bom  in  Rome,  1770.  Nearly  the  whole  of 
his  life  was  spent  in  Paris,  where  he  was  first 
pupil  and  assistant  to  David,  but  speedily 
acquired  a  splendid  reputation  of  his  own.  Most 
of  the  leading  men  and  women  of  the  French 
empire  were  painted  by  Gerard,  and  he  became 
known  as  the  "painter  of  kings."  Famous 
portraits  were  those  of  Napoleon,  Talleyrand, 
Talma,  and  Mme.  R<k;amier;  famous  paintings, 
the  "Battle  of  Austerlitz"  and  "Entry  of  Henry 
IV.  into  Paris."  He  was  afterward  appointed 
court-painter  to  Louis  XVIII.,  from  whom  he 
received  the  rank  of  baron.      Died,  1837. 

Gerhardt  {glr'-h&rt),  Karl  Frledrlch,  Geraian 
chemist,  was  born  at  Strassburg  in  1816.  At  the 
time  of  his  death  he  was  professor  of  chemistry 
in  the  university  of  Strassburg.  He  was  one  of 
the  moat  famous  of  the  pupils  of  Liebig,  and. 


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THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


728 


1848  was  sent  to  the  Frankfort  parliament,  where 
he  was  a  vigorous  opponent  of  Prussia.  He  went 
over  to  the  Roman  Catholic  church  in  1853. 
Among  his  other  works  are  GeschiclUe  der  Karo- 
lingcr  and  Papst  Grcgorius  VII.  Died  at  Carls- 
bad, 18G1. 

Ghlbcrti  (ge-bSr'-te),  Lorenso,  Italian  sculptor,  was 
born  in  Florence  about  1378.  He  was  engaged  in 
painting  in  fresco  at  Rimini,  in  the  palace  of 
Prince  Pandolfo  Malatesta,  when  the  priori  of  the 
society  of  merchants  in  Florence  invited  artists 
to  propose  models  for  one  of  the  bronze  doors  of 
the  baptistery  of  San  Giovanni.  The  offering  up 
of  Isaac  was  to  be  executed  in  gilt  bronze,  as  a 
specimen  of  the  work.  The  judges  selected  the 
works  of  Brunelleschi  and  Ghiberti  as  the  best, 
but  the  former  voluntarily  withdrew  his  claims, 
giving  the  preference  to  Ghiberti.  After  twenty- 
one  j'ears'  labor  Ghiberti  completed  the  door, 
and  at  the  request  of  the  priori  executed  a  second 
after  almost  as  long  a  period.  Michaelangelo 
said  of  these  that  they  were  worthy  of  adorning 
the  entrance  to  paradise.  During  these  forty 
years  Ghiberti  also  completed  a  statue  of  John 
the  Baptist  for  the  church  Or-San-Michele,  two 
bas-reliefs  for  the  baptistery  of  the  cathedral  of 
Siena,  and  a  number  of  other  works,  all  of  which 
are  still  preserved.     He  died  in  Florence  in  1455. 

Ghika  {ge'-kd),  Helena,  or  "Dora  d'lstria,"  daugh- 
ter of  Prince  Michael  Ghika,  was  born  at  Bucha- 
rest, 1828.  Profoundly  instructed  in  the  classics, 
she  gained  by  travel  an  extensive  knoAvledge  of 
modem  languages  and  literature.  At  fifteen  she 
translated  the  Iliad  into  German,  and  not  long 
after  wrote  several  pieces  for  the  theater.  On  her 
marriage  in  1849  with  Prince  Koltzoff-Massalsky 
she  accompanied  him  to  St.  Petersburg;  but 
from  1855  she  lived  mainly  at  Florence.  Her 
works  include:  La  Vie  Monastique  dans  I'Eglise 
Orientale;  La  Suisse  AUemande;  Les  Femmes  en 
Orient;  Excursions  en  RoumMie;  Les  Lacs 
Helvetiques;  Gli  Albanesi  in  Rumenia,  and  La 
Poesie  des  Ottomans.  She  wrote  much  for  the 
Revue  des  Deux  Mondes.     Died,  1888. 

Ghirlandajo  {ger'-ldn-da'-yo),  otherwise  called 
Corradl,  or  Bigordi,  Domenlco  del,  Florentine 
painter,  was  born  in  1449.  He  assisted  in  the 
decoration  of  the  Sistine  chapel  in  Rome,  and 
executed  a  series  of  frescoes  in  the  Sassetti 
chapel  in  Santissima  Trinity,  Florence.  He 
also  painted  many  easel  pictures  in  oil  and  dis- 
temper; but  his  frescoes  are  incomparably  his 
finest  works.  He  is  said  to  have  created  aerial 
perspective,  and  to  have  perfected  the  art  of 
mosaic.  He  was  the  master  of  Michaelangelo. 
Died,  1494. 

Gibbon,  Edward.     See  page  74. 

Gibbons,  Grinling,  English  sculptor  and  wood- 
carver,  was  born  at  Rotterdam,  1648.  He  had 
for  some  time  practiced  his  art  in  England, 
when,  discovered  by  Evelyn  carving  a  crucifix, 
1671,  he  was  appointed  by  Charles  II.  to  a  place 
in  the  board  of  works,  and  employed  in  the 
chapel  at  Windsor.  Here  and  in  St.  Paul's, 
London,  his  work  displays  great  taste  and  deli- 
cacy of  finish.  At  Chatsworth,  Burleigh,  South- 
wick,  and  other  mansions  he  executed  an  immense 
quantity  of  carved  embellishment.  The  ceiling 
of  a  room  at  Petworth  is  his  masterpiece.  Died 
in  London,  1721. 

Gibbons,  James,  Roman  Catholic  cardinal,  was 
born  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  1834.  At  an  early  age 
he  was  taken  by  his  parents  to  their  forrner  home 
in  Ireland,  where  he  began  his  education.  He 
returned  to  the  United  States,  and  resided  with 
his  family  in  New  Orleans,  1848;  entered  St. 
Charles  college,  Marjdand,  1855;  transferred, 
1857,  to  St  Mary's senainarj',  Baltimore;  ordained 
priest,  1861 ;  assistant  at  St.  Patrick's,  Balti- 
more, for  a  few  months;   was  then  pastor  of  St. 


Bridget's,  Canton  (suburb  of  Baltimore);  Uter 
private  secretary  to  ArclibiMhop  Spalding  and 
chancellor  of  tlie  arch-tliorew;  assistant  ciian- 
cellor,  second  plenary  council  of  American  Roman 
Catholic  church,  Baltimore,  18<)6;  vicar  apos- 
tolic of  North  Carolina,  with  rank  and  title  of 
bishop,  1808;  coadjutor  archbishop  of  Baltimore, 
1877;  succeeded  to  the  see,  1877;  presided  at 
third  national  council  at  Baltimore,  1884;  was 
nominated  as  cardinal;  invested  with  the 
princely  insignia,  1886.  Author:  The  Faith  of 
Our  Fathers;  Our  Christian  Heritage;  The 
Ambassador  of  Christ,  etc. 

Gibbs,  Oliver  Wolcott,  American  chemist,  was  bom 
in  New  York  city,  1822;  was  graduated  at 
Columbia,  1841,  studied  chemistry  in  Paris  and 
Berlin.  In  1849  he  was  chosen  professor  of 
physics  and  chemistry  in  the  college  of  the  city 
of  New  York,  and  in  1863  took  charge  of  the 
Lawrence  scientific  school  laboratory  at  llar\'ard. 
He  became  professor  emeritus,  1887,  was  a 
member  of  many  home  and  foreign  scientific 
societies  and  an  LL.  D.  of  Columbia.  Died,' 
1908. 

Gibson,  Charles  Dana,  illustrator,  was  born  in 
Roxbury,  Mass.,  1867.  He  was  educated  at 
Flushing,  L.  I.,  and  at  the  art  students'  league, 
New  York,  1884-85.  He  has  done  much  illus- 
trating in  principal  magazines;  also  illustrated 
numerous  books.  Author:  Sketches  in  London; 
People  of  Dickens;  Drawings;  Pictures  of  People; 
Sketches  and  Cartoons;  The  Education  of  Mr. 
Pipp;  Sketches  in  Egypt;  The  Americans;  A 
Widow  and  Her  Friends;   The  Social  Ladder,  etc. 

Gibson,  John,  British  sculptor,  was  born  a  market- 
gardener's  son,  at  Gyfhn  near  Conway,  North 
Wales,  1790.  He  found  a  patron  in  Roscoe,  and, 
proceeding  to  Rome  in  1817,  studied  under 
Canova  and  Thorwaldsen,  and  fixed  his  residence 
there.  Among  his  finest  works  are  "Psyche 
Borne  by  Zephyrs,"  "Hylas  Surprised  by 
Nymphs,"  and  "Venus  with  the  Turtle."  The 
innovation  of  tinting  his  figures  he  defended  by  a 
reference  to  Grecian  precedents.  In  1833  he  was 
elected  an  A.  R.  A.,  in  1836  an  R.  A.  His  only 
pupil  was  Harriet  Hoemer,  the  American  sculp- 
tor.    He  died  at  Rome  in  1866. 

Gibson,  John  Morison,  lieutenant-governor  of 
Ontario  since  1908,  was  born  in  1842.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  university  of  Toronto;  LL.  D., 
honoris  causa,  1903;  was  admitted  a  barrister, 
1867;  provincial  secretary  of  Ontario,  1889; 
conunissioner  of  crown  lands,  1896;  attorney- 
general,  1899-1905;  queen's  counsel,  1890; 
bencher  of  law  society  of  upper  Canada,  1899; 
colonel  commanding  15th  brigade  Canadian 
militia,  1903;  president  of  Canadian  branch  of 
red  cross  society;  president  of  Dominion  power 
and  transmission  company;  hon.  A.  D.  C.  to 
their  excellencies  the  earl  of  Aberdeen  and  the 
earl  of  Minto,  governors-general  of  Canada. 

Gibson,  William  Hamilton,  American  painter  and 
naturalist,  was  born  at  Sandy  Hook,  Conn., 
1850.  He  was  educated  in  Connecticut  and  at 
the  Brooklyn  polytechnic  institute.  He  was 
early  attracted  to  the  study  of  flowers  and 
insects,  and  his  first  work  in  drawing  was  of 
these  natural  objects.  He  exhibited  before  the 
American  water-color  society  in  1872.  He  wrote 
and  illustrated  Camp  Life  in  lh«  Woods;  Tricks 
of  Trapping;  Highways  and  Byways;  Happy 
Hunting  Grounds;    Sharp  Eyes.  etc.      Died,  1896. 

Giddings,  Franklin  Henry,  sociological  writer,  pro- 
fessor of  sociology,  Columbia,  since  1894,  was 
born  at  Shennan,  Conn.,  1855.  He  graduated 
at  Union  college,  1877;  Ph.  D.,  1897;  LL.  D., 
Obcrlin,  1900.  Engaged  in  journalism,  1877-88; 
professor  of  Brjm  Mawr  college,  1888-94.  Mem- 
Der  of  Authors'  and  Century  clubs.  Author: 
The    Modern    Distributive    Process    (with    J.    B. 


724 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Clark) ;  The  Theory  of  Sociology;  The  Princivlea 
of  Sociology;  Tfi^  Theory  of  Socialization;  The 
Elements  of  Sociology;  Inductive  Sociology; 
Descriptive  and  Historical  Sociology,  etc. 

Glddingg,  Joshua  Beed,  American  statesman,  was 
born  in  Athens,  Pa.,  1795.  He  removed  with 
his  parents  to  Ohio,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1820,  and  elected  to  tlie  Oiiio  legislature  in  1826. 
He  sat  in  congress,  1838-59.  and  was  an  anti- 
slavery  leader.  In  1801  ne  was  appointed 
consul-general  in  Canada.  He  published  Speeches, 
The  Exiles  of  Fhyrida,  and  The  History  of  the 
Rebellion.     Died  at  Montreal,  1864. 

Glers  (g^s),  Nikolai  Karlovitcb  de,  Russian  diplo- 
mat and  statesman,  was  born  in  Russia^  of 
Swedish  origin,  1820.  He  entered  the  diplo- 
matic corps  at  eighteen  years  of  age,  and  rose  I 
steadily  until,  in  1863,  he  was  made  ambassador 
to  Persia.  In  1869  he  was  tran.sferred  to  Berne 
and  three  years  later  to  Stockholm.  In  1876, 
and  again  in  1877,  during  the  wur  with  Turkey, 
M.  de  Giers  directed  tlie  affairs  of  the  foreign 
office.  He  became  a  privv  councillor,  and  when 
Prince  Gortchakoff  attended  the  Berlin  congress 
M.  de  Giers  for  a  third  time  took  his  place.  In 
1882,  on  the  final  retirement  of  Gortchakoff, 
M.  de  Giers,  who  married  a  niece  of  that  states- 
man, became  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  which 
position  he  held  until  1895,  the  year  of  his  death. 

Glesebrecht  (ge'-zi-brSKt),  Friedrlch  Wilhelm  Ben- 
jamin von,  German  historian,  was  born  in  Berlin, 
1814.  He  became  professor  of  history  at  Koni^s- 
berg  in  1857,  and  in  1862  at  Munich.  His  chief 
wonts  are  his  History  of  the  Germanic  Empire, 
coming  down  to  1164;  Jahrbiicher  dee  DeiUschen 
Reichs;  a  translation  of  Gregory  of  Tours,  and 
Arnold  von  Brescia.  In  1874  he  undertook  a 
continuation  of  Heeren  and  Ukert's  collection 
of  European  state  histories.     Died,  1889. 

Gleseler  ige'-ze46r\  Jobann  Karl  L.udwiK«  German 
church  historian,  was  born  near  Minden,  1792. 
After  quitting  Halle  university  he  adopted 
teaching  as  a  profession,  but  in  1813  served  in 
the  war  again.st  France.  On  the  conclusion  of 
the  war  he  held  educational  appointments  at 
Minden;  was  nominated  in  1819  to  the  chair  of 
theology  at  Bonn,  and  in  1831  was  appointed  to 
a  like  professorship  in  Gottingen.  His  great 
work  is  a  History  of  the  Church  in  6  vols.  Died, 
1854. 

Gifford,  Robert  Swain,  American  painter,  was  bom 
in  Massachusetts,  1840.  He  studied  painting 
under  Albert  van  Beest,  and  opened  a  studio  in 
Boston,  1864.  In  1866  he  settled  permanently 
in  New  York  city,  and  became  an  academician 
in  1878.  He  painted  "Mount  Hood,  Oregon"; 
"Entrance  to  Moorish  House,  Tangier";  "Bor- 
der of  the  Desert " ;  "Salt  Milb  at  Dartmouth," 
etc.     Died  in  New  York,  1905. 

Gifford,  Sandtord  Bobinson,  American  painter,  was 
born  in  Greenfield,  N.  Y.,  1823.  In  1854  he 
became  a  member  of  the  national  academy, 
New  York.  In  1855-57  he  sketched  in  England, 
Scotland,  France,  Belgium,  Holland.  Switzer- 
land, and  Italy,  and  in  186^70  in  Italj',  Greece, 
Syria,  Turkey,  and  Egypt.  Among  his  best 
pictures  are  Mansfield  Mountain";  "Fishing 
Boats  of  the  Adriatic":  "The  Golden  Horn"; 
"Schloss  Rheinstein";  "A  Venetian  Twilight"; 
and  "Sunset  on  the  Sweetwater,  Wyoming 
Territory."     Died,  1880. 

Gifford,  William,  English  critic  and  poet,  was  bom 
at  Ashburton,  1756.  Left  an  orphan  at  twelve, 
he  was  first  a  cabin-boy,  then  for  four  years  a 
shoemaker's  apprentice,  tintil  in  1776  his  attempts 
at  versifjing  attracted  notice,  and  he  was 
enabled  to  proceed  to  Exeter  college,  Oxford, 
where  he  graduated  in  1782.  His  first  production, 
the  Baviad,  was  a  satire  on  the  Delia  Cruscans. 
The  Maviad  was  leveled  against  the  corrupters 


of  the  drama,  and  An  Epistle  to  Peter  Pindar 
against  Dr.  Wolcot.  Gifford's  editorsliip  of  the 
Anti-Jacobin  procuring  him  favor  with  the  tory 
magnates,  he  was  appointed  to  offices  that 
brought  him  900  pounds  a  year.  In  1802 
appeared  his  translation  of  Juvenal,  with  his 
autobiographv.  He  edited  Massinger,  Ford, 
Shirley,  and  fien  Jonson,  and  was  the  first  editor 
of  the  British  Quarterly  Review.     He  died  in  1826. 

Gilbert,  Grove  Karl,  geologist,  was  bom  in  Roche»- 
ter,  N.  Y.,  1843.  He  was  graduated  at  the 
university  of  Rochester,  1862|  LL.  D..  Rochester 
and  Wisconsin.  Assistant  in  Ward  museum, 
Rochester,  1863-68;  geologist  in  Ohio  survev, 
1868-70,  Wheeler  survey,  1871-74,  Powell  survey, 
1875-79,  United  States  geological  survey,  since 
1879.  Past  president  of  American  association 
for  the  advancement  of  science;  member  of 
national  academy  of  sciences.  Author:  Geology 
of  the  Henry  Mountaine;  Lake  Bonneville;  Intro- 
auction  to  Physical  Geography;  Glaciers  and 
Glaciation;  and  nunierous  reports  and  articles  on 
geological  subjects. 

Glli>ert,  William  Schwenck,  English  dramatist,  was 
bom  in  London,  1836.  He  took  the  degree  B.  A. 
at  London  university,  was  a  clerk  in  tlie  privy 
council  office  from  1857  to  1862,  and  in  1864  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  He  wrote  much  for  the 
magazines,  and  was  for  many  years  on  the  staff 
of  Fun,  in  whose  columns  his  Bab  Ballads  first 
appeared.  His  stMe-work  began  with  a  Christ- 
mas burlesque,  Dulcamara,  1866,  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  succession  of  burlesques,  dramas, 
comedies,  fairy  comedies,  and  operas.  The  fairy 
comedies  include  The  Palace  of  Truth;  Pygmalion 
and  Galatea;  The  Wicked  World,  and  Broken 
Hearts;  among  the  comedies  are  Sweethearts  and 
Engaged;  ancl  other  plays  by  him  are  Charity; 
Gretchen;  Comedy  and  Tragedy,  and  Branting- 
hame  Hall.  In  conjunction  with  Sir  Arthur  Sul- 
livan, besides  Theepia  and  Trial  by  Jury,  he 
produced  The  Sorcerer;  H.  M.  S.  Pinafore;  The 
Pirates  of  Penzance;  Patience;  lUanthe;  Princess 
Ida;  The  Mikado;  Ruddigore;  The  Yeomen  of 
the  Guard;  The  Gondoliers;  Utopia  Limited,  and 
The  Grand  Duke.     Died,  1911. 

Gilder,  Jeannette  L<eonard,  journalist,  critic,  was 
bom  at  Flushing,  N.  Y.,  1849.  At  eighteen  she 
became  writer  on  the  Newark,  N.  J.,  Morning 
Register,  and  Newark  repMjrter  for  New  York 
Tribune;  was  associated  with  brother,  R.  W. 
Gilder,  in  editorial  department  Scribner's  Monthly 
(now  The  Century) ;  literary  editor  and  afterward 
musical  and  dramatic  editor  of  New  York 
Herald,  1875-80;  with  brother,  J.  B.  Gilder, 
started,  1881,  The  Critic  (now  Putnam's), 
of  which  she  was  associate  editor;  was  for 
eighteen  years,  over  the  pen-name  "Brunswick," 
New  York  correspondent  for  Boston  Saturday 
Evening  Gazette  and  Boston  Evening  Transcript; 
was  correspondent  for  London  Acaaemy,  and  for 
some  time  New  York  correspondent  of  Philadel- 
phia Press  and  Record;  now  regular  correspondent 
of  Chicago  Tribune.  Has  written  plays,  stories 
for  magazines,  etc.  Author:  Taken  by  Siege; 
The  Autobiography  of  a  Tomboy;  The  Tomboy  at 
Work.  Ekiited :  Essays  from  the  Critic,  Represen- 
tative Poems  of  Living  Poets,  also  (with  Helen 
Gray  Cone),  Pen  Portraits  of  Literary  Women,  etc. 

Gilder,  Richard  Watson,  author,  editor,  was  bom 
in  Bordentown,  N.  J.,  1844,  and  educated  at  his 
father's  seminary  at  Flushing,  L.  I. ;  LL.  D., 
Dickinson,  1883;  A.  M.,  Harvard,  1890;  L.  H.  D., 
Princeton,  1896,  Yale,  1901 ;  LL.  D.,  Wesleyan, 
1903.  In  railroad  service,  1864-65;  later  man- 
aging editor,  Newark,  N.  J.,  Advertiser;  estab- 
lished (with  Newton  Crane)  the  Newark  Register; 
edited  Hours  at  Home,  a  New  York  monthly; 
managing  editor  of  Scribner's  Monthly,  1870; 
editor-in-chief,    1881,    under    its    present    name 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


726 


The  Century  Magazine.  Preaident  of  public  art 
league  of  United  States;  member  of  council  of 
national  civil  service  reform  league.  Author: 
The  New  Day;  The  Celestial  Passion;  Lyrics; 
In  Palestine;  Pocrufi  and  Jnscriptionx;  A  Christmas 
Wreath;  A  Book  of  Music.      Died,  H)09. 

Gildersleeve,  Basil  Lanncau,  professor  of  Greek  in 
Johns  Hopkins  since  1870,  wtis  born  in  Charleston, 
S.  C,  1831.  He  was  graduated  from  Princeton. 
1849;  studied  at  universities  of  Berlin,  Bonn  ana 
Gottingen;  Ph.  D.,  1853;  LL.  D.,  William  and 
Mary,  1869,  Harvard,  1886,  Yale,  1901,  university 
of  Chicago,  1901 ;  D.  C.  L.,  university  of  the 
South.  1884;  L.  H.  D.,  Princeton,  1899;  Litt.  D., 
Oxford,  1905 ;  professor  of  Greek,  1856-76,  and  of 
Latin,  1861-66,  university  of  Virginia.  Founder 
and  editor  of  American  Journal  of  Philology  since 
1880.  Author:  Latin  Grammar;  Latin  Series; 
Essays  and  Studies;  Greek  Syntax,  etc.  Editor: 
Persius,  Justin  Martyr,  Odes  of  Pindar. 

Giles,  Herbert  Allen,  educator,  author,  professor  of 
Chinese  at  the  university  of  Cambridge,  was  bom 
in  1845.  He  was  educated  at  Charterhouse, 
Aberdeen,  and  Cambridge.  He  entered  the 
China  consular  serv-ice,  1867;  vice-consul. 
Pagoda  island,  1880;  vice-consul,  Shanghai, 
1883;  consul,  Tamsui,  1885;  consul,  Ningpo, 
1891;  resigned  1893.  Author:  Longinus; 
Chinese  without  a  Teacher;  Colloquial  Idioms; 
Two  Chinese  Poems;  Synoptical  Studies;  Chinese 
Sketches;  Buddhistic  Kingdoms;  Strange  Stories 
from  a  Chinese  Studio;  Historic  China;  Gems  of 
Chinese  Literature;  A  Chinese-English  Dictionary; 
A  Chinese  Biographical  Dictionary;  Chinese 
Poetry  in  English  Verse;  A  History  of  Chinese 
Literature;  China  and  the  Chinese,  six  lectures 
delivered  at  Columbia  university,  1902;  Intro- 
duction to  the  History  of  Chinese  Art;  Religions  of 
Ancient  China,  etc. 

Gill,  Theodore  Nicholas,  zoologist,  educator,  was 
born  in  New  York,  1837.  He  was  educated  in 
private  schools  and  under  special  tutors,  and 
early  turned  his  attention  to  natural  history. 
He  was  librarian  at  Smithsonian  in.stitution, 
1865-67;  assistant  librarian,  librarj'  of  congress, 
1866-75;  associate  in  zoologj'.  United  States 
national  museum;  A.  M.,  1865,  M.  D.,  1866, 
Ph.  D.,  1870,  LL.  D.,  1895,  Columbian  university. 
Adjunct  professor  of  physics  and  natural  history, 
1860-61,  lecturer  on  natural  history,  1864-66  and 
1873-84,  professor  zoology,  1884-1910,  and  now 
professor  emeritus,  George  Washington  university. 
President  of  American  association  for  the 
advancement  of  science,  1897;  member  of 
national  academy  of  sciences  and  numerous  other 
societies.  Author:  Principles  of  Zoogeography; 
Scientific  and  Popular  Views  of  Nature  Contrasted; 
Parental  Care  Among  Fresh-Water  Fishes,  etc. 
Associate  editor  Johnson's  New  Universal  Cydo- 
pcedia,  Century  Dictionary,  and  Standard  Diction- 
ary. 

Gillette,  William  Hooker,  actor,  playwright,  was 
born  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  1855.  He  received  an 
academic  education  with  special  courses  at  the 
university  of  New  York,  Massachusetts  institute 
of  technology,  Boston  university,  while  playing 
in  stock  companies  in  New  York  and  Boston. 
Began  theatrical  work,  1877;  was  with  stock 
companies  successively  at  New  Orleans,  New 
York,  Boston,  Cincinnati,  and  Louisville;  trav- 
eled for  a  season  with  John  T.  Raymond  com- 
pany; since  then  has  played  his  own  pieces. 
Now  playing  title  role  in  Sherlock  Holmes. 
Author  of  the  following  plays  (unpublished) :  The 
Professor;  The  Private  Secretary;  Esmeralda;  A 
Legal  Wreck;  Held  by  the  Enemy;  Too  Much  John- 
son; Mr.  Wilkinson' s  Widows;  All  the  Comforts 
of  Home;  A  Maid  of  All  Work;  The  Red  Owl; 
Because  She  Lovecl  Him  So;  Settled  Out  of  Court; 
Clarice;  Secret  Service,  and  Sherlock  Holmes. 


Glllray,  James,  English  osrickturist,  warn  born,  a 
Lanark  trooper's  son,  at  Chelsea  in  1757.  He 
first  became  known  as  a  successful  encraver 
about  1784,  and  between  1779  and  1811  iasued 
1,500  caricatures.  They  are  full  of  broad  humor 
and  keen  satire  aime<l  against  the  French, 
Napoleon,  George  HL,  the  leading  politicians  and 
the  social  follies  of  his  day.  Gillray  was  for 
four  years  insane.     He  died  in  1815. 

Gllman,  Daniel  Colt,  educator,  was  bom  in  Nor- 
wich, Conn.,  1831.  lie  was  graduated  at  Yale, 
1852;  studied  in  Caiubridge,  New  Haven  ana 
Berlin;  LL.  D.,  Harvard,  1876;  St.  John's,  Md., 
1876;  Columbia.  1887;  Yale,  1889;  university 
of  North  Carolina,  1889;  Princeton,  1896; 
university  of  Toronto,  1903;  university  of  Wis- 
consin, 1904.  He  was  librarian  and  secretary  of 
Sheffield  scientific  school,  and  professor  of  physi- 
cal and  political  geography,  Yale,  1856-72; 
president  of  university  of  California,  1872-76; 
first  president  of  Johns  Hopkin.s  university, 
1875-1901 ;  first  president  of  Carnegie  institu- 
tion, 1901-04;  and  member  of  the  Venezuelan 
boundary  commission.  Author:  Life  of  Jamsa 
Monroe;  University  Problems;  Introduction  to 
De  Tocqueville's  Democracy  in  America;  Life  of 
James  D.  Dana,  geologist;  Science  and  Letteri 
in  Yale;  and  editor-in-chief.  New  Internatiorud 
Encydopcedia.     Died,  1908. 

Gllman,  Nicholas  Paine,  sociologist,  professor  of 
sociology  and  ethics  of  Meadville  theological 
school,  1895-1912,  was  born  at  Quincy,  111.,  1849. 
He  received  an  academic  education,  and  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  divinity  school,  1871. 
Settled  as  Unitarian  clergN-man  over  three 
parishes  in  Massachusetts,  1872-84 ;  professor  in 
Antioch  college,  Ohio,  1878-81 ;  editor  of  Literary 
World,  Boston,  1888-95,  The  New  World,  1892- 
1900.  Author:  Profit  Sharing  Between  Em- 
ployer and  Employee;  Laws  of  Daily  Conduct; 
Socialism  and  the  American  Spirit;  A  THvidend  to 
Labor,  a.nd  Methods  of  Industrial  Peace.    Dietl,  1912. 

Ginn,  Edwin,  publisher,  was  bom  at  Orland,  Me., 
1838.  Graduated  at  Tufts  college  1862.  En- 
gaged in  publishing  business;  head  of  the  firm 
of  Ginn  and  Companv,  publishers  of  school  and 
college  text-books.  His  first  book  was  Allen's 
Latin  Grammar,  published  in  1868.  His  house 
is  now  second  to  no  other  single  firm  in  America. 
He  has  been  especially  interested  in  the  housing 
of  the  poor  and  in  promoting  better  conditions 
between  labor  and  capital,  as  well  as  in  the 
movement  for  universal  peace  among  the  nations. 

Globertl  (jo-b&r'-te),  Vincenio,  Italian  statesman, 
was  born  at  Turin,  1801.  In  1831  he  became 
chaplain  to  Charles  Albert  of  Sardinia,  but  his 
liberal  views  being  obnoxious  to  the  clerical 
party,  he  was  banished  in  1833.  He  settled  at 
Brussels  as  a  private  tutor,  and  published  an 
Introduzione  alio  Studio  ddla  Filoaofia,  Del  Bello, 
and  Dd  Buono.  His  conception  of  the  papacy 
as  the  divinely  appointed  agencv  for  the  elevation 
of  Italy  among  the  nations  he  exi)ounded  in 
Dd  Primato  Civile  e  Morale  degli  Italiani.  It 
was  hailed  with  enthusiasm,  and  his  fame  was 
enhanced  by  II  Gesuita  Modemo  against  the 
Jesuits.  Retuming  to  Italy  in  1848,  he  was  for 
ten  weeks  prime  minister,  then  settled  in  Paris, 
where  he  died  in  1852. 

GInrKtone  (jor-jo'-na),  or  GlorKlo  Barbarelll,  Italian 
painter,  was  bom  at  Ca.stflfranco  about  1478 
He  studied  at  Venice  under  Giovanni  BeUini, 
and  soon  develope<l  a  freer  and  larger  manner, 
characterized  by  intense  poetic  feefing  and  by 
great  beauty  and  richness  of  coloring.  Several 
early  portraits  by  him  have  disappeared,  but 
his  "Enthroned  Ma<lonna"  is  an  altar-piece 
at  Castelfranco.  In  Venice  he  was  extensively 
employed  in  fresco-painting,  but  some  fragment* 
in  the  Fondaco  de    Tedeschi  are  all  that  now 


726 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


remain  of  this  work.  "The  Family  of  Giorgione" 
at  Venice,  "The  Tiiree  Philosophers"  at 
Vienna,  and  the  "Sleeping  Venus"  in  the  Dresden 
gallery  are  representative  canvases.  Giorgione 
ranks  with  the  very  greatest  of  Venetian  painters, 
and  powerfully  inHuoiiced  his  contemporaries, 
even  Titian.     Died,  1511. 

Giotto  (j6t'-td),  or  Ambroglo  (or  Ambrogiotto, 
shortened  to  Giotto),  dl  Bondone,  Italian  painter 
and  architect,  was  born  in  1276.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Cimabue  and  friend  of  Dante,  whose 
portrait  he  painted  at  Ravenna.  He  painted 
frescoes  at  Assisi,  and  was  probably  the  founder 
of  the  modem  school  of  portrait-painting.  About 
1299  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  painted  and 
worked  in  mosaics;  and  subsequently  was  em- 
ployed at  Padua  and  Florence,  where  his  frescoes 
m  the  Peruzzi  chapel  of  Santa  Croce  were  dis- 
covered in  18()3.  He  also  painted  the  "Miracle 
of  the  Loaves  and  Fishes,"  at  Naples,  and 
designed  the  campanile  of  Florence.  He  died 
in  1336,  and  was  buried  in  the  cathedral 
there. 

Glrard  (;l-rard')»  Stephen,  American  philanthropist, 
was  bom  near  Bordeaux,  France,  1750.  He 
became  a  sailor,  and  before  the  revolution 
engaf^ed  as  the  master  of  vessels  in  the  American 
coafitmp  and  West  Indian  trade.  During  the 
revolution  he  was  a  grocer,  sutler,  and  liquor- 
seller  in  and  near  Philadelphia.  He  was  again 
in  the  West  Indian  and  coastwise  trade  In  part- 
nership with  John,  his  brother,  in  1780-90, 
eventually  became  a  banker,  and  amassed  a  large 
fortune.  He  was  very  eccentric  in  his  habits,  a 
freethinker,  ungracious  in  manner  and  ill-tem- 
pered, but  a  liberal  benefactor  of  public  charities. 
During  several  yellow  fever  sea.sons  in  Phila- 
delphia no  citizen  was  more  active  in  relieving 
distress;  and  at  his  death  nearly  all  his  estate 
was  bequeathed  to  various  charitable  and  munic- 
ipal institutions  of  Philadelphia  and  New 
Orleans,  and  to  the  founding  of  Girard  college 
for  orphan  boys.     Died,  1831. 

Giulio  Romano  {jObl'-yd  r6-mA'^nd)  (Gtullo  Plppl 
de*  Giannuzzl),  Italian  painter  and  architect, 
was  born  at  Rome  about  1492.  He  assisted 
Raphael  in  tne  execution  of  several  of  his  finest 
works,  and  at  his  death  completed  the  "Appari- 
tion of  the  Cross"  in  the  Vatican.  In  1524  he 
went  to  Mantua  on  the  invitation  of  the  duke. 
The  drainage  of  the  marshes  and  the  protection 
of  the  city  from  the  inundations  of  the  Po  and 
Mincio  attest  his  skill  as  an  engineer;  while  his 
genius  as  an  architect  found  scope  in  the  restora- 
tion and  adornment  of  the  Palazzo  del  T6,  the 
cathedral,  end  a  ducal  palace.  In  Bologna  he 
designed  the  facade  of  the  church  of  San  Petronio. 
Among  his  oil  pictures  are  the  "Martyrdom  of 
St.  Stephen,"  ''A  Holy  Family,"  "Mary  and 
Jesus,"  and  the  "Madonna  della  Gatta.  He 
died  at  Mantua,  1546. 

Gladden,  Washington,  author.  Congregational 
clergyman,  was  born  in  Pottsgrove,  Pa.,  1836. 
He  was  graduated  at  Williams  college,  1859; 
D.  D.,  Roanoke  college,  Va.,  LL.  D.,  university 
of  Wisconsin  and  Notre  Dame  university,  Ind. 
He  held  several  pastorates  and  editorial  positions 
prior  to  becoming,  in  1882,  pastor  of  First  Con- 

f relational  church,  Columbus,  Ohio.  Author: 
'lain  Thoughts  on  the  Art  of  Living;  From  the 
Hub  to  the  Hudson;  Workingmen  and  Their 
Employers;  Being  a  Christian;  The  Christian 
Way;  The  Lord's  Prayer;  The  Christian  League 
of  Connecticut;  Things  New  and  Old;  The  Young 
Men  and  the  Churches;  Applied  Christianity; 
Parish  Problems;  Burning  Que^ttions;  Santa  Claus- 
on  a  Lark;  Who  Wrote  the  Bible;  Tools  and  the 
Man;  The  Cosmopolis  City  Club;  The  Church 
and  the  Kingdom;  Seven  Puzzling  Bible  Books; 
Social  Facts  and  Forces;   Art  and  Morality;    The 


Christian  Pastor;  How  Much  is  Left  of  the  Old 
Doctrines;  Straiglit  Sttots  at  Young  Men;  Sociai 
Salvation;  The  Practice  of  Immortality;  Where 
Does  the  Sky  Begin?  Cliristianity  and  Socialism; 
The  New  Idolatry,  etc. 

GladNtone  (gldd'-stUn),  William  Ewart,  Enslish 
statesman,  orator,  and  man  of  letters,  was  bom 
in  Liverpool,  1809.  He  was  graduated  at 
Oxford,  and  entered  the  house  of  commons  in 
1832  for  the  borough  of  Newark.  He  held  the 
post  of  first  junior  lord  of  the  treasury,  and 
afterward  that  of  under-secretary  of  state  for 
the  colonies  in  the  Peel  government  for  a  few 
montlis  in  1835.  In  1838  he  published  his  first 
work.  The  State  in  Its  Relations  with  the  Church. 
In  1847  he  was  elected  a  member  of  parliament 
for  the  university  of  Oxford,  which  he  repre- 
sijnted  for  eighteen  years,  and  established  hi» 
name  among  British  stat^men.  He  advocated 
the  cause  of  Italian  independence  in  many 
eloquent  speeches.  In  1858  he  accepted  a 
special  mission  to  the  Ionian  islands.  In  the 
same  year  he  published  an  elaborate  work  on 
Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age,  in  three  volumes. 
In  1800  he  carried  through  parliament  a  com- 
mercial treaty  with  France.  In  1866.  now 
leader  of  the  house  of  commons,  he  brought  in  a 
reform  bill,  the  defeat  of  which  caused  Earl 
Russell  to  resign.  Gladstone,  in  1869,  disestab- 
lished the  Iri.<jh  church-  in  1870  carried  his  Irish 
land  bill:  in  1871  abolished,  by  the  exercise  of 
the  royal  prerogative,  the  purchase  of  rank  in 
the  army-  and  in  1872  carried  the  ballot  bill. 
In  1874  he  dissolved  parliament,  and  on  the 
unfavorable  result  of  tne  ensuing  election  the 
Gladstone  ministry  resigned.  In  1876  he  strongly 
denounced,  by  voice  and  pen,  the  Turkish 
cruelties  in  Bulgaria,  and  advocated  the  auton- 
omy of  the  Christian  provinces  subject  to  the 
porte.  On  the  defeat  of  the  Disraeli  administra- 
tion at  the  polls,  1880,  he  became  premier,  but 
resigned  in  1885.  Earlv  in  1880,  after  the  short- 
lived administration  of  Lord  Salisbury.  Gladstone 
again  came  into  power,  and  signalized  his  return 
to  ofBce  by  presenting  in  1880  a  dual  scheme  of 
Irish  government  —  a  land  bill  and  a  home  rule 
bill.  Intense  and  bitter  opposition  from  liberals 
and  conservatives  alike  greeted  the  measure,  and 
the  bill  was  rejected  on  its  second  reading  in 
1886.  In  consequence  parliament  was  dissolved, 
and  Gladstone  and  his  colleagues  appealed  to 
the  country,  but  were  defeated.  During  the 
succeeding  years,  1887-91,  Gladstone  was  in 
opposition  the  chief  incident  in  his  career  being 
his  outspoken  advocacy  of  home  rule  in  Ireland 
and  his  consequent  alliance  with  the  Irish  party. 
At  the  general  election  of  1892  his  supporters 
obtained  a  slight  majority  in  parliament,  and  he 
became  prime  minister  for  the  fourth  time.  He 
resigned  in  1894  on  account  of  increasing  years, 
and  spent  his  last  days  chiefly  in  literary  work, 
the  fruit  of  which,  added  to  earlier  works,  gives 
evidence  of  the  breadth  of  his  sympathies,  and 
the  extent  of  his  scholarly  attainments.  Seized 
by  a  fatal  malady,  his  strong  constitution  grad- 
ually sank  under  it,  and  he  died  at  Hawarden, 
1898,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  abbey. 

GlanvlUe,  Ranulf  de,  chief-justiciary  of  England  in 
1180-89,  and  reputed  author  of  the  earliest 
treatise  on  the  laws  of  England,  the  Tractatus 
de  Legibus  et  Consuetudinibus  Anglice,  was  bom 
at  Stratford  St.  Andrew,  near  Saxmundham, 
about  1130.  He  was  sheriff  of  Lancashire  in 
1173;  in  1174  he  raised  a  body  of  knights  to 
fight  against  William  the  Lion  of  Scotland,  and 
was  one  of  the  most  important  persons  during 
the  reign  of  Henry  II.  He  died  at  the  siege  of 
Acre,  1190. 

Glasgow,  Ellen  Anderson  Ciholson,  American 
novelist,  was  bom  at  Richmond,  Va.,  1874.     She 


THROUGHOUT  THE   WORLD 


727 


ia  the  daughter  of  Francis  Thomas  Glasgow. 
She  received  a  private  education.  Author:  The 
Descendant;  Plumes  of  an  Injerior  Planet;  The 
Voice  of  the  People;  The  Freeman  and  Other 
Poems;  The  Battle-ground;  The  Deliverance; 
Tfie  Wheel  of  Life,  etc. 

Glauber  (glou'-bir),  Johann  Rudolph,  German 
chemist  and  pliysician,  was  born  at  Karlstadt  in 
Franconia,  1004.  In  1648  he  discovered  liydro- 
chloric  acid ;  he  was  probably  the  first  to  procure 
nitric  acid ;  and  his  name  lives  in  Glauber's  salt, 
a  neutral  sulphate  of  soda  discovered  by  him. 
He  was  a  voluminous  writer  on  chemical  subjects 
and  his  trc'ati.sps  were  translated  by  Christopher 
Packe.      Died,  1608. 

Glazebrook  (glaz'-brddk),  Richard  Tctley,  BritLsh 
educator  and  physicist,  principal  of  University 
college,  Liverpool,  1898-99,  was  born  in  1854. 
He  was  educated  at  liiverpool  college,  and  at 
Trinity  college,  Cambridge;  Sc.  D.,  Victoria  and 
Heidelberg.  Author:  Text-hooks  of  Physical 
Optics,  and  of  Practical  Physics  (with  W.  N. 
Shaw) ;  Laws  and  Properties  of  Matter;  Clerk- 
Maxwell  and  Modern  Physics;'  Text-books  of  Heat, 
Light,  Mechanics,  and  Electricity;  Cambridge 
Natural  Science  Manuals.  He  has  been  fellow 
of  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  since  1877; 
director  of  the  national  physical  laboratory  since 
1899;  and  president  of  the  institute  of  electrical 
engineers,  1906. 

Glendower  (glSn'-dOdr),  or  Glendwr,  Owen.  Welsh 
chief,  claimed  descent  from  Llewelyn,  the  last 
prince  of  Wales,  and  was  born  in  Montgomery- 
shire about  1359.  He  studied  law  at  West- 
minster, and  became  esquire  to  the  earl  of  Arun- 
del, but  in  1401  fell  into  dispute  with  Lord  Grey 
over  some  lands,"  and,  unable  to  obtain  redress 
from  Henry  IV.,  carried  on  a  guerilla  warfare 
against  the  English  marchers.  In  1402  he  cap- 
tured Lord  Grey  and  Sir  Edmund  Mortimer,  both 
of  whom  married  daughters  of  the  Welsh  chief- 
tain (now  proclaimed  prince  of  Wales),  and 
joined  him  m  the  coalition  with  Harry  Percy 
(Hotspur).  That  coalition  ended  in  the  battle 
of  Shrewsbury,  1403,  won  by  King  Henry.  In 
1404  Glendower  entered  into  a  treaty  with 
Charles  VI.  of  France,  who  in  1405  sent  a  force  to 
Wales;  and  the  Welsh  prince,  though  often 
defeated,  kept  up  a  desultory  warfare  until  his 
death,  about  1416. 

Glenn,  Robert  Brodnax,  lawyer,  ex-governor  of 
North  Carolina,  was  born  in  Rockingham  county, 
N.  C,  1854.  He  was  educated  by  tutor  at  home, 
at  high  school,  Leaksville,  N.  C,  Davidson  college, 
N.  C,  university  of  Virginia,  and  Pearson's  law 
school,  Richmond  Hill,  N.  C.  Engaged  in  gen- 
eral law  practice  at  Danburv,  N.  C,  1878;  in 
1886  with  W.  B.  Glenn;  in  1891  with  Manly  and 
Hendren.  He  was  assistant  division  counsel  for 
the  Southern  railway,  attorney  for  the  Western 
Union  telegraph  company,  etc.  Was  member 
of  legislature,  1881 ;  district  attorney  for  the 
United  States,  1893-97 ;  governor  of  North  Car- 
olina, 1905-09. 

Glinka  (gling'-kd),  Mikhail  Ivanovitch,  composer, 
"the  Russian  Beethoven,"  was  born  near  Novos- 

Easkoi,  1804.  He  studied  under  John  Field  in 
t.  Petersburg.  Several  songs,  and  the  operas 
Life  for  the  Czar  and  Russian  and  Ludmilla,  all  in 
Russian,  have  received  high  praise  from  critics. 
He  died  at  Berlin  in  1857. 
Gluck  (glddk),  Christoph  Wllllbald,  German  com- 
poser, was  bom  at  Weidenwang,  in  Bavari^ 
1714.  He  studied  music  at  Prague,  Vienna,  and 
Milan,  and  began  his  career  at  Vienna  at  the  age 
of  twenty-two.  His  best  known  works  are 
Alceste,  Paride  ed  Elena,  and  Orfeo,  composed  in 
Vienna;  and  Iphiginie  en  Tauride,  composed  in 
Paris.  For  several  years  he  was  a  resident  in 
London,  where  some  of  his  earlier  operas  were 


written.  His  last  years  were  paned  in  VieniUk, 
where  he  died  of  paralysis,  1787. 

Gnelst  (g'nUf).  Rudolph  von,  German  jurist,  wm 
born  in  Berlin,  1816.  He  studied  law  at  Berlin, 
and  was  successively  assistant-judge  of  the 
superior  court  and  senior  judge  of  the  supreme 
courtof  Prussia.  In  1850  he  resigned,  and  in  18A8 
became  a  member  of  the  Pnisman  lower  houM 
and  also  of  the  imperial  diet.  From  1844  until 
his  death  he  also  held  the  chair  of  jurisprudence 
in  the  university  of  Berlin.  He  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  nrivy  council  in  1875;  was  ennobled 
in  1888,  and  die<i  in  1895.  Among  his  works  are 
Add  und  Ritlcrschaft  in  England;  Da*  hetUige  eng- 
lische  Verfassungs-  und  V eruxdtungwrecfU,  a  work 
contrasting  I'^nglish  and  German  law  anci  adminis- 
tration ;  History  of  the  English  Constitution;  Th« 
English  Parliament,  and  Die  nationale  RechUidM. 

Godfrey  de  Bouillon.     See  Bouillon. 

Godolphin  {go-d6l' -fin),  Sidney,  first  Earl  of,  English 
statesman,  was  bom  about  1645.  At  the  resto- 
ration he  became  one  of  the  grooms  of  the  bod- 
chamber  to  Charles  II.,  was  apjwinted  one  of  the 
secretaries  of  state  in  1684,  and  soon  after  first 
commissioner  of  the  treasury;  was  twice  dis- 
patched to  Holland  in  1678  on  business  of 
importance,  and  argued  and  voted  for  the  exclu- 
sion of  the  duke  of  York  from  the  succession  in 
1680.  In  1702,  on  the  accession  of  Anne,  he 
accepted  the  office  of  lord  high  treasurer,  raiscMl 
the  public  credit,  induced  the  queen  to  contribute 
100,000  pounds  toward  the  war,  firmly  opposed 
the  selling  of  offices  and  places,  and  increased  the 
stipends  of  the  inferior  clergy.  The  contest 
between  Godolphin  and  Harley  for  the  premier- 
ship resulted  in  the  defeat  of  Godolphin,  who  was 
dismissed  from  office  in  1710.     Died,  1712. 

Goethals  (gu'-tdlz),  George  Washington,  was  bom  in 
Brooklyn  in  1858.  He  was  a  student  at  college 
•  of  city  of  New  York;  1873-76;  graduated  from 
United  States  military  academy,  1880.  Appointed 
second  lieutenantengineers,  1880;  first  lieutenant, 
1882 ;  captain,  1891  ;  lieutenant  colonel  chief 
engineer  volunteers,  1898;  honorably  discharged 
from  volunteer  service,  1898;  major  engineering 
corps,  1900;  graduated  from  army  war  college. 
1905;  lieutenant  colonel  engineers,  1907;  colonel, 
1909.  Chief  of  engineers  during  Spanish-American 
war;  member  board  of  fortifications  (coast  and 
harbor  defense);  chief  engineer  Panama  canal 
since   1907. 

Goethe  (gil'te),  Johann  Wolfgang  von.  See  page  79. 

Goff,  John  W.,  American  jurist,  was  bom  at  Wex- 
ford, Ireland,  came  to  the  United  States  in  child- 
hood, studied  law  in  offices  of  United  States  Dis- 
trict Attorney  S.  G.  Courtnev,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  of  New  York.  Was  assistant  district 
attorney  of  New  York  under  Colonel  J.  R. 
Fellows;  counsel  to  Lexow  investigation  com- 
mittee; recorder  of  New  York,  1894-1906,  and 
is  now  serving  as  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of 
New  York  from  the  first  district,  1907-20. 

Gofr,  Nathan,  jurist,  United  States  circuit  judge, 
1892-1911;  judge  United  States  circuit  court  of 
appeals  since  1912;  was  bom  at  Clarksburg,  W. 
Va.,  1843.  He  was  educated  at  the  Northwestern 
Virginia  academy,  Georget-own  college,  and  New 
York  university.  Served  in  Union  army,  lieuten- 
ant to  major,  1861-65;  admitted  to  bar,  1866; 
member  of  West  Virginia  legislature,  1867; 
United  States  attorney,  district  of  West  Virginia, 
1868-81 ;  secretary'  of  the  navy,  United  States, 
1881;  again  United  States  district  attorney. 
1881-82;  member  of  congress.  1883-S9.  Elected 
United  States  senator  for  term.  1913-19. 

Gogol  (gd'-gol-y').  Nikolai  Vassilyevitch,  Russian 
novelist,  was  bom  at  Sorochintsi  in  Poltava, 
1809.  In  1828  he  settled  in  St.  Petersburg,  and 
became  famous  through  two  series  of  stories  of 
Little    Russia.     One    of    the    best    of    Ruasiaa 


728 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


comedies  is  The  Inspector-General,  exposing  the  ' 
corruption^   ignorance,    and   vanity   of  the  pro-  j 
vincial   ofncials.     His   masterpiece,    Dead  Souls,  i 
or  better  Dead  Serfs,  is  a  story  reflecting  the  more  ' 
sordid  aspects  of  provincial  life.     After  unsatis-  ! 
factory  trials  of  official  life,  and  of  public  teaching,  ! 
including  university  history  lectures  at  St.  Peteis-  [ 
burg  in  1834,  Gogol  left  Itussia  in  1836  to  Hve  | 
abroad,   mostly  in  Rome,  until   1846,  when  he 
returned  to  Russia.     He  was  the  first  great  mas- 
ter of    the  Russian   novel.       Died   at    Moscow, 
1852. 

Goldmark,  Karl,  Austrian  composer,  was  bom  at 
Keszthely,  Hungarv,  of  Jewish  parents,  about 
1832,  but  has  chiefly  resided  in  Vienna.  He  is 
well  known  by  his  operas,  The  Queen  of  Sheba  and 
Merlin,  which  were  perfonned  for  the  first  time 
on  any  stage  at  the  Metropolitan  opera  house, 
New  York,  in  1887,  and  by  the  very  effective 
overtures,  Sakuntala  and  Penthesuea.  The 
L&ndliche  Hochzeit  (Country  Wedding)  symphony 
is  a  great  favorite.  In  1900  he  completed  the 
opera  Cricket  on  the  Hearth,  and  subsequently 
Gtitz  von  Berlichingen. 

Goldoni  (gdl-do'-ni).  Carlo,  Italian  dramatist,  was 
born  at  Venice,  1707.  He  studied  for  the  law, 
but  his  heart  was  set  upon  play-writing.  A 
tragedy,  Belisario,  proved  successful,  but  he  soon 
discovered  that  his  forte  was  comedy,  and  set 
himself  to  effect  a  revolution  in  the  Italian  comic 
stage.  He  spent  several  years  in  wanderine  over 
north  Italy,  until  in  1740  he  settled  in  his  birth- 
place, where  for  twenty  years  he  poured  forth 
comedy  after  comedy.  In  1761  he  undertook  to 
write  for  the  Italian  theater  in  Paris,  and  was 
attached  to  the  French  court  until  the  revolution. 
He  died  in  1793. 

Goldsmith,  Oliver,  British  poet  and  novelist,  was 
born  in  Ireland,  1728.  He  was  graduated  at  the 
university  of  Dublin,  1749,  and  then  went  to 
Italy,  where  he  took  his  degree  of  M.  D.  at  Padua 
or  Lou  vain,  and  returned  to  England  in  1756. 
With  the  assistance  of  Dr.  Sleigh,  a  fellow- 
student,  he  began  practice  as  physician  among 
the  poor.  He  did  not  succeed  in  his  profession 
and  is  represented  as  having  become  uslier  in  the 
academy  of  Dr.  Miller  at  Peckham.  During  this 
period  he  supported  himself  by  contributions  to 
the  Monthly  Review.  He  became  a  candidate 
for  a  medical  appointment  at  Coromandel,  but 
was  rejected  by  the  college  of  surgeons.  The 
clothes  in  which  he  appeared  for  examination 
had  been  procure<l  on  the  security  of  Griffiths, 
editor  of  the  Monthly  Review;  and  as  Goldsmith, 
ureed  by  sharp  distress,  had  pawned  them,  his 
publisher  threatened  him  with  the  terrors  of  a 
jail.  He  had  now  reached  the  lowest  depth  of 
misery;  but  the  dawn  was  about  to  break.  His 
first  publication  of  note,  an  Inquiry  into  the 
Present  State  of  Polite  Learning  in  Europe,  was 
published  in  1759.  In  1764  The  Traveler 
appeared,  and  at  once  placed  him  in  the  front 
rank  of  Enelish  authors.  Two  years  after  this 
he  published  the  Vicar  Of  Wakefield,  which  has 
now  charmed  five  generations,  and  which  may 
be  said  to  have  indicated  his  proper  rank  in  the 
literary  world.  In  rapid  succession  he  produced 
his  other  works:  the  comedy  of  the  Good- 
Natured  Man,  in  1768;  the  Roman  History,  in 
1769 ;  and  The  Deserted  Village  —  the  sweetest  of 
all  his  poems  —  in  1770.  In  1773  his  comedy 
She  Stoops  to  Conquer  was  produced  at  Covent 
Garden  with  great  applause.  Although  now  in 
receipt  of  large  sums  for  his  works,  Goldsmith 
had  not  escaped  from  pecuniary  embarrassment. 
In  1774  he  went  to  London,  ill  in  body  and 
harassed  in  mind,  and  took  to  bed  on  March  25th. 
He  died  April  4th,  2,000  pounds  in  debt,  and 
more  sincerely  lamented  than  any  other  Uterary 
man  of  his  time. 


G6mec  y  Baei  (gd'-m&a  i  b&'-ds),  Maximo,  Cuban 
patriot,  was  bom  in  San  Domingo,  1826.  He 
served  in  the  Spanish  army  in  San  Domingo  and 
in  Cuba,  became  disgusted  with  Spanish  rule, 
and  retired  as  a  farmer.  In  the  insurrection  of 
1868-78  he  became  a  colonel  and  later  commander 
in  Puerto  Principe  of  the  insurgent  forces,  retir- 
ing to  San  Domingo  after  the  war.  In  1895,  on 
the  breaking  out  of  the  second  revolution,  he 
returned  to  Cuba,  became  general-in-chief  of  the 
Cuban  army,  and  later  put  his  force  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  American  troops  when  they  landed 
in  C\iba.  He  aided  the  United  States  materially 
in  the  subsequent  reorganization  and  reestal[>- 
lishment  of  the  civil  government  of  the  island. 
Died,  1905. 

Gompers  (gdm'-ptrz),  Samuel,  labor  leader,  presi- 
dent of  the  American  federation  of  labor,  wa« 
bom  in  Kneland,  1850.  He  is  a  cigar-maker  by 
trade,  and  has  been  an  advocate  of  the  rights  of 
labor,  and  connected  with  the  efforts  to  organize 
the  working  people  since  his  fifteenth  year.  He 
is  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American  federation 
of  labor  and  editor  of  its  official  magazine;  haa 
written  a  number  of  pamphlets  on  the  labor 
question  and  the  labor  movement,  and,  with  an 
intermission  of  one  year,  has  been  president  of 
the  American  federation  of  labor  since  1882.  In 
1909  he  visited  various  countries  of  Europe  and 
wrote  upon  the  labor  situation  as  there  found. 

Goncourt  (gds'-hJbr'),  Edmond  and  Jules  de, 
French  novelists,  bom,  the  former  at  Nancy  in 
1822  the  latter  at  Paris  in  1830.  Artists  pri- 
marily, in  1849  they  set  out  to  traverse  France 
for  water-color  sketches.  Their  notebooks  m^de 
them  writers  as  well  as  artists,  and  their  literary 
partnership  began  in  1852.  Their  earliest  serious 
works  were  a  group  of  historical  studies  UfMin 
the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Of 
much  more  real  value  is  Gavami,  L'Art  au 
XV I  Heme  aiicie,  and  books  on  Watteau  and 
Prud'hon.  But  the  important  work  of  the  De 
Goncourt  brothers  commenced  when  they  took 
to  novel-writing.  The  first  of  these  novels,  Le^ 
Hommes  de  Lettres,  was  followed  by  Steiir  Philo- 
mine,  RerUe  Mauperin,  Germinie  Lacertetix, 
Manette  Salomon,  and  Madame  Gervaisais.  The 
last  is  their  greatest  novel.  After  Jules'  death 
in  1870,  Edmond,  who  lived  until  1896,  issued 
the  extraordinarily  popular  La  fills  Elisa,  La 
Faustin,  and  Charts. 

Gonsalvo  de  C6rdoTa  (gdn-Ml'-vd  d&  kdr'-dO-vA), 
"the  great  captain,"  Spanish  commander,  was 
bom  at  Montilla  near  Cordova,  Spain,  1453.  He 
served  with  distinction  against  the  Moors  of 
Granada,  and  afterward  in  Portugal.  Sent  to 
assist  Ferdinand  II.  of  Naples  against  the  French, 
1495,  he  conquered  the  greater  part  of  the  king- 
dom of  Naples,  and  exp)elled  the  French.  When 
the  partition  of  Naples  was  determined  upon  in 
1500,  Gonsalvo  again  set  out  for  Italy,  but  first 
took  Zante  and  Cephalonia  from  the  Turks,  and 
restored  them  to  the  Venetians.  He  then  landed 
in  Sicily,  occupied  Naples  and  Calabria,  and 
demanded  from  the  French  that  they  should 
keep  the  compact.  This  demand  being  rejected, 
war  was  waged  with  varied  success;  but  ulti- 
mately Gonsalvo  won  a  great  battle,  and  secured 
Naples  to  Spain.  Recalled  in  1506,  and  treated 
by  the  king  with  neglect,  he  withdrew  to  his 
estates  in  Granada,  and  died  in  1515. 

Goodale  (gdbd'-al),  George  Lincoln,  botanist,  pro- 
fessor of  botany,  1878-88,  Fisher  professor  of 
natural  historv  and  director  of  botanic  garden, 
1888-1909,  Harvard;  was  bom  at  Saco,  Me., 
1839.  He  graduated  at  Amherst,  1860;  M.  D., 
Har\'ard  and  Bowdoin,  1863.  Practiced  medicine, 
Portland,  Me.,  for  three  years;  state  assayer  of 
Maine,  1864 ;  professor  natural  science,  mineralogy, 
botany,    and    applied     chemistry    at    Bowdoin, 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


729 


1868-72;  instructor  of  botany  and  university 
lecturer  on  vegetable  physiology,  Harvard,  1872- 
73;  assistant  professor  of  vegetable  physiology, 
same,  1873-78.  He  is  author  of  various  works  on 
plant  physiology  and  economic  botanv,  and 
associate  editor  of  American  Journal  of  Science. 
Member  of  national  academy  of  sciences,  etc. 

Goodnow,  Frank  Johnson,  educator,  author,  was 
born  at  Brooklj'n,  N.  Y.,  1859.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Amherst  college,  1879,  and  at  Columbia 
law  school,  1882;  studied  at  Ecole  libre  des 
sciences  politiques,  Paris,  and  university  of 
BerHn;  LL.  D.,  Amherst,  1897,  Columbia,  1904. 
Eaton  professor  of  administrative  law  and  munic- 
ipal science,  Columbia,  1903-13.  Appointed 
legal  adviser  to  Chinese  republic,  1913.  Author: 
Comparative  Administrative  Law;  Municipal 
Home  Ride;  Municipal  Problems;  Politics  and 
Administration;  City  Government  in  the  United 
States.  Editor:  Selected  Cases  on  the  Law  oj 
Taxation;  Selected  Cases  on  Government  and 
Administration;  Selected  Cases  on  the  Law  of 
Officers,  etc. 

Goodrich,  Samuel  Griswold,  better  known  as 
"Peter  Parley,"  a  famous  writer  for  young  folks, 
was  bom  in  Ridgefield,  Conn.,  1793.  He  was  a 
book-publisher,  first  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  and 
afterward  in  Boston,  Mass.  After  settling  in 
Boston,  he  began  to  write,  under  the  name  of 
"Peter  Parley,  books  for  young  folks,  of  which 
he  published  more  than  a  hundred.  He  was 
also  the  editor  for  many  years  of  Merry's  Mtiseum 
and  Parley's  Magazine.  His  "Peter  Parley" 
books  comprised  geographies,  histories,  travels, 
stories,  and  works  on  the  arts  and  sciences,  ana 
won  him  much  fame.     He  died,    1860. 

Goodwin,  Nathaniel  Carl,  American  actor,  was 
born  in  Boston  in  1857 ;  studied  under  Wyzeman 
Marshall,  then  manager  of  Boston  theater ;  made 
his  dfebut  with  Stuart  Robson,  Boston,  1873,  in 
Law  in  New  York,  and  later  starred  as  Captain 
Crosstree  in  Blackeyed  Sv^an,  in  New  York.  He 
subsequently  starred  in  Rice's  Evangeline; 
Hobbies;  The  Member  from,  Slocum;  In  Mizzoura; 
Nathan  Hale;  The  Rivals;  When  We  Were  Twenty- 
one;  The  Merchant  of  Venice;  The  Genius,  and 
other  plays. 

Goodwin,  William  Watson,  educator,  Greek  scholar, 
was  born  in  Concord,  Mass.,  1831.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard,  A.  B.,  1851 ;  studied  at  univer- 
sities of  Gottingen,  Berlin,  and  Bonn;  Ph.  D., 
Gottingen,  1855;  LL.  D.,  Amherst,  1881;  Cam- 
bridge, England,  1883;  Columbia,  1887;  Edin- 
burgh, 1890;  Harvard,  1891;  Chicago,  1901; 
Yale,  1901;  D.  C.  L.,  Oxford,  England,  1890. 
Tutor  at  Harvard,  1856-60;  first  director  of 
American  school  of  classical  studies,  Athens, 
Greece,  1882-83;  knight  of  Greek  order  of  the 
Redeemer;  professor  of  Greek  literature,  Har- 
vard, 1860-1901;  professor  emeritus,  1901;  over- 
seer of  Harvard,  1903-09.  Author:  Syntax  of 
the  Moods  and  Tenses  of  the  Greek  Verb,  Greek 
Grammar.  Editor:  Demosthenes  on  the  Crown, 
etc.     Died,  1912, 

Goodyear,  Charles,  inventor  of  vulcanized  rubber, 
was  born  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1800.  His 
career  was  a  troubled  one.  He  failed  as  an 
iron-founder,  and  when,  after  ten  j'ears'  labor, 
amidst  every  disadvantage  of  poverty  and  pri- 
vation, he,  in  1844,  produced  his  new  method  of 
hardening  rubber  by  means  of  sulphur,  he 
became  involved  in  a  fresh  series  of  troubles,  as 
well  as  poverty,  consequent  on  the  infringement 
of  his  inventions.  His  patents  latterly  amounted 
to  sixty,  and  both  medals  and  honors  were 
awarded  him  in  London  and  Paris.     Died,  1860. 

Gordon,  Charles  George,  British  soldier,  fajniliarly 
known  as  "Chinese  Gordon,"  was  bom  in  1833. 
He  served  in  the  Crimean  war,  1854-56,  and  was 
wounded    at    Sebastopol;     entered    the   Chinese 


service  and  assisted  to  suppreas  the  "T«i-pinc" 
rebellion,  1863-64  whence  his  sobriquet  of 
"Chinese  Gordon'';  held  several  posUi  of  dis- 
tinction in  the  British  army,  and  \n  1876  took 
command  of  the  forces  destined  to  follow  up 
Baker's  African  explorations,  during  which  he 
totally  suppressed  the  slave  traffic  on  the  Red 
sea.  In  1884  he  proceeded  to  the  Soudan,  in 
lower  Egypt,  as  an  emissary  of  England  to  quiet 
the  insurgent  tribes  under  El  Mahdi,  the  "falsa 
prophet  of  the  Soudan."  His  memorable  journey 
to  Khartoum,  with  one  or  two  attendants,  and 
the  influence  which  his  presence  exercised  over 
the  tribes  of  the  desert,  is  one  of  the  most  thrill- 
ing episodes  in  his  career.  He  was  killed  when 
Khartoum   was    captured   by    El    Mahdi,    1885. 

Gordon,  Charles  William,  Canadian  novelist, 
Presbyterian  clergyman,  was  born  in  Indian 
Lands,  Glengarry,  Ontario,  Canada,  1860;  was 
graduated  at  Toronto  university,  1883;  classical 
master  at  Chatham  high  school,  1883-84;  crrad- 
uated  in  theological  course,  Knox  coUege, 
Toronto,  1887;  F.  R.  S.,  Canada-  D.  D.,  Knox 
college;  master,  1886-87,  Upper  Canada  college, 
Toronto;  post  graduate  study.  New  college, 
Edinburgh,  Scotland  •  then  spent  a  year  in  travel 
on  the  continent.  He  was  a  missionary  to  BanflT, 
etc..  Rocky  mountains,  1890-94 ;  minister  of  St. 
Stephen's  church,  Winnipeg,  since  1894.  Author: 
Black  Rock;  Beyond  the  Marshes;  G wen's  Canyon; 
The  Sky  Pilot;  Quid  Michael;  The  Man  from 
Glengarry;  Glengarry  School  Days;  The  Pros- 
pector; The  Doctor;  all  under  the  [>seudonym 
of  "Ralph  Connor." 

Gordon,  George  Angler,  Congregational  clerg>'man, 
religious  writer,  was  born  in  Scotland,  1853.  He 
was  educated  in  common  schools,  Insch,  Scotland, 
and  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1881 ;  D.  D., 
Bowdoin  and  Yale,  1893,  S.  T.  D.,  Harvard,  1895. 
Minister  of  Old  South  church,  Boston,  since  1884 ; 
lecturer  in  Lowell  institute  course,  IfliOO ;  Lvman 
Beecher  lecturer,  Yale,  1901.  Author:  The  Wit- 
ness  to  Immortality;  The  Christ  of  To-day;  Immor- 
tality and  the  New  Theodicy;  The  New  Epoch  for 
Faith;  etc.  Universitv  preacher  to  Harvard, 
1886-90;  Yale,  1888-1901. 

Gordon,  John  Brown,  American  soldier,  was  bom 
in  Georgia,  1832.  He  was  educated  at  the 
university  of  Georgia,  studied  law  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  He  served  with  distinction 
in  the  confederate  army,  1861-64,  and  rose  to 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  From  187.3  to 
1879  and  1891  to  1897  he  was  a  member  of  the 
United  States  senate;  governor  of  Georgia, 
1886-90.  He  wrote  Remmiscencea  of  tlie  Civil 
War.     Died,  1904. 

Gordon-Cununlng,  Constance  Frederlca,  Scotch 
traveler  and  writer,  was  bom  at  Altyre,  1837, 
twelfth  child  of  Sir  WiUiam  Gordon-Cumming, 
second  baronet,  Alt5Te  and  Gordonstoun.  She 
was  educated  privately  and  at  Fulham,  London. 
An  invitation  to  spend  a  year  with  a  married 
sister  in  India,  1867,  awoke  the  taste  for  travel 
and  led  to  very  extensive  wandering  extending 
over  twelve  years.  Author:  At  Home  in  Fijx 
and  New  Zealand;  A  Lady's  Cruise  in  a  French 
Man-of-War  among  the  l^outh  Sea  Ides;  Fire 
Fountains  of  Hawaii;  Granite  Crags  of  Cali- 
fornia; Wanderings  in  China;  In  the  Hebridea; 
In  the  Himalayas;  Via  Comicall  to  Egypt;  Two 
Happy  Years  in  Ceylon;  Memories,  etc.  She 
invented  the  numeral-type  for  the  use  of  illiterate 
Chinese,  both  blind  and  seeing,  in  Mandarin- 
speaking  districts  of  China. 

Gore,  Christopher,  American  statesman  and 
diplomat,  wa-s  bom  in  Boston,  Mass.,  1758.  He 
was  a  graduate  of  Harvard,  a  lawyer  by  profes- 
sion, and  the  first  United  States  district  attorney 
for  Mas-sachusetts.  As  one  of  the  United  States 
commissioners,    he    contributed    largely    to    the 


730 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


settlement  of  the  claims  of  this  country  upon 
Great  Britain.  He  was  governor  of  his  state  in 
1809,  and  United  States  senator,  1814-17.  He 
betjueathed  the  greater  part  of  his  property  to 
Harvard  college.     Died,  1829. 

Gore,  Thomas  Pryor,  lawyer,  United  States  senator, 
was  born  in  Webster  county,  Miss..  1870.  He 
lost  the  sight  of  both  eyes  by  aeciclent  when  a 
boy.  He  attended  a  local  school  at  Walthall, 
Miss.,  graduated  from  the  law  department  of 
Cumberland  university,  Lebanon,  Tenn.,  1892, 
moved  to  Texas  in  1895  and  to  Oklahoma  in  1901. 
After  serving  one  term  in  the  territorial  senate, 
he  was  appointed  United  States  senator  by  the 
povernor,  1907,  was  elected  by  the  legislature  I 
m  the  same  year,  and  was  reelected  1909  for  the  i 
full  term  1909-15.  I 

Gttrgei,  or  GdfKey  (g^r'-gi-i),  Arthur,  Hungarian  : 
general,  was  born  at  Tonorcz  in  north  Hungary, 
1818.  During  the  revolt  of  1848  he  compelled  i 
Jeliachich  and  his  10,000  Croats  to  capitulate  at 
Ozora,  but  was  driven  back  by  Windischgratz. 
As  Hungarian  commander-in-chief  he  relieved 
Komorn  by  inflicting  a  series  of  severe  defeats  on 
the  Austrians,  practically  driving  them  out  of  the 
country.  Though  almost  constantly  at  feud 
with  Kossuth  and  a  provisional  government,  he 
in  1849  accepted  the  ministry  of  war.  By  unin- 
telligible delays  and  jealousies  he  allowed  the 
enemy  to  gain  numerous  advantages,  and  was 
himself  repeatedly  defeated.  In  August  he  was 
nominated  dictator,  and  two  days  later  sur- 
rendered with  his  army  of  24,000  men  to  the 
Russian  commander,  lliidiger,  at  V'ildgos  near 
Arad.  Gorgei  was  imprisoned  at  Klagenfurt. 
but  eventually  set  at  liberty.  Kossuth  accused 
him  of  treachery,  a  charge  to  which  he  replied  in 
Mein  Leben  und  Wxrken  in  den  Jahren  1848-49. 
He  returned  to  Hungary  in  18G8. 

Gorgias  (gdr'-jl-da),  celebrated  Greek  rhetorician  of 
the  time  of  Socrates,  was  born  at  Leontinl  about 
487  B  C,  and  settled  in  Greece,  residing  for  the 
most  part  at  Athens,  and  at  Larissa  in  Thessaly. 
He  has  been  immortalized  by  Plato  in  a  dialogue 
which  bears  his  name.  Two  works  attributed  to 
him  are  extant,  The  Apology  of  Palamedes  and 
the  Encomium  on  Helena.     Died  about  380  B.  C. 

Gorky  {g6r'-ke),  Maxim,  pen  name  of  Alexei  Maxi- 
movitch  Pyesliko£f,  a  self-educated  Russian 
novelist,  was  bom  in  Nizhni-Novgorod,  1868  or 
1869,  the  son  of  an  upholsterer.  After  the  death 
of  his  parents  he  was  engaged  in  various  occupa- 
tions until,  through  the  influence  of  his  friend 
Kalushni,  his  attention  was  turned  to  literary 
work,  and  his  first  story,  Makar  Chudra,  appeared 
in  1892.  He  is  one  of  the  most  original  and 
popular  of  modern  Russian  writers.  Among  his 
works  are  The  Song  of  the  Falcon;  The  Song  of 
the  Petrel;  The  Orloff  Couple;  Malva;  Foma 
Gordeyeff;  Children  of  the  Sun,  and  The  Barba- 
rians. 

Gorman,  Arthur  Pue,  American  politician^  was 
bom  in  Maryland,  1839.  He  was  a  page  in  the 
United  States  senate,  1852-G6;  collector  of 
internal  revenue,  fifth  district  of  Maryland, 
1866-69;  elected  to  legislature  of  Maryland, 
1869;  reelected,  1871,  and  chosen  speaker  of  the 
house;  state  senator,  1875-79,  and  United 
States  senator,  1881-99,  and  1903-06.  He  died 
at  Washington,  1906. 

Gortchakoff  (gdr'-chd-ko/^).  Prince  Alexander  Ml- 
khailovltch,  Russian  statesman,  was  bom  at 
St.  Petersburg,  1798.  As  ambassador  at  Vienna, 
1854-56,  he  displayed  great  ability  during  the 
Crimean  war;  he  then  succeeded  Nesselrode  as 
foreign  minister.  As  chancellor  of  the  empire, 
1863,  he  was,  until  Bismarck's  rise,  the  most 
powerful  minister  in  Europe.  His  influence 
largely  secured  the  neutrality  of  Austria  in  the 
Franco-German  war  of  1870,  and  he  it  was  who 


in  1871  freed  Russia  from  the  treaty  of  Paris. 
After  the  conclusion  of  the  liusso-Turkish  war, 
the  repudiation  of  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano,  and 
the  signing  of  the  treaty  of  Berlin,  his  influence 
began  to  wane.  He  died  at  Baden-Baden, 
1883. 

Gosnold  (gda'-nUld),  Bartholomew,  English  navi- 
gator, was  born  in  England  about  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  centurv.  He  was  associated  with 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh  in  his  attemnt  to  found  a 
colony  in  Virginia,  and  later  headed  an  expedi- 
tion fitted  out  by  the  earl  of  Southampton,  to 
found  a  colony  in  New  England.  In  1602  he  left 
Falmouth  for  this  purjxjse  with  a  ship  and 
twenty  colonists,  attempting  to  cross  the  oceun 
in  a  direct  Une.  Contrary  winds  took  his  vessel 
to  the  Azores,  whence,  after  a  tedious  voyage  of 
seven  weeks,  he  reached  the  coast  of  Maine. 
Following  the  land-Une  in  a  southwesterly  direc- 
tion, he  discovered  Cai>e  Cod  and  Martha's 
Vineyard.  In  1606  Gosnold  united  with  a  com- 
pany, of  which  Captain  John  Smith  was  one  of 
the  leaders,  to  locate  in  Virginia.  Through 
their  joint  efforts  the  settlement  at  Jamestown 
was  established  in  1607.  He  died  in  Virginia, 
1607. 

Goas,  Charles  Frederic,  American  clergyman, 
novelist,  was  bom  in  Meridian,  N.  Y.,  1852. 
He  was  graduated  at  llumilton  college,  1873, 
D.  D.,  1898;  was  graduated  at  Auburn  theologi- 
cal seminary.  1876.  His  early  ministry  was  spent 
in  home  missionary  work;  pastor  of  Moody 
church,  Chicago,  1885-90;  spent  two  years 
recovering  health  at  Kettle  Falls,  Washington; 
associate  pastor  of  Madison  avenue  church,  New 
York.  1892-94,  since  1894  pastorof  Avondale  Pres- 
byterian church,  Cincinnati.  Author:  The  Opti- 
mist; The  Phiiopolist;  Hite  and  Miaaea;  Life  of 
D.  L.  Moody;  The  Redemption  of  David  Coraon; 
The  Loom  of  Life;  Little  Saint  Sunahine;  Juat  a 
Minute;  CnickoryvUle  Sunday  School;  Huaband, 
Wife,  and  Home,  etc. 

Goase  (p6a),  Edmund,  English  poet  and  writer, 
librarian  to  the  house  of  lords  since  1904.  was 
bom  at  London,  1849.  He  was  educated  pri- 
vately in  Devonshire.  Hon.  M.  A.,  Trinity 
college,  Cambridge,  hon.  LL.  D.,  St.  Andrews, 
1899.  He  was  assistant  librarian  of  British 
museum,  1867-75;  traveled  in  Scandinavia  and 
Holland  for  literary  purposes,  1872-74:  transla- 
tor to  board  of  trade,  1875-1904;  Clark  lecturer 
in  English  literature  at  Trinity  college,  Cam- 
bridge, 1884-90,  and  lectured  in  United  States, 
1884-85.  Author:  Verse  — On  Viol  and  Flute; 
King  Erik;  New  Poems;  Firdauai  in  Exile;  In 
Ruaaet  and  Silver;  Collected  Poema;  Hypolympia. 
Prose  —  Northern  Studies;  Life  of  Gray;  Seven- 
teenth Century  Studica;  Life  of  Congreve;  History 
of  Eighteenth  Century  Literature;  Life  of  P.  H. 
Ooaae;  Gossip  in  a  Library;  The  Secret  of  Nar- 
cisse;  Questums  at  Issue;  The  Jacobean  Poets; 
Critical  Kit-Kats;  History  of  Modem  Engliak 
Literature;  Henrik  Ibsen,  etc. 

Gosse,  Philip  Henry,  British  naturalist,  was  bom 
at  Worcester,  1810.  In  1827  he  went  to  New- 
foundland as  a  clerk,  and  was  afterward  farmer 
in  Canada,  schoolmaster  in  Alabama,  and 
naturalist  in  Jamaica.  Returning  to  England, 
he  pubUshed  in  1840  the  Canadian  Naturalist, 
and  after  another  stay  in  the  West  Indies  settled 
in  England  to  a  literary  life.  Author:  The 
Birds  of  Jamaica;  A  Naturalist's  Sojourn  in 
Jamaica;  A  Naturalist's  Ramble  on  the  Devon- 
shire Coast;  Aquarium;  Alanual  of  Marine 
Zoology,  and  The  Romance  of  Natural  History, 
his  best-knou-n  work.  He  died  at  St.  Mary 
Church  near  Torquay,  1888. 

Gottschalk  (gdt'-shMk),  Louis  Moreau,  American 
pianist  and  musical  composer,  was  bom  in  New 
Orleans,  1829.     He  studied  in  Europe,  and  from 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


731 


1845  to  1852  made  successful  tours  of  the  conti- 
neDt,  returning  to  America  in  1853  to  tour  this 
country,    and   meeting  with   wonderful   success, 

Slaying  and  conducting  his  own  compositions, 
•ied  at  Rio  Janeiro,  1869. 
Gough  {g6f),  John  Bartholomew,  temperance 
lecturer,  was  born  at  Sandgate,  Kent,  England, 
1817.  He  came  at  twelve  to  America,  and  in 
1831  found  employment  in  New  York,  but  lost 
it  by  dissipation,  and  was  reduced  to  singing 
conuc  songs  at  grog-shops.  In  1842  he  was 
induced  to  take  the  pledge;  and,  devoting  the 
rest  of  his  life  to  the  cause  of  temjierance,  he 
became  a  singularly  effective  lecturer,  making 
several  visits  to  England.  He  published  an 
Autobiography,  Orations,  Sunlight  and  Shadow, 
etc.  Died,  1886. 
€>ouln.  Sir  Lomer,  prime  minister  and  attorney- 
general  of  Quebec  since  1905,  was  born  at  Gron- 
dines,  province  of  Quebec,  1861.  He  was 
educated  at  Sorel  and  L6vis,  province  of  Quebec. 
Admitted  to  the  province  of  Quebec  bar,  1884; 
queen's  counsel,  1900:  elected  member  pro- 
vincial parliament  for  Montreal,  1897 ;  app>ointed 
member  of  public  instruction  council,  1898; 
minister     of    colonization     and     public    works, 

Suebec,  1900;  reelected  by  acclamation  for 
ontreal  (St.  James  division),  1900,  1904,  and 
1905;  elected  for  Portneuf,  1908. 

Goujon  {g<X>'-zh6ii'),  Jean,  French  sculptor  and 
architect,  was  born  in  Paris  about  1515.  He 
was  employed  on  the  church  of  St.  Maclou,  at 
Rouen,  1540,  and  on  the  cathedral  there,  1541; 
worked  with  Pierre  Lescot,  architect  of  the 
Louvre,  on  the  restorations  of  St.  Germain 
I'Auxerrois,  1542-44;  was  employed  with  Bullant 
on  the  Chdteau  d'Ecouen;  and  on  the  accession 
of  Henry  II.  entered  the  royal  service.  In  the 
Louvre  he  executed  the  reliefs  of  the  Escalier 
Henri  II.,  the  carvings  at  the  southwestern  angle 
of  the  court,  and  the  Tribune  des  Caryatides, 
and  he  was  the  author  of  what  is  considered  the 
masterpiece  of  French  sculpture,  the  "Diane 
Chasseresse,"  now  in  the  Louvre  collection. 
There  is  no  direct  evidence  of  his  death,  but  it  is 
believed  to  have  occurred  in  the  St.  Bartholomew 
massacre,  1572. 

Gould,  Benjamin  Apthorp,  American  astronomer, 
was  born  at  Boston,  Mass.,  1824.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  college  in  1844,  afterward 
studied  at  Gottingen,  where  he  took  a  degree  in 
1848,  and  was  for  some  time  an  assistant  in  the 
observatory  at  Altona,  Germany.  After  visiting 
the  principal  observatories  in  Europe,  he  returned 
to  America  and  was  employed  in  the  coast  survey, 
having  in  special  charge  the  longitude  determi- 
nations, the  methods  of  which  he  greatly  im- 
proved. In  1856  he  was  appointed  director  of 
the  Dudley  observatory,  at  Albany,  N.  Y., 
retaining  that  post  until  the  beginning  of  1859. 
In  1866  he  established  an  observatory  at  Valentia 
in  Ireland,  and  made  the  first  determination  of 
transatlantic  longitude  by  telegraph  cable.  His 
principal  works  are:  Report  on  the  Discovery  of 
the  Planet  Neptune;  Smithsonian  Institution 
Reports;  Investigation  of  the  Orbit  of  the  Comet  V .; 
Discussions  of  Observations  Made  by  the  United 
States  Astronomical  Expedition  to  Chili,  to  Deter- 
mine the  Solar  Parallax;  On  the  Transatlantic 
Longitude;  Military  and  Anthropological  Statistics 
of  American  Soldiers;  and  several  charts  of  stars 
of  scarcely  less  importance  than  those  already 
noted.     Died,  1896. 

Gould,  Elgin  R.  I^^  economist,  president  of  City 
and  Suburban  homes  company.  New  York,  was 
bom  at  Oshawa,  Ontario,  1860.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Toronto  in  a  private  school,  at  Victoria 
university,  A.  B.,  1881,  and  at  Johns  Hopkins 
imiversitv,  Baltimore,  Ph.  D.,  1886.  Formerly 
statistical  expert  in  charge  of  various  investiga- 


tions for  the  United  States  department  of  labor; 
formerly  lecturer  at  Johns  Hopkins,  and  pro- 
fessor of  Chicago  univer«ity;  chamberlain  of 
city  of  New  York,  1902-04.  He  has  been  very 
active  in  pubUc,  religious,  and  philanthropio 
affairs.  Author:  The  Gothenburg  System  of 
Liquor  Traffic;  Housing  of  the  Working  PeopU: 
Public  CoTitrol  of  the  Liquor  Traffic;  The  SoeitU 
Condition  of  Labor;  Civic  Reform  and  Social 
Progress,  etc. 

Gould,  George  Jay,  American  capitalist,  eldest  son 
of  Jay  Gould,  was  born  in  New  York  city,  Feb- 
ruary 6,  1864;  received  privaUi  education.  Eariy 
in  life  he  began  railway  management,  and  becaoM 
president  of  the  Little  Rock  Junction  railway  in 
1888.  In  1892  he  was  elected  president  of  the 
Manhattan  elevated  railway  company  of  New 
York  city;  he  has  been  elected  president  and 
chairman  of  boards  of  directors  of  numerous 
railways  and  corporations  in  8uccee<ling  years, 

Gould,  Helen  Miller,  American  philanthropist,  waa 
born  in  New  York,  1868,  daughter  of  Jay 
Gould.  She  has  been  identified  with  philan- 
thropic work  for  many  years;  has  made  many 
notable  gifts  including:  Ubrary  building  costing 
$310,000  to  university  of  city  of  New  York; 
$100,000  for  cyclone  sufferers,  St.  Louis;  $100,- 
000  to  United  States  government  for  war  pur- 
poses, 1898;  $10,000  to  Rutgers  college;  $10,000 
to  Engineering  school.  New  York  university: 
$50,000  to  naval  branch  of  Brooklyn  Y.  M.  C.  A., 
and  numerous  other  donations  for  educational 
and  charitable  purposes.  She  also  established 
and  maintains  a  home  for  children.  An  active 
member  of  the  women's  national  war  rehef 
association,  she  gave  freely  to  its  work,  and  at 
Camp  Wyckoff  gave  her  personal  care  to  sick  and 
convalescent  soldiers,  ^ving  $50,000  for  needed 
supplies.  Married  Fmley  J.  Shepard  <rf  St. 
Louis,  1913. 

Gould,  Jay,  American  financier,  was  bom  at  Rox- 
bury,  N.  Y.,  1836;  was  brought  up  on  his  father's 
farm;  attended  Hobart  academy  a  short  time, 
acquired  a  taste  for  mathematics  and  surveying; 
made  surveys  of  Ulster,  Albany  and  Delaware 
counties,  and  began  his  railrosud  career  shortly 
after  the  panic  of  1857.  He  first  invested  in 
bonds  of  the  Rutland  and  Washington  railroad, 
and  became  president,  treasurer,  and  superin- 
tendent of  the  road.  Soon  afterward  he  effected 
a  consolidation  of  his  road  with  the  Rensselaer 
and  Saratoga  road,  withdrew  his  capital,  removed 
to  New  York,  opened  a  broker's  office,  and  began 
dealing  in  Erie  stocks  and  bonds.  In  sissociation 
with  ,mmes  Fisk,  Jr.,  he  entered  the  directory  of 
the  company,  and  was  elected  president,  with 
Fisk  as  vice-president  and  treasurer.  On  the 
reorganization  of  the  company,  1872,  he  lost 
official  connection  with  it.  He  then  invested 
heavily  in  the  various  Pacific  railroads,  secured 
control  of  a  number  of  important  lines,  built 
branches,  and  effected  combinations  which 
resulted  in  the  establishment  of  what  is  known 
as  the  "Gould  system."  He  died  in  1892,  worth 
some  $100,000,()bO. 

Gould,  John,  English  ornithologist,  was  bom  at 
Lyme  Regis,  1804.  He  became  curator  of  the 
zoological  society's  museum  in  1827.  His  works 
include:  A  Century  of  Birds  from  the  Himalaya 
Mountains;  Icones  Avium;  The  Birds  of  Europe; 
The  Birds  of  Australia;  The  Mammals  of  Australia; 
The  FamUy  of  Kanaaroos;  Humming  Birds; 
The  Birds  of  Great    Britain,  etc.       Died,    1881. 

Gounod  (g<Z'-n6'),  Charles  Francois,  French 
operatic  composer,  was  bom  in  Paris  in  1818. 
He  stiidied  music  at  the  Paris  conservatoire,  and 
in  1839  gained  the  prize  for  composition.  He 
then  visited  Rome  and  Vieiuia,  and  in  1849 
became  an  organist  in  Paris.  His  first  opera, 
Sappho,  was  written  in  1851.     This  was  followed 


732 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


by  La  Nonne  Sanglante;  Le  Midicine  tnalgri  lui; 
La  Colombe;  Phuimon  et  Baitcis;  MireiUe;  La 
Reine  de  Saba;  Romio  et  Jidiette,  and  Faust  — 
the  two  latter  being  the  best  known  of  his  works. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  academy  of  fine  arts, 
and  was  decorated  with  the  legion  of  honor.  In 
1866  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French 
institute.  In  1882  his  oratorio.  La  Redemption, 
was  produced;  in  1885,  Mors  et  Vita.  Died,  1893. 

Gowan,  Sir  James  Robert,  jurist,  member  of 
Canadian  senate,  was  bom  in  Ireland,  1815. 
He  settled  in  Canada,  1832;  served  as  volunteer 
in  the  rebellion,  1837;  admitted  to  the  upper 
Canada  bar,  1839;  appointed  judge,  1843;  one 
of  the  three  judges  appointed  to  frame  a  new 
procedure  in  re  probate  administration  and 
guardianship,  1858-  engaged  in  revision  and 
consolidation  of  the  whole  statute  law  of 
United  Canada  and  the  provinces  of  upper 
and  lower  Canada  (afterward  enacted),  1859; 
chairman  of  board  of  judges,  Ontario,  1860 
to  1889;  retired  from  bench,  1883,  and  was 
appointe<l  by  the  crown  a  life  member  of  the 
senate,  1885.  He  introduced  a  new  procedure 
on  bills  of  divorce  before  parliament,  which 
was  mlopted  and  now  governs  in  Canada.  He 
was  admitted  to  Irish  bar,  1890,  and  created 
C.  M.  G.,  1893,  "in  recopiition  of  his  long 
and  valuable  services  in  the  Dominion  of  Can- 
ada." In  1855  he  founded  the  Canada  Law 
Journal.    Died,  1909. 

Graaf  (griif),  ReKnier  de,  Dutch  physician  and 
anatomist,  was  bom  in  Schoonhoven,  1641.  He 
was  specially  distinguished  by  his  discovery  that 
all  anmials  are  oviparous.  The  Graafian  vesicles 
were  also  discovered  and  named  after  him, 
though  he  mistook  their  functions.  He  rendered 
great  service  to  anatomy  through  his  use  of  the 
injections  into  the  blood-vessels  which  Swammer- 
dam  and  Ruysch  afterward  brought  to  a  state 
of  comparative  excellence.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  number  of  works  on  the  functions  of  the 
pancreas  and  on  the  generative  organs.  Died  1673. 

Gracchus  (grdk'-Hs),  name  of  a  distinguished 
Roman  family,  to  which  belonged  the  two  cele- 
brated tribunes,  Tiberius  Sempronius  Gracchus 
(163-133  B.  C.)  and  Caius  Sempronius  Gracchus 
(159-121  B.  C).  The  former  was  tribune  of  the 
plebs  133  B.  C,  and  the  latter  123-122  B.  C. 
They  were  both  the  sons  of  Tiberius  Sempronius 
Gracchus  (who  had  been  tribune  of  the  plebs  in 
187  B.  C),  and  of  Cornelia,  the  daughter  of 
Publius  Scipio  Africanus  the  elder.  Both  the 
brothers  fell  victims  to  their  real  in  attempting 
to  contend  with  the  growing  corruptions  of  the 
Roman  state. 

Grady,  Henry  Woodfln,  journalist,  orator,  was  bom 
at  Athens,  Ga.,  1851.  He  was  educated  at  the 
state  university  at  Athens,  and  took  a  post- 
graduate course  at  the  university  of  Virginia. 
He  became  editor  of  the  Rome,  Ga.,  Daily  Com- 
mercial, and  afterward  of  the  Atlanta  Herald. 
For  some  time  he  acted  as  southern  correspondent 
of  the  New  York  Herald,  and  in  1880  became 
part  owner  and  managing  editor  of  the  Atlanta 
Constitution,  which  he  conducted  until  his  death. 
He  was  an  eloquent  speaker,  a  man  of  broad  and 
liberal  views;  and,  auring  his  brief  public  life, 
did  as  much  as  any  one  man  could  to  advance 
the  interests  of  Georgia  and  the  South.  Died  at 
Atlanta,  Ga.,  1889. 

GraetE,  (gr&ts),  Helnrlch,  foremost  Jewish  historian 
of  modern  times,  was  born  iti  Posen,  1817. 
Mostly  self-educated ;  spent  three  years  at  Olden- 
burg, assistant  and  pupil  of  S.  R.  Hirsch;  matric- 
ulated at  Breslau  in  1842.  His  principal  work 
is  Geschichte  der  Juden,  begun  in  1853,  and  com- 
pleted in  1875;  it  has  been  translated  into  many 
languages.  This  work  won  for  him  the  position 
of   recognized   master    of   Jewish    history.      He 


became  professor  at  the  university  of  Breslau  in 
1870.     He  died  at  Munich  in  1891. 

Grafly,  Charles,  American  sculptor,  was  bom  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1862.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Pennsylvania  academy  of  fine  arts,  Phila- 
delphia, and  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris; 
was  a  pupil  of  Chapu  and  Dampt.  Since  1892  he 
has  lx«n  instructor  in  sculpture  at  the  Penn- 
sylvania academy  of  fine  arts,  Philadelphia.  His 
works  include:  "General  Reynolds,"  Fairmount 
park,  Philadelphia;  "Fountain  of  Man,"  made  for 
the  Pan-American  exposition  at  Buffalo;  "From 
Generation  to  Generation";  "Symlx)l  of  Life"; 
"Vulture  of  War",  and  many  portrait  busts. 

Graham,  John,  Viscount  Dundee,  Scottish  writer, 
was  bom  probably  in  1649.  After  three  years  at 
St.  Andrews,  then  four  perhaps  soldiering  under 
Turenne,  in  1672  he  entered  the  prince  of  Orange 
horse-guards  as  comet.  In  1674  at  the  battle  of 
Seneff  he  saved  William's  life ;  in  1677  he  returned 
to  Scotland,  and  became  lieutenant  in  a  troop  of 
horae,  and  was  ordered  to  enforce  certain  stringent 
laws  against  the  Scottish  covenanters.  Hia 
severity  provoked  a  rising  of  the  covenanters, 
who  defeated  him  at  Drumrlog,  1679.  In  1689 
he  fought  for  James  II.  against  William  III.,  and 
gained  the  battle  of  Killiecrankie,  but  was 
mortally  wounded.     Died,  1689. 

Grmham,  Thomas,  Scottish  chemist  and  physicist, 
was  born  in  Glasgow,  1805.  In  1830  he  became 
professor  of  chemistry  at  Glasgow,  and  in  1837 
at  University  college,  London.  In  1855  he  was 
appointed  master  of  the  mint.  His  researches 
on  the  molecular  diffusion  of  gases  led  him  to 
formulate  the  law  "that  the  diffusion  rate  of 
gases  is  inversely  as  the  square  root  of  their 
density."  His  valuable  memoirs  on  the  subject 
were  collected  in  1876;  his  Elements  of  Chemistry 
appeared  in  1837.     Died,  1869. 

Grand,  Sarah,  assumed  name  of  Frances  Elizabeth 
Clarke,  British  novelist,  was  bom  in  Ireland,  of 
Knglish  parents;  daughter  of  Edward  John 
Belienden  Clarke,  lieutenant  R.  N.  She  mar- 
ried at  sixteen,  brigade-surgeon  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  McFall,  who  died  in  1898.  She  traveled 
for  five  years  in  the  East,  China,  and  Japan; 
wrote  Ideala  at  twenty-aix,  and  has  since  inter- 
ested herself  in  the  woman's  movement.  Author : 
Singularly  Deluded;  A  Domestic  Experiment; 
The  Heavenly  Tveins;  Our  Manifold  Nature; 
The  Beth  Book;  The  Modem  Man  and  Maid; 
Bobs  the  Impossible;  Em^ional  Moments.  She' 
was  vice-president  of  the  Central  and  Western 
society  for  woman's  suffrage,  vice-president  of  the 
Scottish  association  for  the  promotion  of  women's 
public  work,  vice-president  of  Garden  City  asso- 
ciation, etc. 

Grant,  Frederick  Dent,  United  States  army  officer, 
was  born  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  1850,  son  of  President 
Ulysses  Simpson  Grant.  He  was  graduated 
from  the  United  States  military  academy,  1871 ; 
conunissioned  second  lieutenant  4th  cavalry,  1871. 
and  served  on  the  frontier,  1873-81.  Appointea 
United  States  minister  to  Austria  by  President 
Harrison,  1889;  police  commissioner  of  New 
York,  1894-98;  appointed  colonel  of  14th  New 
York  infantry,  1898;  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers, 1899;  appointed  brigadier-general  of 
United  States  army,  1901 ;  major-general  of 
United  States  army,  1906.  Ser\'ed  in  Puerto 
Rico  one  year,  and  after  war  commanded  military 
district  of  San  Juan;  in  Philippine  islands, 
1899-1902;  commanded  department  of  Texas, 
1902-04,  department  of  the  lakes,  Januarv-Sep- 
tember,  1904,  department  of  the  East,  1904-08. 
Died,  1912. 

Grant,  James,  British  militarv  novelist,  was  bom  in 
Edinburgh,  1822.  In  1832  he  sailed  with  his 
father,  an  army  officer,  for  Newfoundland. 
Home  again  in  1839,  he  became  the  next  year  an 


ULYSSES  SIMPSON   GRANT 

From  a  photograph 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


785 


ensign  in  the  British  army,  but  in  1843  resigned 
and  soon  turned  to  literature.  Having  contrib- 
uted copiously  to  the  United  Service  Magazine 
and  the  Dublin  University  Magazine,  he  published 
in  1846  his  Romance  of  War,  the  first  of  a  long 
series  of  novels  and  histories,  illustrative  mainly 
of  the  achievements  of  Scottish  arms  abroad.. 
Among  his  other  works  are:  Adventures  of  an 
Aide-de-Cantp;  Frank  Hilton,  or  the  Queen's 
Own;  BothweU;  The  Yellow  Frigate;  Harry 
Ogilvie;  Old  and  New  Edinburgh.  He  died  in 
London, 1887. 

Grant,  Robert,  author,  judge  probate  court  and 
court  of  insolvency  for  Suffolk  county,  Mass., 
since  1893,  was  born  at  Boston,  1852.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  college,  1873;  Ph.  D., 
1876;  Harvard  law  school,  1879;  was  water 
commissioner,  Boston,  1888-93.  Author:  The 
Confessions  of  a  Frivolous  Girl;  The  Little  Tin 
Gods  on  Wheels  (verse) ;  The  Lambs  (verse) ; 
Yankee  Doodle  (verse);  The  Oldest  School  in 
America  (verse);  The  Carletons;  Mrs.  Harold 
Stagg;  An  Average  Man;  The  Knave  of  Hearts; 
A  Romantic  Young  Lady;  Face  to  Face;  The 
Reflections  of  a  Married  Man;  The  Opinions  of  a 
Philosopher;  The  Art  of  Living;  Search-Light 
Letters;  Unleavened  Bread;  The  Undercurrent; 
The  Orchid;  The  Law-Breakers,  etc.  He  has 
been  an  overseer  of  Harvard  college  since  1895. 

Grant  (Hiram),  Ulysses  Simpson,  eighteenth  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Point 
Pleasant,  Clermont  county,  Ohio,  1822;  gradu- 
ated at  the  mihtary  academy  of  West  Point  in 
1843,  and  served  under  General  Taylor  in  the 
war  with  Mexico,  1846,  up  to  the  capture  of 
Monterey.  His  regiment  was  then  transferred 
to  the  expedition  under  General  Scott,  and  he 
took  part  in  every  action  from  Vera  Cruz  to 
Mexico,  and  was  brevetted  first-lieutenant  and 
captain  for  meritorious  conduct  at  Molino  del 
Rey  and  Chapultapec.  In  1852  he  served  in 
Oregon;  but  in  1854  resigned  his  commission 
and  settled  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  whence,  in  1859,  he 
moved  to  Galena,  III.,  and  engaged  in  the  leather 
trade.  At  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war  in  1861, 
he  volunteered  his  services,  and  was  appointed 
colonel  of  an  Illinois  regiment.  In  August  he 
was  appointed  brigadier-general,  commanding  the 
important  post  of  Cairo,  occupied  Paducah,  and 
led  an  expedition  on  the  Mississippi.  In  Febru- 
ary, 1862,  he  distinguished  himself  in  the  capture 
of  Fort  Donelson,  on  the  Tennessee  river,  and 
was  made  major-general.  On  April  6th  following, 
after  a  preliminarj'  defeat,  he  won  a  great  battle 
over  the  confederates  at  Pittsburg  Landing,  or 
Shiloh.  Succeeding  General  Halleck  in  the  West, 
he  commanded  the  land  forces  which,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  navy,  reduced  Vicksburg,  July  4, 
1863,  soon  followed  by  the  fall  of  Fort  Hudson, 
and  the  opening  of  the  Mississippi.  He  then  took 
command  of  the  army  of  Tennessee,  and  defeated 
General  Bragg  at  Chickamauga,  in  September  of 
the  same  year;  and  in  1864,  was  appointed 
lieutenant-general  and   commander-in-chief,  and 

gersonally  directed  the  operations  of  the  great 
nal  struggle  in  Virginia,  in  which  the  northern 
forces,  though  often  repulsed  with  heavy  losses, 
finally  compelled  the  evacuation  of  Richmond, 
April  2,  1865,  followed  on  the  9th  by  the  sur- 
render of  the  confederate  army  under  General 
Lee,  and  soon  after  of  the  entire  confederate 
forces.  Congress,  in  recognition  of  his  eminent 
services,  passed  an  act  reviving  the  grade  of 
"general  of  the  army  of  the  United  States,"  to 
which  Grant  was  immediately  appointed.  In 
1868  he  was  elected,  on  the  republican  platform, 
president  of  the  United  States;  and  having  in 
1872  been  reelected  over  a  notable  opponent, 
Horace  Greeley  of  the  New  York  Tribune,  he 
retired  in  1877  "after  his  second  term  of  office.     In 


the  latter  year  Grant  visited  Europe,  and  toured 
the  world.  In  England  and  France  he  reeved 
an  enthusiastic  welcome.  Simple,  reticent,  earn- 
est, and  persevering  in  hb  ebaracter,  be  owed 
his  military  success  not  ao  much  to  etrategy  aa  to 
superior  numbers  and  rcsourcee,  and hardOghting 
in  which  even  a  series  of  victories  left  his  enemy 
less  able  to  resist.  During  Grant's  presidency  a 
great  reduction  was  made  upon  the  national  debt 
incurred  during  the  civil  war.  The  military  gov- 
ernment of  the  southern  states  in  those  years 
cannot  be  regardt?d  as  successful.  The  most 
imix)rtant  event  connected  with  relations  to 
foreign  states  was  the  settlement  of  the  Alabama 
question  by  the  joint  high  commission,  in  1871. 
Having  lost  his  moderate  fortune  in  an  unfor- 
tunate speculation.  Grant  wrote  an  account  of 
his  life,  which,  being  successful,  to  some  extent 
relieved  him.  He  died  of  cancer,  in  1885,  after 
a  year  of  severe  suffering. 

Gratlanus  {grd'-shl-d'-niis),  Ausnstus,  Roman 
emperor  from  375,  was  born  in  Simiium,  Pan- 
nonia,  359.  In  367  by  his  father,  Valentinian, 
he  was  made  joint  emperor  in  Gaul.  On  Valen- 
tinian's  death  he  was  elevated  to  the  throne,  with 
his  half-brother,  Valentinian  II.,  as  colleague. 
Gaul,  Spain,  and  Britain  fell  to  Gratianus'  share, 
but  as  his  brother  was  only  four  years  old  he 
virtually  ruled  the  whole  western  empire;  and  in 
378,  on  the  death  of  his  uncle,  Valens,  he  suddenly 
became  sovereign  also  of  the  eastern  empire. 
Thereupon  he  recalled  Theodosius  from  Spain, 
and  appointed  hiin  his  colleague  in  379.  Gratianus 
was  pious,  temperate,  and  eloquent;  but  his 
fondness  for  frivolous  amusements  and  his  perse- 
cution of  pagans  and  heretics  alienated  his  sub- 
jects, so  that  when  Maximus  was  proclaimed 
emperor  crowds  flocked  to  his  stantiard.  Grati- 
anus was  defeated  by  him  near  Paris,  and  fled  to 
Lyons,  where  he  was  put  to  death,  383. 

Grattan  (grdf-an),  Henry,  Irish  orator  and  states- 
man, was  bom  in  Dublin  in  1746.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  college,  Dublin;  in  1772  was 
admitted  to  the  Irish  bar,  and  in  1775  was  re- 
turned to  the  Irish  parliament.  Mainly  to  him 
was  owing,  among  other  things,  the  partial  aboli- 
tion of  the  heavy  restrictions  on  Irish  commerce. 
In  1800  he  was  returned  for  the  borough  of  Wick- 
low  to  oppose  the  union  with  England,  and  that 
was  to  fight  for  the  people's  idea  of  the  constitu- 
tion. But  the  union  was  effected  in  spite  of  him. 
and  in  1805  he  was  returned  to  the  imperial 
parliament  for  the  borough  of  Malton,  in  York- 
shire. Next  year  he  was  induced  to  enter  the 
race  for  parliament  for  Dublin,  and  was  reelected. 
As  an  orator  he  stands  in  the  first  rank.  His 
style  is  full  of  point,  rapidity,  antithesis,  and 
poetic  suggestiveness.  His  eulogy  on  Chatham 
and  his  invective  against  Bonaparte  are  not  sur^ 
passed  in  British  elotiuence.     Died,  1820. 

Graves,  John  Temple,  journalist  and  orator,  was 
bom  at  Willington  Church,  Abbeville  county, 
S.  C,  1856.  He  was  graduated  at  the  university 
of  Georgia,  1875;  was  editor  of  Daily  Florida 
Union,  Jacksonville,  1881-83;  Atlanta  (Ga.) 
Daily  Journal,  1887-88;  Tribune  of  Rome  (Ga.), 
1888-90;  editor-in-chief  and  co-proprietor  of 
Atlanta  Daily  Georgian,  1905-07 ;  editor-in-chief 
of  New  York  American  since  1907.  Presidential 
elector-at-large,  Florida,  1884-  was  colonel  on 
staff  of  Governor  Northen  of  Georgia.  Author: 
History  of  Florida  of  To-Dav;  Twdve  Standard 
Lectures;  Platform  of  To-Day;  Speeches  and 
Sdections  for  Schools;  The  Negro.  Contributor 
to  various  American  periodicals  as  advocate  of 
separation  of  black  and  white  races,  etc. 

Gray,  Asa,  American  botanist,  was  bom  at  Paris, 
N.  Y.,  1810.  He  was  graduated  in  medicine  at 
Fairfield  college,  and  in  18.34  received  the  appoint- 
ment of  botanist  of  the  United  States  exploring 


736 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


expedition.     He  was  afterward  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  botany  in  the  university  of  Michigan; 
but  before  he  had  entered  upon  the  duties  of 
that  ofi&ce  he  was  elected,  in  1842,  Fisher  pro- 
fessor of  natural  history  at  Harvard  university. 
In  addition  to  his  prelections  at  Cambridge  he 
delivered  some  lectures  at  the  Lowell  institute 
in     Boston.     He     ranked     among     the     leading 
botanists,  not  only  of  America,  but  of  the  age. 
He  wrote:    Elements  of  Botany;    Flora  of  North 
America;    How  Plants  Grow;    Field,  Forest  and 
Garden  Botany;    Darwiniana;    Synoptical  Flora 
of  North  America;  Natural  Science  and  Religion, 
etc.     Died,  1888. 
Gray,  George,  jurist,  was  bom  at  New  Caatle,  Del., 
1840.     He  was  graduated   at   Princeton,    1859, 
LL.  D.,  1889.     Studied  law  at  Harvard,  and  waa 
admitted  to  the  bar,    1863;    practiced  at  New 
Castle,     1863-69;      afterward     at     Wilmington: 
attorney-general  of  Delaware,   1879-85;    United 
States  senator,  1885-99;   in  1896  affiliated  with 
national  gold-standard  democrats  in   presidential 
election;    member   of    p>eace   commission,   Paris, 
1898 ;   appointed  by  the  president  a  member  of 
the  joint  high  commission  at  Quebec,  1898 ;  made 
member  of  the  international  ptermanent  court  of 
arbitration  under  The  Hague  convention,  1906, 
reappointed,  1913;  judge  of  United  States  circuit 
court,  third  judicial  circuit,  since  1899;  chairman 
of  anthracite  coal  strike  commission,  1902, 
Gray,  Horace,  American  jurist,  was  bom  at  Boston, 
1828;    was  graduated  at  Harvard,  1845,  and  its 
law  school,  1849;  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  1851 ; 
appointed  reporter  of  the  Massachusetts  supreme 
court,   1854,  and  served  until  1862;    associate- 
justice    of    the    Massachusetts    supreme    court, 
1864-73,  and  chief-justice,  1873-81,  when  he  was 
appointed   successor   to    Judge   CUfiford    in    the 
United  States  supreme  court.     He  remained  a 
member  of  this  tribunal  until  shortly  before  his 
death,  1902. 
Gray,  John  Chlpman,  lawyer,  educator,  was  bom 
at  Brighton,  Mass.,  1839;   graduated  at  Harvard, 
1859,    LL.  B.,  1861 ;   LL.  D.,  Yale  and  Harvard. 
Admitted  to  bar,  1862,  but  in  same  year  entered 
army  and  served,   1862-65,  from  lieutenant  to 
major    and    judge-advocate    of    United    States 
volunteers.     Since  the  war  he  has  continuously 
engaged  in  the  practice  of  law  in  Boston.     Lec- 
tured at  Harvard  law  school,    1869-71;    Story 
professor  of  law,  1875-83,  and  Royall  professor 
of    law    since    1883,    in    same    school.     Author: 
Restraints    on    Alienation;      The    Ride    Against 
Perpetuities;    Select  Cases  and  Other  Auiharities 
on  the  Law  of  Property  (6  vols.),  etc. 
Gray,  Thomas,  English  poet,  was  bom  in  London, 
1716.     He    was    educated    at    Cambridge,    and 
appointed  professor  of  history  and  modem  lan- 
guages there  in  1768.     He  had  a  just  appreciation 
of   the   natural   beauty   of   his   native   country, 
made  notes  wherever  he  went,  and  wrote  copious 
descriptions  of  what  he  had  seen  to  his  literary 
friends.     He  published  his  Ode  to  Eton  College  in 
1747,  and  his  Elegy  Written  in  a  Country  Church- 
yard, by  which  he  is  best  known,  several  years 
afterward.     On  the  death  of  Colley  Gibber  he 
was   offered,    but    declined,    the    post    of    poet 
laureate.     Died,  1771. 
Greeley,  Horace,  American  journalist,  was  bom  at 
Amherst,  N.  H.,   1811.     He  entered  a  printing 
offic?  as  an  apprentice  at  East  Poultney,   Vt., 
1826.     On  the  completion  of  his  apprenticeship 
he  worked  for  some  time  as  a  journeyman  printer, 
and  m  1834  founded  the  New  Yorker,  a  literary 
weekly  paper,  for  which  he  wrote  essays,  poetry, 
and    other    articles.     After    one    or    two    other 
^tempts  at  editorship  he  founded,  in  1841,  the 
New    York    Tr-Omne,    and   became    the    leading 
^^\or      Ashe  had  adopted,  to  some  extent,  thi 
social  theories  of  Fourier,  he  was  joined  by  the 


most  able  writers  of  that  school  of  socialism  — 
the  paper  published  as  a  joint-etock  concern, 
being  held  in  shares  b^  its  writers  and  others 
engaged  in  its  publication.  The  Tribune  under 
his  editorship  was  also  an  earnest  advocate  of 
temperance,  woman's  rights,  the  abolition  of 
slavery  and  capital  punishment,  and  other 
reforms,  and  wa.s  recognized  as  the  organ  of  the 
extreme  or  radical  repubUcan  party.  In  1848 
he  was  elected  to  congress  from  one  of  the  dis- 
tricts of  New  York,  for  the  short  temij  but  failed 
in  his  congressional  career  by  agitating  aa 
unwelcome  reform  in  the  mileage  payments  to 
members.  In  1851  he  visited  Europe.  His 
aspirations  to  political  position  were  defeated  by 
the  more  conservative  party  leaders,  and  be,  ia 
turn,  influenctnl  the  election  of  Lincoln  instead 
of  Seward,  in  186U.  On  the  secession  of  several 
of  the  southern  states  from  the  Union,  Greeley 
at  first  admitted  their  right  to  secede,  in  accorcf- 
ance  with  the  principles  of  the  declaration  of 
independence;  but,  when  the  war  be^an,  he  be- 
came its  most  zealous  advocate,  and  is  supposed 
to  have  caused  the  premature  advance  that 
resulted  in  the  defeat  at  Bull  Run,  1861.  In 
1872  he  was  an  umsuccessful  candidate  for  the 
presidency.     Died,  1872. 

Greely,  Adolphus  WashinKton,  American  general, 
was  bom  at  Newburyport,  Mass.,  1844.  Enter- 
ing the  volunteer  service,  he  attained  the  rank 
of  captain  during  the  civil  war,  and  at  its  close 
was  transferred  to  the  regular  army  with  the 
rank  of  Lieutenant.  In  1868  he  was  placed  in 
the  signal  service,  and  in  1881  was  assigned  to 
the  command  of  the  Lady  Franklin  bay  expedi- 
tion to  northern  Greenland.  After  suffering 
extreme  and  terrible  hardsiiips,  Greely  and  a  few 
surviving  members  of  his  command  were  rescued 
in  1884,  by  an  expedition  sent  to  his  relief  by  the 
United  States  government.  He  published  aa 
account  of  the  expedition  in  1885,  under  the 
title  of  Three  Years  of  Arctic  Service.  In  1887 
became  chief  of  United  States  signal  service,  and 
was  head  of  the  weather  bureau  from  that  time 
until  it  passed  under  control  of  the  department 
of  agriculture.     Major-general,  1906. 

Green,  Anna  Katharine,  pseudonym  of  Ann* 
Katharine  Green  Rohlfs,  American  novelist,  was 
bora  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1846.  She  is  the 
daughter  of  James  Wilson  Green,  a  lawyer,  and 
was  educated  at  Ripley  college,  Poultney,  Vt. 
She  married  Charles  Rohlfs  in  1884.  Author: 
The  Leavenworth  Case;  A  Strange  Disappearance; 
The  Sword  of  Damocles;  The  Defense  of  the  Bride; 
Hand  and  Ring;  X,  Y,  Z;  The  Mill  Mystery; 
The  Doctor,  His  Wife,  and  the  Clock;  That  Affair 
Next  Door;  Lost  Man's  Lane;  Agatha  Webb; 
Risifi's  Daughter,  a  drama;  A  Difficult  Problem, 
and  Other  Stories;  The  Circular  Study;  One  of 
My  Sons;  The  Filigree  Ball;  House  in  the  Mist; 
The  Millionaire  Baby;  The  Amethyst  Box;  The 
Woman  in  the  Alcove;  The  Chief  Legatee;  The 
Mayor's  Wife;  The  House  of  the  Whispering 
Pines,   etc. 

Green,  Hetty  Howland  Robinson,  American  finan- 
cier, was  bom  in  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  1835, 
daughter  of  Edward  Mott  Robinson,  who  died 
in  1865,  leaving  her  a  large  fortune.  She  was 
educated  at  Mrs.  Lowell's  school,  Boston;  she 
married  Edward  H.  Green,  1867,  who  died  in 
1902.  She  is  said  to  be  the  richest  woman  in 
America,  and  probably  the  greatest  woman 
financier  in  the  world.  She  personally  manages 
her  large  property  in  stocks,  bonds,  and  real 
estate  in  Chicago,  New  York,  and  elsewhere. 

Green,  John  Richard,  English  historian,  was  bom 
at  Oxford,  England,  1837,  and  educated  at 
Magdalen  College  school  and  Jesus  college.  He 
took  orders  in  1860,  and  was  for  some  time  vicar 
of     St.    Philip's,    Stepney,    becoming    in    1869 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


737 


librarian  at  Lambeth.  Author:  A  Short  History 
of  the  English  People;  A  History  of  the  English 
People;  The  Making  of  England,  and  The  Con- 
quest of  England.  The  latter  was  published  after 
his  death  by  his  wife,  who  assisted  him  in  various 
works,  and  herself  wrote  Henry  II.  in  the  Twelve 
English  Statesmen  series.     Died,  1883. 

Green,  Thomas  Hill,  English  philosopher,  was  bom 
in  Yorkshire,  1836.  Educated  at  Rugby  and 
Balliol  college,  Oxford,  he  in  1860  was  elected 
to  a  Balliol  fellowship,  and  reelected  in  1872, 
becoming  also  its  first  lay  tutor  in  1866.  He 
married  a  sister  of  J.  A.  Symonds  in  1871,  be- 
came in  1877  Whyte  professor  of  moral  phi- 
losophy. Green's  noble  character,  contagious 
enthusiasm,  philosophical  profundity,  and  strong 
interest  in  social  questions  drew  around  him  many 
of  the  best  men  at  Oxford.  Popular  education 
and  temperance  lay  near  his  heart.  In  1874  he 
contributed  his  masterly  introduction  to  the 
Clarendon  press  edition  of  Hume's  Treatise  on 
Human  Nature,  subjecting  Hume's  philosophy  in 
detail  to  searching  and  hostile  analysis  from  an 
idealist  point  of  view.  His  Prolegomena  to  Ethics, 
left  incomplete  at  his  death,  was  edited  by  A.  C. 
Bradley,  and  two  "lay-sermons"  by  Arnold 
Toynbee  in  the  same  year.  His  scattered  essays 
in  Mind  and  elsewhere  were  edited  as  The  Works 
of  T.  H.  Green  by  R,  L.  Nettleship.  He  died  in 
1882. 

Green,  William  Henry,  American  Presbyterian 
theologian,  was  born  at  Groveville,  N.  J.,  1825. 
He  was  graduated  from  Lafayette  college,  1840, 
and  at  Princeton  theological  seminarv,  1846. 
In  1851  he  was  made  professor  of  biblical  and 
oriental  literature  at  Princeton,  and  was  chair- 
nian  of  the  committee  which  revised  the  old 
testament.  He  wrote:  A  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew 
Language;  Moses  and  the  Prophets;  The  Hebrew 
Feasts,  etc.      Died  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,   1900. 

Greene,  Francis  Vinton,  American  army  officer  and 
author,  was  born  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  1850.  He 
was  graduated  at  West  Point,  1870 ;  was  assigned 
to  engineer  corps;  served  on  international  com- 
mission for  survey  of  northern  boundary  of 
United  States  as  assistant  astronomer  and  sur- 
veyor, 1872-76 ;  miUtary  attach^  of  United  States 
legation,  St.  Petersburg,  1877-79;  was  with 
Russian  army  in  Turkey,  1877-78;  present  at 
battles  of  Schipka,  Plevna,  Sophia,  Philipopolis, 
and  minor  engagements.  He  was  engineer  in 
charge  of  public  works  in  Washington,  1879-80; 
professor  of  practical  military  engineering.  West 
Point,  1885.  Served  in  Spanish  war  as  colonel 
of  71st  New  York  volunteers  at  Tampa,  1898; 
as  brigadier-general  in  Manila  campaign,  and  was 
promoted  to  major-general  for  services  in  capture 
of  Manila.  He  was  chairman  of  committee  on 
canals,  New  York,  1899,  and  police  commissioner. 
New  York  city,  1903-04.  President  of  Niagara, 
Lockport,  and  Ontario  power  company,  and  vice- 
president  of  Ontario  power  company  of  Niagara 
Falls.  Author:  The  Riissian  Army  and  Its  Cam- 
paigns in  Turkey;  Army  Life  in  Russia;  The  Mis- 
sissippi Campaigns  of  the  Civil  War;  Life  of 
Nathanael  Greene,  Major-General  in  the  Army  of 
tlie  Revolution;   and  numerous  magazine  articles. 

Greene,  Nathanael,  American  general,  was  bom  in 
1742,  at  Potowhommet,  Warwick  county,  Rhode 
Island.  In  1770  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Rhode  Island  assembly,  and,  to  the  great  scandal 
of  his  fellow  Quakers,  was  among  the  first  to 
engage  in  the  military  exercises  preparatory  to 
resisting  the  mother  country.  In  1774  he  enlisted 
as  private,  and  in  1775  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  Rhode  Island  contingent  to  the 
army  at  Boston,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general.  He  was  promoted  to  major-general 
in  1776,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the  engage- 
ineate  of  Trenton  and  Princeton.     At  the  battle 


of  Brandywine,  he  commanded  a  division,  and  by 
his  skillful  movements  saved  the  American  army 
from  utter  destruction;  and  at  Germantown  he 
commanded  the  left  wing.  In  1778  he  became 
quartermaster-general.  In  1780  he  succeeded 
Gates  in  the  command  of  the  army  of  the  South. 
Gates  had  just  been  completely  defeated  by 
Cornwallis,  and  Greene  found  the  army  in  a 
wretched  state,  without  discipline,  clothing, 
arms,  or  spirit.  By  dint  of  great  activity  he 
got  his  army  into  better  condition,  and  remained 
on  the  defensive  for  the  remainder  of  the  year. 
In  1781  he  had  a  successful  skirmish  with  an 
English  detachment,  but,  drawing  upon  himself 
the  whole  army  of  Cornwallis,  much  liis  superior 
in  numbers,  he  made  a  masterly  and  successful 
retreat.  With  5,000  new  recruits,  he  entered 
upon  more  active  operations,  and  finally  defeated 
the  English  at  Eutaw  Springs,  the  hardest-fought 
field  of  the  revolution,  which  put  an  end  to  the 
war  in  South  Carolina.  Congress  struck  and 
presented  to  him  a  medal  in  honor  of  this  battle, 
and  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia  made  him  valuable 
grants  of  land.  When  peace  was  restored  in 
1783,  Greene  returned  to  Rhode  Island,  where  he 
received  numerous  testimonials  of  the  public 
admiration.  In  1785  he  retired  with  his  lamily 
to  his  estate  in  Georgia,  where  he  died  of  sun- 
stroke in  1786.  He  was  one  of  the  very  best 
generals  of  the  war  of  independence,  second,  per- 
haps, only  to  Washington,  whose  intimate  fnend 
he  was. 

Greenough  {gren'-o\  Horatio,  American  sculptor, 
was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  1805.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1825,  and  from  that  year  till  1851 
lived  chiefly  in  Italy.  His  principal  work  is  the 
colossal  statue  of  Washington  formerly  in  front 
of  the  capitol.  Others  are  "Medora,  "Venus 
Victrix,"  and  a  group  of  four  figures,  "The 
Rescue."     He  died  at  Somerville,  Mass^  1852. 

Greer,  David  Hummell,  Protestant  Episcopal 
clergyman,  bishop,  was  bom  at  Wheeling,  W.  Va., 
1844.  He  was  graduated  at  Washington  college. 
Pa.,  1862;  studied  theology  at  Protestant  Epis- 
copal seminary,  Gambler,  Ohio;  D.  D.,  Brown 
university,  Kenyon  college,  university  of  the 
South;  LL.  D.,  Washington  and  Jefferson  col- 
lege; S.  T.  D.,  Columbia:  was  ordained  deacon, 
1866,  priest,  1868;  rector  Grace  church,  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  1871-88,  St.  Bartholomew's  church, 
New  York,  1888-1904 ;  bishop  coadjutor,  diocese 
of  New  York,  1903-08,  bishop  since  1908. 
Author:  The  Historic  Christ;  From  Things  to 
God;  The  Preacher  and  His  Place;  Visions, 
etc. 

Gr£goire  {gra'-gw&r'),  Henri,  French  ecclesiastic 
and  revolutionist,  was  born  near  Lun^ville,  1750. 
He  took  orders  and  lectured  at  the  Jesuit  college 
of  Pont-Ji-Mousson.  His  Essai  sur  la  Rigin^a- 
tion  des  Juifs  became  widely  popular.  Cur6  of 
Embermdnil  in  Lorraine,  and  an  ardent  democrat, 
he  was  sent  to  the  states-general  of  1789  as  a 
deputy  of  the  clergy,  attached  himself  to  the 
tiers-dtat  party,  and  acted  a  prominent  part 
throughout  the  revolution.  He  was  the  first  of 
his  order  to  take  the  oaths,  and  was  elected 
"constitutional  bishop"  of  Loire-et-Cher.  He 
exercised  a  stem  democracy  which  he  identified 
with  the  Christian  brotherhood  of  the  gospel. 
At  the  blasphemous  feast  of  reason  he  refused, 
in  the  face  of  the  infuriated  rabble,  to  renounce 
Christianity.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
constituent  assembly,  1789,  but  the  concordat 
forced  him  to  resign  his  bishopric.  He  died  at 
Paris,  unreconciled  with  the  church,  1831. 
Among  his  works  are  Histoire  des  Sectea  Rdig- 
ieuses  and  UEglise  Gallicane. 

Gregorovius  {grig'-o-rd'-vi-^),  Ferdinand,  German 
historian,  was  bom  at  Neidenburg  in  East  Prussia, 
1821.     He  studied  theology,  but  devoted  himself 


738 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


to  poetry  and  literature ;  in  1852  settled  In  Rome, 
and  died  at  Munich,  1891.  His  great  work  — 
the  standard  work  on  the  subject  —  is  the  History 
of  the  City  of  Rome  in  the  Middle  Ages.  He  wrote 
also  on  Italian  geography  and  historj",  on  Corsica, 
Capri,  the  graves  of  the  popes,  Lucrezia  Borgia, 
Urban  VIlI.,  Athens,  Corfu,  and  the  Byzantine 
empress,  Athenais;  also  a  tragedy  on  the  death 
of  Tiberius,  and  an  epic,  Euphorion. 

Gregory  I^  Pope,  called  "the  great,"  waa  bom  in 
Rome  about  540.  He  was  appointed  governor 
of  Rome,  but,  on  inheriting  his  father's  wealth, 
resigned  it,  and  became  abbot  of  St.  Andrew's, 
Rome.  After  being  secretary  to  Pelagius  II.. 
he  succeeded  him  as  bishop  of  Rome;  renouncea 
communion  with  the  eastern  Christians  because 
of  the  assumption  of  the  title  "universal  bishop" 
by  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople;  composed 
chants,  and  established  a  musical  school,  in 
which  he  himself  taught^  and  collected  and 
arranged  fragments  of  ancient  hymns.  He  was 
the  author  of  numerous  sacred  works,  of  which 
the  chief  waa  his  Morala  from  the  Book  of  Job. 
Died,  604. 

Gregory  VII.     See  page  223. 

Grenvllle,  George,  English  statesman,  was  bom  in 
1712.  He  entered  parliament  in  1741,  in  1762 
became  secretary  of  state  and  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty,  and  m  1763  succeeded  Lord  Bute  as 
prime  minister.  In  his  administration  befell  the 
American  stamp  act,  which  excited  the  American 
colonies  to  resistance.  He  resigned  in  1765. 
Died,  1770. 

Gresbam  (grSsh'-am),  Sir  Thomas,  English  financier, 
philanthropist,  was  born  at  Loudon  in  1519. 
From  Cambridge  in  1543  he  became  connected 
with  the  Mercers  company,  and  in  1551  waa 
employed  as  kind's  agent  at  Antwerp.  In  two 
years  he  paid  off  a  heavy  loan  and  restored  the 
king's  credit.  As  a  Protestant  he  was  dismissed 
by  Queen  Marj',  but  was  soon  reinstated.  He 
waa  knighted  by  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1559,  and 
waa  for  a  time  ambassador  at  Brussels.  The 
troubles  in  the  Netherlands  compelled  him  in 
1567  to  withdraw  from  Antwerp,  to  which  city 
he  had  made  more  than  forty  journeys  on  state 
service;  in  one  in  1560  he  was  thrown  from  his 
horse  and  lamed  for  life.  In  1569,  by  his  advice, 
the  state  borrowed  money  from  London  mer- 
chants instead  of  from  foreigners.  Having  in 
1564  lost  his  only  son,  Richard,  in  1566-71  he 
devoted  a  portion  of  his  great  wealth  to  building 
an  exchange,  in  imitation  of  that  of  Antwerp; 
he  made  pro\'ision  for  founding  Gresham  college, 
and  left  money  for  eight  almshouses.     Died,  1579. 

Gresham,  Walter  Quinton,  American  politician  and 
jurist,  was  born  in  Harrison  county,  Ind.,  1832. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1853;  was  elected 
to  the  state  legislature  In  1860,  but  resigned  to 
accept  a  commission  in  an  Indiana  regiment. 
He  was  severely  wounded  near  Atlanta  and 
received  the  brevet  of  major-general  of  volunteers 
for  his  gallantry.  In  1869  he  waa  appointed 
United  States  judge  for  the  district  of  Indiana 
by  President  Grant,  but  in  April,  1882,  resigned 
from  the  bench  to  become  postmaster-general 
under  President  Arthur.  On  the  death  of 
Secretary  Folger,  in  1884,  he  became  secretary 
of  the  treasury.  In  October,  1884,  he  was 
appointed  United  States  judge  for  the  seventh 
circuit.  In  1893  he  became  secretary  of  state 
in  President  Cleveland's  cabinet.  Died  at 
Washington,  1895. 

Greuze  (grUz),  Jean  Baptlste,  French  painter,  was 
bom  at  Toumus  near  M&con,  France,  1725.  He 
studied  under  Gromdon  at  Lyons,  and  at  the 
academy  in  Paris.  His  first  notable  works  were 
historical;  after  a  visit  to  Italy,  1755,  he  painted 
Italian  subjects;  but  he  is  seen  at  his  best  in 
such  studies  of  girls  as  "The  Broken  Pitcher," 


the  "Girl  with  Doves,"  and  "Girl  with  Dead 
Canary."  His  art,  though  full  of  delicacy  and 
grace,  is  marred  by  Its  triviality  and  pursuit  of 
mere  prettiness.     Died,  1805. 

Gr€vy  (grd'-ve'),  Francois  Paul  Jules,  French 
statesman,  waa  born  at  Mont-sous-Vaudrev,  in 
the  Jura,  near  the  boundary  of  Switzerland, 
1807,  and  attended  school  and  college  near  his 
native  place.  When  not  yet  twenty  years  of 
age  he  began  his  law  studies  at  the  capital,  and, 
becoming  interested  in  politics,  took  part  in  the 
revolution  of  1830,  which  drove  Charles  X.  from 
the  French  throne.  In  1848,  when  Louis 
Philippe  was  dethroned,  and  a  republican  gov- 
ernment set  up.  Gr^vy  became  prominent.  The 
voters  of  his  old  department,  the  Jura,  elected 
him  to  represent  them  In  the  constituent  assem- 
bly of  1848,  and  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
organization  of  the  government.  Opposed  to 
Louis  Napoleon  as  president,  and  still  more 
bitterly  against  him  as  emperor.  Gr^vy  was 
obliged  to  keep  out  of  public  affairs  from  1852 
to  1868.  After  Napoleon's  downfall,  he  waa 
chosen  president  of  the  national  assembly  which 
met  In  1871,  and  in  1873,  when  the  young  repub- 
lic seemed  to  be  headed  toward  another  mon- 
archy, Gr6vy  earnestly  advocated  democracy  as 
the  only  hope  of  France.  In  1876,  1877,  and 
1879  he  again  represented  the  Jura  in  the  French 
parliament,  and  In  the  latter  year  waa  chosen 
president  of  the  republic  by  an  enormous  major- 
ity. In  1885  he  was  reelected,  but  on  account 
of  a  scandal  in  which  his  son-in-law  was  impli- 
cated he  was  forced  to  resign,  1887.     Died,  1891. 

Grey,  Albert  Henry  George,  fourth  Earl  Grey, 
English  statesman  and  administrator,  governor- 
general  of  Canada,  1904-11,  was  bom  in  1851. 
Be  is  the  son  of  General  Charles  Grey;  waa 
educated  at  Harrow  and  Trinity  college,  Cam- 
bridge, and  succeeded  his  uncle,  the  third  Earl 
Grey,  in  1894.  He  was  a  liberal  member  of  the 
house  of  commons,  1880-85;  administrator  of 
Rhodesia,  1896-97;  director  of  British  South 
Africa  company,  1898-1904;  waa  lord-lieutenant 
of  Northumberland,  1899-1904.  He  succeeded 
his  brotiier-in-law.  Lord  Minto,  as  governor- 
general  of  Canada  in  1904. 

Grey,  Cbarles,  second  Earl  Grey,  English  states- 
man, waa  bom  at  Falloden,  Northumberland, 
1764,  and  educated  at  Eton  and  King's  college, 
Cambridge.  He  became  a  whig  member  of  parlia- 
ment for  Northumberland,  1786,  was  one  of  the 
managers  of  the  Impeachment  of  Warren  Hast- 
ings, and  in  1792  helped  to  found  the  society  of 
the  friends  of  the  people.  In  1806  Grey^  now 
Lord  Howick.  became  first  lord  of  the  admiralty, 
and,  on  the  death  of  Fox,  foreign  secretary  arid 
leader  of  the  house  of  commons.  In  1807  he 
succeeded  his  father  as  second  Earl  Grey.  He 
opposed  the  clamor  for  a  renewal  of  the  American 
war  in  1815,  denounced  the  coercive  measures  of 
the  government,  condemned  the  bill  against 
Queen  CaroUne,  defended  the  right  of  public 
meeting,  and  supported  the  enlightened  com- 
mercial f>olicy  of  Huskisson.  In  1830  he  formed 
a  government  whose  policy,  he  said,  would  be  one 
of  peace,  retrenchment,  and  reform.  The  first 
reform  bill  was  produced  in  1831;  its  defeat  led 
to  a  dissolution  and  the  return  of  a  parliament 
still  more  devoted  to  reform.  Early  in  1832 
another  bill  was  carried  in  the  commons,  and  it 
weathered  the  second  reading  in  the  house  of 
lords;  but  when  a  motion  to  postpone  the  dis- 
franchising clauses  was  adopted,  ministers 
resigned.  The  duke  of  Wellington  failed  to  form 
an  adnunistration,  and  Grey  returned  to  oflSce 
with  power  to  create  a  sufficient  number  of  peers 
to  carry  the  measure.  Wellington  now  with- 
drew his  opposition,  and  in  June  the  reform  bill 
passed  the  house  of  lords.     Grey  was  the  chief  of 


LORD  GREY 

From  a  photograph  by  Pittaiuay,  Ottawa 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


741 


ft  powerful  party  in  the  first  reformed  parliament. 
He  carried  tlie  act  for  tlie  abolition  ot  slavery  in 
the  colonies,  as  well  as  a  number  of  minor  reforms ; 
but  dissensions  sprang  up,  and  in  consequence  of 
his  Irish  difhcultics  he  resigned  in  1S34.  He  died 
at  Howick  House,  Alnwick,  1845. 

Grey,  Sir  Edward,  English  statesman,  secretary  of 
state  for  foreign  affairs  since  1905;  member  of 
parliament  for  Berwick-on-Tweed  since  1885: 
was  born  in  1862.  He  was  graduated  at  Balliol 
college,  Oxford,  and  succeeded  to  tlie  baronetcy 
in  1882;  was  under-secretary  for  foreign  affairs, 
1892-95.  He  is  a  man  of  brilliant  talents  of 
whom  Gladstone  is  alleged  to  have  said:  "  I  have 
never  remembered  so  signal  a  capacity  for 
parliamentary  life  and  so  small  a  disposition  to 
it." 

Grey,  Lady  Jane,  eldest  daughter  of  Henry  Grey, 
marquis  of  Dorset,  afterward  duke  of  Sufifolk, 
and  of  Lady  Frances  Brandon,  was  born  at 
Bradgate,  Leicestershire,  1537.  In  1553.  after 
the  fall  of  Somerset,  the  dukes  of  Suffolk  and 
Northumberland,  now  ruling  in  the  name  of  the 
youthful  King  Edward  VI.,  and  foreseeing  his 
speedy  death,  determined  to  change  the  succes- 
sion to  the  crown,  and  secure  it  to  their  own 
families.  Lady  Jane  Grey,  now  sixteen  yea.rs 
old,  was  therefore  married  to  Lord  Guilford 
Dudley,  fourth  son  of  the  duke  of  Northumber- 
land, in  May,  1553.  The  king,  failing  in  body  and 
weak  in  mind,  and  surrounded  by  selfish  or 
fanatical  advisers,  was  persuaded  to  make  a  deed 
of  settlement,  setting  aside  the  right  of  succes- 
sion of  his  sisters  Mary  and  Elizabeth,  and  Mary, 
queen  of  Scots,  leaving  the  crown  to  Lady  Jane, 
who  was  innocent  of  the  conspiracy.  After  the 
king's  death  her  ambitious  relatives  hailed  her  as 
"queen."  Lady  Jane  at  first  shrank  from  honor 
so  treacherously  won,  but  ultimately  yielded 
herself  to  force  of  their  treaties  and  commands, 
and  allowed  herself  to  be  proclaimed.  The 
people  of  England  resented  the  unscrupulous 
conduct  of  Suffolk  and  Northumberland,  and, 
learned,  brilliant,  and  amiable  as  Lady  Jane  was, 
they  rallied  round  Mary.  Northumberland  was 
defeated,  sent  to  the  Tower,  and  beheaded  August 
22,  1554;  and  in  the  following  November  Lady 
Jane  and  her  husband  were  also  condemned  and 
she  was  executed  in  Februarj',  1554. 

Grieg  (grig),  Edvard  Hagerup,  Norwegian  com- 
poser, was  born  at  Bergen,  Norway,  1843.  In 
1858  he  began  a  four  years'  course  of  study  at 
Leipzig,  and  in  1863  continued  his  studies  at 
Copenhagen.  His  nationality  became  a  strong 
element  even  in  his  earliest  compositions.  He 
spent  the  winter  of  1865-66  and  some  months  of 
1870  in  Rome  where  he  inaugurated  a  Norse 
music  concert.  In  1888  he  went  to  London, 
where  he  both  played  and  conducted,  and  this  was 
followed  by  imp>ortant  engagements  in  Germany 
and  elsewhere.  Among  his  compositions  are 
numerous  pieces  for  the  piano,  songs,  dances,  and 
an  opera.     He  died  in  1907. 

Griffls  (grlf'-ls),  WUliam  Elliot,  lecturer,  author, 
was  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1843.  He  served 
with  the  44th  Pennsylvania  regiment  in  the  civil 
war,  1863:  graduated  at  Rutgers,  1869;  Union 
theological  seminary,  1877;  D.  D.,  Union  college, 
1884;  L.  H.  D.,  Rutgers  college,  1899.  In  1870 
he  went  to  Japan  to  organize  schools;  was 
superintendent  of  education  in  the  province  of 
Echizen,  1871;  professor  of  phvsics.  Imperial 
university,  Tokio,  1872-74.  Pastor  of  First 
Reformed  church,  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  1877-86; , 
Shawmut  Congregational  church,  Boston,  1886—  | 
93 ;  1893-1903,  First  Congregational  church,  ^ 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.  Author:  The  Mikado's  Empire; 
Japanese  Fairy  World;  Asiatic  History;  China, 
Corea,  and  Japan;  Corea,  The  Hermit  Nation; 
Corea,  Without  arui  Within;   Japan:   in  History, 


Folk-lara  and  Art;  Brave  LittU  Holland  and  What 
She  Taught  Ua;  The  Religiona  of  Japan;  Ro- 
viance  of  Discovery;  Romance  of  ConquMt;  Tht 
Pilgrims  in  Their  Three  Homes;  America  in  the 
East;  In  the  Mikado'a  Service;  A  Maker  of  the 
New  Orient;  The  Japanese  Nation  in  Evolution, 
etc 

Griggs,  Edward  Howard,  lecturer,  author,  was  bom 
at  Owatonna,  Minn.,  1868.  lie  was  eradusted 
from  Indiana  university,  1889,  A.  M.,  1890; 
special  studies,  university  of  Berlin;  was  in- 
structor of  English  literature  and  professor  of 
literature,  Indisuia  university;  professor  of 
ethics  and  later  head  of  combined  departments 
of  ethics  and  education,  Leland  Stanford  Jr. 
university;  public  lecturer  since  1899.  Author: 
The  New  Humanism;  A  Book  of  Meditationa; 
Moral  Education,  etc. 

Griggs,  James  M,,  congressman,  lawyer,  was  bora 
in  Lagrange,  Ga.,  1861  He  was  graduated  at 
Peabody  normal  college,  Nashville,  Tenn.,  1881; 
taught  school,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1883.  He  practiced  at  Alapaha, 
Berrien  county,  Ga. ;  was  for  a  short  time  ia 
newspaper  business;  removed  to  Dawson,  Ga.. 
1885;  solicitor-general  (prosecuting  attorney) 
Pataula  judicial  circuit,  1888-93;  judge  of  sama 
circuit,  1893-96;  member  of  congress,  1897-1909, 
second  Georgia  district;  chairman  of  demo- 
cratic congressional  committee,  1902.    Died, 1910, 

Griggs,  Jolin  William,  lawyer.  United  States 
attorney-general,  1898-1901,  was  bom  at  New- 
ton, N.  J.,  1849.  He  was  graduated  at  Lafayette 
college,  1868;  admitted  to  bar,  1871;  practiced 
at  Paterson;  member  of  New  Jersey  general 
assembly,  1876-77 ;  state  senator,  1882-88 ;  presi- 
dent of  New  Jersey  senate,  1886:  governor  of 
New  Jersey,  January,  1896,  until  he  resigned. 
January,  1898,  to  take  office  of  attorney-general 
in  President  McKinley's  cabinet;  made  member 
of  Hague  permanent  court  of  arbitration,  1906. 

Griliparzer  (grU'-par-tser),  Franz,  Austrian  dra- 
matic poet,  was  born  at  Vienna,  1791.  He 
studied  jurisprudence,  and  in  1813  entered  the 
imperial  civil  service,  in  which  he  remained  until 
1856.  He  first  attracted  notice  in  1817  by  a 
tragedy,  Die  Ahnfrau,  which  was  followed  by 
Sappho;  Das  goldene  Vliea;  Des  Meeres  und  der 
Liebe  Wellen;  Der  Traum  ein  Leben,  etc.  He 
produced  in  lyric  poetry  much  meritorious  work ; 
and  one  good  prose  novel,  Der  Arme  Spidmann. 
Died  at  Vienna,  1872. 

Grimm,  Friedrich  Melchlor,  Baron  von,  German- 
French  critic  and  writer,  was  bom  at  Katisbon, 
1723.  After  studying  at  Leipzig,  and  failing 
with  a  tragedy,  he  accompanied  a  nobleman  to 
Paris,  and  became  reader  to  the  crown-prince  of 
Saxe-Gotha.  He  became  acquainted  with  Rous- 
seau in  1749,  and  through  him  with  Diderot, 
Holbach.  and  Madame  d'Epinay.  His  connec- 
tion with  the  encyclopedists,  added  to  his  own 
acquirements,  opened  up  a  brilliant  career.  He 
became  secretary  to  the  duke  of  Orleans,  and 
began  to  write  for  several  German  princes  those 
famous  literary  bulletins,  which  for  nearly  fortr 
years  gave  the  most  trenchant  criticism  of  all 
important  French  books.  In  1776  he  was  made 
a  baron  by  the  duke  of  Gotha,  and  appointed 
minister-plenipotentiary  at  the  French  court. 
At  the  revolution  he  withdrew  to  Gotha,  and 
afterward  to  the  court  of  Catharine  II.,  whence 
he  was  sent  in  1795  as  Russian  minister  to  Ham- 
burg.    He  died  at  Gotha,  1807. 

Grimm,  Jakob  Ludwig  Karl,  German  philologist 
and  antiquary,  was  bom  at  Hanau,  in  Hesse- 
Cassel,  1785.  Though  holding  at  various  times 
important  public  offices,  his  Ufie  was  devoted  to 
phuologicaf  and  antiquarian  studies.  His  Ger- 
man Grammar,  in  four  volumes,  is  perhaps  the 
greatest   philologicad  work   of   the   age.     After 


742 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


1814,  in  company  with  his  brother,  Wilhehn,  he 
pubhshed  numerouB  works  of  a  more  popular 
character,  the  best  known  of  which  is  Ktnder- 
und  HausnUirchen,  nursery  and  fireside  stories. 
From  1830  to  1837  they  were  joint  professors  at 
Gottingen,  subsequently  joint  librarians  at 
Cassel,  and  in  1841  settled  in  Berlin  at  the  invita- 
tion of  the  king  of  Prussia.  The  greatest  joint 
undertaking  of  the  two  brothers  was  the  Deutsche 
W&rterbuch,  begun  in  1852.  Jakob  Griram  died 
in  1863.  Wilhelm  was  bom  in  1786  and  died  at 
Berlin  in  1859. 

Grlmston  (grim'-stiln),  Mib.  Margaret  B.  See  Ken- 
dal, Mrs. 

GrlmMton,  William  H.     Sec  Kendal,  Mr. 

Gros  (gro),  Antoine  Jean,  Baron,  French  historical 
painter,  was  bom  at  Paris,  1771.  lie  studied  in 
the  school  of  David,  and  acquired  celebrity  by 
his  great  pictures  of  Napoleon  s  battles,  "Francis 
I.  and  Charles  V.  at  Saint  Denis,"  "Departure  of 
Louis  XVIII.  for  Ghent,"  "The  Plague  at  Jaffa," 
and  "Embarkation  of  the  Duchess  of  Angoii- 
16me."     He  drowned  himself  in  the  Seine,    1835. 

Gross  (grda),  Charles,  historian,  was  born  at  Troy, 
N.  Y.,  1857.  He  was  graduated  at  Williams, 
1878;  Ph.  D.,  Gottingen,  1883;  A.  M.,  Harvard, 
1901;  LL.  D.,  Williams,  1904.  He  engaged  in 
literary  work  in  England,  1884-88;  instructor 
at  Harvard,  1888-1909.  Author:  Gilda  Mer- 
catoria;  The  Excliequer  of  the  Jews  of  England 
in  the  Middle  Ages;  The  Gild  Merchant;  Select 
Cases  from  the  Coroners'  Rolls;  Sources  and  Liter- 
ature of  English  History.  Translator:  Lavisse's 
Political  History  of  Europe,  Kayserling's  Chriato- 
pher  Columbus.  He  was  a  frequent  contributor 
to  American  Historical  Review,  and  other  histori- 
cal journals.    Died,  1909. 

Gross,  Samuel  David,  American  surgeon,  was  bom 
in  Pennsylvania,  1805.  He  was  graduated  from 
Jefferson  medical  college,  1828;  was  professor  of 
pathological  anatomy  in  Cincinnati  medical 
college,  1835—40;  professor  of  surgery  in  univer- 
sity of  Louisville,  1840-50,  and  at  university  of 
New  York,  1850-51-  professor  of  surgery  in 
Jefferson  medical  college,  1856-84.  He  wrote: 
System  of  Surgery  (2  vols.),  American  Medical 
Biography,  etc.  He  was  the  founder  and  chief 
editor  of  the  North  American  Medico-Chirurgical 
Review,  and  was  president  of  the  American 
medical  association,  1867.  He  wrote  exten- 
sively for  medical  publications,  and  made  many 
valuable  contributions  to  operative  surgery. 
Died,  1884. 

Grosscup  {grdtf-kUp),  Peter  Stenger,  jurist,  judge  of 
United  States  circuit  court  of  appeals,  7th  circuit, 
1899-1905,  was  bom  at  Ashland,  Ohio,  1852. 
He  was  graduated  from  Wittenberg  college,  1872, 
Boston  law  school,  1874;  practiced  law  at 
Ashland,  Ohio,  1874-83,  where  he  was  city 
solicitor  for  six  years;  practiced  in  Chicago, 
1882-92 ;  United  States  judge  of  northern  dis- 
trict of  Illinois,  1892-99.  He  has  been  president 
of  the  John  Crerar  Ubrary,  Chicago,  since  1901. 

Grosvenor  (gro'-ve-nir),  Charles  Henry,  lawyer, 
ex-congressman,  was  bom  in  Pomfret,  Conn., 
1833.  He  went  to  Ohio  in  1838,  taught  school, 
studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1857 ; 
engaged  in  practice;  served  in  eighteenth 
Ohio  volunteers,  1861-65,  as  major,  lieutenant- 
colonel,  and  brevet  brigadier-general.  Member 
of  Ohio  legislature,  1874-78  (speaker,  two  years) : 
presidential  elector,  1872  and  1880;  tmstee  of 
Ohio  soldiers'  and  sailors'  orphans'  home,  1880- 
88,  and  president  for  five  vears;  member  of  con- 
gress, 1885-91,  and  again  from  1893  to  1907, 
eleventh  Ohio  district.  Author:  Willidm 
McKirdey,  His  Life  and  Work. 

Grosvenor,  Edwin  Augustus,  educator,  historian, 
was  bom  in  Newburyport,  Mass.,  1845.  He  was 
graduated  from  Amherst,   1867,   Andover  theo- 


logical seminary,  1872;  LL.  D.,  Wabash,  1903, 
Alfred  university,  1904;  was  professor  of  history, 
Robert  college,  Constantinople,  1873-90;  pro- 
fessor of  European  history,  1892-98,  moaern 
fovemments  and  their  administration,  1898- 
901,  modem  government  and  international  law 
since  1901,  Amherst  college.  Author:  The 
Hippodrome  of  Constantino'^;  Constantinople 
(2  vols.);  Thie  Permanence  of  the  Greek  Type; 
Contemporary  History,  etc. 

Grote  {grot),  George,  English  historian  and  politi- 
cian, was  born  at  Clay  Hill,  Kent,  England,  1794. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Charterhouse,  entered 
the  family  banking  house,  but  devoted  his  leisure 
time  to  literary  work.  He  published  many 
pamphlets  on  reform,  and  contributed  to  the 
Westmiruter  Review.  In  1832  he  was  elected  to 
parliament  for  the  city  of  London,  for  M'hich  he 
continued  to  sit  until  1841,  as  one  of  the  "philo- 
sophical ratlicals."  His  History  of  Greece 
ai)peared  between  1846  and  1856,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  Plato  and  Other  Companions  of  Socrates. 
During  his  parliamentary  life  he  made  himself 
conspicuous  by  his  advocacy  of  the  ballot.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  foundation  of  the 
university  of  London,  of  which,  at  the  time  of  his 
death,  he  was  vice-chancellor.  He  died  in  1871, 
and  is  buried  in  Westminster  abbey. 

Grotius  (grd'shlr-iia),  or  De  Groot,  Hugo.  See 
page  443. 

Grouchy  (grtfd'-ahi'),  Enunanurl,  Marquis  de.,  dis- 
tinguished French  marshal,  was  bom  in  Paris, 
1706.  He  entered  the  French  army,  1781,  was  a 
lieutenant  in  the  royal  body-guard.  1787-93, 
served  with  Lafavette.  was  promotea  brigadier- 
general,  commanded  tne  cavalry  in  the  army  of 
the  Alps,  aided  in  the  conquest  of  Savoy,  and 
after  fighting  in  La  Vendue,  1794,  was  cashiered 
with  all  other  officers  of  the  nobility.  He  then 
enlisted  as  a  private  soldier,  and  after  the  fall  of 
Robespierre  was  reinstated  and  promoted 
generaJ  of  division  by  a  special  decree.  In  1798 
he  persuatled  the  kmg  of  Sardinia  to  abdicate 
and  surrender  Piedmont  to  France;  in  1799 
received  fourteen  wounds  and  was  taken  prisoner 
at  Novi ;  gained  his  liberty  after  Marengo,  serve<l 
with  Moreau  on  the  Rhine,  and  was  promoted 
inspector-general  of  cavalry;  defeated  the  Prus- 
sian cavalry  at  Zehdenik,  1806 ;  was  governor  of 
Madrid.  1808,  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Wagram, 
1809,  distinguished  himself  at  Borodino,  1812, 
and  commanded  Napoleon's  body-guard  on  the 
retreat  from  Moscow.  On  the  restoration 
of  the  Bourbons  he  was  banished  from  France, 
but  in  1815  was  permitted  to  return.  When 
Napoleon  reappeared  from  Elba,  Grouchv  was 
given  a  command  and  made  a  marshal  of  f  ranee 
for  his  successes  in  the  north.  He  then  marched 
into  Belgium,  defeated  the  allied  English  and 
Prussian  armies  at  Fleurus  and  Ligny,  and  by 
following  Napoleon's  orders  to  the  letter  to  pursue 
Bliicher  is  believed  to  have  caused  the  French 
defeat  at  Waterloo.  He  was  again  banished  by 
the  Bourbons,  lived  five  years  in  Philadelphia, 
was  recalled  to  France,  1819,  and  after  the 
revolution  of  1830  was  restored  to  rank  as  marshal 
and  created  a  peer.      Died,  1847. 

Grove,  Sir  George,  British  engineer  and  writer  on 
music,  was  bom  at  Clapham,  1820.  He  was 
trained  as  a  civil  engineer,  erected  in  the  West 
Indies  the  first  two  cast-iron  Ughthouses,  and 
assisted  in  the  Britannia  tubular  bridge,  which 
unites  Anglesey  and  Wales.  He  was  secretary 
to  the  society  of  arts,  1849-52,  and  then  secretary 
and  director  of  the  Crj'stal  Palace.  He  was 
editor  of  Macmillan's  Magazine,  a  large  contribu- 
tor to  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  editor  and 
part  author  of  the  great  Dictionary  of  Music  and 
Mttsicians,  and  published  a  work  on  Beethoven. 
He  was  niade  D.  C.  L.  by  Durham,   LL.  D.  by 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


748 


Glas^w,  and  was  knighted  in  1883  on  the 
opening  of  the  royal  college  of  music,  of  which 
he  was  director  until  1895.     He  died  in  1900. 

Grove,  Sir  William  Robert,  English  lawyer  and 
physicist,  was  born  at  Swansea,  1811.  He 
studied  at  Oxford,  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
raised  to  the  bench,  1871,  knighted,  1872,  and  in 
1875-87  was  a  judge  in  the  high  court  of  justice. 
He  greatly  distinguished  himself  in  the  subjects 
of  electricity  and  optics,  and  was  professor  of 
natural  science  at  the  London  institution  in 
1840-47.  In  1839  he  invented  the  powerful 
voltaic  battery  known  by  his  name.  He  pub- 
lished very  important  lectures,  as  those  on  the 
Progress  of  Physical  Science,  in  which  he  pro- 
pounded the  theory  of  the  mutual  convertibility 
of  the  natural  forces;  the  Correlation  of  the 
Physical  Forces;  Voltaic  Ignition,  and  the  Con- 
tinuity of  Natural  Phenomena.  He  died  in 
1896. 

Onmdtvig  {grdntf -veg),  Nikolai  Frederlk  Severin, 
Danish  poet  and  theologian,  was  born  at  Udby  in 
Zealand,  1783.  He  first  became  known  by  his 
Northern  Mythology,  published  in  1808,  and 
Decline  of  the  Heroic  Age  in  the  North,  in  1809. 
These  were  followed  by  the  Rhyme  of  Roeskilde 
and  the  Roeskilde  Saga,  and  by  a  collection  of 
patriotic  songs.  About  this  time  he  took  his 
stand  against  the  current  rationalism,  and 
became  the  head  of  a  religious  school,  which 
strove  to  free  the  church  from  state  interference ; 
but  from  1826  to  1839,  for  an  attack  on  a  con- 
spicuous rationalist,  was  suspended  from  preach- 
ing. In  1818  he  had  begun  the  translation  of 
Snorri  Sturluson  and  Saxo  Grammaticus;  in 
1820  pubUshed  a  Danish  translation  of  Beowulf. 
After  1861  he  had  the  title  of  bishop,  though  he 
held  no  see.     He  died  in  1872. 

Grundy  (grUn'-dl),  Felbt,  American  jurist  and 
statesman,  was  bom  in  Berkeley  county,  W.  Va., 
1777.  In  1799  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Kentucky  constitutional  convention,  and  from 
that  time  until  1806  served  as  a  member  of  the 
legislature.  He  was  appointed  judge  of  the 
supreme  court  of  errors  and  appeals  in  1806;  in 
1807.  became  chief-justice.  In  1808  he  removed 
to  Nashville,  Tenn. ;  in  1811  was  sent  to  congress, 
and  reelected  in  1813.  In  1819  he  was  a  member 
of  the  legislature  of  Tennessee;  in  1820  a  com- 
missioner to  fix  the  boundary  line  between 
Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  and  in  1829  became 
United  States  senator,  to  fill  the  unexpired  term 
of  John  H.  Eaton.  Later  he  was  elected  to  fill 
that  place  as  a  partisan  of  Andrew  Jackson.  In 
1838  he  served  for  a  few  months  as  United  States 
attorney-general  during  the  administration  of 
Martin  Van  Buren;  resigning  this  office  he  was 
immediately  reelected  to  the  United  States 
senate.     Died  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  1840. 

Grunsky,  Carl  Ewald,  civil  engineer,  was  bom  in 
San  Joaquin  county,  Cal.,  1855;  graduated  at 
Stockton,  Cal.,  high  school,  1870,  Realschule, 
Stuttgart,  Germany,  1872-74;  Polytechnikum, 
Stuttgart,  1874-77,  graduated  at  head  of  class. 
His  first  professional  work  was  as  topographer 
with  river  surv^ine  party  of  state  engineering 
department  of  California,  1878;  assistant  and 
chief  assistant  state  engineer  of  California, 
1879-88;  in  private  practice,  on  irrigation 
work,  sewerage  and  drainage,  1887-99 ;  at  work 
on  river  rectification  and  drainage  problems  as 
member  examining  commission  on  rivers  and 
harbors  of  California,  1889-90,  and  as  consulting 
engineer  to  commissioner  of  public  works  of  Cali- 
fornia, 1893-94;  member  of  San  Francisco 
sewerage  commission,  1892-93;  city  engineer, 
San  Francisco,  1900-04;  member  of  isthmian 
canal  commission,  1904-05;  consulting  engineer. 
United  States  reclamation  service,  1905-07;  con- 
sulting engineer,  New  York  and  San  Francisco, 


since  1907.  Member  of  American  •ooiety  of  civil 
engineers,  etc. 

Guarlnl  {gwd-ri'-ni),  GlovMiiU  BktUsU,  Italiu 
poet  and  diplomat,  was  bora  at  Ferrar*.  1537. 
He  was  intnisteti  by  Duke  Alfoiuo  11.  with 
diplomatic  missions  to  the  pope,  the  emperor, 
Venice,  and  Poland.  His  chief  work  wm  the 
famous  pastoral  play,  II  Pastor  Fido,  really  an 
imitation  of  Taaso's  Aminta.     Died,  1612. 

Guerlcke  {ga'-^rl-ki).  Otto  von,  German  physiriBt, 
was  bora  at  Magdeburg,  in  Prussian  Saxony, 
1602.  He  studied  at  Leipzig,  Jena,  and  Leyden, 
and  traveled  in  France  and  England.  Ab  a 
physicist  he  is  chiefly  known  by  his  discoveries 
relative  to  nature  and  effects  of  air.  The  experi- 
ments of  Galileo  and  Pascal  on  the  weight  of  air 
led  Guericke  to  attempt  the  creation  of  a  vacuum. 
This  resulted  in  the  first  air-pump,  invented 
about  1650.  Guericke's  invention  soon  became 
famous,  and  in  1654  he  was  summoned  to  the 
presence  of  the  emperor  Ferdinand  III.  of  Ger- 
many at  Ratisbon,  at  which  time  he  made  the 
famous  experiment  commonly  known  as  the 
"Magdeburg  hemispheres,"  in  demonstration 
of  atmospheric  pressure.       Died,  1686. 

Guesciin  (gS'-klAN'),  Bertrand,  French  general  and 
the  most  famous  French  soldier  of  the  age,  wae 
born  in  1320.  He  gained  his  first  reputation  as 
a  soldier  in  1338  at  a  tournament  to  celebrate 
the  marriage  of  Charles  de  Blois  with  Jeanne  de 
PenthiSvre,  at  which  he  unseated  all  the  famous 
competitors.  Becoming  a  soldier  of  fort.une 
under  Charles,  he  gained  great  distinction  at  the 
siege  of  Vannes,  1342.  He  was  knighted,  and 
in  1351  went,  with  the  lords  of  Brittany,  to 
England  to  secure  the  release  of  his  captive 
master.  He  gallantly  relieved  Rennes,  beneged 
by  the  duke  of  Lancaster  in  1356,  and  by  his  help 
the  city  held  out  until  the  truce  of  Bordeaux, 
1357.  He  soon  took  service  under  the  French 
king,  and,  after  several  brilliant  actions,  was 
made  marshal  of  Normandy  and  count  of  Longue- 
ville.  At  the  battle  of  Auray,  1364,  he  was 
taken  prisoner,  but  was  ransomed  for  a  large 
sum  of  money,  and  led  his  soldiers  into  Spain. 
He  was  afterward  taken  prisoner  by  the  Black 
Prince,  then  in  alliance  with  Pedro  "the  cruel." 
Being  again  ransomed,  he  restored  Henry  to  the 
throne  in  1369.  In  1370  he  was  made  constable 
of  France,  and  for  ten  vears  was  active  and 
successful  in  driving  the  English  from  the  south 
and  west  of  France.  In  1373  he  seized  and  held 
most  of  the  strongholds  in  the  duchy  of  Brittany. 
He  died,  1380. 

Guggenheim,  Simon,  capitalist,  ex-United  States 
senator,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa..  1867. 
He  was  graduated  from  public  schools  of  Phila- 
delphia, after  which  he  studied  languages  in 
Europe  two  years.  Went  to  Pueblo,  Col.,  1888, 
and  engaged  extensively  in  mining  and  smeltinc 
in  the  Umted  States  and  Mexico.  He  was  elected 
United  States  senator  from  Colorado  to  succeed 
Thomas  M.  Patterson,  and  took  his  seat,  1907. 
His  term  expired  in  1913. 

Guido  RenI  {gwe'-do  ra'-ni),  Italian  painter  of  the 
eclectic  (Bolognese)  school,  was  bom  near 
Bologna,  1575.  He  studied  under  Calvacrt,  but 
subsequently  followed  the  more  refined  and  ideal 
school  of  the  Caracci,  previous  to  finally  striking 
out  a  style  for  himself.  In  1608  he  went  to 
Rome  where  he  remained  for  twenty  years,  and 
was  a  rivid  of  Caravaggio.  Among  his  best 
productions  are  "The  Crucifixion  of  St.  Peter," 
a  magnificent  work  in  the  Vatican  museum; 
and  the  famous  portrait  of  Beatrice  Cenci, 
one  of  the  most  interesting  paintings  in  Rome. 
The  "Aurora"  of  Guido,  on  the  ceiling  of  one 
of  the  halls  of  the  Rospigliosi  palace,  is  a  freseo 
of  world-^nde  fame,  ana  is  considered  the  greatest 
of  his  works.     He  died  in  1642. 


744 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


GuUd«  Curtis,  journalist,  ambassador  to  Russia 
since  1911;  was  born  at  Boston,  1860.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard,  1881.  After  graduation 
he  made  tour  of  Europe;  entered  office  of 
Commercial  BuUeiin,  Boston,  founded  by  his 
father;  served  from  bill  collector  to  editor,  and, 
since  1902,  sole  owner  of  the  paper.  He  was 
brigadier-general  of  state  militia  at  outbreak  of 
Spanish  war;  served  as  lieutenant-colonel 
inspector-general  on  staff,  7th  corps  (General 
Fitzhugh  Lee)  until  break-up  of  corps  in  Cuba; 
lieutenant-governor  of  Massachusetts,  1902-05; 
governor  of  Ma.ssachusett3,  1900-09. 
Guiscard  (gis'-kdr'),  Robert,  Norman  soldier,  and 
son  of  Tancred  d'Hauteville,  was  born  in  1015. 
He  defeated  Leo  IX.  at  Civitella,  and,  upon  the 
death  of  his  brother,  Humphrey,  became  count 
of  Apulia.  Subsequently  he  rescued  Gregory  VH. 
from  the  emperor  Henry  IV.,  invaded  the  Greek 
empire,  and  died,  1085,  when  on  another  exped- 
ition against  it,  having  defeated  the  fleets  of  the 
eastern  empire  and  Venice. 
Guise  (gu-ii^),  a  ducal  family  of  Lorraine,  was  so 
named  from  the  town  of  Guise.  The  most 
prominent  members  historically  are  the  following : 

Claude  of  Lorraine  (1490-1550),  fifth  son  of 
Ren6  IL,  duke  of  Lorraine,  was  born  at  the 
ch&teau  of  Cond6,  fought  at  Marignauo  in  1515, 
but  after  that  campaign  remained  at  home  to 
defend  France  against  the  English  and  Germans. 
For  suppressing  the  peasant  revolt  in  Lorraine, 
1527,  l-rancis  created  him  duke  of  Guise. 

Mary  of  Lorraine  (1515-60),  his  daughter,  in 
1534  married  Louis  of  Orleans,  duke  of  Longue- 
ville,  and  in  1538  James  V.  of  Scotland,  at  whose 
death,  in  1542,  she  was  left  with  one  child,  Mary, 
queen  of  Scots.  During  the  troublous  vears  that 
followed,  the  queen-mother  acted  witli  wisdom 
and  moderation;  but  after  her  accession  to  the 
regency  in  1554  she  allowed  the  Guises  so  much 
influence  that  the  Protestant  nobles  raised  a 
rebellion,  which  continued  to  her  death  in  Edin- 
burgh castle. 

Francis  (1519-03),  her  brother,  second  duke, 
became  one  of  the  greatest  generals  of  France. 
Having  in  1552-53  held  Metz  against  Charles  V. 
of  Germany,  he  added  to  his  reputation  at  Renti, 
in  1554,  and  in  1556  commanaed  the  expedition 
against  Naples.  Recalled  in  1557  to  defend  the 
northern  frontier  against  the  Engli.sh,  he  took 
Calais,  1558,  and  other  towns,  and  brought  about 
the  treaty  of  Cateau  Cambr6sis,  1559.  He  and 
his  brother  Charles,  the  cardinal,  afterward 
conspicuous  at  the  council  of  Trent,  managed  to 
become  all-powerful  during  the  reign  of  Francis 
IL  Heading  the  Roman  Catholic  party,  they 
sternly  repressed  Protestantism.  Guise  and 
Montmorency  won  a  victory  over  the  Huguenots 
at  Dreux,  1562,  and  Guise  was  besieging  Orleans 
when  he  was  assassinated  by  a  Huguenot. 

Henry  I.  (1550-88),  third  duke,  Fought  fiercely 
against  the  Protestants  at  Jarnac  and  Moncon- 
tour,  1569,  and  forced  Coligny  to  raise  the  siege 
of  Poitiers.  He  was  one  of  the  contrivers  of  the 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  1572,  and  was  the 
head  of  the  Catholic  league.  He  was,  however, 
ambitious  to  succeed  to  the  throne  of  France, 
when  Henry  III.  procured  his  assassination  at 
Blois. 

Henry  II.  (1614-64),  his  grandson,  fifth  duke, 
at  fifteen  became  archbishop  of  Rheims,  but  in 
1640  succeeded  to  the  dukedom.  Having  joined 
the  league  against  Richelieu,  he  was  condemned 
to  death,  but  fled  to  Flanders.  He  put  himself 
at  the  head  of  Masaniello's  revolt  in  Naples  as 
the  representative  of  the  Anjou  family,  but  was 
taken  by  the  Spanish,  1647,  and  carricxi  to 
Madrid,  where  he  remained  five  years.  After 
another  attempt  to  win  Naples,  1654,  he  settled 
at  Paris. 


Guiteras,  Jaan,  physician,  professor  of  general 
pathology  and  tropical  diseases,  university  of 
Havana,  since  1900;  director  public  health  of 
Cuba  since  1909;  was  bom  at  Matanzas,  Cuba, 
1852.  He  was  educated  at  La  Empresa,  Matan- 
zas; M.  D.,  university  of  Pennsylvania,  1873: 
Ph.  D.  He  was  in  United  States  marine  hospital 
service,  1879-89;  served  as  expert  in  yellow 
fever  in  all  epidemics  since  1881 ;  was  professor 
of  pathology,  university  of  Pennsylvania;  on 
Stan  of  General  Shafter  as  yellow  "fever  expert 
in  Santiago  campaign,  1898.  Editor  of  La 
Reviata  de  Medicina  Tropical,  and  member  of 
many  medical  and  scientific  associations. 

Guliot  (gi'-ed'),  Francois  Pierre  GulUaume,  French 
statesman  and  historian,  was  born  at  Nimes. 
France,  1787.  In  1805  he  went  to  Paris,  studied 
law,  became  a  professor  at  the  Sorbonne  in  1812, 
and  devoted  himself  to  literature.  His  first 
work,  the  Nouveau  THctionnaire  Univerad  de» 
Synonymes  de  la  Langue  Franfaine,  ap|>eared  in 
1809.  After  the  second  restoration  tie  became 
general  secretary  to  the  minister  of  the  interior, 
afterward  to  the  minister  of  justice.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  dissolution  of  the  Chambrt 
Introuvable  by  writing  a  memorial  which  was 
placed  in  the  hands  of  Louis  XVIII.  by  Decazes. 
The  latter  committed  to  him  the  direction  of  the 
administration  of  the  communes  and  department* 
in  1819.  After  the  revolution  of  1830,  he  became 
Buccessively  minister  of  public  instruction  and 
minister  of  the  interior,  an  office  which  he  held, 
with  two  interruptions,  until  1836.  On  the 
breaking  out  of  the  eastern  disturbances  in  the 
beginning  of  1840,  under  Soult's  administration, 
he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  London;  in  184/ 
he  became  the  official  leader  of  the  cabinet, 
which  maintained  its  ground,  as  the  organ  ot 
Louis  Philippe's  policy,  until  the  revolution  of 
1848.  Among  his  work^  are  his  History  of  th« 
English  Revolution,  Life  of  Oliver  Cromwell, 
History  of  CivUixation  in  Europe,  and  History  of 
Ctvilization  in  France.     He  di«xl  in  1874. 

Gunsaulus  (gun-sd'4ils),  Frank  Wakelejr,  Congre- 
gational clergyman,  educator,  was  bom  at 
Chester%'ille,  Onio,  1856.  He  was  graduated  at 
Ohio  Wesleyan  university,  1875-  D.  D.,  Beloit 
college,  Wisconsin.  Ordained  Methodist  min- 
ister; pastor  of  Eastwood  Congregational  church, 
Columbus,  Ohio,  1879-81;  Newtonville,  Mass.. 
1881-85;  pastor  of  Memorial  Congregational 
church,  Baltimore,  1885-87;  Plymouth  church, 
Chicago,  1887-99;  Central  church,  Chicago,  since 
1899;  president  of  Armour  institute  of  technol- 
ogy, since  1893 ;  lecturer  of  Yale  theological  semi- 
nary, 1882;  professorial  lecturer  of  university  of 
Chicago.  Author:  Phidias  and  Other  Poems; 
Songs  of  Night  and  Day;  Transfiguration  of  Christ; 
Monk  and  Knight;  Life  of  WiHiam  Ewart  Glad- 
stone; Metamorphosis  of  a  Creed;  November  at 
Eastwood;  Loose  Leaves  of  Song;  The  Man  of 
Galilee;  Paths  to  Power;  Paths  to  the  City  of  God; 
Higher  Ministries  of  Recent  English  Poetry,  etc. 

Gunter  {g&n'-tir),  Edmund,  English  mathematician, 
was  bom  in  Hertfordshire  about  1581.  He  wae 
educated  at  Westminster  and  Christ  Church, 
Oxford;  obtained  a  Southwark  curacy  in  1615, 
and  in  1619  became  professor  of  astronomy  in 
Gresham  college,  London.  He  invented  the 
sector,  with  the  lines  known  as  Gunter's  scale. 
His  principal  works  are  Canon  Triangidorum,  a 
table  of  logarithmic  sines,  etc. ;  On  the  Sector, 
Cross-staff,  and  Other  Instruments.  Invented  the 
surveying-chain,  and  made  first  observation  of 
the  variation  of  the  compass.     Died,  1626. 

GOnther  (giin'-tSr),  Albert  Charles  Lewis  Gotthllf. 
German-English  zoologist,  was  born  at  Esslingen, 
Wiirttemberg,  1830,  and  educated  at  the  univer- 
sities of  Tubingen,  Berlin,  and  Bonn.  He  entered 
the  British  museum  in  1856,  and  was  appointed 


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THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


747 


keeper  of  the  department  of  zoology  in  1875. 
Subsequently  he  devoted  himself  exclusively  to 
the  administration  of  the  extensive  collections 
under  his  charge.  He  published  Die  Fiache  dea 
Neckars;  Medizinische  Zodlogic;  The  Reptiles  of 
British  India;  Catalogue  of  Fishes;  The  Fishes 
of  the  South  Seas;  The  Gigantic  Land  Tortoises, 
Living  and  Extinct;  An  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  Fishes;  and  numerous  papers  in  the  philosoph- 
ical transactions,  the  proceedings  of  the  zoological 
and  Linnean  societies,  and  other  periodicals. 
He  founded  the  Record  of  Zoological  Literature, 
of  which  he  edited  the  first  six  volumes,  and  was 
co-editor  of  the  Annals  and  Magazine  of  Natural 
History. 

Gustavus  Vasa  (gUs-t&'-v&a  v&'-ad),  king  of  Sweden, 
was  born  of  a  noble  house  at  Lindholmen  in 
Upland,  1496,  and  in  1518,  during  the  patriotic 
struggle  with  Christian  II.  of  Denmark,  was 
treacherously  carried  off  to  Denmark  as  a  hpstage. 
After  a  year  he  escaped  to  Liibeck,  thence  to 
Sweden,  where  he  strove  in  vain  to  rouse  a  spirit 
of  resistance  against  the  Danes.  Retreating  to 
Dalecarlia,  he  wandered  for  months  with  a  price 
set  on  his  head,  and  worked  on  farms  and  in 
mines.  At  last  the  infamous  "blood-bath"  of 
Stockholm,  1520,  roused  the  Swedes,  and  soon 
Gustavus  had  an  army  large  enough  to  attack 
the  enemy.  His  capture  of  Stockholm  in  1523 
drove  the  Danes  from  Sweden.  Thus  ended  the 
great  Scandinavian  union  which  had  existed  for 
126  years,  and  Gustavus  I.  was  elected  king. 
He  found  the  whole  country  demoralized.  Yet 
after  a  forty  years'  rule  he  left  Sweden  a  peaceful 
and  civilized  realm,  with  a  full  exchequer  and  a 
well-organized  army.  He  promoted  trade,  fos- 
tered schools,  and  made  roads,  bridges,  and 
canals.  Missions  were  sent  to  the  Lapps,  and  a 
Finnish  Bible  was  printed  for  the  Finns.  He 
died  in  1560,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest 
son,  Eric. 

Gustavus  11^  Adolpbus,  was  bom  at  Stockholm, 
1594.  He  was  the  grandson  of  Gustavus  Vasa 
by  his  youngest  son,  Charles  IX.,  at  whose  death, 
in  1611,  he  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Sweden. 
Gustavus  had  been  strictly  brought  up  in  the 
Lutheran  faith,  carefully  trained  in  habits  of 
business,  and  was  one  of  the  most  accomplished 
princes  of  his  age.  He  was  acquainted  with 
eight  languages,  five  of  which  he  spoke  and 
wrote  fluently,  was  well  read  in  the  classics  and 
ancient  history.  He  was  proficient  in  music, 
and  excelled  in  all  warlike  and  manly  exercises. 
Having  made  various  administrative  reforms, 
and  availed  himself  of  the  short  interval  of  peace 
to  promote  the  material  prosperity  of  the  coun- 
try, he  remitted  the  charge  of  the  government 
to  his  chancellor,  Oxenstiem,  and  set  sail,  in  the 
summer  of  1630,  with  an  army  of  about  15,000 
men,  to  aid  the  Protestants  of  Germany  in  their 
hard  struggle  against  the  Catholic  league,  which 
was  backed  by  the  power  of  the  empire.  With 
and  for  the  Germans  he  fought  until  his  death 
on  the  battlefield  of  Liitzen,  1632.  He  made 
Sweden  a  power  in  northern  Europe. 

Gustavus  III^  king  of  Sweden,  was  bom  at  Stock- 
holm, 1746,  and  succeeded  his  father,  Adolphus 
Frederick,  in  1771.  At  this  period  the  country 
was  distracted  by  the  intrigues  of  the  rival 
political  parties  of  Horn  and  Gyllenborg,  known 
as  the  "nats"  and  "caps."  A  revolution  was 
effected  without  the  sheading  of  blood,  and  by  a 
stroke  of  the  pen  Gustavus  recovered  all  the 
legal  powers  that  had  been  gradually  lost  by  his 
immediate  predecessors.  In  1792  he  was  mor- 
tally wounded  by  Ankarstrom  at  a  masked  ball 
in  the  opera  house  which  he  himself  had  built. 
The  pistol  had  been  loaded  with  broken  shot, 
which  rendered  the  wound  especiallv  painful, 
and  the  king  suffered  the  most  dreadful  agony 


for  thirteen  days  before  his  d'»ath.  Oustavtis 
was  a  man  of  varied  learning,  and  the  author  of 
several  dramatic  works  and  poems  of  considorablu 
merit. 

Gu^«ta\'us  V„  king  of  Sweden,  waa  bom  In  1868, 
and  married,  in  1881,  Princess  Victoria  of  Baden, 
first  cousin  of  the  Gcnnan  emperor  and  a  descend- 
ant of  the  old  Swedish  royal  family  of  Vaaa. 
He  succeeded  his  father,  King  Oscar  II.,  ou 
December  8,  1907,  having  several  times  pre- 
viously acted  as  regent.  The  king's  eldest  aoa. 
Prince  Gustavus  Adolnhus,  married  Princess 
Margaret  of  Connaught,  June,  1905.  His  majesty 
is  a  knight  of  the  garter  of  Great  Britain,  and 
received  the  royal  Victorian  chain  in  April,  1908. 

Gutenberg  (gr<»'-<en-*grK),  Johann.     See  page  324. 

Gutzkow  (g^ts'-ko),  Karl  Ferdinand,  German 
dramatist  and  author,  was  born  in  1811.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Friedrichswerder  gymnasium, 
studied  philosophy  and  theology  at  the  univer- 
sity of  BerUn ;  became  leader  of  the  Young  Ger- 
man party  in  1830;  started  a  newspaper  in  1831 ; 
went  to  Stuttgart  to  assist  in  editing  Menzel's 
Liter aturhlatt;  continued  his  studies  in  the  uni- 
versities of  Jena^  Heidelberg,  and  Munich; 
engaged  in  journalism  in  Frankfort;  was  impris- 
oned three  months  and  had  all  his  writings 
suppressed  for  the  atheistic  and  socialistic  views 
expressed  in  his  novel,  Wally,  die  Zweifiertn, 
1835,  and  in  the  same  year  elaborated  his  opin- 
ions in  Nero,  a  dramatic  work.  To  escape  the 
surveillance  of  the  Prussian  government  he  v/ent 
to  Hamburg  in  1837,  thence  to  various  German 
cities,  and  in  1870  made  his  permanent  residence 
in  Berlin.  He  was  author  of  numerous  comedies, 
tragedies,  dramas,  and  novels,  which  attained 
wide  popularity.     Died,  1878. 

Guyon  {gue'-ydii'),  Jeanne  Marie  Bouvier  de  Is 
Motte,  French  mystic,  was  born  at  Montargia^ 
1648.  She  was  married  at  sixteen  to  Jacques 
Guyon,  and,  left  a  widow  at  twenty-eight,  deter- 
mined to  devote  her  life  to  the  poor  and  needy, 
and  to  the  cultivation  of  spiritual  perfection. 
The  former  part  of  her  plan  she  began  to  carry 
out  in  1681  at  Geneva,  but  three  years  later  she 
was  compelled  to  depart  on  the  ground  that  her 
doctrines  were  heretical.  At  'Furin,  Grenoble, 
Nice,  Genoa,  Vercelli,  and  Paris,  where  she 
finally  settled  in  1686,  she  became  the  center  of 
a  movement  for  the  promotion  of  "holy  living." 
In  1688  she  was  arrested  for  heretical  opinions, 
and  for  having  been  in  correspondence  with 
Molinos,  the  leader  of  the  movement  in  Spain; 
and  out  of  a  commission  appointed  to  inquire 
into  her  teachings  arose  a  controversy  between 
F^nelon  and  Bossuet.  Released  by  the  inter- 
vention of  Madame  de  Maintenon,  after  a  deten- 
tion of  nine  months,  but  again  imprisoned  in 
1695,  she  was  not  released  from  the  Bastille 
until  1702.  She  died  at  Blois  in  1717.  She 
wrote  Les  Torrens  Spirituels,  Moyen  Court  de 
Faire  Oraison,  a  mystical  interpjretation  of  the 
song  of  Solomon,  an  autobiography,  letters,  and 
some  spiritual  poetry. 

Guyot  (ge'-yo),  Arnold  Henry,  Swiss  geographer 
and  geologist,  was  bom  at  Neuch&tel,  1807.  He 
came  to  America  in  1848,  and  devoted  his  life  to 
science;  was  professor  of  geology  and  physical 
geography  at  Princeton  college,  1855-84.  He 
formed  an  intimacy  with  Agussiz,  and  made 
numerous  maps,  mathematical  tables  and  text- 
books. His  greatest  works  were  The  Meteoro' 
logical  and  Physical  Tables,  issued  by  the  Smitb- 
sonian  institution,  and  nis  Earth  and  Man. 
Died,  1884. 

Haakon  VII.  {hd'-kSn),  king  of  Norway,  was  bom 
in  1872,  and  is  the  seconoTson  of  King  Frederik 
of  Denmark,  and  a  nephew  of  Queen  Alexandra 
of    Great    Britain.     His    baptismal    name  was 


748 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Charles,  but  he  assumed  the  above  title  on  becom- 
ing king  November  18,  1905,  on  the  separation  of 
Norway  and  Sweden.  King  Haalcon  and  Queen 
Maud  made  their  formal  entry  into  Christiania 
November  25,  1905,  and  the  king  took  the  oath 
before  the  Storthing  on  the  27th,  and  was  crowned 
at  Trondhjem  on  June  22,  1906.  The  king 
married  Princess  Maud  Alexandra,  daughter  of 
King  Edward  VII.,  July  22,  1896.  His  son  and 
heir-apparent  is  Prince  Alexander,  bom  July  2, 
1903,  and  renamed  Prince  Olaf  on  his  father's 
accession  to  the  throne.  The  king  is  a  knight 
of  the  garter  and  honorary  admiral  m  the  British 
fleet. 

Hackettt  Horatio  Balch,  American  biblical  scholar, 
was  born  in  Salisbury,  Mass.,  1808.  He  was 
graduated  at  Amherst  in  1830,  studied  in  Ger- 
many, became  a  tutor  at  Amherst,  professor  of 
ancient  languages  at  Brown  university,  and  in 
1839  professor  of  biblical  literature  in  Newton 
theological  institute.  In  1870  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  in  Rochester  theological  seminary, 
and  died  in  1875.  He  was  one  of  tiie  American 
revisers  of  the  Bible,  and  was  the  author  of  a 
Hebrew  Grammar;  Commentary  on  the  Acts; 
lllrutrationa  of  Scripture;  and  was  co-editor  of 
Smith's  Bible  Dictionary. 

Hackett,  James  Keteltas,  actor,  was  bom  at  Wolfe 
Island,  Ont.,  1869.  He  was  graduated  at  the 
college  of  the  city  of  New  York,  1891,  and  studied 
at  New  York  law  school.  Made  his  df'-but  on 
stage  in  Palmer's  stock  company,  1892;  was 
leading  man  at  New  York  Lyceum  at  twenty-six. 
His  most  notable  successes  were  Prisoner  oj 
Zenda,  and  its  sequel,  Rupert  of  Jlentzau,  and 
The  Pride  of  Jennico  under  the  management  of 
Daniel  Frohman.  He  is  now  one  of  the  few 
actor-managers  in  America. 

Hading  {d'-d&N'),  Jane,  stage  name  of  Jeanne- 
Alfr^dine  Tr6fouret,  French  actress,  was  bom  at 
Marseilles,  France,  1859.  At  the  age  of  three 
she  played  Blanche  de  Caylus  in  Le  Bossu,  her 
father  at  the  same  time  playing  the  leading 
character.  Some  years  later  she  was  sent  to  the 
Marseilles  conservatoire,  where  she  won  consider- 
able distinction.  On  leaving  she  entered  upon 
an  engagement  at  the  Algiers  theater,  and  when 
but  fourteen  played  Zouella  in  Le  Passant. 
Stefano  in  Chef  d'cpuvre  in  Connu,  the  blind  girl 
in  Les  Deux  Orphilines,  and  Pedro  in  GirofU- 
Girofla.  From  Algiers  she  went  to  Cairo  to  per- 
form at  the  Khedival  theater.  She  returnee  to 
Marseilles  in  1876,  and  for  a  time  devoted  herself 
to  drama  and  comedy ;  but  the  lyric  stage  again 
attracted  her,  and  she  went  to  Paris.  At  the 
Palais  Royal  she  played  La  Chaste  Susanna,  and 
at  the  Renaissance  she  was  the  original  Jolie 
Persane  and  Belle  Lurette,  and  the  heroine  in 
HSlSise  and  Abelard.  She  again  appeared  in 
comedy  as  Paulette  in  Antour  de  Mariage,  and 
as  Claire  de  Beaulieu  in  La  Mattre  de  Forges. 
She  subsequently  appeared  in  London  at  the 
Royalty  theater,  and  in  1888  and  1894  made 
successful  tours  of  the  United  States,  accom- 
panied by  M.  Coquelin.  One  of  her  latest  suc- 
cesses was  in  The  Second  Mrs.  Tanqueray. 

Hadley,  Arthur  Twining,  American  educator  and 
economist,  president  of  Yale  university  since 
1899,  was  bom  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1856.  He 
was  graduated  at  Yale,  1876;  was  a  student  of 
university  of  Berlin;  LL.  D.,  Harvard,  1899; 
Columbia.  1900;  Johns  Hopkins,  1902.  Tutor, 
1879-83,  lecturer,  1883-86,  Yale;  commissioner  of 
labor  statistics,  Connecticut,  1885-87 ;  professor 
of  poUtical  science,  1886-91,  political  economy, 
1891-99,  Yale;  president  of  American  economic 
association,  1899,  1900.  Author:  Railroad  Trans- 
portation: Its  History  and  Laws;  Connecticut  Labor 
Reports,  1886-86;  Economics:  An  Account  of  the 
Rdations  Between   Private   Property   and   Public 


Wdfare;  The  Education  of  the  American  Citizen; 
Freedom  and  Responsibility;  Baccalaureate 
Addresses;  Standards  of  Public  Morality,  etc. 
He  was  American  editor  of  the  tenth  edition  of 
Encyclopedia  Britannica. 

Hadley,  James,  father  of  preceding,  American 
classical  scholar  and  writer,  was  bom  in  Fairfield, 
N.  Y.,  1821.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  college 
in  1842,  became  tutor  in  mathematics  at  Middle- 
bury  college,  and  in  1845  tutor  of  classical  iiistory 
at  Yale.  In  1848  he  was  appointed  assistant 
professor,  and  in  1851  succeeded  Theodore  D. 
Woolsey  as  professor  of  Greek,  which  position 
he  held  until  his  death  in  1872.  He  was  a  dis- 
tinguished student  of  philology  and  civil  law, 
was  one  of  the  American  committee  for  the 
revision  of  the  new  testament,  and  a  member  of 
a  number  of  learned  societies.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  Greek  Grammar;  Introduction  to 
Roman  Law;  Brief  History  of  the  English  Lan- 
guage; Essays,  etc. 

Hadrian,  or  Publiua  iC3ius  Hadrlanus,  Roman 
emperor  from  117  to  138,  was  born  in  76  A.  D. 
He  was  elected  by  the  army  successor  of  Trajan. 
His  reign  was  one  of  the  happiest  j>eriods  in 
Roman  history,  the  onlv  important  war  which 
broke  out  during  the  reign  being  a  rebellion  of 
the  Jews  which  lasted  for  three  years.  He 
erected  many  magnificent  works  in  various  parts 
of  his  empire,  the  remains  of  some  of  whicn  are 
still  standing.  During  his  last  years  he  was 
morose  and  cruel ;  though  some  verses,  addressed 
to  his  soul,  which  he  is  said  to  have  composed 
on  his  death-bed.  are  of  quite  a  different  character. 
They  were  imitated  by  Pope  in  his  poem.  The 
Dying  Chrirtian  to  Hxs  Soul.  After  his  aeatb, 
which  took  place  at  Bais,  138  A.  D.,  he  was 
succeeded  by  Antoninus  Pius.  The  mausoleum 
which  he  built  for  himself  in  Rome  forms  the 
groundwork  of  the  present  castle  of  St.  Angelo. 

Haeckel  (hfk'-el),  Ernst  Heinrlcb,  German  natural- 
ist and  writer,  was  bom  at  Potsdam,  Prussia, 
1834.  He  studied  medicine  and  science  at 
Wiirzburg,  Berlin,  and  Vienna.  In  1859  he  went 
to  Italy,  and  studied  zoology  at  Naples  and 
Messini,  returning  in  1861  to  Jena,  where  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  zoology.  Between  1860 
and  1875  he  traveled  over  the  greater  part  of 
Europe,  besides  visiting  Syria  and  Egypt.  Later 
he  visited  India  and  Ceylon,  and  published  a 
lively  account  of  his  travels.  He  is  regarded  in 
Germany  as  the  foremost  supporter  of  Darwin's 
theories.  Among  his  works  are  The  History  of 
Creation;  The  Origin  of  the  Human  Race;  Life  in 
the  Deep  Seas;  The  History  of  Man's  Develop- 
ment; Popular  Lectures  on  Evolution;  Voyage  of 
H.  M.  S.  Challenger,  etc. 

Haflz  {ha'-flz  or  ha.-fiif\  Mohammed  Sbamsnddtn, 
or  Shams-«d-Din,  better  known  by  his  poetical 
name  of  Hafiz,  was  the  greatest  of  Persian 
lyrical  poets.  He  was  also  eminent  as  a  teacher 
of  theology  and  mvstic  philosophy,  but  it  was 
his  poetic  genius  which  gained  lor  him  a  world- 
wide fame.  The  name  of  Hafiz  is  a  household 
word  throughout  Persia,  and  his  songs  are 
recited  in  every  social  assembly,  so  that  he,  who 
can  most  frequently  garnish  his  conversation 
with  quotations  from  Hafiz,  is  held  in  the  highest 
esteem  and  admiration.  "The  date  of  his  birth 
is  imknown,  but  he  is  said  to  have  died  at  a  good 
old  age  in  1388  A.  D. 

Haggard,  Henry  Kider,  English  novelist,  barrister, 
and  social  reformer,  was  bom  in  England,  1856. 
He  accompanied  Sir  Henry  Bulwer,  as  secretary, 
to  Natal  in  1875,  and  formally  hoisted  the  British 
flag  over  Transvaal  territory,  1877.  He  was 
subsequently  appointed  to  the  post  of  master  of 
the  high  court  of  the  Transvaal.  During  the 
Zulu  war  he  was  elected  adjutant  and  lieutenant 
of    the    Pretoria    horse.     He    retired    from    the 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


749 


colonial  aervice  in  1879;  returned  to  England 
and  became  a  barrister.  His  first  book,  pub- 
lished in  1882,  of  a  political  character,  is  named 
Cetywayo  and  His  White  Nrighhors;  or  Remarks 
on  Recent  Events  in  South  Africa.  Subsequently 
he  published  Davm;  The  Witch's  Head,  and 
King  Solomon's  Mines,  the  work  by  which  he 
established  his  reputation;  She,  a  novel  of  great 
power;  Ayesha,  or  the  Return  of  She;  Jess; 
Cleopatra;  Beatrice;  Eric  Brighteyes,  etc.  He 
has  also  written  Rural  England  and  A  Farmer's 
Year,  and  has  made  extensive  studies  in  social- 
istic settlements. 

Ha^ue  (.hag),  Arnold,  American  geologist,  was  bom 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  1840.  He  was  graduated  at 
the  scientific  school  of  Yale,  1863,  and  for  several 
years  studied  in  Germany  at  Gottingen,  Heidel- 
berg, and  in  the  mining  school  at  Freiberg. 
D.  Sc,  Columbia,  1901;  LL.  D.,  Aberdeen,  1906. 
He  was  assistant  geologist  of  United  States 
geological  exploration  of  40th  parallel,  1867-77; 
geologist  in  the  service  of  the  Chinese  government, 
1878-79;  field  service  in  Rocky  mountains  and 
for  several  years  in  Yellowstone  national  park 
and  adjacent  country;  secretary,  national  acad- 
emy of  sciences,  since  1901,  and  member  of  many 
scientific  societies.  Author :  Descriptive  Geology; 
Geological  Exploration  of  40th  Parallel;  Geology 
of  the  Eureka  District;  Geology,  Yellowstone 
National  Park;  Tertiary  Volcanoes  of  the  Absaroka 
Range;   Geological  Atlas  of  Yellowstone  Park,  etc. 

Hahnemann  {h&'-ni-man),  Samuel  Christian  Fried- 
rich,  physician,  founder  of  the  homeopathic  sys- 
tem of  medicine,  was  born  at  Meissen,  Saxony, 
in  1755.  He  received  the  degree  of  M.  D.  at 
Erlangen  in  1779.  While  translating  Cullen's 
Materia  MeMca  from  English  into  German,  1790, 
he  noticed  a  similarity  between  the  effects  of 
Peruvian  bark  —  cinchona  —  upon  a  healthy 
person  and  the  results  of  certain  diseases  for  the 
cure  of  which  that  drug  was  used.  In  other 
words,  he  rediscovered,  quite  independently, 
Hippocrates'  old  "law  of  similars."  After  many 
experiments  he  became  convinced  of  the  truth 
of  the  principle  similia  similibus  curantur  — 
that  is,  the  cure  for  a  disease  is  the  very  drug 
that  would  in  a  healthy  individual  produce  the 
symptoms  of  such  disease.  Further  investigation 
caused  him  to  conclude  that  the  conventional 
doses  of  his  day  were  injurious,  and  this  led  him 
to  another  principle,  that  of  very  minute  doses, 
made  by  a  process  of  "potentization,"  described 
by  him  at  length  in  his  Organon,  1810,  which  work 
was  translated  into  many  languages.  He  encoun- 
tered much  opposition,  and,  after  having  prac- 
ticed medicine  at  Leipzig  for  more  than  thirty 
years,  was  driven  out  of  that  city,  1821,  by  the 
apothecaries  who  invoked  the  aid  of  the  German 
law  which  prohibited  physicians  from  dispensing 
their  own  prescriptions.  The  grand  duke  of 
Anhalt,  however,  appointed  him  court  physician, 
and  he  remained  at  Kothen,  occupying  that  posi- 
tion until  1835,  when  he  removed  to  Paris. 
Although  opinions  differ  very  widely  concerning 
the  accuracy  and  scientific  value  of  Hahnemann's 
investigations,  it  is  undeniable  that  he  was  a 
man  of  great  courage  and  perseverance.  He  not 
only  sacrificed  his  financial  interests  for  the  sake 
of  his  convictions,  but  he  made  many  painful 
experiments  upon  his  own  person.  He  died  in 
1843. 

Hakluyt  Qi&kf-l^t),  Richard,  English  author,  was 
bom  about  1552.  He  was  lecturer  on  cosmog- 
graphy  at  Oxford  university,  and  was  the  first 
to  teach  the  use  of  globes.  He  was  afterward 
professor  of  divinity,  and  in  1584—89  was  in 
Paris,  where  he  published  several  works.  On 
his  return  he  joined  Raleigh's  company  of  gentle- 
men adventurers  and  merchants  for  colonizing 
Virginia.     His  chief  work  is  The  principal  Navi- 


gations, Voyages,  and  Discoveries  of  the  English 
Nation,  conmionly  called  Hakluyt's  Voyages. 
Died,  1616. 

Haldane  {hOl'-d&n),  Bichard  Burdon,  British 
statesman  and  writer,  wa«  born  in  1856.  He 
was  educated  at  Edinburgh  academy  and  uni- 
versity and  at  Gottingen;  in  1879  was  called 
to  the  chancery  bar,  and  In  1890  waa  made  a 
queen's  counsel;  hon.  D.  C.  L.,  Oxfortl;  LL.  D., 
Edinburgh.  He  entered  parliament  in  1885  as 
member  for  HaddinKtonshire,  and  became  British 
secretary  of  state  for  war  in  1905.  He  trans- 
lated Schopenhauer  (with  Kemp,  1883-86), 
and  wrote  a  Life  of  Adam  Smith,  1887 ;  and  his 
Gifford  lectures  at  St.  Andrews  on  the  funda- 
mental problems  of  philosophy  and  theology 
were  published  as  The  Pathvxiy  'to  Reality,  1903. 
In  Education  and  Empire,  1902,  he  zealously 
insisted  on  educational  reform  as  essential  to 
national  well-being.  He  also  wrote  Essays  in 
Philosophical  Criticism,  etc. 

Haldeman  {hdl' -de-man),  Samuel  Stehman,  Ameri- 
can naturalist  and  philologist,  was  born  near 
Columbia,  Pa.,  1812.  He  was  assistant  on  the 
New  Jersey  geological  survey,  1836,  and  in  the 
Pennsylvania  geological  survey,  1837.  While 
engaged  thus  he  found  the  oldest  fossil  known 
at  the  time,  viz.,  Scolithus  linearis.  He  occupied 
the  chair  of  natural  history,  and  later  of  com- 
parative philology,  in  the  university  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  was  the  author  of  numerous  articles 
on  philology,  conchology,  entomology,  and 
palaeontology.  His  work,  Arudytic  Orthography, 
obtained  in  England  the  highest  Trevelyan  prize 
over  eighteen  competitors,  1858.  He  died  ia 
1880. 

Hale,  Edward  Everett,  Unitarian  clergyman, 
author,  was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  1822.  Ho 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  university,  1839; 
S.  T.  D.,  1879;  LL.  D.,  Dartmouth,  1901, 
Williams,  1904.  Studied  theology,  and  became 
minister  of  the  church  of  the  Unity,  Worcester, 
Mass.,  1846-56;  minister  of  South  Congrega- 
tional (Unitarian)  church,  Boston,  Mass.,  1856— 
1909;  chaplain  United  States  senate,  1902-09. 
He  actively  promoted  the  Chautauqua  move- 
ment, assisted  in  the  organization  of^  "Lend-a- 
Hand"  clubs,  and  was  a  prolific  editor  and 
writer.  Author:  (stories)  The  Man  Without  a 
Country;  Ten  Times  One  is  Ten;  In  His  Name; 
Mr.  Tangier's  Vacations;  His  Level  Best;  The 
Ingham  Papers;  Ups  and  Downs;  Philip  Nolan's 
Friends;  Fortunes  of  Rachel;  Four  and  Five; 
Crusoe  in  New  York;  Christmas  Eve  and  Christ- 
mas Day;  Christmas  in  Narragansett;  Otir 
Christmas  in  a  Palace,  etc.  ALso:  Sketches  in 
Christian  History;  What  Careert  Boy's  Heroes; 
The  Story  of  Massachusetts;  Sybaris  and  Other 
Homes;  For  Fifty  Years;  A  New  England  Boy- 
hood; If  Jesus  Came  to  Boston;  Memories  of  a 
Hundred  Years;  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson;  We, 
the  People;  New  England  Ballads;  Prayers  in 
the  United  States  Senate;  Foundation  of  the 
Republic,  etc.     Died,  1909. 

Hale,  Eugene,  United  States  senator  from  Maine, 
1881-1911,  was  bom  in  Turner,  Oxford  county. 
Me.,  1836.  He  received  an  academic  education: 
LL.  D.,  Bates  college,  Colby  university  ana 
Bowdoin  college ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  1857 ; 
county  attorney  of  Hancock  county  for  nine 
years;  member  of  Maine  legislature,  1867,  1868, 
and  1880;  member  of  congress,  1869-79.  Was 
appointed  postmaster-general  by  President  Grant, 
1874,  but  declined;  was  tendered  naval  port- 
folio by  President  Hayes,  but  declined ;  delegate 
to  national  republican  conventions,  1868,  1876, 
and  1880.  He  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
senate  to  succeed  Hannibal  Hamlin  in  1881, 
and  became  the  republican  floor  leader  of  the 
senate,  from  which  he  retired  in  1911. 


750 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Hale,  George  EUery,  American  astronomer,  was 
bom  at  Chicago,  Ill.j  1868.  He  was  graduated 
at  Massachusetts  institute  of  technology ;  studied 
at  Harvard  college  observatory,  1889-90,  uni- 
versity of  Berlin,  1893-94;  Sc.  D.,  Western 
university  of  Pennsylvania,  1897,  Yale,  1905; 
LL.  D.,  Beloit,  1904.  Director  Kenwood  astro- 
physical  observatory,  1890-96;  associate  pro- 
fessor astrophysics,  university  of  Chicago, 
1892-97,  professor  of  same,  1897-1905;  director 
Yerkes  ODservatory,  1895-1905^  director  solar 
observatory  of  Carnegie  institution  of  Washing- 
ton at  Mt.  Wilson,  Cal.  Joint  editor  Astronomy 
and  Astrophysics;  editor  Astrophysical  Journal 
since  1895.  He  has  written  many  papers  on 
the  sun,  stellar  spectroscopy,  etc. 

Bale,  Jolm  Parker,  American  statesman,  was  bom 
at  Rochester,  N.  H.,  1806.  He  was  graduated 
at  Bowdoin  college,  and  admitted  to  the  bar, 
1830;  was  elected  to  congress  in  1842  as  a  demo- 
crat, but  opposed  the  annexation  of  Texas.  He 
served  in  tne  United  States  senate,  1847-53  and 
1855-65,  and  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for 
the  presidency,  1852.  Was  minister  to  Spain, 
1865-69.     Died  at  Dover,  N.  H.,  1873. 

Bale,  Sir  Matthew,  English  lawyer  and  jurist,  was 
born    at    Alderley,     England.     1609.     He    was 

fraduated  at  Oxford,  studied  law  at  Lincoln's 
nn,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1637.  Though 
a  royalist,  he  was  appointed  head  of  the  com- 
mittee for  prevention  of  delays  and  expenses  of 
law  in  1652;  became  a  judge  of  common  pleas 
in  1654,  and  sat  in  parliament  until  the  restora- 
tion, when  he  was  matle  lord  chief  baron  of  the 
exchequer.  In  1671  he  became  lord  chief  justice, 
and  resigned  shortly  before  his  death.  He  wrote 
a  History  of  the  Pleas  of  the  Crovm,  DifficUes  Nuga, 
an  essay  on  Gravitation  of  Fluids,  History  of  the 
Common  Law  of  Englarid,  and  Contemplations, 
Moral  and  Divine.     Died,  1676. 

Bale,  Nathan,  American  patriot,  was  bom  in 
Coventry,  Conn.,  1755.  He  was  graduated  at 
Yale  college  in  1773,  and  devoted  himself  to  the 
cause  of  the  colonies  in  the  contest  with  Great 
Britain.  After  the  defeat  of  the  patriot  army  at 
Long  Island  he  endeavored  to  obtain  knowledge 
of  the  enemy's  plans  and  position  for  the  isforma- 
tion  of  Washington.  He  obtained  the  knowledge, 
but  was  arrested  by  the  British  before  he  could 
return,  and,  the  papers  containing  the  information 
being  found  on  his  person,  he  was  hanged  as  a 
"PXi  by  order  of  Sir  William  Howe,  1776.  His 
sentence  was  carried  into  effect  in  the  most 
unfeeling  manner;  he  was  refused  the  attendance 
of  a  clergyman,  and  the  letters  which  he  wrote 
to  his  mother  a  short  time  before  his  death  were 
destroyed.  His  last  words  were,  "I  only  regret 
that  I  have  but  one  life  to  lose  for  my  country." 

Bale,  Sarah  Josepha,  American  writer,  author  of 
Mary's  Lamb,  was  born  at  Newport,  N.  H.,  1790. 
On  her  husband's  death  in  1822  she  devoted 
herself  to  authorship,  and  became  in  1828  editor 
of  the  Ladies'  Magazine.  She  helped  to  procure 
the  employment  of  lady  medical  missionaries,  to 
complete  the  Bunker  Hill  monument,  and  sug- 
gested the  observance  of  Thanksgiving  day  in 
all  the  states.  Her  works  include  poems,  novels, 
biography  etc.     Died,  1879. 

Bal£vy  (d  -td-'ve'),  Jacques  Francois  Fromental, 
French  composer,  was  bom  at  Paris,  of  Jewish 
parentage,  1799.  He  studied  under  Berton  and 
Cherubini,  and  afterward  at  Rome.  The  first 
work  that  brought  him  any  considerable  reputa- 
tion was  La  Juive,  produced  at  the  Grand  Op4ra 
in  1835.  The  most  important  of  his  subsequent 
pieces  were:  La  Reine  de  Chypre,  Charles  VI., 
Le  Juif  Errant,  and  La  Magicienne.  Those 
executed  for  the  Op6ra  Comique  are  regarded 
as  his  most  successful;  the  principal  are:  Les 
Mousquetaires,  L'Eclair,  and  Le  Vol  d'Andorre. 


He  was  a  ereat  favorite  with  his  countrymen, 
but  his  style  was  so  purely  national  that,  in 
spite  of  his  great  dramatic  power,  he  did  not 
enjoy  a  great  celebrity  out  of  France  until 
recently.     He  died  in  1862. 

Hal£vy,  Ludovic,  French  novelist  and  dramatic 
author,  was  bom  at  Paris,  1834,  and  received  his 
education  at  the  Lyc6e  Louis  le  Grand.  He 
entered  the  service  of  the  government,  and  from 
1852  to  1858  was  employed  in  the  office  of  the 
minister  of  state.  He  was  chief  of  the  depart- 
ment for  Algiers  and  the  colonies,  and  in  1861 
was  apjjointed  to  edit  the  proceedings  of  the 
corps  l^f^islatif.  This  position  he  resigned  to 
devote  himself  to  the  drama.  He  was  the  libret- 
tist of  many  of  Offenbach's  operettas.  Under 
his  own  name,  and  with  various  collaborators, 
principally  M.  M.  L.  Battu,  Hector  Crimieux, 
and  Henri  Meilhac,  he  produced  Ba-La-Clan; 
Rose  et  Rosette;  Orphie  aux  Enfers;  La  Belle 
HAhie,  a  burlesque  of  ancient  Greek  life,  which 
had  a  great  success;  La  Barbe  Bleue;  La.  Grande 
Duchesse  de  Girolatein;  Froufrou;  L'Edi  de  la 
Saint  Martin;  La  Boulangere  a  des  icus;  Le 
Maride  la  Dibutante;  L'Abbi  Constantin;  Kari- 
kari,  etc.  In  1872  be  published  L' Invasion, 
personal  recollections  of  the  war;  and  in  1873, 
Madame  et  Monsieur  Cardinal.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  French  academy.     Died,  1908. 

Hallburton  (/uU'-{-6tlr'-<'n),  Thomas  Chandler, 
Canadian  humorist,  was  bom  at  Windsor,  Nova 
Scotia,  1796.  He  was  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  of  Nova  Scotia,  but  is  best  known  as  a 
satirical  writer.  In  1837  he  published  Tlte 
Clockmaker;  or  the  Sayings  and  Doings  of  Samuel 
Slick  of  Slickville,  which  became  very  popular. 
He  was  also  the  author  of  The  AttacfU,  or  Sam 
Slick  in  England,  which  was  the  result  of  a  visit 
to  that  country  in  1841.  In  1856  he  went  to 
England  to  reside  permanently,  and  in  1859 
entered  the  house  of  commons  as  member  for 
Launceston,  which  seat  he  held  until  within  a  few 
months  of  his  death.  Besides  the  works  already 
mentioned,  he  wrote:  The  Old  Judge,  or  Life 
in  a  Colony;  The  LOier  Bag  of  the  Great  Western; 
Traits  of  American  Humor,  and  several  other 
books.  He  died  at  Isleworth,  Middlesex,  Eng- 
land, 1865. 

Halifax,  Charles  Montagu,  Earl  of,  British  poet  and 
statesman  was  bom  at  Horton,  England.  1661. 
He  was  educated  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge. 
His  most  notable  ]>oetical  achievement  was  a 
parodv  on  Dryden's  Hind  and  Panther,  entitled 
The  'fovon  and  Country  Mouse,  1687,  of  which  he 
was  ioint-author  wth  Matthew  Prior.  He  was 
member  of  parliament  for  Maldon  in  1689,  and 
a  lord  of  the  treasury  in  1692,  and  in  that  year 
proposed  to  raise  a  million  sterling  by  wav  of 
loan  —  so  the  national  debt  was  established. 
In  1694  money  was  again  wanted,  and  Montagu 
suppUed  it  by  originating  the  bank  of  England, 
as  proposed  by  William  Paterson  three  years 
earlier.  For  tlus  service  Montagu  was  appointed 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  His  next  work  was 
the  recoinage  in  1695,  appointing  his  friend, 
Newton,  warden  of  the  mint,  and  raising  a  tax 
on  windows  to  pay  the  expense;  and  now  he  first 
introduced  exchequer  bills.  In  1697  he  became 
premier,  but  his  arrogance  and  vanity  soon  made 
him  unpopular,  and  ne  was  impeac&ed  in  1701, 
but  was  protected  by  the  lords  and  the  proceed- 
ings fell  to  the  ground.  He  was  president  of  the 
royal  society,  1695-98.     Died,  1715. 

Hall,  Charles  Cuthbert,  American  theologian,  was 
bom  in  New  York  city,  1852;  graduated  at 
Williams  college,  1872;  D.  D.,  university  of  New 
York,  1890,  Harvard,  1897,  Yale,  1901 ;  LL.  D., 
Union,  1905.  Studied  theology  at  Union  theo- 
logical seminary  and  in  London  and  Edinburgh. 
Pastor  of  Union  Presbyterian  church,  Newburgh, 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


761 


N.  Y.,  1875-77;  First  Presbyterian  church, 
BrookljTi,  1887-97.  barrows  lecturer  for  the 
university  of  Chicago  to  the  far  East,  1902-03 
and  1906-07 :  Cole  lecturer,  Vanderbilt  university, 
1905;  Noble  lecturer  at  Harvard,  1906.  As 
president  of  Union  theological  seminary  from 
1897  until  his  death,  he  did  much  to  encourage 
higher  criticism,  and  to  induce  a  more  liberal 
and  broadminded  attitude  on  the  part  of  the 
cler^.  Author:  Christian  Belief  Inter preied  by 
Christian  Experience;  Redeemed  Life  After  Death; 
Universal  Elements  of  the  Christian  Religion; 
Christ  and  the  Human  Race;  The  Witness  of 
Oriental  Consciousness  to  Jesus  Christ.  Died, 
1908. 

Hall,  Charles  Martin,  inventor,  manufacturer,  was 
born  at  Thompson,  Ohio,  1863;  graduated  at 
OberUn  college,  1885,  A.  M.,  1893.  Invented  the 
electrolytic  process  for  the  manufacture  of 
aluminum  now  universally  used,  1886;  com- 
menced its  commercial  manufacture  in  1888  with 
Pittsburgh  reduction  company,  now  the  Alumi- 
num company  of  America.  The  Hall  process  has 
reduced  the  price  of  aluminum  so  as  to  make  it  a 
common  metal  of  conmierce,  whereas  it  was  for- 
merly as  costly  as  silver  and  little  used.  Member 
of  many  scientific  societies;  trustee  of  Oberlin 
college. 

Hall,  Granville  Stanley,  American  educator  and 
psychologist,  president  of  Clark  university  since 
1888,  was  born  in  Ashfield,  Mass.,  1846.  He  was 
graduated  at  Williams  college,  1867;  Ph.  D., 
Harvard,  1878;  LL.  D.,  university  of  Michigan, 
1888,  Johns  Hopkins.  1902;  was  professor  of 
psychology,  Antioch,  Ohio,  college,  1872-76; 
studied  in  Berlin,  Bonn,  Heidelberg,  and  Leipzig; 
lecturer  on  psychology  in  Harvard  and  Williams, 
1880-81 ;  professor  of  psychology,  Johns  Hoplcins, 
1881-88.  Author:  Aspects  of  German  Culture; 
Hints  Toward  a  Select  arid  Descriptive  Bibliography 
of  Education  (with  John  M.  Mansfield) ;  Adoles- 
cence (2  vols.) ;  Youth  —  Its  Education,  Regimen, 
and  Hygiene,  etc.  Editor  and  founder  of  The 
American  Journal  of  Psychology ;  editor  Tfie  Ped- 
agogical Seminary,  and  Am,erican  Journal  of 
Religious  Psychology  and  Educaiion. 

Hall,  Marshall,  British  physician  and  physiologist, 
was  born  at  Basford,  Notts,  1790.  After  study- 
ing at  Edinburgh,  Paris,  Gottingen,  and  Berlin, 
he  settled  at  Nottingham  in  1815,  and  practiced 
in  London  from  1826  until  1853.  He  did  impor- 
tant work  in  regard  to  the  reflex  action  of  the 
spinal  system,  and  his  name  is  also  associated 
with  a  standard  method  of  restoring  suspended 
respiration.  He  wrote  on  diagnosis,  the  circula- 
tion, and  finally  an  important  article  on  Respira- 
tion and  Irritability.     Died,  1857. 

Hall,  Robert,  British  pulpit  orator,  was  bom  at 
Amsby  near  Leicester,  England,  1764.  He  was 
educated  at  a  Baptist  academy  at  Bristol,  and 
at  Aberdeen  umversity.  He  was  appointed 
assistant  minister  and  tutor  in  the  Bristol  acad- 
emy, where  his  eloquent  preaching  attracted 
overflowing  audiences.  He  went  in  1790  to 
Cambridge,  where  he  rose  to  the  highest  rank  of 
British  pulpit  (frators.  In  1807  he  settled  in 
Leicester,  but  returned  in  1826  to  Bristol.  He 
died  in  1831.  Among  his  writings  are  Apology 
for  the  Freedom  of  the  Press  and  On  Terms  of 
Communion. 

Hallam,  Henry,  English  historian  and  critic,  was 
bom  at  Windsor,  England,  1777.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  1799,  and  subse- 
quently called  to  the  bar.  LL.  D.,  D.  C.  L., 
Cambridge  and  Oxford  respectively.  His  first 
writings  were  pubUshed  in  periodicals,  especially 
the  Edinburgh  Review;  afterward  he  was  dis- 
tinguished among  the  literary  men  of  Europe  for 
his  extensive  and  profound  learning,  jwwers  of 
generalization,    taste,    judgment,    and   conscien- 


tiousness, exhibited  in  n  ■ucccssion  of  (rcat 
works,  the  principal  of  which  are  Europe  During 
the  Middle  Ages,  The  Constitutional  Hiatary  of 
England,  and  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
Europe.  During  the  greater  portion  of  his  long 
life  he  lived  in  London  in  privacy,  devoting  him- 
self to  linguistic  and  historical  studies.  Died. 
1859. 

Halleck,  FltE-Greene,  American  poet,  was  bom  in 
Guilford,  Coiuj.^  1790.  He  began  life  as  a  clerk 
in  a  store  in  Guilford,  but  when  twenty-one  years 
old  he  was  employed  in  a  banking-house  in  New 
York,  where  he  remained  many  years.  At  last 
he  became  a  clerk  for  John  Jacob  Astor,  who 
left  him  in  his  will  $200  a  year  for  the"  rest  of  his 
life.  Halleck  then  retired  from  active  life  and 
passed  the  rest  of  his  days  at  Guilford.  His 
eariiest  poem,  Twilight,  was  printed  in  1818. 
Five  years  after  he  visited  Europe,  and  in  1827 
a  volume  of  his  poetry,  including  Marco  Bozzaris, 
appeared.  He  died  in  Guilford,  1867.  A  bronze 
statue  of  him  has  been  erected  in  Central  park, 
New  York. 

Haller  (hdl'-ir),  Albrecht  von»  Swiss  anatomist, 
botanist,  physiologist,  and  poet,  was  bom  at 
Bern,  1708.  He  started  practice  in  1729,  but  in 
1736  was  called  to  a  chair  at  Gottingen.  Here  he 
organized  a  botanical  garden,  an  anatomical  mu- 
seum and  theater,  and  an  obstetrical  school; 
helped  to  found  the  academy  of  sciences;  wrote 
anatomical  and  physiological  works;  and  took 
an  active  part  in  the  literary  movement.  In  1753 
he  resigned  and  returned  to  Bern,  where  he 
became  magistrate.  After  this  he  wrote  three 
political  romances,  and  prepared  four  large  works 
on  the  bibliography  connected  with  botany, 
anatomy,  surgery,  and  medicine.  His  poems 
were  descriptive,  didactic,  and  (the  best  of  them) 
lyrical.     Died,  1777. 

Halley,  Edmund,  English  astronomer,  was  born  in 
1656.  He  went  to  St.  Helena  in  1676  to  study 
the  southern  heavens,  and  in  1679  published  his 
Catalogue  Stellarum  AuMralium,  containing  the 
positions  of  360  stars,  and  numerous  other  obser- 
vations. In  1679  the  royal  society  sent  him  to 
Dantzic  to  settle  the  controversy  between  Hooke 
and  Hevelius.  In  1681,  near  Paris,  he  discovered 
the  comet  known  by  his  name;  his  prediction 
of  its  return  was  the  first  of  the  kind  that  proved 
correct.  In  1683  he  published  his  Theory  of  the 
Variation  of  the  Magnetic  Compass,  and  from  an 
examination  of  Kepler's  laws  of  the  planetary 
motions  inferred  that  the  centripetal  force  always 
varies  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance. 
He  prevailed  on  Sir  Isaac  Newton  to  complete 
his  Principia,   the   first   volume   of  which  was 

Erinted  by  Halley  at  his  own  expense.  In  1692 
e  published  his  modified  theory  of  the  changes 
in  the  magnetic  variation,  and  obtained  from 
King  William  the  appointment  of  captain  of  a 
vessel,  in  which  in  two  successive  voyages  he 
finished  his  experiments.  In  1703  he  was  chosen 
Savilian  professor  of  geometry  at  Oxford.  In 
1721,  after  the  death  of  Flamsteed,  he  was 
appointed  astronomer  royal;  and  he  continued 
for  twenty  years,  without  an  assistant,  to  carry 
on  the  operations  of  the  Green\v'ich  observatory. 
In  1721  he  pubUshed  his  method  of  finding  the 
longitude  at  sea,  and  in  1725  drew  up  his  tables 
for  computing  the  places  of  the  planets,  which 
did  not  appear  until  1749.  Died,  1742. 
HaUiwell-Phillipps  (hOl'-ir-w&.-fll'-lps),  James  Or- 
chard, English  Shakespearian  scholar  and  anti- 
quary, was  bom  at  Chelsea,  1820.  He  studied 
at  Jesus  college,  Cambridge.  His  studies  em- 
braced the  whole  field  of  our  earlier  literature, 
and  in  1839  he  became  fellow  of  the  royal  ana 
antiquarian  societies.  Gradually  he  concentrated 
himself  upon  Shakespeare  alone,  and  more  par- 
ticularly upon  the  facts  of  his  life,  the  successive 


752 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


editions  of  his  OvMines  of  the  Life  of  Shakegpeare 
recording  the  growing  results  of  his  discoveries. 
In  1872  he  added  to  Halliwell  the  surname  of 
Phillipps,  that  of  his  first  wife,  a  Worcestersiiire 
heiress.  He  accumulated  in  iiis  house,  Holling- 
bury  Copse,  near  Brighton,  an  unrivaled  collec- 
tion of  Shakespearian  books,  MSS.,  and  rarities, 
and  gave  princely  benefactions  to  Edinburgh 
university,  Stratford,  and  Birmingham.  Besides 
his  sumptuous  folio  edition  of  Shakespeare,  he 
published  Nursery  Rhymes  and  Tales  of  England 
and  Dictionary  of  Archaic  and  Provincial  Words. 
Died,  1889. 

Hals  (hJils),  Frans,  the  elder,  portrait  and  genre 
painter,  was  bom,  probably  at  Antwerp,  between 
1580  and  1584.  He  settled  in  Haarlem  about 
1604,  and  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Dutch 
school  of  genre-painting  His  subjects  of  feast- 
ing and  carousal  are  treated  with  marvelous 
vivacity  and  spirit.  His  works  are  distributed 
among  the  chief  galleries  of  England  and  the 
continent.     He  died  at  Haarlem,  1606. 

Hamerton  {h&m'-ir-tun),  Philip  Gilbert,  English 
writer  on  art,  was  born  at  Laneaide,  Oldham,  the 
son  of  a  solicitor  at  Shaw^  1834.  He  began  as 
an  art-critic  by  contributmg  to  the  Fine  Arts 
Quarterly  and  Saturday  Review,  and  published  a 
volume  of  poems  on  The  Isles  of  Loch  Awe. 
Subsequently  appeared  A  Painter's  Camp  in  the 
Highlands;  Etching  and  Etchers;  Contemporary 
French  Painters;  and  Painting  in  France  after 
the  Decline  of  Classicism.  From  1869  he  edited 
the  Portfolio.  The  Intellectual  Ldfe,  published  in 
1873,  is  a  volume  of  letters  of  advice  addreaoed 
to  literary  aspirants  and  others;  Human  Inter- 
course is  a  volume  of  essays  on  social  subjects; 
The  Graphic  Arts,  finely  illustrated,  is  a  treatise 
on  drawing,  painting,  and  engraving;  Land- 
acape^  a  superbly-illustrated  volume,  sets  forth 
the  influence  of  natural  landscape  on  man. 
Among  his  other  works  are  two  lives  of  Turner, 
Portfolio  Papers;  French  and  English;  Man  in 
Art;  The  Mount;  and  two  novels.  He  died  at 
Boulogne-sur-Seine,  1894. 

Bamllcar  Barca  (hO-mU'-kar  b&r'-ka),  Carthaginian 
general,  was  bom  shortly  before  the  first  Punic 
war.  While  very  young  he  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  Carthaginian  forces  in  Sicily  in 
247  B.  C,  at  which  time  the  Romans  had  pos- 
session of  almost  all  the  land.  His  first  care  was 
to  discipline  his  infantry  thoroughly;  he  then 
established  himself  on  Mount  Ercte  (now  Pelle- 
grino,  near  Palermo),  and  from  this  point  made 
pillaging  excursions  in  all  directions,  sending  his 
privateers  along  the  coast  of  Italy  as  far  north  as 
Cumse,  thus  obtaining  abundant  supplies  for  his 
troops.  From  this  position  the  Romans  endeav- 
ored to  dislodge  him,  but  in  vain.  After  three 
years  he  left  Ercte  and  established  himself  on 
Mount  Eryx,  keeping  up  his  communication  with 
Drepanum  and  tne  sea,  where  the  same  tactics 
were  repeated  on  both  sides,  and  with  the  same 
w^ant  of  success  on  the  part  of  the  Romans. 
But  the  Carthaginian  admiral  having  been 
totally  defeated  off  the  ^Egates  islands,  241 
B.  C,  Hamilcar  was  compelled  to  abandon  his 
fortress  and  evacuate  Sicily.  He  was  next 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  Cartha- 
ginian army,  and  was  engEiged  for  some  time  in 
■wars  with  the  neighboring  tribes,  which  were 
abruptly  ended  by  his  entering  upon  the  Spanish 
campaign  in  (probably)  236  B.  C.  His  great 
aim  was  to  found  a  new  empire  in  Spain,  Irom 
-which,  as  his  basis,  he  might  assail  the  Romans. 
He  marched  west,  while  the  fleet  under  his  son- 
in-law,  Hasdmbal,  cruised  along  the  coast;  he 
then  crossed  over  at  the  strait  of  Gibraltar,  and 
made  war  on  Spain.  He  spent  nine  years  in 
Spain,  and  at  length,  in  228  B.  C,  met  his  death 
on  the  field  of  battle  while  fighting  against  the 


Vettones.  His  military  genius  is  considered 
scarcely  inferior  to  that  of  his  son  Hannibal. 
Hamilton,  Alexander,  celebrated  American  states- 
man, was  born  in  the  West  India  island  of 
Nevis,  1757,  son  of  a  Scotch  merchant  who  had 
married  a  young  French  widow.  His  father 
soon  failed  in  business,  and  Alexander,  at  the  age 
of  twelve,  had  to  enter  the  counting-house  of  a 
rich  American  merchant.  His  extraordinary 
abilities,  however,  induced  some  of  his  friends 
to  procure  for  him  a  better  education  than 
could  be  secured  at  home.  He  was  accordingly 
sent  to  a  grammar-school  at  Elizabethtown,  N.  J. ; 
and  shortly  afterward  entered  Columbia  college, 
New   York.     On   the   first   appearance  of   disa- 

?;reement  between  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies, 
lamilton,  still  a  schoolboy,  and  barely  eighteen, 
wrote  a  series  of  papers  in  defense  of  the  rights 
of  the  latter,  which  were  at  first  taken  for  the 
production  of  the  statesman  Jay,  and  whick 
secured  for  the  writer  the  notice  and  considera- 
tion of  the  popular  leaders.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  he  obtained  a  commission  as  captain  of 
artillery  gained  the  confidence  of  Washington. 
was  made  nis  aide-de-camp  in  1777,  and  acquired 
the  greatest  influence  with  him  as  his  friend  and 
advuer.  On  the  termination  of  the  war  he  left 
the  service  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  and,  betaking 
himself  to  legal  studies,  soon  became  one  of  the 
most  eminent  lawyers  in  New  York.  In  1782 
he  was  elected  by  the  state  of  New  York  a  repre- 
sentative to  the  continental  congress;  in  1786 
he  became  a  member  of  the  New  York  legisla- 
ture; and  in  1787  he  was  appointed  one  of  the 
delegates  to  the  convention  wiiich  met  at  Phila- 
delphia, for  the  purpose  of  revising  the  articles 
of  confederation.  In  conjunction  with  Madison, 
he  had  the  most  important  share  in  drawing  up 
the  constitution  aften^ard  adopted.  He  was  a 
strong  supporter  of  the  federal,  as  opposed  to  the 
democratic  party:  and,  along  with  Jay  and 
Madison,  defendea  the  constitution  against  all 
attacks,  by  a  series  of  letters  in  the  New  York 
Daily  Advertiser,  afterward  collected  and  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  The  Federalist.  On  the 
establi.shment  of  the  new  government  in  1789, 
with  Washington  as  president,  Hamilton  was 
appointed  secretary  or  the  treasury.  The  dis- 
order of  the  public  credit  and  the  lack  of  ofiicial 
accounts  of  the  state  treasury  rendered  this 
office  one  of  peculiar  difficulty.  In  order  to 
reestablish  public  credit,  he  carried,  in  spite  of 
much  opposition,  a  measure  for  the  funding  of 
the  domestic  debt,  founded  a  national  bank, 
rearranged  the  system  of  duties,  and  altogether 
showed  himself  one  of  the  greatest  of  American 
financiers.  In  1795  he  resigned  his  office,  and 
resumed  the  practice  of  law  in  New  York. 
When  the  war  with  France  broke  out  in  1798, 
he  was,  according  to  the  wish  of  Washington, 
made  major-general  of  the  United  States  army; 
and,  on  the  death  of  Washington,  he  succeeded  to 
the  chief  command.  When  peace  was  restored, 
he  returned  to  his  civil  duties,  but  became 
involved  in  a  political  quarrel  with  Aaron  Burr. 
This  difference  unhappily  culminated  in  a  duel 
in  which  Hamilton  received  a  wound  of  which 
he  died  the  following  day,  July  12,  1804. 
Hamilton,  Allan  McLane,  American  physician, 
great-grandson  of  General  Philip  Schuyler  and 
grandson  of  Alexander  Hamilton,  was  born  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1848.  He  was  graduated  at 
the  college  of  physicians  and  surgeons,  New 
York,  1870;  became  a  health  inspector,  1873; 
later  was  physician  in  charge  of  the  New  York 
state  hospital  for  diseases  of  the  nervous  systenij 
and  visiting  physician  to  the  epileptic  and 
paralytic  hospital  on  Blackwell's  island,  N.  Y. : 
1900-^,  professor  of  mental  diseases  in  Cornell 
university     medical     college,     New     York.     He 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


753 


was  appointed  health  officer  of  the  port  of  New 
York  ia  1889.  Author:  Clinical  Electro-Thera- 
peutics; Nervous  Diseases;  Medical  Jurispru- 
dence; A  System  of  Legal  Medicine;  Railway 
and  Other  Accidents;  and  many  articles  in 
medical  journals. 

Hamilton,  Most  Rev.  Charles,  bishop  of  Ottawa, 
1896-1909,  archbishop  since  1909;  was  bom  at 
Hawkesbury,  1834.  He  was  educated  at  Mont- 
real high  school  and  University  college,  Oxford; 
D.  D.,  Bishop's  college,  1885;  D.  C.  L.,  Trinity 
college,  Toronto,  1885 ;  ordained,  1857 :  curate  of 
Quebec  cathedral,  1857-58;  incumbent,  St. 
Peters,  Quebec,  1858-64 ;  rector  of  St.  Matthew's, 
Quebec,  1864-85,  and  bishop  of  Niagara,  1885-96. 

Hamilton,  Sir  William,  Scottish  metaphysician, 
was  bom  at  Glasgow,  1788.  He  studied  at 
Glasgow  and  Oxford,  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
but  rarely  practiced.  He  became,  in  1821, 
professor  of  civil  history  at  Edinburgh,  and  pro- 
fessor of  logic  and  metaphysics  there,  1836—56. 
From  1836,  when  he  accepted  the  latter  pro- 
fessorship, he  was  widely  known  as  a  philo- 
sophical writer.  His  chief  books  were  an  edition 
of  Reid's  works.  Discussions  in  Philosophy, 
Literature  and  Education,  Metaphysics,  Logic, 
and  his  Lectures,  published  after  his  death.  He 
left  his  library  to  the  university  of  Glasgow. 
Died  at  Edinburgh,  1856. 

Hamilton,  Sir  William  Bowan,  British  mathema- 
tician, inventor  of  quaternions,  was  born  in 
Dublin,  1805.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity 
college,  Dublin,  and  at  nineteen  commenced 
original  investigation  in  conical  refractions.  In 
1827  he  was  appointed  professor  of  astronomy 
at  DubUn  and  Irish  astronomer-royal;  in  1835 
he  was  knighted.  His  earlier  essays  connected 
with  caustics  and  contact  of  curves  grew  into  the 
Theory  of  Systems  of  Rays,  which  helped  to 
confirm  the  undulatory  theory  of  light.  He 
published  many  important  treatises  and  papers, 
and  his  memoir  on  Algebra  as  the  Science  of 
Pure  Tim^  was  one  of  the  first  steps  to  his  great 
invention  of  quaternions.  Published  in  1853  a 
large   volume  of  Lectures.     He  died  in  1865. 

Hamlin,  Hannibal,  American  statesman,  was  bom 
in  Paris,  Me.,  1809.  He  practiced  as  a  lawyer 
many  years,  and  became  a  member  of  the  state 
legislature.  In  1842  he  was  elected  to  congress ; 
was  United  States  senator  from  1848  to  1857, 
when  he  was  elected  governor  on  the  republican 
ticket,  but  resigned  immediately  on  again  being 
elected  senator.  In  1861  he  became  vice-presi- 
dent under  Lincoln,  whose  views  he  shared.  He 
was  again  senator  from  1869  to  1881,  when  he 
was  named  minister  to  Spain,  1881-83.  He  was 
chiefly  instrumental  in  passing  the  "Wilmot 
proviso"  through  the  house  of  representatives. 
Died,  1891. 

Hammer,  WilUam  Joseph,  consulting  engineer, 
was  bom  in  Schuylkill  county.  Pa.,  1858;  was 
educated  in  public  schools  of  Newark,  N.  J., 
and  attended  the  university  and  technical 
school  lectures  abroad.  He  was  assistant  to 
Edward  Weston  in  Weston  malleable  nickel 
company,  Newark,  N.  J.,  1878;  in  1880  became 
an  assistant  to  Thomas  A.  Edison  in  the  labora- 
tory at  Menlo  Park,  N.  J.,  and  was  sent  to 
England  the  following  year  to  become  chief  engi- 
neer of  the  English  Edison  company;  installed 
in  London  the  first  central  station  in  the  world 
for  incandescent  electric  lighting.  For  two 
years  he  was  chief  engineer  of  the  German 
Edison  cornpany,  returning  in  1884  to  take 
charge  of  Edison's  exhibits  at  the  Franklin 
institute  electrical  exposition,  the  Crystal  Palace 
electrical  exposition  and  the  Paris  exposition  of 
1889.  Was  manager  of  the  Boston  Edison 
electric  illuminating  company  for  a  year;  in- 
stalled the  8,000-light  plant  'of  Ponce  de  Leon 


hotel  at  St.  Augustine,  Florida.  Since  1890  ho 
has  been  engaged  in  practice  an  a  consulting 
engineer.     Member  of  many  scientific  societiM. 

Hammersteln  {htim'-irshtin),  Oscar,  theater  man- 
ager, was  bom  in  Berlin,  Germany,  1847.  Hs 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1863;  invented 
and  patented  several  IalH)r-8aving  devices;  wrote 
three  one-act  comedies  in  Gennan.  1868,  which 
were  produced  in  New  York.  He  oecame  leasee 
and  manager  of  Stadt  theater.  New  York.  1870; 
built  Harlem  opera  house,  1880 ;  later  Columbus 
theater,  Manhattan  opera  house,  Olympia  (now 
the  New  York)  theater,  Victoria  theater,  Belaaco 
theater,  and  New  opera  house. 

Hammond,  James  Bartiett,  typewriter  inventor, 
was  born  in  Boston,  1839.  He  was  graduatea 
at  the  university  of  Vermont,  1861;  was  news- 
paper correspondent  during  civil  war;  graduate 
of  Union  theological  seimnary,  1865 ;  studied 
philosophy  and  science  at  university  of  Halle. 
Germany;  devoted  many  years  to  mechanical 
experiments;  patented,  1880,  a  typewriting 
machine  made  on  scientific  principles;  intro- 
duced "Ideal"  keyboard  and  true  alignment  in 
the  Hammond  typewriter;  put  machine  on 
market,  1884,  and  won  highest  honors  in  com- 
petitions. Collaborator  on  American  translation 
of  Lange's  Commentary  on  The  Psalms,  1884. 
Died,  1913. 

Hammond,  Jolin  Hays,  mining  engineer,  was  born 
in  San  Francisco,  1855.  He  was  grs^uated  at 
the  Sheffield  scientific  school,  Yale,  1876 ;  M.  A.. 
Yale;  pursued  a  mining  course  at  royal  school 
of  mines,  Freiberg,  Saxony.  Special  expert  of 
United  States  geological  survey,  1880,  exfunining 
California  gold  fields;  later  in  Mexico,  and  after- 
ward consulting  engineer  of  Union  iron  works, 
San  Francisco,  and  to  Central  and  Southern 
Pacific  railways.  He  has  examined  properties 
in  all  parts  of  the  world;  became  consulting 
engineer  for  Bamato  Bros.,  1893,  and  later  for 
Cecil  Rhodes,  of  whom  he  became  a  strong  8U{>- 
porter.  Was  consulting  engineer  of  consolidated 
gold  fields  of  South  Africa,  British  South  .\frica 
company,  and  the  Randfontein  Estates  gold 
niining  company.  Was  one  of  four  leaders  in 
reform  movement  in  the  Transvaal,  1895-96; 
after  Jameson  raid  (with  which  he  was  not  in 
sympathy),  he  was  arrested  and  sentenced  to 
death.  Sentence  was  afterward  commuted  to 
fifteen  years'  imprisonment;  smd  later  he  was 
released  on  payment  of  a  fine  of  $125,000.  He 
then  went  to  London  and  became  interested  in 
many  large  mining  companies.  Has  traveled 
extensively,  examining  mines  in  United  States 
and  Mexico.  Special  ambassador  to  coronation 
of  King  George  V.  of  England,  1911. 

Hanmiond,  William  Alexander,  American  physi- 
cian, was  born  in  Annapolis,  Md.,  1828.  He  was 
graduated  from  the  medical  department  of  the 
university  of  the  city  of  New  York,  and  entered 
the  United  States  army  in  1848  as  assistant 
surgeon.  In  1860  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  anatomy  and  physiology  in  the  university  of 
Maryland.  At  the' beginning  of  the  civil  war 
he  resigned  his  professorship,  and  entered  the 
army  as  an  assistant  surgeon.  When  the  medical 
bureau  was  organized,  in  1862,  he  was  appointed 
surgeon-gener^  of  the  army,  with  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general,  and  served  as  such  until  1864. 
In  that  year  he  was  court-martialed  and  dis- 
missed from  the  army,  but  in  1878  was  reinstated. 
He  practiced  his  profession  in  New  York,  where 
he  made  a  specialty  of  nervous  diseases.  From 
1867  to  1873  he  was  professor  in  Bellevue  hos- 
pital medical  college;  and  from  1873  to  1882  in 
New  York  university.  He  published  Diseasea 
of  the  Nervous  System,  Insanity  in  its  Relation  to 
Crime,  On  Certain  Conditions  of  Nervou*  D»- 
rangement,  etc.     Died,  1900. 


764 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Hampden,  John«  celebrated  English  patriot,  was 
born  in  London  in  1594.  He  graduated  at  Ox- 
ford, studied  law,  and  in  1621  entered  the  house 
of  commons  as  member  for  the  borough  of  Gram- 
pound.  In  lti27,  for  refusing  to  pay  his  pro- 
portion of  the  general  loan  which  the  king 
attempted  to  raise  on  his  own  authority,  Hamp- 
den was  committed  to  close  imprisonment  m 
the  Gatehouse.  Subsequently  he  was  removed 
to  Hampshire,  but,  with  others,  was  uncon- 
ditionally liberated  by  order  of  council.  After 
the  dissolution  of  the  parliament  of  1628-29 
he  retired  to  his  estate,  and  devoted  himself  to 
Btudy  and  to  country  sports  and  occupations. 
In  the  short  parliament  of  1640  he  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  great  contest  between  the  crown 
and  tne  house  of  commons.  To  the  long  parlia- 
ment he  was  returned  both  for  Wendover  and 
the  county  of  Buckingham.  For  his  resistance 
to  the  king's  proceedings  he  was  one  of  the  five 
members  whom  Charles,  in  1642,  rashly  attempted 
in  person  to  seize  in  the  house  of  commons ;  and 
on  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  he  raised 
and  became  colonel  of  a  regiment  in  the  parlia- 
mentary army  under  the  earl  of  Essex.  He  was 
present  at  the  repulse  of  the  royalists  at  Southam, 
at  their  defeat  near  Aylesbury,  at  the  fight  of 
Edgehill,  and  at  the  assault  and  capture  of 
Reading.  Prince  Rupert  having  attacked  a 
parliamentary  force  at  Chinnor,  near  Thame, 
Hampden  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  few  cavalry 
that  were  rallied  in  haste  to  oppose  him,  and  in 
the  fight  that  ensued  at  Chalgrove  Field  received 
in  the  first  charge  a  wound,  of  which  he  died, 
1643. 

Hampton,  Wade,  American  politician  and  soldier, 
was  bom  at  Columbia,  S.  C,  1818.  He  was  a 
grandson  of  General  Wade  Hampton,  and, 
though  opposed  to  secession,  he  joined  the  con- 
federate army  and  raised  a  force  called  "Hamp- 
ton's legion.  These  troops  he  led  with  dis- 
tinction at  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run.  He 
subsequently  served  at  Seven  Pines,  Antietam, 
Gettysburg,  and  commanded  a  body  of  cavalry 
in  1865.  He  attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general,  and  was  thrice  wounded.  In  1877-79 
he  was  governor  of  South  Carolina;  United 
States  senator,  1879-91,  and  United  States 
commissioner  of  railroaos,  1893-97.  He  died 
in  1902. 

Hanaford  {Mn' -A-ftrd),  Phebe  Anne,  Universalist 
minister,  was  born  at  Nantucket,  Mass.,  1829. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  Captain  Georga  W. 
Coffin,  and  married,  in  1849,  Joseph  H.  Hanaford. 
She  taught  school ;  edited  the  Ladies'  Repository 
and  The  Myrtle,  1866-68;  became  a  lecturer  on 
literary  and  reform  topics,  and  was  ordained, 
1868,  the  first  woman  minister  ordained  in  New 
England.  She  held  pastorates  at  Hingham 
and  Waltham,  Mass.,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  and 
Jersey  City.  Author:  Life  of  Abraham  Lin- 
coln; Our  Martyred  President  (poem);  Life  of 
George  Peabody;  Lucretia,  the  Quakeress;  Leonette, 
or  Truth  Sought  and  Found;  The  Best  of  Books 
and  Its  History;  Field,  Gunboat  and  Hospital; 
Women  of  the  Century;  Life  of  Dickens;  Heart 
of  Siasconset;  From  Shore  to  Shore  and  Other 
Poems,  etc. 

Hancock,  John,  American  patriot,  was  bom  in 
1737.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  in  the  revolt 
in  Massachusetts,  the  seizure  of  his  sloop.  Liberty, 
being  the  occasion  of  a  riot  in  Boston.  He  was 
very  active  in  denouncing  the  "Boston  mas- 
sacre," and  was  one  of  the  persons  whose  seizure 
was  attempted  by  the  expedition  which  led  to 
the  battle  of  Lexington.  He  was  president  of 
the  continental  congress  from  1775-77,  and 
governor  of  Massachusetts,  1780-85,  1787-93, 
and  the  first  signer  of  the  declaration  of  inde- 
pendence.    He    presided    at    the    constitutional 


convention  of    1788,  and  favored  the  adoption 
of  the  proposed  federal  constitution.     Died,  1793. 

Hancock,  iVlnfield  Scott,  American  general,  was 
bom  in  Pennsylvania,  1824.  After  graduating 
at  West  Point  in  1844,  he  served  with  great 
gallantry  durine  the  Mexican  war.  Appointed 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  1861,  he  took 
part  in  the  campaign  on  the  Potomac,  fought 
at  Antietam,  and  commanded  a  corps  in  the 
battle  of  Gettysburg,  where  he  was  wounded. 
1863.  In  1804  he  became  brigadier-general 
in  the  regular  army,  in  1866  a  major-general, 
and  held  from  August,  1867,  until  March,  1868, 
the  command  of  the  5th  miUtary  district.  In 
1880  he  was  the  unsuccessful  democratic  nominee 
for  president.  At  his  death,  in  1886,  he  was  in 
command  of  the  department  of  the  East. 
I  Handel  (hdn'-dil),  George  Frederick.    See  page  164. 

Hanly,  J.  Frank,  lawyer,  ex-governor  of  Indiana, 
was  bom  in  St.  Joseph,  111.,  1863.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  common  schools,  Champaign  county, 
111.,  taught  school  for  nme  years  m  Warren 
county,  Ind.,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1889.  He  practiced  at  WilUamsport,  Ind.', 
1889-06;  was  elected  to  the  state  senate,  1890: 
elected  to  congress,  1894,  serving  one  term,  ana 
was  a  candidate  for  the  United  States  senate, 
1899.     He  was  governor  of  Indiana,  1906-09. 

Hanna,  Hugh  Henry,  was  bom  at  Lafayette,  Ind.. 
1848.  He  received  a  liberal  education  in  Unitea 
States  and  German]^;  hon.  M.  A.,  Harvard,  1900. 
Began  business  in  ms  father's  bank  at  Lafayette, 
Ind..  removed  to  Indianapolis,  1880,  and  is  now 

E resident  of  the  Atlas  engine  works.  He  became 
ead  of  monetary  movement  that  resulted  in 
gold  standard  legislation;  devoted  three  years 
to  the  work,  beginning  with  call  issued  by  board 
of  trade,  Indianapohs,  1896,  for  a  monetary 
conference;  organized  the  monetary  commission 
which  developed  plan  of  currency  reform,  part 
of  which  was  included  in  legislation  enacted  by 
cong|es«,  1900. 

Hanna,  Marcus  Alonio,  American  politician  and 
legislator,  was  bom  in  New  Lisbon,  Columbiana 
countv,  Ohio,  1837.  He  was  educated  in  the 
Clevefand  public  schools  and  at  Western  Reserve 
university,  leaving  college,  however,  before 
graduation.  He  began  his  career  in  bis  father's 
wholesale  grocery  bouse.  In  1867  entered  the 
firm  of  Rhodes  and  Company,  dealers  in  coal 
and  iron,  and  ten  years  later  the  firm  name  was 
changed  to  M.  A.  Hanna  and  Company.  He 
subsequently  engaged  in  lake  transportation, 
banking,  mining,  and  railroading.  He  was 
appointed  to  the  United  States  senate  as  a  repub- 
lican by  Governor  Bushnell,  1897,  to  fill  a  va- 
cancy caused  by  the  resignation  of  John  Sherman, 
who  resigned  to  accept  the  position  of  secretary 
of  state  in  President  McKinley's  cabinet,  and 
took  his  seat  March  5,  1897.  His  term  of  service 
under  the  appointment  expired  in  January,  1898. 
and  he  was  elected  for  a  full  term,  and  served 
until  his  death  in  1904.  He  proved  a  remarkable 
political  organizer,  was  a  man  of  excellent  judg- 
ment, and  an  effective  debater. 

Hannibal,  Carthaginian  general,  the  famous  son  of 
Hamilcar  Barca,  was  ^m  in  247  B.  C.  At  nine 
years  he  accompanied  his  father  on  his  Spanish 
expedition,  and  before  starting  swore  an  oath 
of  eternal  hatred  to  the  Roman  name.  He  spent 
two  years  in  contests  with  some  tribes  hitherto 
independent  of  Carthage.  He  attacked  Sagun- 
tum,  a  city  in  alliance  with  Rome,  for  making 
aggressions  on  the  Torboletes,  subjects  of  Car- 
thage. After  eight  months'  siege  the  city  was 
taken,  and  the  Romans,  after  unsuccessfully 
demanding  the  surrender  of  the  general  who  had 
thus  wantonly  violated  the  treatv,  declared  war 
in  218  B.  C.  Hannibal  started  from  New  Car- 
thage in  218  B.  C.  with  90,000  foot  and  12.000 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


755 


horse.  The  force  was  very  much  thinned  by 
contests  with  the  tribes  between  the  Ibenis  and 
the  Pyrenees.  From  the  Pyrenees  he  marched 
to  the  Rhone  without  opposition,  since  Scipio 
was  at  Massilia  (Marseilles),  four  days'  march 
from  the  point  where  Hannibal  crossed  the  river 
in  the  face  of  the  Celtic  hordes  who  sided  with 
the  Romans.  He  effected  the  passage  of  the 
Alps  in  fifteen  days,  in  spite  of  the  attacks  of 
the  mountain  tribes,  the  snow,  storms,  and  other 
difficulties.  He  first  subdued  the  Taurini,  a 
hostile  tribe,  took  their  chief  city  after  a  siege  of 
three  days,  and  thus  forced  into  alliance  with 
him  all  the  Ligurian  and  Celtic  tribes  on  the 
upper  course  of  the  Po.  Scipio,  having  returned 
from  Massilia,  took  command  of  the  army  in  the 
north  of  Italy,  and  first  met  Hannibal  on  the 
plain  near  the  river  Ticinus.  The  Romans  were 
entirely  routed,  and  Scipio,  severely  wounded, 
retreated  across  the  Po  Hannibal  next  inflicted 
a  severe  defeat,  near  Lake  Thrasymene,  on  the 
consul  Flaminius.  He  then  crossed  the  Apen- 
nines to  Picenum  and  Apulia,  and  thence  re- 
crossed  to  the  fertile  Campania,  which  he  rav- 
aged. He  wintered  in  Geronium,  and  in  June,  or, 
according  to  others,  in  August,  216  B.  C,  almost 
annihilated  a  Roman  army  of  90,000  men  under 
Terentius  Varro  and  iEmilius  Paulus.  In  this 
battle  about  50,000  are  said  to  have  fallen, 
including  .lEmilius  Paulus.  Hannibal  traversed 
Italy  in  all  directions,  surjprised  the  Roman 
generals,  defeated  their  armies,  captured  their 
towns,  such  as  Casilinum,  Arpi,  Tarentum,  Meta- 
pontum,  Thurii,  Locri,  and  many  others;  he 
defeated  Centenius  near  Capua;  C5n.  Fulvius  at 
Herdonea;  Fulvius  Flaccus  on  the  Anio;  Cris- 
pinuB  and  Marcellus  in  Lucania;  and  the  besieg- 
ing army  before  Locri ;  in  all  these  cases  the 
armies  were  almost  annihilated.  The  defeat  of 
Hasdrubal,  his  brother,  at  the  river  Metaurus, 
and  the  loss  of  his  army,  compelled  Hannibal  to 
confine  himself  to  the  mountainous  peninsula  of 
Bruttium,  where  for  four  years  he  resisted  all  the 
efforts  of  the  Romans  to  dislodge  him.  At 
length,  after  having  maintained  himself  in  Italy 
for  upward  of  fifteen  years,  he  was  recalled  to 
Africa,  to  defend  his  country  against  Scipio; 
but  notwithstanding  his  utmost  exertions  and 
the  bravery  of  his  veteran  troops  he  was  defeated 
near  Zama  with  a  loss  of  20,000  men,  202  B.  C. 
The  surrender  of  Hannibal  was  one  of  the  con- 
ditions of  peace;  but,  foreseeing  such  a  result, 
he  fled  to  Bithynia,  and,  seeing  no  hope  of 
escape,  he  committed  suicide  by  taking  poison, 
183  B.  C. 

Hapgood,  Isabel  Florence,  author,  was  bom  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  1851.  She  was  educated  at 
Worcester,  Mass.,  and  at  Miss  Porter's  school, 
Farmington,  Conn.,  1865-68.  Author:  The  Epic 
Songs  o]  Russia;  Russian  Rambles;  A  Survey  of 
Russian  Literature,  etc.  She  has«made  many 
translations  of  standard  works  from  Spanish, 
French,  Italian,  and  Russian  authors. 

Hapgood,  Norman,  editor,  author,  and  critic,  was 
bom  in  Chicago,  111.,  1868.  He  was  graduated 
at  Harvard,  189a,  A.  M.,  LL.  B.,  1893.  Author: 
lAterary  Statesmen;  Daniel  Webster;  Abraham 
Lincoln;  The  Stage  in  America,  etc.  He  was 
dramatic  critic  of  New  York  Commercial  Adver- 
tiser, and  Bookman,  1897-1902,  and  was  editor  of 
Collier's  Weekly,  1903-12. 

Harahan,  James  Theodore,  president  of  Illinois 
Central  railroad  company,  1906-12;  was  bom 
at  Lowell,  Mass.,  1843.  He  rose  step  by  step  ih 
the  service  of  the  Orange  and  Alexandria  railroad, 
the  Nashville  and  Decatur,  and  the  Louisville 
and  Nashville  from  1864  xmtil  he  became  general 
manager  of  the  latter,  1884.  He  was  then  succes- 
sively assistant  general  manager  of  the  Lake 
Shore  and  Michigan  Southern  railway,  general 


manager  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio,  and  later 
of  the  Louisville,  New  Orleans  and  Texas  railway 
until  1890,  when  he  became  second  vice-president 
of  the  Illinois  Centr»l  railroad.     Died,  1912. 

Harben,  William  Nathaniel,  American  novelist, 
was  bora  at  Dalton,  Ga.,  1858.  He  was  educated 
at  high  schools  and  privately.  He  has  traveled 
extensively,  and  was  associate  editor  of  the 
Youth's  Companion,  Boston,  1891-93.  Author: 
White  Marie;  Almost  Persuaded;  A  Mute  Cor^ 
fessor;  The  Land  of  the  Changing  Sun;  From  Clue 
to  Climax;  The  Caruthera  Affair;  Northern 
Georgia  Sketches;  The  Woman  Who  Trusted; 
WesterfeU;  Abner  Daniel;  The  SubstittUe;  The 
Georgians;  Pole  Baker;  Ann  Boyd;  Mam'  Lindy; 
Gilbert  Need,  etc. 

Harden  berg  (Adr'-den-WrK),  Karl  AuKUst,  Prince 
Ton,  Prussian  statesman,  was  bom  at  ICssenroda 
in  Hanover,  1760.  After  holding  appointments  in 
Hanover,  Brunswick,  Ansbach,  and  Bayreuth,  on 
Bayreuth's  union  to  Pmssia  in  1791  he  became  a 
Pmssian  minister,  and  in  1804  first  Prussian 
minister.  His  policy  was  to  preserve  neutrahty  in 
the  war  between  France  and  England;  but  in 
1806,  under  Napoleon's  influence,  he  was  dis- 
missed. In  1810  he  was  appointed  chancellor, 
and  addressed  himself  to  the  task  of  completing 
the  reforms  begun  by  Stein.  In  the  war  of  libera- 
tion he  played  a  prominent  part,  and  after  the 
treaty  of  Paris,  in  1814,  was  made  a  prince.  He 
took  part  in  the  congress  of  Vienna,  and  in  the 
treaties  of  Paris.  He  reorganized  the  council  of 
state,  of  which  he  was  ap]>ointed  president,  and 
drew  up  the  new  Prussian  system  of  imposts. 
To  Hardenberg  Prussia  is  mainly  indebted  for 
the  improvements  in  her  army  system,  the  abo- 
lition of  serfdom  and  the  privileges  of  the  nobles, 
the  encouragement  of  municipalities,  and  the 
reform  of  education.     Died,  1822. 

Hardie  (har'-dl),  James  Kelr,  British  labor  leader, 
member  of  parliament  for  Merthyr-Tydvil  since 
1900,  was  bom  in  Scotland,  1856.  He  was  a 
miner  near  Cumnock  in  Ayrshire,  and  from  1892 
to  1895  represented  the  independent  labor  party 
in  the  British  parliament  for  South-west  Ham. 
In  1895  he  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for 
East  Bradford.  He  was  appointed  editor  of  the 
Cumnock  News,  1882,  but  resigned  in  1886.  He 
visited  India  and  Australia,  1907;  founded  the 
Labor  Leader,  and  has  been  a  frequent  contributor 
to  magazines  and  reviews. 

Hardinge  {h&r'-dlng),  Henry,  Viscount,  English 
general,  governor-general  of  India,  was  bom  at 
Wrotham,  Kent,  1785.  Gazetted  an  ensign  in 
1798,  he  served  through  the  peninsula  war, 
being  wounded  at  Viraiera  and  Vittoria.  From 
1809  to  1813  he  was  deputy-quartermaster- 
general  of  the  Portuguese  army.  After  Napo- 
leon's escape  from  Elba,  Hardinge  was  appointed 
commissioner  at  the  Prussian  headquarters,  and 
was  severely  wounded  at  Ligny.  From  1820  to 
1844  he  took  an  active  share  in  parUamentary 
life,  being  secretary  of  war  under  Wellington  in 
1828,  and  afterward  chief  secretary  for  Ireland. 
In  1844  he  was  appointed  governor-general  of 
India.  During  the  nrst  Sikh  war  he  was  present 
at  the  battles  of  Mudki,  Ferozeshah,  and  Sobraon 
as  second  in  command  to  Lord  Gough.  After  the 
peace  of  Lahore  in  1845  he  was  created  a  viscount, 
and  granted  a  pension  of  5,000  pounds  by  the 
East  India  company,  as  well  as  one  of  3.000 
pounds  by  parliament.  Returning  to  England 
m  1848,  he  succeeded  Wellington  as  commander- 
in-chief^  in  1852,  and  in  1855  was  made  field- 
marshal.  He  died  at  South  Park,  Timbridge 
Wells,  1856. 

Hardy,  Arthur  Sberbume,  diplomat,  author,  was 
bom  at  Andover,  Mass.,  1847.  He  was  graduated 
at  West  Point,  1869;  sers'ed  one  year  in  3d 
United  States  artillery;    was  professor  of  civil 


766 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


engineering.  Iowa  college,  1871-73;  studied 
abroad  at  Ecole  des  Fonts  et  Chausse^s,  1873-74 ; 
professor  of  civil  engineering,  1874—78,  naathe- 
matics,  1878-93,  Dartmouth  college.  Was  editor 
of  the  Cosmopolitan  Magazine,  1893—95;  United 
States  minister  and  consul-general,  Teheran, 
Persia,  1897-99;  minister  of  United  States  to 
Greece,  Rumania,  and  Servia,  1899-1901;  to 
Switzerland,  1901-03,  and  to  Spain,  1903-05. 
Author:  Elements  of  Quaternions;  Elements  of 
Calculus;  Elements  of  Analytic  Geometry;  New 
Methods  in  Topographical  Surveying;  Imaginary 
Quantities;  also  the  following  novels:  But  Yet  a 
Woman;  Wind  of  Destiny;  Passe  Rose.  He  also 
wrote  Life  and  Letters  of  Joseph  H.  Neesima; 
Songs  of  Two  (poems);  His  Daughter  First,  etc. 

Hardy,  Thomas,  English  novelist,  though  educated 
as  an  architect,  was  born  in  Dorsetshire,  1840. 
The  scenes  of  his  novels  are  chiefly  laid  in  the 
south  of  England,  the  early  Wessex.  His  chief 
works  are:  Desperate  Remedies;  Under  the 
Greenwood  Tree;  Far  From  the  Madding  Crowd; 
The  Return  of  the  Native;  The  Trumpet  Major; 
The  Woodlanders;  The  Mayor  of  Casterbridge; 
Wessex  Tales;  Teas  of  the  D'Urbervilles;  Life's 
Little  Ironies;  Jude  the  Obscure;  The  Pursuit  of 
the  Well-Beloved;  Wessex  Poems;  Poems  of  the 
Past  and  the  Present;  The  Dynasts,  a  drama,  etc. 

Hare,  Augustus  John  Cuthbert,  English  author, 
was  born  in  Romcj  1834.  He  was  educated  at 
Harrow  and  at  Umversity  college,  Oxford.  He 
wrote  the  famous  and  often  reprinted  Walks  in 
Rome;  Wanderings  in  Spain;  Days  near  Rome; 
Cities  of  Northern  and  Central  Italy;  Walks  in 
London;  Cities  of  Southern  Italy  and  Sicily; 
Sussex,  etc.  Other  works  are  nls  delightful 
biography  of  Maria  Edgeworth ;  Memorials  of  a 
Quiet  Life,  Life  and  Letters  of  Baroness  Bunsen, 
Two  Noble  LiveSj  etc.     Died,  1903. 

Hare,  John,  English  actor,  was  bom  in  London, 
1844.  lie  was  educated  at  Giggleswick  grammar 
school,  Yorkshire,  and  obtained  an  engagement 
at  a  London  theater,  1865.  In  1875  he  became 
manager  of  the  Court  theater,  and  1879-88 
maintained  a  partnership  with  W.  H.  Kendal. 
From  1889  to  1895  his  tenancy  of  the  Garrick 
theater  was  important  for  his  production  of 
La  Tosca  and  A  Pair  of  Spectacles,  the  latter 
possibly  his  greatest  success.  He  visited  the 
United  States,  1896-97,  and  again  in  1900 

Harg^reaves  {h&r'-grevz),  James,  English  mechanic 
and  inventor,  was  bom  probably  at  Blackburn, 
England,  about  1745.  He  was  an  illiterate 
weaver  and  carpenter  of  Stanhill  near  that  town. 
In  1760  he  invented  a  carding-machine,  and 
about  1764  the  spinning-jermy.  But  his  fellow- 
spinners,  prejudiced  against  machinerj',  broke 
into  his  house  and  destroyed  his  frame  in  1768. 
He  removed  to  Nottingham,  where  he  erected  a 
spinning-mill,  but  his  patent  proved  invalid. 
He  continued  to  carry  on  business  as  a  yam 
manufacturer  until  his  death  in  1778. 

Harkness  {h&rk^-nis),  Albert,  American  classical 
scholar,  was  bom  at  Mendon,  Mass.,  1822.  He 
was  graduated  at  Brown  imiversity  in  1842, 
studied  at  Berlin,  Bonn,  and  Gottingen,  and 
became  professor  of  Greek  in  Brown  vmiversity 
in  1855.  He  published  a  series  of  Latin  classics, 
and  a  standard  Latin  Grammar  which  has  been 
widely  used.     Died,  1907. 

Harlan  (h&r'-lan),  John  Marshall,  jurist,  associate 
justice  of  the  United  States  supreme  court, 
1877-1911;  was  bom  in  Boyle  county,  Ky.,  1833. 
He  was  graduated  at  Centre  college,  Kv., 
1850;  LL.  D.,  Bowdoin,  1883,  Centre  college, 
and  Princeton,  1884.  Studied  law  at  Tran- 
sylvania university,  practiced  at  Frankfort,  Ky. ; 
was  elected  county  judge,  1858;  then  whig 
candidate  for  congress  in  Ashland  district, 
1859;    elector  on  Bell  and  Everett  ticket,  1860; 


removed  to  Louisville  in  1867  and  practiced  law 
there.  Colonel  of  10th  Kentucky  regiment  in 
Union  army,  1861-63;  attorney-general  of  Ken- 
tucky, 1863-67;  returned  to  practice;  republi- 
can nominee  for  governor,  1871;  def eatecl  then 
and  again  in  1875;  his  name  was  presented  by 
republican    convention    of    Kentucky    for    vice- 

E resident  of  United  States  in  1872;  member  of 
ouisiana  commission,  1877;  one  of  American 
arbitrators  on  Bering  sea  tribunal  which  met  in 
Paris,  1893;  was  vice-moderator  of  the  general 
assembly  of  the  Pre8b>'terian  church  in  1905; 
for  more  than  twenty  years,  was  lecturer  on 
constitutional  law  in  George  Washington  univer- 
sity.    Died.  1911. 

Harley,  Robert,  earl  of  Oxford  and  Mortimer, 
British  statesman,  was  born  in  1661.  He  entered 
parliamcnit  which  met  under  the  chieftainship 
of  Rochester  and  Godolphin  in  1(J89,  and  in  1701, 
was,  by  a  large  majonty,  elected  speaker.  He 
retained  this  poet  until  1704,  when  he  became 
secretary  of  state.  The  principal  act  of  his 
administration  was  the  treaty  of  Utrecht. 
Having  ceased  to  pay  court  to  Lady  Masham. 
Bolingbroke  succeeded  in  getting  him  dismissed 
in  1714.  Lord  Oxford  was  dismissed  on  a 
Tuesday  —  Bolingbroke  became  premier  —  and 
Queen  Anne  died  on  the  next  Sunday.  Both  of 
the  rivals,  formerly  colleagues,  were  justly  sus- 
pected of  having  conspired  to  restore  the  Stuarts 
on  the  death  of  the  queen.  When  George  I. 
was  proclaimed,  Bolingbroke  fied  to  France,  but 
Oxford  remained  to  meet  his  fate.  He  wsis  sent 
to  the  Tower,  and  after  two  years'  imprisonment 
brought  to  trial.  The  two  houses  quarreled  as 
to  the  mode  of  procedure,  and  the  commons 
having  in  anger  refused  to  take  any  part  in  the 
trial,  he  was  acquitted  and  released.  He  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life  in  retirement.     Died,  1724. 

Harmon,  Judson,  American  lawyer  and  statesman, 
was  bom  in  Hamilton  county,  Ohio,  1846.  He 
was  graduated  at  Denison  university,  1866,  and 
from  the  Cincinnati  law  school,  1809;  LL.  D., 
Denison,  1891.  He  was  judge  of  common  pleas 
court,  1876-78;  superior  court  of  Cincinnati. 
1878-88;  was  attorney  -  general  of  the  United 
States,  1895-97;  resumed  practice;  president  of 
Ohio  bar  association,  1897-98;  member  of  faculty 
law  department,  university  of  Cincinnati,  since 
1896.  In  1908  he  was  elected  governor  of 
Ohio.     He  was  reelected  in  1910. 

Harmsworth  (hArmz'-unirth),  Sir  Alfred  Charles 
William,  Lord  Northchfife,  first  baron  of  the 
isle  of  Thanet,  was  bom  in  Chapelizod,  county  of 
Dublin,  1865.  He  founded,  1888,  the  weekly 
periodical  Answers,  which  had  an  immediate 
success.  He  bought  the  London  News  in  1894, 
two  years  later  founded  the  Daily  Mail.  He 
subsequently  founded  the  Glasgow  Daily  Record, 
and  acquired  the  Leeds  Mercury  and  the  Bir- 
mingham Gazette.  He  visited  the  United  States 
in  1900  and  1909,  and  in  1905  was  elevated  to  the 
peerage  as  Lord  Northclifife. 

Hamack  (har'-ndk),  Adolf,  the  foremost  of  living 
church  historians;  professor  of  theology  and 
general  director  of  royal  library,  Berlin;  was 
bom  in  Dorpat,  Russia,  1851;  educated  at 
the  university  there,  1869-72;  became  privat- 
docent  at  Leipzig,  1874;  professor  extra- 
ordinary of  church  history  there  in  1876; 
ordinary  professor  of  church  history  at  Giessen, 
1879,  at  Marburg  in  1886  and  at  BerUn  in 
1889.  He  is  a  man  of  strong  and  inspiring 
personality,  and  his  lectures  are  attended  by 
hundreds  of  students  from  Europe  and  America. 
Is  the  author  of  many  standard  works  on  theology, 
the  most  important  of  which  are  his  Das  Wesen 
des  ChristerUum^,  translated  "What  is  Christian- 
ity?" and  the  Lehrbuch  der  Dogmengeschichte, 
translated  "History  of  Dogma." 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


767 


Hamed  (h^-nid),  Tlr^rlnia,  American  actress,  was 
bom  in  Boston,  Mass.,  1868;  joined  George 
Clark's  company  at  sixteen  and  appeared  as 
Lady  Despar  in  the  Corsican  Brotncrs.  She 
made  her  d^but  at  Fourteenth  street  theater, 
1890,  in  A  Lonq  Lane,  or  Green  Meadows.  She 
was  engaged  as  leading  woman  for  E.  H.  Sothem 
under  Daniel  Frohman's  management;  subse- 
quently played  leading  r61es  in  A.  M.  Palmer's 
stock  company.  Created  the  title  r61e  in  Trilby, 
Park  theater,  Boston,  1895,  and  starred  in  that 
play  one  season.  She  married  E.  H.  Sothem  in 
1896,  and  subsequently  appeared  in  leading 
parts  in  his  company.  In  1913  she  married  W. 
Courtenay. 

Haroun  al  Raschid  (Aa-r<J5n'  Hr-rdshed'),  famous 
caliph  of  Bagdad,  the  fifth  of  the  Abbasides 
dynasty,  was  bom  about  765.  He  invaded 
Greece,  and  obtained  from  the  empress  Irene 
70,000  gold  dinars;  he  was  successful  in  numer- 
ous Byzantine  wars;  in  801  he  sent  presents  to 
Charlemagne;  with  the  help  of  the  Barmecides 
Jahia  and  Jiaffar,  whom  he  murdered  in  803,  he 
raised  Bagdad  to  unprecedented  eminence  in 
learning,  commerce,  and  splendor,  and  it  is  around 
him  that  the  tales  of  the  Arabian  Nights  center. 
He  died  in  809,  when  on  an  expedition  against 
Khorassan. 

Harper,  William  Rainey,  American  educator  and 
scholar,  president  of  university  of  Chicago, 
1891-1906,  was  born  in  New  Concord,  Ohio, 
1856.  He  was  graduated  at  Muskingum  college, 
1870;  Ph.  D.,  Yale,  1875;  D.  D.,  Colby,  1891; 
LL.  D.,  university  of  Nebraska,  1893,  Yale,  1901, 
Johns  Hopkins,  1902.  He  was  principal  of 
Masonic  college,  Macon,  Tenn.,  1875-76;  tutor, 
1876-79;  principal  preparatory  department 
Denison  university,  Granville,  Ohio,  1879-80: 
professor  of  Hebrew,  Baptist  Union  theological 
seminary,  Chicago,  1879-86;  professor  of  Semitic 
languages,  Yale,  1886-91,  and  professor  of 
biblical  literature,  1889-91 ;  principal  Chautau- 
qua college  of  liberal  arts,  1885-91 ;  head  professor 
of  Semitic  languages  and  literature,  university  of 
Chicago,  1891-1906.  Author  of  many  text- 
books.    Died,  1906. 

Harraden  {h&r'-a-dln),  Beatrice,  English  novelist, 
was  bom  at  Harapstead,  1864,  youngest  daughter 
of  Samuel  Harraden.  She  was  educated  at 
Dresden,  Cheltenham  college.  Queen's  college, 
Bedford  college,  and  received  a  B.  A.  at  London 
university.  She  has  traveled  extensively  on  the 
continent  and  in  America.  Author:  Things  will 
take  a  Turn  (for  children) ;  Ships  that  Pass  in  the 
Night;  In  Varying  Moods;  Hilda  Strafford; 
Untold  Tales  of  the  Past  (for  children);  The 
Folder;  Katharine  Frensham;  The  Scholar's 
Daughter;  Interplay,  etc. 

Harrlman,  Edward  Henry,  capitalist,  railroad 
administrator,  was  bom  at  Hempstead,  L.  I., 
N.  Y.,  1848.  He  was  the  son  of  a  clergyman, 
received  a  common  school  education,  became  a 
broker's  clerk  in  Wall  street  at  fourteen,  and 
later  a  stock  broker  on  his  own  account.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  New  York  stock  exchange 
from  1870  until  his  death.  Was  president  and 
director  of  the  Southern  Pacific  railway ;  director 
of  Union  Pacific  railway  company,  Delaware  and 
Hudson  railroad.  Central  Pacific  railway,  Illinois 
Central  railway,  Western  Union  telegraph  com- 
pany. Pacific  Mail  steamship  company,  Oregon 
railroad  and  navigation  company,  Wells-Fargo 
and  Company,  Colorado  fuel  and  iron  company, 
National  city  bank,  etc.,  trustee  Ekjuitable  trust 
company,  and  director  in  many  other  corpora- 
tions. He  was  considered  the  greatest  genius  in 
railroad  organization  and  administration  in 
modem  times.     Died,  1909. 

Harringrton,  B.  J,,  Canadian  educator  and  scientist, 
Macdonald  professor  of  chemistry,  McGill  uni- 


versity, Montreal,  was  bom  at  St.  Andrews, 
province  of  Quebec,  Canada,  1848.  He  wa» 
graduated  at  McGill  university,  1869:  Ph.  I)., 
Yale  university,  1871;  LL.  D.,  McGill,  1899. 
He  was  appointed  lecturer  in  chemistry  at  McGill, 
1871,  and  the  following  year  succeeded  Dr.  T. 
Sterry  Hunt  as  chemist  and  mineralogist  to  the 
geological  survey  of  Canada.  He  held  both 
positions  for  seven  years,  and  then  retired  from 
geological  survey  in  order  to  devote  entire  time 
to  teaching  work  at  McGill.  Was  appointed 
David  Greenshields  professor  of  chemistry  And 
mineralogy  in  1883,  and  for  many  years  also 
lectured  on  both  mining  and  metallurgy.  He 
has  been  president  of  the  national  historical 
society  of  Montreal,  president  of  the  chemical 
and  physical  section  of  the  royal  society  of 
Canada;  vice-president,  chemical  section  of 
British  association,  etc.  Author:  Notea  on 
Dawsonite,  a  new  Carbonate;  Notes  on  the  Iron 
Ores  of  Canada  and  their  Development;  The  Sap 
of  the  Ashdeaved  Maple;  Life  of  Sir  WiUiam 
Logan,  First  Director  of  the  Geological  Survey 
of  Canada,  etc. 

Harris,  George,  American  educator,  president 
Amherst  college,  1899-1911;  was  bom  at  East 
Machias,  Me.,  1844.  He  was  graduated  at 
Amherst,  1866 ;  D.  D.,  Amherst,  1883,  Harvard, 
1899,  Yale,  1901;  LL.  D.,  Dartmouth,  1899; 
and  graduated  at  Andover  theological  seminary. 
1869.  He  was  pastor  Central  Congregational 
church,  Providence,  R.  I.,  1872-83;  professor 
Christian  theologv,  Andover  theological  seminar>', 
1883-99.  Preacher  to  Dartmouth  college,  1894- 
99;  to  Harvard^  1897-99.  Author:  Moral 
Evolution,  Inequality  and  Progress,  etc.,  and  was 
one  of  the  editors  of  Andover  Review,  1884-93. 

Harris,  James  Rendel,  English  biblical  scholar, 
director  of  studies  at  the  Friends'  settlement  for 
social  and  religious  study,  Woodbrooke,  near 
Birmingham,  England,  since  1903,  was  bom  at 
Plymouth.  He  was  graduated  at  Clare  college, 
Cambridge;  was  professor  at  Johns  Hopkins 
university,  1882-85;  professor  at  Haverford 
college,  1886-92;  university  lecturer  in  palaeog- 
raphy, Cambridge,  1893-1903;  professor  of 
theology,  university  of  Leyden,  1903-04 ;  presi- 
dent Free  church  council,  1907-08.  He  has 
traveled  extensively  in  the  East  in  search  of  MSS. 
Author:  Tfie  Teaching  of  the  Apostles  and  the 
Sibylline  Books;  Fragments  of  Philo;  The  Teach- 
ing of  the  Apostles;  Biblical  Fragments  from 
Mount  Sinai;  The  Diatessaron;  The  Apology  of 
Aristides;  Some  Syrian  and  Palestinian  Inscrip- 
tions; Stichometry;  Union  with  God;  The  Gospel 
of  the  Twelve  Apostles;  Tract  on  Triune  Nature 
of  God;  The  Guiding  Hand  of  God;  The  CuU  of 
the  Heavenly  Twins,   etc. 

Harris,  Joel  Chandler,  American  author,  was  bom 
in  Eatonton,  Ga.,  1848.  He  served  apprentice- 
ship to  printing  trade,  and  was  one  of  tne  editors 
of  the  Atlanta  Constitution  twenty-five  years. 
Author:  Uncle  Remus:  His  Songs  and  Hie  Say- 
ings; Nights  with  Unde  Remus;  Unde  Remus 
and  His  Friends;  Mingo;  Little  Mr.  Thimble- 
finger;  On  the  Plantation;  Daddy  Jake,  the 
Runaway;  Balaam  and  His  Master;  Mr.  Rabbit 
at  Home;  The  Story  of  Aaron;  Sister  Jane;  Free 
Joe;  Stories  of  Georgia;  Aaron  in  the  Wild  Woods; 
Tales  of  the  Home  Folks;  Georgia,  From  the  In- 
vasion of  De  Soto  to  Recent  Times;  Evening  Tales; 
Stories  of  HoTne  Folks;  Chronicles  of  Aunt  Minerva 
Ann;  On  the  Wings  of  Occasion;  The  Making  of 
a  Statesman;  Gabriel  ToUiver;  Wally  Wanderoon; 
A  Little  Union  Scout;  The  Tar  Baby  Story  and 
other  Rhymes  of  Uncle  Remus,    etc.      Died,  1908. 

Harris,  William  Torrey,  American  educator  and 
philosophical  writer.  United  States  commissioner 
of  education,  1889-1906,  was  bom  at  North 
Killingly,  Conn.,   1835.     He  entered  Yale  with 


758 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


the  class  of  1858,  but  did  not  graduate;  Ph.  D., 
Brown,  1893;  univeraity  of  Jena,  1899;  LL.  D., 
university  of  Miaeouri,  1870,  university  of 
Pennsylvania,  1894;  Yale,  1895;  Princeton, 
1896;  was  superintendent,  1867-80,  St.  Louis 
public  schools;  resigned  because  of  failing 
health;  settled  at  Concord,  Mass.,  and  became 
lecturer  at  school  of  philosophy.  Established, 
in  St.  Louis,  1867,  Journal  of  Speculative  Philos- 
ophy; was  chief  editor  of  the  Appleton  school 
readers ;  later  edited  Appleton  s  educational 
series.  Edited  department  of  philosophy  in 
Johnson's  Cyclopceaia,  writing  many  important 
articles;  and  was  editor-in-chief  of  Webster's 
International  Dictionary.  Author:  Introduction 
to  the  Study  of  Philosophy;  The  Spiritual  Sense 
of  Dante's  Divina  Comrnedia;  Hegel's  Logic,  A 
Book  on  the  Genesis  of  the  Categories  of  the  Mind, 
and  Psychologic  Foundation  of  EdvJcation.  He 
died  in  1909. 

Harrison,  Benjamin,  lawyer,  twenty-third  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  North 
Bend,  Ohio,  1833.  He  was  a  great-grandson  of 
Benjamin  Harrison,  signer  of  the  declaration  of 
independence,  and  grandson  of  William  Henry 
Harrison,  ninth  president  of  the  United  States. 
He  was  graduated  at  Miami  university,  1852; 
studied  law  in  Cincinnati;  removed  to  Indian- j 
apolis,  Ind.,  in  1854,  and  laid  the  foundation  of 
a  fine  legal  practice;  entered  the  Union  army 
in  1862,  serving  with  consnicuous  gallantry  in 
the  Atlanta  campaign,  finally  returning  to  civil 
life  at  the  close  of  the  war  with  the  rank  of  brevet  ■ 
brigadier-general;  was  the  republican  candidate 
for  governor  of  Indiana  in  1876,  but  was  defeated : 
entered  the  United  States  senate  in  1881,  ana 
in  1888  was  nominated  for  the  presidency  of  the 
United  States;  elected  in  the  ensuing  November, 
and  inaugurated,  1889.  His  administration  was 
quiet,  successful,  and  measurably  jxjpular.  It 
was  marked  by  the  amicable  settlement  of  the 
trouble  with  Chile  and  by  the  passage  of  the 
McKinley  tariff  bill.  In  1892  he  received  again 
the  nomination  in  the  national  republican  con- 
vention, but  by  this  time  the  able  and  persistent 
attacks  of  the  democracy  on  the  hi^h  tariff  pohcy 
led  to  a  general  revulsion  against  it,  and  he  was 
defeated  at  the  election  by  Grover  Cleveland. 
He  thereupon  pursued  a  private  law  practice, 
occasionally  giving  public  addresses.  He  died 
in  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  1901. 

Harrison,  Charles  Custis,  American  educator, 
provost  university  of  Pennsylvania,  1895-1911. 
was  bom  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1844.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  university  of  Pennsvlvania, 
1862;  LL.  D.,  Columbia,  1895,  Princeton,  1896, 
Yale,  1901.  Was  in  active  business  as  a  manu- 
facturer, 1863-92.  He  has  been  a  trustee  since 
1876,  and  was  acting  provost,  1894-95,  university 
of  Pennsylvania.  Member  American  philosophi- 
cal society,  Pennsylvania  historical  society, 
Phi  Beta  Kappa,  etc.,  and  is  the  author  of 
series  of  annual  reports,  addresses,  etc.,  on  edu- 
cational topics. 

Harrison,  Constance  Cary  (Mrs.  Burton  Harrison), 
author,  was  born  in  Fairfax  county,  Va.,  1846, 
daughter  of  Archibald  Cary.  She  was  educated 
by  private  governesses,  lived  in  Richmond,  Va., 
during  civil  war,  and  then  went  abroad  with 
widowed  mother  to  complete  her  studies  in  music 
and  languages.  She  married  Burton  Harrison, 
lawyer,  and  has  since  resided  in  New  York. 
Has  traveled  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  spent 
much  time  in  London,  Paris,  and  other  capitals. 
Author:  Golden  Rod,  an  Idyl  of  Mt.  Desert; 
Woman's  Handiwork;  Old  Fashioned  Fairy 
Books;  Folk  and  Fairy  Tales;  Bar  Harbor  Days; 
The  Anglomaniacs;  Flower-de- Hundred;  Sweet 
BeUs  Out  of  Tune;  Crow's  Nest  and  BeUhaven 
Tales;    A   Daughter   of  the  South;    A   Bachelor 


Maid;  An  Errant  Wooing;  A  Son  of  the  Old 
Dominion;  Good  Americans;  A  Triple  Entangle- 
ment; A  Russian  Honeymoon,  a  play  adapted 
from  the  French;  Little  Comedies  for  Amateur 
Acting;  The  Circle  of  a  Century;  A  Princess  of 
the  Hills;  a  play.  The  Unwelcome  Mrs.  Hatch; 
Latter-Day  Sweethearts,  etc. 

Harrison,  Francis  Burton,  lawyer,  ex-congressman, 
W£is  born  in  New  York  city,  1873.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  Yale,  1895,  from  New  York  law  school, 
1897,  and  was  instructor  at  New  York  niKht 
law  school,  1897-99.  During  the  war  with  Spain 
he  was  a  private,  troop  A,  New  York  volunteer 
cavalry,  and  captain  and  adjutant-general. 
United  States  volunteers.  Was  elected  to  the 
fifty-eighth  congress  from  the  thirteenth  New 
York  district;  was  democratic  candidate  for 
lieutenant-governor  of  New  York,  1904.  He  was 
elected  to  the  sixtieth,  sixty-first,  and  sixty-second 
congresses  from  the  sixteenth  district,  and  again 
to  the  sixty-third  congress  from  the  twentieth 
district. 

Harrison,  Frederic  English  essayist  and  philosophi- 
cal writer,  was  bom  in  London,  1831.  He  was 
educated  at  Wadham  college,  Oxford,  became 
fellow  and  tutor  of  his  college,  and  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1858.  He  practiced  conveyancing 
and  in  the  courts  of  equity,  sat  on  the  roytJ 
commission  upon  trades-unions,  1867-69,  served 
as  Mcretary  to  the  commission  on  the  digest  of 
the  law,  1869-70,  and  from  1877  until  1889  was 
professor  of  jurisprudence  and  international  law 
at  Lincoln's  Inn.  A  positivist  cuid  an  advanced 
liberal,  he  has  written  The  Meaning  of  History; 
Order  and  Progress;  The  Present  and  the  Future; 
Lectures  on  Education;  The  Choice  of  Books; 
Oliver  Cromwell;  Annals  of  an  old  Manor  House; 
Early  Victorian  Literature;  William  the  Silent; 
Byzantine  History,  etc.  From  1889  to  1893  he 
was  an  alderman  of  the  London  county  council. 

HairlsoB*  tmaiM  All>ert,  American  philologist, 
educator,  was  bom  at  Pass  Christian,  Miss., 
1848.  He  was  gp'aduated  at  the  university  of 
Vimnia,  1868;  studied  in  Germany,  1871; 
L.  H.  D.,  Columbia,  1887;  LL.  D.,  Washington 
and  Lee  university,  and  Randolph-Macon  col- 
lege, Va. ;  professor  of  Latin  and  modem  lan- 
guages, Randolph-Macon  college,  1871-76;  pro- 
fessor of  Englisn  and  modern  languages,  Wash- 
ington and  Lee,  1876-95;  professor  of  English 
and  romance  languages,  1895;  later  professor 
Teutonic  languages,  university  of  Virginia;  was 
lecturer  on  Anglo-Saxon  poetry,  Johns  Hop- 
kins. Author:  Group  of  Poets  and  Their 
Haunts;  Greek  VigriHtes;  Spain  in  Profile; 
French  Syntax;  Ifistory  of  Spain;  Story  of 
Greece;  Autrefois,  a  collection  of  Creole  tales; 
Dictionary  of  Anglo-Saxon  Poetry  (with  W.  M. 
Baskervill),  etc.  Editor  of  Beowulf;  Heine's 
Reisebilder;  Library  of  Anglo-Saxon  Poetry  (5 
vols.);  Mme.  De  S6vign6's  Letters;  Comeille's 
NicorrMe;  E.  A.  Poe's  complete  works  (17  vols.). 
Joint  author  of  Anglo-Saxon  Reader;  Anglo- 
Saxon  Dictionary;  Easy  French  Lessons;  Life  of 
George  Washington.  One  of  editors  of  Century 
Dictionary  and  Standard  Dictionary.     Died,  1911. 

Harrison,  John,  British  inventor  of  the  chronom- 
eter, was  bom  at  Foulby  near  Pontefract,  1693. 
By  1726  he  had  constructed  a  time  keeper  with 
compensating  apparatus  for  correcting  errors 
due  to  variations  of  climate.  In  1713  the  gov- 
ernment had  offered  three  prizes  for  the  dis- 
covery of  a  method  to  determine  the  longitude 
accurately.  After  long  perseverance  Harrison 
made  a  chronometer  which,  in  a  voyage  to 
Jamaica  in  1761-62,  determined  the  longitude 
within  eighteen  geographical  miles.  After  fur- 
ther trials,  he  was  awarded  the  largest  prize  of 
20,000  pounds.  He  also  invented  the  gridiron 
pendulum,   the  going  fusee,   and  the  remontoir 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


7» 


escapement.  Ho  wrote  five  works  on  his  chro- 
nometer, etc.      Died,  1776. 

HarrisoB,  William  Henry,  ninth  president  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  Virginia,  1773,  son  of 
Benjamin  Harrison,  who  signed  the  declaration 
of  independence.  On  the  death  of  his  father  he 
joined,  m  1791,  as  ensign,  the  army  which  Wayne 
was  leading  against  the  Indians  of  the  Northwest. 
He  left  the  army  in  1798;  in  1801  he  became 
governor  of  Indiana  territory,  and  as  its  repre- 
sentative in  congress  succeeded  in  passing  a  law 
relating  to  the  sale  of  the  federal  land  in  small 
parcels,  to  which  the  western  states  ascribe  much 
of  their  prosperity.  In  the  war  against  the 
Indians  in  1811,  and  which  soon  became  also  a 
war  against  the  English  in  Canada,  Harrison,  as 
commander-in-chief  of  the  American  army, 
showed  great  military  talent.  He  defeated  the 
Indians  in  an  important  battle  at  Tippecanoe, 
and  by  the  victory  of  Perry  on  Lake  Erie  was 
enabled  to  pursue  the  British  invaders  into 
Canada,  where,  in  1813,  he  totally  routed  them 
in  the  battle  of  the  Thames.  In  1814  he  resigned 
his  comimission;  in  1816  he  was  elected  to  con- 
gress, and  in  1824  became  a  member  of  the 
United  States  senate.  In  1828  he  went  as 
ambassador  to  Colombia,  but  was  recalled  in 
1829,  and  the  following  few  years  he  spent  in 
retirement  as  clerk  in  a  county  court  in  Ohio. 
The  whig  party  tried  in  vain  to  make  him  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  in  1836,  and  succeeded 
in  1840.     He  died,  1841,  after  serving  one  month. 

Hart,  Albert  Bushnell,  American  educator  and 
historian,  was  bom  in  Clarksville,  Pa.,  1854.  He 
was  graduated  at  Harvard,  1880;  Ph.  D.,  Frei- 
burg, Baden,  1883;  LL.  D.,  Richmond  college, 
1902.  From  1897  to  1910  he  was  professor  of 
history,  professor  of  government  since  1910, 
Harvard  university.  Author :  Introdtiction  to  the 
Study  of  Federal  Government;  Evoch  Maps; 
Formation  of  the  Union;  Practiced  Essays  on 
American  Government;  Studies  in  American  Edu- 
cation; Guide  to  the  Study  of  American  History 
(with  Edward  Channing) ;  Salmon  Portland 
Chase;  Handbook  of  the  History,  Diplomacy,  and 
Government  of  the  United  States;  Foundations  of 
American  Foreign  Policy;  Actual  Government; 
Essentials  of  American  History.  Editor:  E'pochs 
of  American  History  (3  vols.) ;  American  History 
Told  by  Contemporaries  (4  vols.);  American 
Citizen  Series;  Source-Book  of  American  History; 
Source  Readers  in  American  History  (4  vols.); 
The  American  Nation,  etc.  Joint  editor:  Ameri- 
can History  Leaflets,  1895-1910;  since  1910, 
Cyclopcedia  of  American  government. 

Hart,  James  McDougal,  American  landscape  painter 
was  bom  in  Kilmarnock,  Scotland,  1828.  When 
a  child  he  removed  with  his  family  to  America, 
and  lived  at  Albany,  N.  Y.  About  1851  he 
went  to  Diisseldorf  and  studied  painting  for  a 
year.  He  returned  to  Albany  and  later  removed 
to  New  York  city,  where  he  continued  to  reside. 
He  was  made  an  academician  in  1859.  His  pic- 
tures are  admired  for  their  harmony  of  color  and 
quiet  peacefulness  of  tone.  The  best  known 
among  them  are;  "Woods  in  Autumn";  "Moon- 
rise  in  the  Adirondack^ " ;  "Peaceful  Homes"; 
"Coming  Out  of  the  Shade";  "On  the  March"; 
"Among  Friends";  "Threatening  Weather": 
"Indian  Summer";  "A  Misty  Morning."  Died 
at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1901. 

Hart,  Joel  T.,  American  sculptor,  was  bom  in 
Kentucky,  1810.  He  learned  the  mason's  trade, 
educated  himself,  and  while  working  as  a  stone- 
cutter at  Lexington  he  began  modeling  busts  in 
clay.  He  soon  attained  a  phenomenal  success 
in  portrait  busts,  and  on  receiving  a  commission 
for  a  marble  statue  of  Henry  Clay,  1849,  went  to 
Florence  to  study  and  work.  Brides  the  marble 
statue  of  Clay  for  Richmond,  he  made  one  of 


that  statesman  in  bronse  for  New  Orleans,  and 
another  in  marble  for  Louisville.  He  executed 
many  busts  and  statues  of  eminent  men  during 
his  twenty-eight  years'  residence  in  Florence. 
He  died  in  1877,  and  his  remains  were  removed 
from  Florence  to  Lexington,  Ky.,  1884,  where 
the  state  erected  a  monument  over  them. 

Hart,  Sir  Robert,  British  diplomat,  was  bom  at 
Milltown,  County  Armagh,  Ireland,  1835.  He 
was  educated  at  Queen's  college,  Taunton,  Wee- 
ley  college,  Dublin,  and  Queen's  college,  Belfast, 
graduating  from  the  last  in  1853;  M.  A.,  1871; 
Hon.  LL.  D.,  1882.  Entered  British  consular 
service  in  China,  1854;  assistant,  British  con- 
sulate, Ningpo,  1855;  second  assistant,  Brit- 
ish consulate.  Canton,  1858;  secretary  to 
allied  commissioners  for  the  government  of  the 
city  of  Canton,  1858;  interpreter,  British  COQ- 
sulate.  Canton,  1858;  granted  special  permission 
to  resign  and  accept  appointment  in  Chinese 
imperial  maritime  customs,  1859;  officiating 
inspector-general,  1861-63;  conmiissioner  at 
Shanghai,  with  charge  of  Yangtze  ports  and 
Ningpo,  1863;  inspector-general,  1863;  gazetted 
mimster  plenipotentiary,  1885,  but  declined. 
Author  of  These  From  the  Land  of  Sinim,  etc. 
Died,  1911. 

Hart,  William,  American  painter,  brother  of  James 
McDougal  Hart,  was  bom  in  Scotland.  1823. 
He  came  to  Albany,  N.  Y.,  1831,  and,  like  bis 
brother,  developed  a  taste  for  landscape  painting, 
and  in  1848  exhibited  a  specimen  of  nis  work  in 
the  national  academy  of  design  in  New  York. 
In  1849  he  returned  to  his  native  country  for 
study.  On  returning  to  America  he  settled  in 
New  York,  and  soon  became  an  academician. 
For  several  years  he  was  president  of  the  Brook- 
lyn academy  of  design.  Some  of  his  most  notable 
works  are:  "The  Last  Gleam";  "The  Golden 
Hour";  "Opening  in  the  Elands";  "Up  the 
Glen  in  the  White  Mountains" ;  "Sunset  in  Dark 
Harbor,  New  Brunswick."  He  was  one  of  the 
founders,  and  for  some  years  president  of  the 
water-color  society,  and  was  himself  eminent  in 
that  branch  of  art.  He  was  remarkable  for  lumi- 
nous brilliancy  of  coloring,  particularly  in  skiea. 
Died,  1894. 

Harte  (hart),  Francis  Bret,  American  writer,  was 
bom  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  1839.  He  was  at  different 
times  a  miner,  school  teacher,  printer,  and  editor. 
From  1864  to  1870  he  was  in  San  Francisco  as 
8ecretar3'  of  the  United  States  mint,  and,  in  1870, 
he  pubUshed  The  Heathen  Chinee.  He  was  named 
American  consul  at  Crefeld  in  1878,  at  Glasgow 
in  1880,  and  after  leaving  the  latter  in  1885, 
lived  in  London.  Chief  among  his  works  are 
Condensed  Novels;  The  Luck  ^  Roarina  Camp 
and  Other  Sketches;  Poetical  Works;  Talea  of 
the  Argonauts;  The  Twins  of  Table  Mountain 
and  Other  Stories;  By  Shore  and  Sedge;  A  Mil- 
lionaire of  Rough  and  Ready;  Devil's  Ford; 
A  Ward  of  the  Golden  Gate,  etc.     Died,  1902. 

Hartley,  Sir  Charles  Augustus,  British  engineer, 
engineer-in-chief  and  consulting  engineer  to  the 
European  commission  of  the  Danube,  1866- 
1907,  was  bom  at  Heworth,  in  Durham,  1825. 
He  served  in  Crimea  as  captain  in  the  Anglo- 
Turkish  contingent,  1855-56,  and  in  1867  reported 
to  foreign  office  on  important  questions  of  engi- 
neering connected  with  the  river  Scheldt.  In  the 
same  year  he  designed  plans  for  the  enlargement 
of  the  j)ort  of  Odessa,  for  which  he  was  awarded 
the  emperor  of  Russia's  grand  competition  prize 
of  8,000  silver  mbles.  He  was  appointed 
member  of  a  board  of  engineers  to  report  on  the 
improvement  of  the  Mississippi,  1875;  was 
nominated  by  the  British  government  member 
of  international  technical  commission  of  Sues 
canal,  1884,  and  served  until  1907;  has  been 
consulted    at    various    periods    by    the    Indian, 


760 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Austrian,  Russian,  Egyptian,  Rumanian,  and 
Bulgarian  governments  on  the  improvement  of 
the  Hugh  below  Calcutta,  and  harbor  of  Madras, 
the  enlargement  of  the  port  of  Trieste,  the  con- 
solidation of  the  Nile  Barrage  below  Cairo,  the 
improvement  of  the  Don  and  Dnieper,  and  on 
commercial  harbors  of  Constanza,  Bourgas,  and 
Varna.  Author:  Delta  of  the  Dantibe;  Ptiblic 
Works  in  the  United  States  and  Canada;  Inland 
Navigations  in  Europe;  History  of  the  Engineering 
Works  of  the  Suez  Canal,  etc. 

Hartley,  David,  British  philosopher,  was  bom  near 
Halifax,  1705.  A  clergyman's  son,  at  fifteen  he 
entered  Jesus  college,  Cambridge,  and  in  1727 
became  a  fellow.  lie  studied  for  the  church,  but, 
dissenting  from  some  points  in  the  thirty-nine 
articles,  abandoned  his  mtention.  In  his  mature 
years  he  impugned  the  eternity  of  hell-punish- 
ment; in  all  other  points  he  remained  a  devout 
member  of  the  church  of  England.  As  a  medical 
practitioner  he  attained  considerable  eminence 
at  Newark,  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  London,  and 
Bath.  His  chief  work  is  Observations  on  Man. 
Died,  1757. 

Hartmann,  Karl  Robert  Eduard  tod,  German 
philosopher,  was  born  at  Berlin,  1842.  He 
nerved  as  an  artillery  officer,  1860-65,  but  from 
1867  until  his  death  lived  in  Berlin,  working  out 
his  philosophical  scheme,  a  synthesis  of  Hegel, 
Schelling,  and  Schopenhauer,  in  which  "the 
Unconscious"  plays  tne  r61e  ol^ creator  and  prov- 
idence. His  great  work  was  The  Philosophy  of 
the  Unconscious,  followed  by  books  on  the  ethical 
consciousness,  the  development  of  the  religious 
consciousness,  German  a!8thetics,  Lotre,  anil 
Kant,  besides  a  work  on  the  self-destruction  of 
Christianity,  criticisms  of  neo-Kantianism  and 
contemporary  philosophies,  defenses  of  his  o'wn 
system,  and  political  and  educational  treatises. 
A  pessimist  as  regards  the  ine\'itable  misery  of 
existence,  he  was  an  optimist  as  champion  of 
evolutionary  progress.     He  died  in  1906. 

Harvard,  John,  founder  of  Harvard  collie,  was 
born    in    Southwark,    England,    1607.     He   was 

fraduated    at    Emmanuel    college,    Cambridge, 
Ingland,  1631 ;    married  and  came  to  America. 
1637 ;  was  made  a  freeman  of  Massachusetts,  and 

§iven  a  tract  of  land  in  Charlestown,  where  he 
egan  preaching  as  a  Congregational  minister. 
In  his  will  he  bequeathed  about  750  pounds  and 
320  volumes  from  his  library  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  college.  He  died  at  Charlestown. 
Mass.,  1638.  A  granite  monument  was  erectetl 
over  his  remains  in  Charlestown,  1828,  and  a 
memorial  statue  on  the  delta  at  the  university 
was  unveiled  in  1884. 

Harvey,  George  Brinton  McClellan,  editor  of  the 
North  American  Review,  and  Harper's  Weekly: 
was  bom  in  Peacham,  Vt.,  1864.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Peacham  academy;  was  consecutively 
reporter  on  the  Springfield  Republican,  Chicago 
News,  and  the  New  York  World;  was  later 
managing  editor  of  the  New  York  World,  insur- 
ance commissioner.  New  Jersey,  colonel  and 
aide-de-camp  of  Governors  Green  and  Abbett, 
New  Jersey.  He  was  the  constructor  and  pres- 
ident of  various  electric  railroads,  1894-98,  and 
bought  the  North  American  Review  in  1899.  He 
has  been  president  of  Harper  and  Brothers 
since  1900,  and  bought  the  Metropolitan  Maga- 
zine, 1903.  He  was  made  honorarv  doctor  of 
la"«^s  by  Erskine  college.  South  Carolina,  1905, 
and  by  the  university  of  Nevada,  1908.  Was 
Bromley  lecturer  on  journalism  at  Yale,  1908. 

Harvey,  William.     See  page  354. 

Hase  (hd'-zS),  Karl  August  von,  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Steinbach  in  Saxony,  1800.  He  was 
expelled  from  Erlangen  university  for  his  con- 
nection with  the  political  "  Burschenschaften," 
became  m  1823  tutor  at  Tubingen,  but  after  a 


new  trial  was  imprisoned  for  ten  months.  From 
1830  to  1883  he  was  professor  of  theology  at  Jena, 
after  which  he  was  ennobled.  His  chief  writings 
are :  Des  Alten  Pfarrers  Testament;  Handbook  of 
Dogmatics;  Gnosis;  Life  of  Jesus;  Church  His- 
tory; Francis  of  Assiai;  Handbook  of  Protestant 
Polemical  Theology;  Life  of  St.  Catharine  of 
Siena;  and  lectures  on  church  history.  Die^, 
1890. 

Haskell,  Charies  Nathaniel,  governor  of  Oklahoma, 
1907-11,  was  born  in  Putnam  county,  Ohio,  186t). 
He  was  reared  on  a  farm,  taught  school  and  read 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1881.  He 
began  practice  at  Ottawa,  Ohio;  engaged  in  rail- 
way building  and  other  construction  work,  1888 ; 
went  to  Muskogee,  I.  T.,  1901,  and  built  many 
lines  of  railroad  there.  Was  member  of  Oklahoma 
constitutional  convention,  and  was  elected  first 
governor  of  the  state  of  Oklahoma,  1907. 

Hassall  (h&a'-al),  Arthur,  British  historical  writer, 
was  bom  at  Bebington,  Cheshire,  1853.  He  wa» 
graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Oxford;  was 
lecturer  and  tutor  of  Keble  college,  1880-83; 
student  of  Christ  Church,  1884 ;  censor  of  Christ 
Church,  1894-95,  and  student  and  tutor  since 
1895.  Author:  Life  of  Bolingbroke;  Louis 
XIV.;  A  Handbook  of  European  History;  The 
Balance  of  Power;  A  Close  Book  of  Enalish  His- 
tory; History  o^  France;  The  French  People; 
Maxarin;  The  Tudor  Dynasty:  War  and  Reform; 
The  Expansion  of  Great  Britain^  etc. 

HsBamin,  Chllde,  American  artist,  was  bom  in 
1859.  He  was  educated  in  Boston  public  schools, 
and  studied  art  in  Boston  and  Paris,  1886-89. 
He  has  exhibited  widely  in  this  country  and  in 
Europe,  and  follows  generally  the  methods  of 
the  French  impressionist  school.  His  pictures 
are  represented  in  the  collections  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania academy  of  fine  arts;  Carnegie  institute, 
Pittsburih;  Cincinnati  museum;  Corcoran  art 
gallery,  Washington ;   Boston  art  club,  etc. 

HastlnKS,  Warren*  English  statesman  and  adminis- 
trator in  India,  was  bom  in  1732.  He  went  to 
Bengal  as  a  writer  in  1750,  and  was  seven  year* 
later  appointed  agent  of  the  East  India  company 
at  the  court  of  the  nabob  of  Bengal.  In  1764  he 
returned  to  England,  where  he  remained  four 
years  stuiU-ing  Eastern  literature.  On  his 
return  to  tndia  he  became  a  member  of  the 
council  of  Madras,  and  in  1772  governor  of 
Bengal,  a  position  which,  in  1774,  became  that 
of  governor-general  of  India.  He  was  now 
involved  in  quarrels  with  his  council,  and  sent  in 
his  resignation,  which,  however,  when  accepted, 
he  disavowed.  The  supreme  court  decided  in 
his  favor,  and  he  was  reappointed.  During  hi» 
first  term  of  office  he  sold  the  vale  of  RohJlcund 
to  Siraj-ud  Dowlah  and  obtained  the  execution 
of  Nuncomar,  his  enemy.  During  his  second 
term,  in  order  to  obtain  money,  he  took  those 
measures  against  the  rajah  of  Benares  and  the 
nabob  of  Oude  which  were  afterward  charged 
against  him,  but  left  the  affairs  of  the  company 
in  a  very  prospterous  condition.  Three  years 
after  his  return  he  was  impeached  before  the 
lords  for  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors,  but, 
after  a  trial  which  proceeded  at  intervab  for 
seven  years,  and  in  spite  of  the  eloquence  of 
Burke  and  Sheridan,  he  was  acquitted  in  1795. 
He  was  ruined  by  the  expense,  but  was  granted 
an  annuity  by  the  court  of  directors.  To  him 
the  British  government  is  largely  indebted  for 
its  political  and  judicial  organization  in  India- 
and  its  method  of  Indian  administration.  Died, 
1818. 

Hauff  (houf),  Wilhelm,  German  novelist,  was  bom 
at  Stutt"gart,  1802.  He  studied  at  Tiibingen, 
was  for  two  years  a  tutor,  and  had  been  editor  of 
a  paper  for  nearly  a  year  when  he  died,  1827. 
His  MOrchen  and  his  Novellen  are  admirable  for 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


761 


their  simplicity  and  playful  fancy.  His  other 
works  include:  Die  Bettlerin  vom  Pont  dea  Arts; 
Das  BUd  des  Kaisers;  lAchtenstein,  an  iniitation 
of  Scott;  and  Mitteilungen  atia  den  Memoir  en 
des  Satans,  a  story  rich  in  satiric  humor. 

Hanpt  (houpt\  l/ewls  Muhlenbergt  American  civil 
engineer,  was  bom  at  Gettysburg,  Pa.,  1844. 
He  attended  the  Lawrence  scientific  school. 
Harvard,  and  graduated  at  the  United  States 
military  academy,  1867.  He  was  Ueutenant- 
engineer  in  lake  surveys,  1868;  engineer  officer 
of  the  5th  military  district  Texas,  1869;  pro- 
fessor civil  engineering,  university  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, 1872-92.  Member  of  the  Nicaragua  canal 
commission,  1897-99;  Isthmian  canal  commis- 
sion, 1899-1902;  president  Colombia  Cauca 
arbitration,  1897;  chief  engineer  survey  for 
ship  canal  across  New  Jersey,  1894;  consulting 
engineer  of  Lake  Erie  and  Ohio  River  ship  canal, 
etc.  He  edited  T}ie  American  Engineering 
Register,  1885-86.  Author:  Engineering  Speci- 
fications and  Contracts;  The  Topographer  —  His 
Methods  and  Instruments;  Physical  Phenomena 
of  Harbor  Entrances;  Special  Report  on  Railway 
Plant  of  Paris  Exposition;  Canals  and  Their 
Economic  Relation  to  Transportation;  A  Move 
for  Better  Roads;  and  a  number  of  pamphlets  and 
other  contributions  to  engineering. 

Haupt,  Paul,  philologist,  professor  of  Semitic 
languages  and  director  of  oriental  seminary, 
Johns  Hopkins,  since  1883,  was  born  at  Gorlitz, 
Germany,  1858.  He  was  graduated  at  Gymna- 
sium Augustum,  Gorlitz,  1876;  university  of 
Leipzig,  Ph.  D.,  1878;  LL.  D.,  university  of 
Glasgow,  1902;  post-graduate  studies  at  Leipzig 
and  Berlin  universities,  and  British  museum. 
He  was  tutor  at  the  university  of  Gottingen, 
1880-83;  professor  extraordinarius  of  Assvri- 
ology,  same,  until  1889.  Editor:  The  Poly- 
chrome Bible,  New  Critical  Edition  of  Hebrew 
Text  of  the  Old  Testament.  Co-editor:  The 
Assyriological  Ldbrary;  The  Johns  Hopkins 
CorUriinUions  to  Assyriology  and  Comparative 
Semitic  Grammar.  Author:  The  Sumerian 
Family  Laws;  Akkadian  and  Sumerian  Cunei- 
form Texts  in  British  Museum;  The  Babylonian 
Nimrod  Epic;  The  Cuneiform  Account  of  the 
Deluge;  The  Akkadian  Language;  Koheleth; 
The  Book  of  Canticles;  The  Book  of  Ecclesi- 
astes;  and  numerous  papers  on  biblical  and 
Assyrian  philology,  history  and  archaeology, 
comparative  Semitic  grammar,  Sumerian,  etc. 

Hauptmann,  Gerhart,  German  dramatic  poet,  was 
born  in  Salzbrunn,  Silesia,  1862.  At  eighteen  he 
decided  to  become  a  sculptor  and  entered  the 
royal  college  of  art,  Breslau.  In  1882  he  went  to 
the  university  of  Jena,  and  spent  most  of  1883 
and  1884  in  Italy.  Settled  in  Berlin  in  1885, 
devoting  himself  to  literary  work.  He  has  writ- 
ten: Vor  Sonnenaufgang ;  Das  Friedensfest;  Ein- 
same  Menschen;  Die  Weber;  Kollege  Crampton; 
DerBiberpelz;  FlorianGeyer ;  Fuhrmann  Henschel; 
Rose  Berndt;  Die  Versunkene  Glocke,  and  Und 
Pippa  Tanzt.  Received  Nobel  prize  for  litera- 
ture, 1912. 

Haussmajin  {o^-m&n'),  Georges  Eugfine,  French 
magistrate,  was  bom  in  Paris,  1809.  He  entered 
the  public  service,  and  under  Napoleon  III. 
became  prefect  of  the  Seine  in  1853.  He  then 
began  his  task  of  improving  Paris  by  widening 
streets,  laying  out  boulevards  and  parks,  building 
bridges,  etc.  For  these  services  he  was  made 
baron  and  senator;  but  the  heavy  burden  of 
debt  laid  upon  the  citizens  led  to  his  dismissal  in 
1870.  In  1871  he  was  appointed  director  of  the 
Cr6dit  Mobilier,  and  in  1881  was  elected  to  the 
chamber  of  deputies.     He  died,  1891. 

Havelock  (hdv'-ldk),  Sir  Henry,  English  general, 
was  bom  at  Bishop-Wearmouth,  in  Durham, 
1795.     He  entered  the  army  a  month  or  two  after 


the  battle  of  Waterloo,  went  to  India  in  1823, 
and  honorably  distinguished  himself  in  the  Afghan 
and  Sikh  wars.  In  1866  he  commanded  a  division 
of  the  army  that  invaded  Persia.  While  absent 
in  that  country  news  arrived  of  the  Indian  mutiny, 
and  he  hastened  to  Calcutta.  He  was  directea 
to  organize  a  small  movable  column  at  Allahabad, 
and  to  push  on  to  the  relief  of  the  British  at 
Cawnjjore  and  Lucknow.  He  made  a  forced 
march  to  Futtehpur,  where,  at  the  head  of  2,000 
men,  he  engaged  and  broke  the  rebels.  Ho 
continued  his  march  upon  Cawnpore,  and  twice 
defeated  the  enemy.  The  consequence  of  the 
latter  victory  was  the  massacre  of  all  the  Euro- 
pean women  and  children  in  the  hands  of  Nana 
Sahib.  After  fighting  eight  battles  with  the 
rebels,  in  all  of  which  ne  was  victorious,  his  little 
army  found  itself  so  thinned  by  fatigue  and 
sickness  that  it  was  obliged  to  retire  upon  Cawn- 
pore. Early  in  September,  General  Outram 
arrived  with  reenforcements.  and  Havelock 
again  advanced  to  the  relief  oi  Lucknow.  Out- 
ram, with  chivalrous  generosity,  refusing  to  take 
the  command  out  of  his  hands,  Havelock  and 
his  column,  with  desperate  bravery,  fought  their 
way  through  streets  of  houses,  each  forming  a 
separate  fortress,  until  they  gained  the  British 
residency,  to  the  indescribable  joy  of  the  be- 
leagured  garrison.  The  victorious  army  were 
now  in  turn  besieged,  but  held  their  own  until 
November,  when  Sir  Colin  Campbell  (Lord 
Clyde)  forced  his  way  to  their  rescue.  After  the 
relief  of  Lucknow  Havelock  was  attacked  by 
dysentery,  and  died  in  1857. 

Haven,  Erastus  Otis,  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  church,  was  bom  in  Boston,  1820. 
He  was  a  graduate  of  Wesleyan  university  at 
Middletown,  Conn.;  held  a  professor's  chair  at 
Amenia  seminary  for  two  years,  and  was  engaged 
in  pastoral  work  from  1848-53,  when  he  accepted 
a  professorship  in  the  university  of  Michigan. 
He  became  editor  of  Zion's  Herald,  in  Boston, 
1856,  and  left  in  1863  to  become  president  of  the 
university  of  Michigan.  He  resigned  his  office 
to  accept  a  similar  position  in  the  Northwestern 
university  at  Evanston,  III.,  1869.  and  remained 
there  for  three  years.  In  1874  he  was  elected 
chancellor  of  Syracuse  university.  Elected  bishop 
at  general  conference,  1880.     Died,  1881. 

Haven,  Joseph,  American  clergyman  and  educator, 
was  bom  in  Massachusetts,  1816.  He  was 
graduated  at  Amherst,  studied  in  Union  theologi- 
cal seminary,  and  graduated  at  Andover  theologi- 
cal seminary,  1839.  After  officiating  as  pastor 
in  Congregational  churches  in  Brookline  and 
Ashland,  Mass.,  he  was  chosen  professor  of 
moral  and  mental  philosophy  in  Amherst  college 
in  1850,  and  from  1858-70  occupied  the  chair  of 
systematic  theology  in  Chicafjo  theological  semi- 
nary. In  1870  he  traveled  in  Europe  and  the 
East.  In  1874  he  was  professor  of  mental  and 
moral  philosophy  in  Chicago  university.  He  pub- 
lished Menial  Philosophy,  Moral  Philosophy,  &nd 
Studies  in  Philosophy  and  Theology.  Died, 
1874. 

Hawkins,  Anthony  Hope,  English  novelist,  waa 
bom  in  London,  1863.  He  waa  graduated  from 
Balliol  college,  Oxford;  received  his  M.  A.  there; 
and  was  admitted  as  a  barrister  of  the  Middle 
Temple,  1887.  Author:  The  Prisoner  of  Zenda; 
The  God  in  the  Car;  The  Dolly  Dialogues;  Ru- 
pert of  Hentzau;  The  King's  Mirror;  Quisanti; 
Tristram  of  Blent;  The  Intrusions  of  Peggy; 
Double  Harness;  A  Servant  of  the  Public;  Sophie 
of  Kravonia;  Tale*  of  Two  People;  The  Great 
Miss  Driver,  etc.  Plays:  The  Adventure  of 
Lady  Ursula,  Pilkerton's  Peerage,  etc. 

Hawthorne,  Julian,  American  novelist,  journalist, 
historical  writer,  biographer,  was  bom  in  Boston, 
1846.     He   was   educated    at    Harvard, 


762 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


and  at  Dresden,  Germany;  lived  in  Europe, 
1853-60;  at  Concord  and  Cambridge,  Mass., 
1860-68;  Dresden.  Germany,  1868-69;  New 
York  city,  as  hydrographic  engineer  in  dock 
department,  1869-71;  Dresden,  1871-73;  Lon- 
don and  neighborhood,  1874-81 ;  New  York, 
1881-89;  Europe,  1889;  New  York,  1890-94; 
Jamaica,  West  Indies,  1894-97;  India,  1897; 
New   York,    1898   to  present;     but   he  has  not 

§racticed  as  engineer  since  1871.  He  has  written: 
axon  Studies;  Garth;  Archibald  Malmaison; 
Sebastian  Strome;  Dust;  Fortune's  Fool;  Sinfire; 
Biography  of  Nathaniel  Hawthorne;  History  of 
Oregon;  History  of  United  States  (3  vols.); 
History  of  American  Literature;  Foci  of  Nature 
($10,000  prize  novel);  Love  is  a  Spirit;  Haw- 
thorne arid  His  Circle;  and  many  others.  He 
was  reviewer  on  London  Spectator',  1877-81,  and 
literary  editor  New  York  World,  1885. 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  celebrated  American  novel- 
ist, was  born  at  Salem,  Mass.,  1804.  He  was 
graduated  at  Bowdoin  college  in  1825,  and  three 
years  later  published  his  first  novel,  Fanshawe. 
He  then  wrote  a  number  of  stories  for  the  jour- 
nals, which  he  afterward  collected  in  1837,  and 
published  under  the  title  of  Twice-told  Talea,  a 
second  volume  of  which  appeared  in  1842.  In 
1843  he  took  up  his  residence  at  the  charming 
village  of  Concord,  in  a  manse  which  hat!  formerly 
been  the  dwelling  of  Emerson,  and  which  sug- 
gested the  title  of  his  next  work.  Mosses  from 
an  Old  Manse,  published  in  1843.  These  sketchs, 
in  which  he  gives  some  interesting  recollections 
of  his  boyhood,  first  matle  his  name  known  in 
Europe.  In  1842  he  published  The  Liberty  Tree, 
and  m  1845  The  Journal  of  an  African  Cruiser. 
After  a  three  years'  residence  at  Concord  he 
accepted  a  situation  in  the  custom-house  at 
Salem,  and  removed  to  that  city.  This,  how- 
ever, did  not  stop  his  literary  work.  The  Scarlet 
Letter  appeared  m  1850,  and  was  received  with 
universal  approbation,  as  was  likewise  The  House 
of  the  Seven  Gables,  published  in  1851.  His 
Blithedale  Romance,  published  in  1852,  may  be 
regarded  as  a  kind  ot  autobiography  so  far  as  it 
goes,  and  is  founded  on  incidents  in  his  own 
Bfe.  In  1853  he  received  the  appointment  of 
consul  at  Liverpool  from  his  friend  and  class- 
mate, President  Pierce,  whose  life  he  haul  written. 
He  resided  in  Liverpool  discharging  the  duties 
of  his  office  for  five  years,  and  afterward  went  to 
Italy  to  recruit  his  impaired  health  —  a  journey 
which  furnished  him  with  material  for  his  fan- 
tastic romance,  The  Marble  Faun,  generally 
regarded  as  one  of  the  best  of  his  works.  After 
his  return  to  America  he  published  a  sketch  of 
England  and  the  English.  He  died  suddenly 
at  Plymouth,  N.  H.,  1864.  As  a  writer  he  com- 
bined a  true  poetic  spirit  with  a  charming  style, 
and  displayed  a  deep  knowledge  of  numan 
nature.  As  a  character  analyst  no  American 
writer  excels  him. 

Hay,  John,  American  statesman  and  writer,  was 
bom  in  Salem,  Ind.,  1838.  He  was  graduated 
from  Bro^iTi  university,  1858,  and  settled  in 
Illinois  as  a  lawyer.  He  went  to  Washington 
in  1861,  as  one  of  Lincoln's  private  secretaries, 
acting  also  as  his  aide-de-camp.  He  served 
under  Generals  Hunter  and  Gillmore  with  the 
rank  of  major  and  assistant  adjutant-general. 
He  was  subsequently  in  the  United  States  diplo- 
matic service,  stationed  at  Paris,  Vienna,  and 
Madrid.  In  1897  he  was  made  ambassador  to 
England,  and  in  1898  secretary  of  state.  In  the 
latter  capacity  he  inaugurated  the  important 
"open  door"  policy,  for  all  nations,  in  China, 
and  laid  the  foundation  for  subsequent  diplo- 
matic relations  with  the  Orient.  As  secretary  of 
state  he  gained  a  standing  equal  to  that  of  the 
most  eminent  men  who  have  held  that  high  office. 


In  coolness,  foresight,  and  statesmanlike  appre- 
ciation of  current  and  coming  events  he  had  no 
superior  among  contemporary  diplomats  Hia 
literary  reputation  rests  upon  Pike  County  Bal- 
lads, Castuian  Days,  a  volume  of  travel,  and  Life 
of  Abraham  Lincoln  (with  J.  G.  Nicolay).  Di^i, 
1905. 

Haydn,  Joseph,  Austrian  composer,  was  bom  at 
Rohrau,  Austria,  1732.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
poor  wheelwright,  and,  manifesting  great  musical 
talent,  he  was  received,  at  the  age  of  eight,  into 
the  choir  of  the  cathedral  of  St.  Stephen's  at 
Vienna.  Subsequently  Metastasio  introduced 
him  to  the  celebrated  singer,  Porpora,  who  em- 
ployed Haydn  to  accompany  him  on  the  piano 
during  his  singing  lessons,  ana  from  whom  Hayda 
obtained  the  instruction  in  composition  he  so 
anxiously  desired  and  needed.  In  the  latter 
part  of  1750  he  composed  his  first  quartet  for 
stringed  instruments.  In  1759  a  certain  Count 
Morzin  engaged  him  as  music  director  and  com- 
poser, "with  a  salary  of  200  florins,  free  lodging* 
and  table  with  his  secretaries  and  other  officials." 
In  1760  Prince  Esterhazv  placed  him  at  the  head 
of  his  private  chapel.  For  him  Haydn  composed 
his  beautiful  symphonies  and  the  greater  number 
of  his  magnificent  quartets.  He  is  often  called 
"Father  Haydn,"  as  having  been  the  inventor 
of  the  symphonic  form  as  we  now  essentially 
know  it.  After  the  death  of  Prince  Esterhazy, 
in  1790,  Haydn  accompanied  Salomon,  the 
violinist^  to  En|;land,  where,  in  1791-92,  he  pro- 
duced SIX  of  his  "Twelve  Grand  SjTnphonies." 
In  England  he  first  obtained  that  recognition 
which  afterward  fell  to  his  share  in  his  own 
country.  On  his  return  to  Austria  he  purchased 
a  small  house  with  a  garden  in  one  of  the  suburbs 
of  Vienna.  Here  he  composed  his  oratorios,  the 
Creation  and  the  Seasons.  The  former  work, 
the  harmonies  of  which  are  pervaded  with  the 
fire  of  youth,  was  written  in  his  sixty-fifth  year, 
and  is  consiaered  by  many  to  be  equal  to  the 
finest  productions  of  Handel;  the  Seaaona  waa 
almost  his  last  work.     Died,  in  Vienna,  1809. 

Haydon,  Benjamin  Robert,  English  historical 
painter,  was  bom  at  Plymouth,  England,  1786. 
lie  exhibited  his  first  picture  at  the  academy  in 
1807,  "Joseph  and  Mary  Resting  with  our  Sa\'iour 
After  a  Day's  Journey  on  the  Road  to  Egypt." 
It  was  succeeded  by  "Dentatus."  His  great 
work,  "Christ's  Entry  into  Jeriisalem,"  was 
exhibited  in  1820,  but  it  took  some  time  to  find  a 
purchaser.  Nothing  daunted,  Haydon  painted 
two  other  subjects  from  the  Passion  of  the  Saviour. 
While  in  prison  for  debt  he  painted  the  "Mock 
Election,'  which  George  IV.  purchased  for  500 
guineas.  Of  his  succ^ding  works,  "Napoleon 
Musing  at  St.  Helena"  has  been  frequently 
reproduced.  He  forsook  the  brush  for  the  plat- 
form, and  his  lectures  on  art,  in  London  ana  the 
provinces,  brought  him  fame  and,  for  the  time 
being,  money.  He  died  by  his  own  hand  in 
1846. 

Hayes,  Rutherford  Birchard,  nineteenth  president 
of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Delaware,  Ohio. 
1822.  He  was  graduated  at  Kenyon  college  and 
at  Harvard  law  school,  and  began  the  practice 
of  law  at  Lower  Sandusky  in  1845.  He  removed 
in  1849  to  Cincinnati,  where  he  was  city  solicitor, 
1859-61.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  he 
was  appointed  major  of  the  23d  Ohio  infantry, 
and  shortly  afterward  lieutenant-colonel.  He 
distinguished  himself  in  the  campaigns  of  West 
Virginia  and  in  the  battles  around  Winchester, 
and  was  severely  wounded  at  South  Mountain. 
In  1864  he  was  made  brigadier-general  and  in 
1865  brevetted  major-general.  He  was  elected 
to  congress  from  Ohio,  1864-66,  and  was  gover- 
nor of  that  state,  1868-72  and  1876-77.  He  was 
the  republican  candidate  for  the  presidency  in 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


703 


1876,  and,  after  the  memorable  contest  with 
Samuel  J.  Tilden,  was  inaugurated  in  1877.  As 
chief  magistrate  his  career  was  marked  with 
moderation,  wisdom,  and  a  sympathy  with  all 
true  reforms.  His  independence  of  character, 
however,  was  strongly  shown  by  his  vetoes,  his 
steady  adherence  to  principle,  and  his  refusal  to 
pander  to  mere  party  politics.      Died,  1893. 

Hayne,  Robert  Young,  American  statesman,  was 
bom  in  South  Carolina,  1791.  He  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1812;  served  in  the  war  with  Great 
Britain;  and  at  its  close  returned  to  his  practice 
in  Charleston.  He  sat  in  the  United  States 
senate  from  1823  to  1832.  He  was  a  vigorous 
opponent  of  protection,  and  in  1832  boldly  sup- 
ported in  congress  the  doctrine  of  nullification. 
The  great  debates  between  Daniel  Webster  and 
Ha)aie  on  the  principles  of  the  constitution, 
the  authority  of  the  general  government,  and 
the  rights  of  the  individual  states  are  of  unusual 
historical  value.  In  November,  1832,  South 
Carolina  adopted  an  ordinance  of  nullification. 
in  December  Hayne  was  elected  governor,  and 
the  state  prepared  to  resist  the  federal  power  by 
force  of  arms.  A  compromise,  however,  was 
agreed  to  and  the  ordinance  was  repealed.  He 
was  mayor  of  Charle'^on,  1835-37.     Died,  1840. 

Hazard,  Caroline,  American  educator,  president  of 
Wellesley  college,  1899-1910,  was  bom  at  Peace 
Dale,  R.  I.,  1856,  daughter  of  Rowland  Hazard. 
She  was  educated  by  governess  and  tutors,  at 
Miss  Mary  A.  Shaw's  school.  Providence,  and 
bv  private  study  abroad;  A.  M.,  university  of 
Michigan,  1899;  Litt.  D.,  Brown,  1899;  LL.  D., 
Tufts,  1905.  Author:  Life  of  J.  L.  Diynan; 
Thomas  Hazard,  Son  of  Robert;  Narragansett 
Ballads;  The  Narragansett  Friends'  Meeting, 
Some  Ideals  in  the  Education  of  Women,  etc.,  and 
essavs,  re\'iews, verse.?,  etc.,  in  magazines.  Editor: 
Works  of  R.  a.  Hazard  (4  vols). 

Hazlitt  (hdz'4U\  William,  English  essavist  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  was  born  in  Kent,  JEngland, 
1778.  In  1802  he  visited  Paris  and  studied  in 
the  Louvre.  On  his  return  he  attempted  to 
support  himself  by  portrait-painting;  but  as  he 
could  please  neither  himself  nor  his  patrons  he 
relinquished  the  easel  and  threw  himself  into 
literature,  for  which  he  was  much  better  adapted. 
In  1803  he  went  to  London,  and  shortly  after 
published  his  Essay  on  the  Principles  of  Human 
Action.  In  1813  he  delivered  a  course  of  lectures 
on  the  history  of  English  philosophy,  and  he 
subsequently  delivered  courses  on  the  English 
poets.  He  wrote  essays  in  the  Examiner  in  con- 
junction with  Leigh  Hunt,  which  were  afterward 
republished  in  a  volume  entitled  Tfie  Round 
Table.  He  also  wrote  Characters  of  Shakespeare' s 
Plays;  View  of  the  Contemporary  English  Stage; 
Life  of  Napoleon,  etc.     Died,  1830. 

Hearst  (hurst),  Phoebe  Apperson,  philanthropist, 
was  bom  in  1842;  became  a  teacher.  In  1862 
she  married  George  Hearst,  United  States  senator 
from  California,  and  a  man  of  large  wealth.  She 
established  and  maintained  kindergarten  classes 
in  San  Francisco  several  years ;  also  classes  and 
a  training  clag?  for  kindergarten  teachers  in 
Washington,  D.  C,  nearly  ten  years;  now  caring 
for  about  300  children  in  her  kindergarten  classes 
at  Lead,  S.  D.,  where  her  principal  mining  inter- 
ests are  located ;  made  donations  to  the  Ameri- 
can university  at  Washington ;  gave  $250,0(X) 
to  build  National  Cathedral  school  for  girls; 
established  working  girls'  clubs,  San  Francisco; 
erected  and  equipped  a  mining  building  at 
university  of  California  as  a  memorial  to  her 
husband;  built,  endowed,  and  gave  thousands 
of  volumes  to  free  libraries  at  Lead  City,  South 
Dakota,  and  Anaconda,  Mont.,  finally  presenting 
same  to  the  municipalities ;  paid  cost  of  a  com- 
petition of  best  architects  of  Europe  and  America 


for  plans  for  greater  university  of  California. 
Her  other  charities  extend  to  numerous  objects 
and  institutions.  She  is  a  regent  of  the  univer- 
sity of  California. 

Hearst,  William  Randolph,  American  newspaper 
publisher  and  politician,  was  bom  in  San  Fran- 
cisco in  1863,  son  of  Senator  George  F".  and 
Phoebe  Apperson  Hearst.  He  was  educated  in 
the  public  schools  of  San  Francisco  and  at  Har- 
vard. He  then  became  editor  and  proprietor  of 
the  San  Francisco  Examiner,  1886;  bought  New 
York  Journal,  1895 ;  later  bought  the  New  York 
Advertiser  to  secure  news  franchise,  and  made  it 
New  York  Morning  American;  started  the  Chi- 
cago American,  1900.  In  1902  he  started  The 
Chicago  Morning  Examiner.  In  1904  he  also 
acquired  the  Boston  American  and  the  Los 
Anodes  Examiner.  He  was  elected  to  the  58th 
and  59th  congresses  from  the  11th  New  York 
district,  as  democrat.  He  was  candidate  for 
mayor  of  New  York  in  1905  and  1909,  and  for 
governor  in  190G.  Was  chief  promoter  of  the 
independence  league,  and  was  responsible  for 
making  it  a  factor  in  the  presidential  campaign 
of  1908. 

Heber  (he'-bSr),  Reginald,  English  prelate  and 
hymn  writer,  was  bom  at  Malpas,  Cheshire,  1783. 
He  entered  Brasenose  college,  Oxford,  1800,  and 
in  1803  wrote  his  prize  poem  Palestine.  Inducted 
into  the  family-living  of  Hodnet  in  Shropshire, 
1807,  he  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  the 
Quarterly  Review,  and  in  1812  published  a  volume 
of  Hymns..  He  was  appointwi  a  prebendary  of 
St.  Asaph  in  1812,  Bampton  lecturer  in  1815, 
and  preacher  of  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1822.  In  1823 
he  accepted  the  see  of  Calcutta;  but  an  episco- 
pate of  apostolic  zeal  was  terminated  by  his 
sudden  death  at  Trichinopoly,  1826.  He  pub- 
lished sermons,  A  Journey  Through  India,  etc., 
and  edited  Jeremy  Taylor's  Works.  As  a  poet, 
his  fame  rests  upon  Palestine  and  his  Hymns, 
which  include  "Lord  of  Mercy  and  of  Might, 
"From  Greenland's  Icy  Mountains,"  "Holy, 
Holy,  Holy,"  and  "The  Son  of  God  Goes  Forth 
to  War." 

Hubert  (d'-fedr'),  Louis  Philippe,  French-Canadian 
sculptor,  was  born  in  the  province  of  Quebec, 
1850.  In  early  days  he  worked  on  a  farm; 
obtained  prize  at  provincial  exhibition,  Montreal, 
for  wood-carving  in  1873;  afterward  studied  in 
Paris,  and  won  prize  given  by  Dominion  govern- 
ment for  full-length  statue  of  George  Cartier. 
His  chief  works  consist  of  statues,  among  which 
are  those  to  Maisonneuse  and  Chdnier,  in  Mont- 
real. 

Hecker,  Isaac  Thomas,  founder  and  superior  of 
the  order  of  Paulist  fathers,  was  bom  in  New 
York  in  1819.  His  brothers  established  the 
well-known  Hecker  mills,  but  he  was  not  content 
to  labor  in  mercantile  pursuits,  and  in  1843 
joined  the  Brook  Farm  community  in  West 
Roxbury,  Mass.  Later  he  established  a  similar 
society  at  Fruitlands,  Mass.,  then  took  up  the 
study  for  the  Episcopal  ministry,  but  in  1845 
joined  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  and  became 
a  Redemptorist  father.  Much  of  his  time  was 
devoted  to  literature.  He  founded  the  Catholic 
World,  organized  the  Catholic  publication  society, 
and  wrote  Questions  of  the  Soul;  Aspirations  of 
Nature;  The  Church  arid  the  Age,  etc.    Died,  1888. 

Hedin  (hi-den'),  Sven  Anders,  Swedish  traveler  and 
geographer,  was  bom  in  Stockholm,  1865.  He 
was  educated  at  Stockholm,  at  Upsala,  and  in 
Germany;  Ph.  D.,  Halle.  He  began  his  explora- 
tions in  Persia  in  1885,  and  has  traveled  through 
Kh6rassan  and  Turkestan,  several  times  through 
Tibet  and  other  parts  of  central  Asia.  His  books 
include:  Through  Asia;  Central  Asia  and  Tibet; 
Scientific  Results  of  a  Journey  in  Central  Asia; 
The  Tarim  River,  etc. 


764 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Hegan,  Alice  Caldwell.     See  Bice,  Alice  HcKan. 

Begel  (hd'-gel),  George  Wllbelm  Frledrlch.  See 
page  313. 

Heine  (hi'-nS),  Helnrich,  German  poet  and  wit,  was 
bom  at  DuBseldorf,  of  Jewish  parents,  1799.  He 
abandoned  Judaism,  and  was  baptized  in  the 
Lutheran  church  of  Heiligenstadt.  He  studied 
at  Gottingen,  and  was  graduated  there  in  law. 
A  visit  to  the  Harz  and  to  Italy  supplied  him 
with  material  for  his  Reisebilder,  "Pictures  of 
Travel."  This  book  was  a  brilliant  success. 
His  Buck  der  Lieder  —  a  portion  of  which  had 
first  appeared  as  YoiUhfrd  Sorrows,  in  Berlin, 
1822  —  was  no  less  fortunate.  Many  of  these 
songs  are  of  the  most  exquisite  and  etherial 
beauty.  They  are  unmatched  in  German  litera^ 
ture,  except  by  the  lyrics  which  Goethe  wrote  in 
his  youth.  About  1845  Heine  was  attacked  by 
disease  of  the  spine,  and  was  almost  constantly 
bedridden.  He  suffered  the  most  acute  pain, 
together  with  the  loss  of  his  siglit,  with  the  most 
remarkable  equanimity  and  even  good-humor, 
vmtil  the  day  of  his  death,  which  took  place  in 
Paris,  1856. 

Held,  Annat  comedienne,  was  bom  in  Paris,  1877, 
daughter  of  Maurice  Held.  She  was  educated  in 
an  academy  at  Rouen,  France,  and  married  in 
Paris,  F.  Ziegfeld,  Jr.,  of  Chicago.  She  made  her 
d^but  as  comedienne  in  Paris,  1890;  since  then 
in  many  r61es;  began  starring,  1896,  in  A  Par- 
lor Match;  later  in  French  Maid  and  Papa's 
Wife;  Mile.  Napoleon,  at  the  Knickerbocker 
theater.  New  York ;  in  Parisian  Modd,  Broad- 
way theater.  New  York;  in  The  LitiU  Duchess, 
Casino  theater.  New  York,  etc. 

Helmholtz  (hUm' -holts),  Hermann  von.  See  page 
409. 

Belmont  {hW-mdnt),  Jan  Baptista  van,  Belgian 
chemist,  was  born  at  Brusselis  in  1577.  He  filled 
the  chair  of  surgery  in  the  university  of  Louvain. 
and  writers  on  the  history  of  chemistry  regard 
him  as  the  greatest  chemist  who  preceded 
Lavoisier.  In  1609  he  settled  at  Vilvordc,  near 
Brussels,  where  he  practiced  medicine  gratui- 
tously for  thirty  years.  He  was  the  first  to  point 
out  the  imperative  necessity  for  employing  the 
balance  in  chemistry.  He  paid  much  attention 
to  the  study  of  the  gases,  and  is  supposed  by 
some  authorities  to  have  been  the  first  to  apply 
the  term  gases  to  elastic  aeriform  fluids.  Of 
these  gases  he  distinguished  several  kinds.  His 
works  were  published  under  the  title  Ortus 
Medicina.     Died,  1644. 

Helps,  Sir  Arthur,  English  essayist  and  historian, 
was  bom  at  Streatham,  1813.  He  was  graduated 
at  Cambridge  in  1835,  and  on  leaving  the  univer- 
sity obtained  a  post  in  the  civil  service.  He 
then  resigned  and  retired  to  Bishop's  Waltham, 
in  Hampshire,  where,  in  the  possession  of  ample 
means,  he  enjoyed  lettered  ease.  His  first  work 
of  consequence  was  entitled  Essays  written  in  the 
Intervals  of  Business.  Among  his  subsequent 
works  are  Oulita,  the  Serf,  a  pTav;  Ttie  Spanish 
Conquest  in  America;  Friends  in  Council; 
Conquerors  of  the  New  World  and  their  Bonds- 
men;   Companions  of  My  Solitude.     Died,   1875. 

Heist  (hMst),  Bartholomeus  van  der,  Dutch 
painter,  was  bom  at  Haarlem  or  Dordrecht, 
between  1611  and  1614.  He  was  joint-founder 
in  1654  of  the  painters'  guild  of  St.  Luke  at 
Amsterdam,  where  he  attained  great  celebrity 
as  a  portrait-painter.  His  best-known  work  is 
"The  Banquet  of  the  Civic  Guard,"  now  in  the 
Amsterdam  gallery.     He  died  in  1670. 

Helvetius  {h4U-ve'shl-iis),  Claude  Adrien,  French 
philosopher,  was  bom  at  Paris,  1715.  Itf  1738 
he  was  appointed  to  the  lucrative  office  of  farmer- 
general,  and  soon  after  became  chamberlain  to 
the  queen.  In  1758  appeared  his  celebrated 
work  De  I' Esprit,  in  which  he  endeavors  to  prove 


sensation  to  be  the  source  of  all  intellectual 
activity,  and  that  the  prand  lever  of  all  human 
conduct  is  self-satisfaction.  He  visited  England 
in  1764,  and  the  year  following  was  entertained 
by  Frederick  the  Great  at  Potsdam.  His  com- 
plete works  were  published  after  his  death. 
Died,  1771. 

Hemans  (hlhn'-am),  Felicia  Dorothea,  EngUsh  poet, 
was  bom  in  Liverpool,  1793,  daughter  of  George 
Browne,  a  Liver]:>ool  merchant,  and  became  the 
wife  of  Captain  Hemans.  A  few  years  after  their 
marriage,  Captain  Hemans  removed  to  Italy,  and 
they  never  afterward  met.  Mrs.  Heman's  subse- 
quent life  was  spent  in  North  Wales,  in  Lan- 
cashire, and  in  Dublin.  Her  best  poem  of  any 
length  is  The  Forest  Sanctuary;  but  her  shorter 
pieces,  published  under  the  title  of  Songs  of  the 
Afections,  etc.,  are  by  far  the  most  p>opular. 
Many  of  these  shorter  pieces  have  become 
standard  English  lyrics,  and  up>on  them,  almost 
exclusively,  dcpenos  her  claim  to  remembrance. 
She  died  in  Dublin,  1835. 

Henderson,  Charles  Kiclunond,  American  educator, 
sociologist,  professor  of  nociologv,  university  of 
Chicago,  since  1897,  was  born  at  Covington,  Ind., 
1849  He  was  graduated  at  the  umversity  of 
Chicago,  1870;  B.  D.,  1873.  D.  D.,  1885,  Baptist 
Union  theological  aeminary;  Ph.  D.,  Leipzig, 
1901.  Was  pastor  at  Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  1873-82, 
Detroit,  1882-02.  Associate  e<litor  of  American 
Journal  of  Theology  and  American  Journal  of 
Soeiolooy.  Author:  Introduction  to  Study  of 
DepenaenL,  Defeetive,  and  Delinquent  Classes; 
Development  of  Doctrine  in  the  Epistles;  Social 
Spirit  in  America;  Social  Settlements;  Social 
lAementa.  Edited :  Ttie  Christian  and  Civic  Econ- 
omy of  Large  Towns;  Modem  Methods  of 
Charity;  Modem  Prison  Systems,  etc. 

Henderson,  William  James,  American  writer, 
music  critic,  New  York  Sun,  since  1902,  was  born 
at  Newark,  N.  J  ,  1855.  He  was  graiduated  at 
Princeton  university,  1876.  On  staff  of  New 
York  Times,  1883-1902.  Author:  Story  of 
Music;  Preludes  and  Studies;  Sea  Yams  for 
Boys;  Afloat  with  the  Flag;  Elements  of  Naviga- 
tion; The  Last  Cruise  of  the  Mohawk;  What  is 
Good  Music  f  How  Music  Developed;  The 
Orchestra  and  Orchestral  Music;  Richard  Wagner; 
Modem  Musical  Drift;  Pip^  f^nd  Timbrdt, 
poems;  The  Art  of  the  Singer ;  Some  Forerunners  of 
Italian  Opera.  Associate  editor.  Standard  Dic- 
tionary, 1892-94. 

Hendricks,  Thomas  Andrews,  vice-president  of 
the  United  States  in  1885,  was  bom  in  Muskingum 
county.  Ohio,  1819.  He  removed  with  his  father 
to  Shelby  county,  Ind.,  in  1822,  graduated  at 
Hanover  college  in  1841,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1843.  He  was  a  member  of  the  state  legis- 
lature in  1848-49,  a  democratic  member  of  the 
house  of  representatives,  1851-55,  and  com* 
mis.sioner  of  the  land  office,  1855-59.  He 
served  as  United  States  senator,  1863-69,  and  as 
govemor  of  Indiana,  1873-77.  In  1876  he  was 
nominated  for  the  office  of  vice-president  of  the 
United  States  bv  the  democrats,  but  was  defeated. 
In  1876,  1880,  and  1884  he  was  a  prominent  can- 
didate for  the  nomination  for  tne  presidency; 
and  in  1884,  when  Cleveland  was  nominated,  he 
consented  to  take  the  nomination  for  the  vice- 
presidencv  and  was  elected.  He  died  at  Indian- 
apoUs,  In<l.,  1885. 

Heney,  Francis  Joseph,  lawj'er,  was  bom  in  Lima, 
N.  Y.,  1859,  and  has  been  a  resident  of  San 
Francisco  practically  since  1864.  He  was 
educated  at  public  primary,  grammar  and  night 
schools,  1866-75,  university  of  Calif omia,  1879-80. 
Hastings  law  school,  1883-84.  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar,  1883.  He  engaged  in  cattle  business  in 
Arizona,  1885-89 ;  conducted  Indian  trader  store. 
Fort  Apache,  Arizona,  1886-88;    practiced  law. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


765 


Tucson,  .Arizona,  1889-95 ;  took  prominent  part 
in  litigation  by  which  titles  under  Mexican  &nd 
grants  in  Arizona  were  settled,  and  in  argument 
of  three  land-grant  cases  before  the  United  States 
supreme  court;  was  attorney-general  of  Arizona. 
1893-94;    removed  to  San  Francisco.   1895,  ana 

,  confined  cases  to  civil  business  until  urged  by 
United  States  Attorney-General  Knox  to  under- 
take land  fraud    cases  at   Portland,   Ore.;   dis- 

,  covered  conspiracy  of  United  States  Attorney 
John  H.  Hall  to  protect  guilty  politicians  in 
consideration  of  reappointment ;  secured  removal 
and  indictment  of  Hall,  and  indictment  of 
Senator  Mitchell,  George  C.  Brownell,  and  others. 
He  was  then  district  attorney  for  San  Francisco, 
but  was  defeated  for  reelection  in  1909. 

Henley,  William  Ernest,  B^nglish  poet,  playwright, 
critic,  and  editor,  was  born  at  Gloucester,  1849. 
Months  of  illness  in  Edinburgh  infirmary,  1873-75, 
bore  fruit  in  Hospital  Rhymes,  and  A  Book  of 
Verses,  which  won  much  attention,  and  was 
followed  by  Views  and  Reviews;  Tfie  Song  of  the 
Sword;  For  England's  Sake;  Hawthorn  and 
Lavender,  etc.  He  edited  the  Magazine  of  Art, 
the  Scots  Observer,  and  the  New  Review,  besides 
an  edition  of  Burns.  He  also  collaborated  with 
R.  L.  Stevenson  in  four  plays.  Deacon  Brodie; 
Beau  Austin;  Robert  Macaire,  and  Admired 
Guinea.     He  died  in  1903. 

Hennepin  (hin'-e-pin),  Louis,  French  priest,  mis- 
sionary and  traveler,  was  born  in  Belgium  about 
1640.  He  served  in  the  army  as  chaplain,  and 
in  1675  went  to  Canada  as  a  missionary  priest. 
When  La  Salle  undertook  his  explopation  of  the 
Mississippi  valley,  Father  Hennepin  was  assigned 
to  his  command.  They  discovered  Niagara  falls, 
traveling  west  as  far  as  Mackinac,  and  thence  to 
Peoria,  on  the  Illinois  river.  Here  La  Salle  was 
obliged  to  leave  the  party,  and  Father  Hennepin 
and  two  men  in  a  canoe  went  down  the  Illinois 
river  to  its  mouth,  and  thence  north  up  the 
Mississippi,  a  journey  of  some  six  weeks,  when 
they  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  party  of  Sioux  Indians. 
They  discovered  and  named  the  falls  of  St. 
Anthony,  near  Minneapolis.  Father  Hennepin 
spent  nearly  a  year  among  the  Indians,  and  was 
finally  rescued  by  Du  Lhut,  after  whom  Duluth 
was  named.  Upon  his  return  to  Europe,  Hen- 
nepin published  a  history  of  his  travels,  which  is 
of  the  greatest  value  in  dealing  with  the  early 
explorations  of  the  Mississippi  valley.  Died  at 
Utrecht  about  1706. 

Henry  I.,  king  of  England,  youngest  son  of  William 
the  Conqueror,  was  born  in  1068.  When  his 
brother,  William  II.,  was  found  dead  in  the  New 
Forest,  Prince  Henry  at  once  seized  the  reins  of 
government,  which  should  have  passed  into  the 
hands  of  his  elder  brother,  Robert,  duke  of  Nor- 
mandy, who  was  at  the  time  in  Italy,  on  his  way 
home  from  crusading  in  Palestine.  Henry  was 
crowned  at  Westminster  the  third  day  after  his 
brother's  violent  death.  He  successfully  held 
the  crown  against  his  brother  Robert,  at  first 
negotiating  with  him,  and  granting  him  a  pension 
to  resign  his  pretensions,  but  finally  making  war 
against  his  badly  governed  duchy.  Robert  was 
defeated  in  a  bloody  battle  before  the  walls  of 
Tinchebrai  in  1106,  taken  prisoner,  and  shut  up 
in  Cardiff  castle  during  the  remaining  twenty- 
eight  years  of  his  life.  The  acquisition  of 
Normandy,  the  ancient  patrimony  of  his  family, 
had  been  a  point  of  ambition  with  Henry,  but 
he  had  some  trouble  in  keeping  it,  as  the  French 
king,  Louis  VI.,  and  the  counts  of  Anjou  and 
Flanders  took  part  with  William,  Robert's 
youthful  son,  whose  virtues  and  misfortunes 
secured  him  friends.  Henry,  however,  brought 
over  to  himself  the  count  of  Anjou;  he  rendered 
neutral,  by  his  eloquence  and  fair  promises.  Pope 
Calixtus  II.,  and  defeated  the  French  king  and 


his  mailed  knights  in  the  almost  bloodless  battle 
of  Brenneville^  1119.  Next  year  his  suooenes  in 
arms  and  intrigues  were  darkened  for  life  by  the 
death  of  his  omy  son  William,  who  was  drowned 
at  sea  on  his  passage  from  Normandy  to  England. 
Henry  was  styled  Beauderc,  or  "the  scholar," 
in  honor  of  his  learning,  which,  for  a  king  in  hin 
age,  was  not  undeserving  of  distinction.  Died. 
1135. 

Henry  II,,  king  of  England,  grandson  of  Henry  I., 
was  bom  in  1133.  His  mother,  Matilda,  had 
made  war  against  Stephen,  as  a  usurper.  In 
1153,  when  the  rival  armies  were  drawing  near 
each  other,  a  treaty  for  compromise  was  set  on 
foot,  and,  the  only  son  of  Stephen  having  died, 
it  was  agreed  that  Stephen  should  reign  during 
his  life,  and  that  Henry  should  succeed  him, 
which  he  did  on  Stephen's  death  the  next  year. 
He  was  crowned  with  his  queen,  Eleanor,  who 
was  countess  of  Poitou  and  duchess  of  Aquitano 
in  her  own  right.  Henry  inherited  from  his 
father  Aniou,  Fouraine,  and  Maine,  and  his 
father  and  mother  succeeded  in  keeping  and 
taking  possession  of  Normandy  for  themselveM 
and  him;  so  that,  by  one  method  and  another, 
he  came  to  be  possessed  of  a  large  portion  of 
France  as  well  as  England.  His  cliief  rivals  in 
power  were  the  clergy.  To  aid  him  in  reducing 
the  church  to  subjection  to  the  civil  power  he 
appointed  his  trusted  chancellor,  Tnomas  & 
Becket,  to  the  see  of  Canterbury,  and  compelled 
him  and  the  other  ecclesiastics  to  agree  to  the 
constitutions  of  Clarendon.  Becket,  however, 
proved  to  be  a  true  churchman,  and  the  long  ana 
obstinate  struggle  between  him  and  his  monarch 
was  only  terminated  by  his  murder.  Henry  did 
penance  at  his  grave,  allowing  himself  to  be 
scourged  by  monks;  and  he  was  ultimately 
successful  in  reducing  the  church  to  subordina- 
tion in  civil  matters.  During  his  reign  occurred 
the  conquest  of  Ireland.  This  was  a  nominal 
conquest,  for  the  majority  of  the  Irish  tribes  and 
chieftains  continued  to  be  independent  bar- 
barians for  centuries.  Henry's  sons,  incited  by 
their  jealous  mother.  Queen  Eleanor,  rebelled 
against  him,  and  their  cause  was  espoused  by 
the  kings  of  France  and  Scotland.  In  the 
course  of  this  filial  rebellion  Henry,  the  eldest, 
died  of  a  fever,  and  Geoffrey  was  killed  in  a 
tournament  at  Paris.  Richard,  sumamed  Coeur 
de  Lion,  with  King  Philip  of  France,  obtained 
some  advantages  over  his  father.  A  treaty  of 
peace  was  concluded  between  them,  of  which 
one  of  the  stipulations  was  for  an  indemnity 
for  all  the  followers  of  Richard.     Died,  1189. 

Henry  HI.,  king  of  England,  grandson  of  Henry  II., 
and  eldest  son  of  King  John,  was  bom  in  1207.. 
He  came  to  the  thTone  in  1216  when  a  minor, 
and  in  the  course  of  a  long  reign  provoked  much 
hostility  by  his  foreign  favorites  and  his  sub- 
mission to  papal  exactions.  This  discontent 
culminated  in  the  barons'  war,  1262-65,  in 
which  he  was  defeated  and  compelled  to  submit 
to  control  of  the  government  by  De  Montfort 
and  his  friends.  These,  however,  quarreled 
among  themselves,  and  at  Evesham  De  Mont- 
fort was  defeated  and  slain.  During  this  reign 
the  great  charter  (with  important  clauses  omitted) 
was  frequently  renewed,  and  "Westminster  abbey 
was  almost  entirelv  built.      Died,  1272. 

Henry  IV„  king  of  England,  first  king  of  the 
house  of  Lancaster,  was  bom  in  1367,  and  sur- 
named  Bolingbroke,  from  his  birthplace.  About 
1380  he  was  made  earl  of  Derby,  and  married 
Mary  de  Bohun.  He  led  a  ro\'ing  life  for  some 
years,  was  present  at  the  taking  of  Tunis  in  1390, 
fought  against  the  heathen  on  the  shores  of  the 
Baltic,  and  made  an  attempt  to  reach  Jeru.salem. 
In  1397  hfe  supported  Richard  II.  again.st  Glou- 
cester,   and    the   following   year   was   banished. 


766 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Upon  the  death  of  his  father,  his  estates  were 
forfeited.  In  July,  1399,  he  landed  in  York 
with  three  small  vessels,  and  on  September  29th 
he  obtained  from  Richard,  then  a  prisoner  in  the 
Tower,  an  abandonment  of  his  claims  to  the 
throne.  On  the  next  day,  Henry  arose  in  parlia- 
ment and  claimed  kingdom  and  crown.  His  reign 
proved  one  of  trouble,  disorder,  and  rebellion. 
Poverty  and  heavy  taxes  oppressed  the  people, 
and  Henry's  dependencv  on  the  wealth  of  the 
church  caused  him  to  allow  severe  laws  against 
heretics  to  be  made.  In  1412  he  sent  two  expe- 
ditions into  France,  but  in  his  closing  years  he 
was  afflicted  with  epileptic  fits,  in  one  of  which 
he  died  at  Westminster,  1413. 

Henry  V.,  king  of  England,  waa  bom  at  Monmouth, 
1387,  eldest  son  of  Henry  IV.  by  Mary  de  Bohun. 
From  1401  to  1408  be  was  engaged  against 
Glendower  and  the  Welsh  rebels;  in  1409  he 
became  constable  of  Dover,  and  in  1410  captain 
of  Calais.  He  was  crowned  in  1413,  and  at  the 
outset  of  his  reign  liberated  the  young  earl  of 
March,  the  true  heir  to  the  crown,  restored 
Hotspur's  son  to  his  father's  lands  and  honors, 
and  had  Richard  II. 's  body  buried  in  West- 
minster. The  great  effort  of  his  reipi  was  an 
attempted  conquest  of  France;  and  m  1414  he 
demanded  the  French  crown,  to  which  he  seems 
to  have  believed  that  he  had  a  valid  claim  through 
his  great-grandfather,  Edward  III.  In  1415  he 
sailed  with  an  armv  of  30,000  men,  and  in  Sep- 
tember took  Harfieur.  In  October,  at  Agin- 
court,  he  gained  a  battle  against  such  odds  as  to 
make  his  victory  one  of  the  most  notable  in 
history.  Two  years  after  he  again  invaded 
France,  and  bv  the  end  of  1418  Normandy  was 
once  more  subject  to  the  English  crown.  In 
1420  was  concluded  the  "perpetual  peace"  of 
Troyes,  under  which  Henry  was  recognized  as 
regent  and  "heir  of  France,"  and  married  the 
French  king's  daughter,  Catharine  of  Valois. 
In  1421  he  took  his  young  queen  to  England  to 
be  crowned ;  but  in  a  month  he  waa  recalled  by 
news  of  the  defeat  at  Beaug6  of  his  brother,  the 
duke  of  Clarence.  Henry's  wonted  siiccess  was 
attending  him,  when  he  was  seized  with  illness, 
and  diea  at  Vincennes,  1422,  leaving  an  infant 
to  succeed  him. 

Henry  VII^  king  of  England,  was  bom  about  1457, 
first  of  the  Tudor  dynasty.  He  was  the  son  of 
Edmund  Tudor  and  Margaret  Beaufort,  a 
descendant  of  John  of  Gaunt.  He  invaded 
England  in  1485,  and  defeated  Richard  III.  at 
Bosworth,  after  which  he  married  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  Edward  IV.  His  reign  was  markea 
by  three  Yorkist  risings,  which  he  defeated,  by 

,  the  measures  he  enforced  against  the  nobles,  by 
his  system  of  marriages  with  foreign  princes,  and 
the  enactment  of  Poyning's  law.      Died,  1509. 

Henry  VIII^  king  of  England,  second  son  of  Henry 
VII.  and  EUzabeth  of  York,  was  bom  in  1491. 
Betrothed  at  twelve,  he  was  married  In  1509, 
shortly  after  his  succession,  to  Catharine  of 
Aragon,  his  brother's  widow,  six  vears  his  senior. 
Handsome,  generous,  and  full  of  iffe,  the  king  waa 
a  favorite  with  all  classes.  He  chose  his  ministers 
wisely,  and,  leaving  much  to  their  discretion, 
nevertheless  held  the  reins  of  government  him- 
self. Wolsev.  archbishop  of  York,  his  chief 
minister,  held  almost  unUmited  power,  depend- 
ent however,  on  the  king's  will  and  favor.  Wars 
with  France  and  Scotland  in  1513  brought  victory 
to  England  at  Terouenne  and  Tourney,  and  at 
riodden  From  this  date  until  1529  Henry  was 
engro^ed  much  in  foreign  affairs,  wars  in  France, 
and  the  failure  of  the  attempt  to  collect  war 
loans  m  England.  In  1521  Henry  gained  from 
the  pope  the  title  "defender  of  the  faith,"  still 
borne  by  the  English  sovereign,  for  his  Assertw 
t>ej)tem    bacramerUomm    against    Luther.      The 


appearance  at  court  of  Anne  Boleyn,  and  ths 
failure  of  a  male  heir,  encouraged  Henry  to  raise 
the  old  question  as  to  the  legality  of  the  marriage 
with  Catharine.  Wolsey  zealously  aided  him, 
seeing  in  a  divorce  the  possibility  of  a  breaking 
of  ties  with  Charles  V.  and  an  alliance  with 
France.  The  appeal  to  the  pope  in  1527  resulted 
only  in  the  appointment  of  a  commission.  Henry, 
angered  at  Wolsey's  apparent  failure,  took  away 
his  office,  and  installed  Thomas  Cromwell  as 
minister  and  Cranmer  as  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, with  Sir  Thomas  More  as  chancellor. 
Parliament  was  called  in  1529,  and  passed  a 
number  of  acts  abrogatine  the  papal  power  in 
England,  heavily  fining  the  clerg\',  and  finally 
recognizing  Henry  as  supreme  heatf  of  the  church 
of  England, the  clerpy  acknowledging  his  authority 
to  secure  a  partial  remittance  of  the  fines.  In 
1531  Cromwell  succeeded  More  as  chancellor. 
In  1533  Henry,  impatient  at  the  delay,  was 
privately  mamed  to  Anne,  with  whom  he  had 
long  been  living;  three  months  later  the  marriage 
was  announceii,  and  Cranmer,  calling  a  court,  as 
the  highest  ecclesiastical  authoritv  in  England. 
pronounced  the  divorce  from  Catharine  ana 
declared  the  marriage  null  and  void  from  the 
beginning.  A  year  later  Clement  decided  in 
favor  of  Catharine^  but  not  until  Henry  had 
severed  all  connections  with  Rome,  by  making 
it  treason  to  deny  his  authority  as  head  of  the 
church  of  England.  In  quick  succession  came 
the  translation  of  the  Bible,  its  introduction  into 
every  church,  the  act  of  uniformity,  and  the  ten 
articles  of  faith,  lat^r  changed  again  to  six 
articles,  embodying  substantiailv  the  old  creed, 
with  the  penalty  of  death  for  denial.  In  1536 
Henry  charged  Anne  BolejTi  with  infidelity, 
sent  her  to  the  block  and  married  Jane  Seymour, 
by  whom  he  had  a  son,  Edward  VI.  She  died  in 
1537  and  three  years  later  he  married  Anne  of 
Cleves,  at  Cromwell's  su^estion.  She  proved 
far  from  handsome,  was  divorced,  and  Cromwell 
sent  to  the  block.  On  the  day  of  his  execution 
Henry  married  Catharine  Howard,  but  she  was 
soon  found  unfaithful,  and  beheaded.  In  1543 
Henry  married  Catharine  Parr,  who  survived 
him.    He  died,  1547. 

Henry  11^  king  of  France,  was  bom  in  1519,  son  of 
Francis  I.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1547.  By 
his  alliance  with  the  German  Protestants,  be 
acQuired  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun,  carried  on  his 
father's  war  with  Spain,  was  defeated  at  St. 
Quentin  in  1557,  but  in  1558  he  regained  Calais 
from  the  English  He  died  in  1559  of  a  wound 
inflicted  in  a  tournament  held  to  celebrate  the 
conclusion  of  the  war  by  the  marriage  of  his 
daughter  and  Philip  II.  of  Spain. 

Henry  II L,  king  of  France,  third  son  of  Henry  II. 
and  Catharine  de'  Medici,  was  bom  in  1551.  In 
1569  he  gained  victories  over  the  Protestants 
at  Jamac  and  Moncontour,  and  he  took  an 
active  share  in  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. 
In  1573  the  intrigues  of  the  queen-regent  secured 
his  election  to  the  crown  of  Poland;  but  in  1574 
he  succeeded  his  brother,  Charles  IX.,  on  the 
French  throne.  His  reign  was  a  period  of  almost 
incessant  civil  war  between  Huguenots  and 
Catholics,  the  duke  of  Guise  having  formed  the 
holy  league  to  assert  the  supremacv  of  Catholi- 
cism and  secure  the  reversion  of  the  throne  to 
the  Guises.  Henry  showed  fickleness  and  want 
of  courage  in  his  public  conduct ;  and  in  private 
his  life  was  sp>ent  in  an  alternation  of  dissolute 
excesses  and  wild  outbreaks  of  religious  fanati- 
cism. In  1588  the  assassination  of  the  duke  of 
Guise  roused  the  Catholics  to  the  utmost  pitch 
of  exasperation;  Henry  threw  himself  into  the 
arms  of  Henrj*  of  Navarre,  and  the  two  marched 
upon  Paris  at  the  head  of  a  Huguenot  army. 
But  in  August,  1589,  Henry  was  stabbed  by  a 


•kmmmmi^'S' 


HENRY   IV.    AT  CANOSSA 

From  the  painting  by  E.  Schivoiser 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


709 


fanatical  Dominican  named  Jacaues  Clement; 
he  died,  the  last  of  the  house  of  Valois,  on  the 
following  day,  nominating  Henry  of  Navarre  as 
his  successor. 

Henry  IV^  l^ing  of  France,  was  bom  in  1553,  son 
of  Anthony  of  Navarre,  a  descendant  of  Louis 
IX.  He  was  founder  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty, 
succeeding  Henry  III.  in  1589.  His  marriage 
with  Marguerite  de  Valois,  in  1572,  was  the 
occasion  of  the  Bartholomew  massacre.  In 
1576  he  quitted  the  court  and  became  leader  of 
the  Huguenots  and  opponent  of  the  league,  being 
the  rival  of  the  Guises  for  the  succession.  He 
defeated  them  at  Arques  and  Ivrv,  but  was 
unable  to  conquer  Paris  without  becoming  a 
Roman  Catholic,  which  he  did  in  1593.  He 
concluded  peace  with  Philip  II.  at  Vervins,  and 
issued  the  edict  of  Nantes.  The  rest  of  his  reign 
was  occupied  by  domestic  reforms.  He  was 
assassinated  by  Ravaillac,  1610. 

Henry  IV^  emperor  of  the  holy  Roman  empire, 
was  bom  at  Goslar,  Prussia,  1050,  son  of  Henry 
III.  He  was  crowned  emperor  in  1084  by 
Clement  III.  The  chief  occurrence  of  his  reign 
was  the  struggle  with  Gregory  VII.,  with  whom 
he  began  the  investiture  disputes.  During  this 
celebrated  controversy  he  deposed  Gregory, 
but  was  himself  excommunicated  and  deposed, 
and  was  obliged  to  submit  at  Canossa  in  1077. 
In  1084  he  again  invaded  Italy,  and  captured 
Rome.  In  Germany  he  had  enemies  in  Rudolf 
of  Swabia  (whom  he  defeated  finally  at  Wolks- 
heim  in  1080),  in  the  Saxons,  and  in  his  sons, 
Conrad  and  Henry,  by  the  latter  of  whom  he 
was  dethroned.     Died,  1106. 

Henry,  king  of  Navarre.  See  Henry  IV.,  king  of 
France. 

Henry,  Joseph,  American  physicist,  was  bom  in 
Albany,  N.  Y.,  1797;  was  appointed  professor 
of  natural  philosophy  in  the  college  of  New 
Jersey  at  Princeton,  1832;  and,  in  1846,  was 
called  to  the  office  of  secretary  or  director  of  the 
Smithsonian  institution  at  Washington,  to  the 
organization  and  v,nde  reputation  of  which  he 
had  mostly  contributed.  Henry  made  most 
important  discoveries  in  electro-magnetism, 
and  disputed  with  Morse  the  invention  of  the 
electric  telegraph.     Died,  1878. 

Henry,  Patrick,  American  orator  and  statesman, 
was  born  in  Virginia  in  1736.  After  receiving  a 
common  school  education,  and  spending  some 
time  in  trade  and  agriculture,  he  commenced 
the  practice  of  law,  after  only  six  weeks  of  prepar- 
atory study.  In  spite  of  several  years  of  poverty, 
he  first  rose  to  distinction  in  managing  the  popu- 
lar cause  in  the  controversy  between  the  legis- 
lature and  the  clergy,  touching  the  stipend  which 
was  claimed  by  the  latter.  In  1765  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Virginia  house  of  bur- 
gesses, with  express  reference  to  an  opposition 
to  the  British  stamp  act.  In  this  assembly  he 
obtained  the  honor  of  being  the  first  to  commence 
the  opposition  to  the  measures  of  the  British 
government,  which  terminated  in  the  revolution. 
He  was  one  of  the  delegates  sent  by  Virginia  to 
the  first  general  congress  of  the  colonies,  in  1774, 
and  in  that  body  distinguished  himself  by  his 
boldness  and  eloquence.  In  1776  he  was  ap- 
pointed the  first  governor  of  the  commonwealth, 
and  to  this  office  was  repeatedly  reelected.  In 
1786  he  was  appointed  by  the  legislature  one  of 
the  deputies  to  the  convention  held  at  Phila- 
delphia, for  the  purpose  of  ^e^'^sing  the  federal 
constitution.  In  1788  he  was  a  member  of  the 
convention  which  met  in  Virginia  to  consider 
the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  exerted 
himself  strenuously  against  its  adoption.  In 
1794  he  retired  from  the  bar,  and  died  in  1799. 
Without  extensive  information  uf)on  legal  or 
political  topics,  he  was  a  natural  orator  of  the 


highest  order,  possessing  great  powers  of  imagi- 
nation, sarcasm,  and  humor,  united  with  great 
force  and  energy  of  manner,  and  a  deep  knowl- 
edge of  human  nature. 

Henry  the  Lion,  duke  of  Saxony  and  Bavaria,  waa 
born  in  1129.  He  was  the  son  of  Henry  the 
Proud,  a  rebellious  noble  who  had  been  deprived 
of  his  estates  by  Conrad  HI.  On  the  death  of 
Conrad  these  dukedoms  were  restored  to  Henry 
the  Lion,  who  became  the  greatest  of  all  the  Gcr- 
inan  princes.  Great  improvements  were  made  by 
him  in  his  dominions,  and  he  became  so  powerful 
as  to  determine  to  be  no  longer  a  subject  even  to 
the  emperor.  At  the  battle  of  Legnano  he  caused 
the  emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa  to  be  defeated 
bjr  withdrawing  his  troops  from  the  field.  Fred- 
erick for  this  took  away  liis  estates,  and  banished 
him  for  three  years  to  England.     Died,  1195. 

Henry  the  Navigator,  son  of  JoaoI.,kingof  Portugal, 
and  the  English  Philippa,  daughter  of  John  of 
Gaunt,  was  bom  in  1394.  He  distinguished 
himself  at  the  capture  of  Ceuta  in  1415;  took 
up  his  residence  at  Sagres,  in  Algarve;  and 
during  the  war  against  the  Moors  his  sailors 
reached  parts  of  the  ocean  before  unknown. 
He  erected  an  observatory  and  a  school  for 
navigation,  and  despatched  some  of  his  pupils 
on  voyages  of  discovery,  resulting  in  the  dis- 
covery of  the  Madeira  islands  in  1419.  Henrv's 
thoughts  were  now  directed  toward  the  gold- 
producing  coasts  of  Guinea;  and  in  1434  one  of 
his  mariners  sailed  round  Cape  Nun,  and  touched 
Cape  Bojador.  Next  year  another  ejcpedition 
reached  a  point  120  miles  beyond  Cape  Bojador; 
in  1441  Cape  Blanco  was  reached.  Up  to  this 
period  the  prince  had  borne  the  expense  of  these 
voyages  himself;  henceforth  societies  for  the 
purpose  were  formed  under  his  guidance.  In 
1445  Henry's  captain,  Nuno  Tristam,  doubled 
Cape  Verde,  and  in  1448  Gonzalez  Vallo  dis- 
covered three  of  the  Azores.  Henry  died  in 
1460,  after  his  mariners  had  reached  Sierra  Leone. 

Henson,  Herbert  Hensley,  canon  of  Westminster 
abbey  and  rector  of  St.  Margaret's  since  1900; 
sub-dean  of  Westminster  since  1911;  was  born 
in  London,  England,  1863.  He  was  educated 
privately  and  at  Oxford;  was  a  fellow  of  All 
Souls  college,  Oxford,  1884-91,  reelected,  1896: 
B.  D.,  1898;  hon.  D.  D.,  Glasgow,  1906.  Head 
of  the  Oxford  house,  Bethnal  Green,  1887-88; 
vicar  of  Barking,  Essex,  1888-95;  select  preacher 
at  Oxford,  1895-96,  Cambridge,  1901 ;  incum- 
bent of  St.  Mary's  hospital,  Ilford,  1895-1900; 
chaplain  to  lord  bishop  of  St.  Alban's,  1897-1900. 
Author:  Light  and  Leaven;  Apostolic  Christian^ 
ity;  Cut  Bom>t  an  Open  Letter  to  Lord  Halifax; 
Ad  Rem,  Thoughts  on  the  Crisis  in  the  Church; 
Godly  Union  and  Concord;  Cross  Bench  Views 
of  Current  Church  Questions;  Preaching  to  the 
Times;  Sincerity  and  Subscription;  English 
Religion  in  the  11  th  century;  Moral  Discipline 
in  the  Christian  Church;  Religion  in  the  Schools; 
Christian  Marriage;  The  National  Church;  Christ 
and  the  Nation,  etc. 

Hepburn,  Alonso  Barton,  banker,  was  bom  at 
Colton,  N.  Y..  1846.  He  was  graduated  at 
Middlebury  college,  Vermont,  1871,  LL.  D., 
1894;  D.  C.  L.,  St.  Lawrence  university,  1906. 
He  was  instructor  in  mathematics,  St.  Lawrence 
academy;  principal  Ogdensburg  educational 
institute;  practiced  law  at  Colton;  member 
New  York  assembly,  1875-80;  superintendent 
banking  department.  New  York,  1880-92; 
comptroller  of  the  currency,  1892-93;  president 
Third  national  bank.  New  York  city,  1893-97; 
vice-president  National  city  bank,  1897-99; 
president  Chase  national  bank,  1899-1911,  chair- 
man board  of  directors  since  1911.  He  is  also  a 
director  in  the  New  York  life  insurance  com- 
pany, Bankers  trust  company,   Columbia  trust 


770 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


company,  Maryland  trust  company  (Baltimore), 
Safety  car  heating  and  lighting  company,  Union 
typewriter  company,  United  cigar  manufac- 
turers company,  Sears,  Roebuck  and  Company 
(Chicago),  etc.  Author  of  History  of  Coinage  and 
Currency,  and  frequent  contributor  to  reviews 
and  magazines. 

Hepburn,  James  Curtis,  American  physician  and 
medical  missionary,  was  bom  at  Milton,  Pa., 
1815.  He  graduated  at  Princeton  college,  1832; 
university  of  Pennsylvania  medical  department, 
M.  D.,  1836;  LL.  D.,  Lafayette,  1872,  Princeton, 
1905.  Went  to  China  as  medical  missionary, 
1840;  stationed  in  Singapore,  1841-43,  in  Amoy, 
China,  1843-46;  returned  to  United  States, 
1846;  resided  in  New  York,  1846-59;  went  to 
Japan,  1859;  lived  in  Yokohama  until  1892; 
returned  to  United  States,  1893,  and  retired. 
He  compiled  first  English  dictionary  of  Japanese 
language;  published  an  English-Japanese  Dic- 
tionary; wrote  a  grammar  oif  the  Japanese  lan- 
guage; translated  the  Bible  into  the  Japanese 
language,  1872-88,  and  published  a  Japanese 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  1891.     Died,  1911. 

Hepburn,  William  Peters,  lawyer,  ex-congressman, 
was  bom  in  Wellsvillc,  Ohio,  1833.  His  parents 
removed  to  Iowa  in  1841,  where  he  was  educated 
in  local  schools  and  in  a  printing  office.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1854;  in  the  Union  army, 
1861-65,  as  a  captain,  major,  and  lieutenant- 
colonel,  2d  Iowa  cavalry;  was  presidential 
elector,  1876  and  1888;  member  of  congress, 
1881-87,  and  1893-1909  from  the  8th  Iowa  dis- 
trict. While  a  member  of  congress  be  was 
chairman  of  committee  on  interstate  and  foreign 
commerce,  and  author  of  the  Hepburn  bill  to 
regulate  interstate  commerce.  He  was  re- 
garded as  the  ablest  debater  in  the  lower  house 
for  many  years. 

Heraclius  (hir-d-kll'-iis),  Byzantine  emperor,  was 
bom  in  Cappadocia  about  575.  In  610  he 
headed  a  revolt  against  Phocas,  slew  him,  and 
mounted  his  throne.  At  this  time  the  Avars 
threatened  the  empire  on  the  northwest,  and  the 
Persians  invaded  it.  Chosroes  II.  captured 
Damascus  in  613,  and  in  614,  Jerusalem;  then 
all  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Asia  Minor  were  conquered. 
At  length  Heraclius,  having  in  620  concluded  a 
treaty  with  the  Avars,  in  622  took  the  field 
against  the  Persians,  routed  them  in  a  series  of 
brilliant  campaigns,  won  back  his  lost  provinces, 
and  shut  up  Chosroes  in  Ctesiphon,  628.  But 
soon  the  followers  of  Mohanmied  won  from 
Heraclius  nearly  all  he  gained  from  the  Persians, 
he  meanwhile  wasting  his  time  in  self-indulgence 
and  theological  disputes.     Died,  641. 

Herbart  (h^-b&rt),  Johann  Friedrlcb,  German 
philosopher,  was  bom  at  Oldenburg,  Germanj', 
1776.  At  a  very  early  age  he  was  familiar  with 
religious  and  metaphysical  doctrines  and  discus- 
sions, and  at  twelve  years  had  read  the  systems 
of  Wolff  and  Kant.  He  then  studied  at  Jena, 
became  the  pupil  of  Fichte,  and  received  his 
philosophy  with  enthusiasm;  but  after  more 
reflection  he  found  himself  obliged  to  reject  much 
of  his  system,  and  to  form  one  of  his  own.  In 
1805  he  was  appointed  professor  at  Gottingen, 
and  in  1809  obtained  the  chair  of  philosophy  at 
Konigsberg.  In  1833  he  returned  to  Gottingen, 
where  he  remained  until  death.  His  collected 
works  were  published  by  his  scholar,  Harten- 
stein,  1850-52.     Died,  1841. 

Herbert,  George,  Enghsh  poet,  was  bom  in  Mont- 
gomery castle,  Wales,  1593.  His  oldest  brother 
was  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury.  From  West- 
minster he  passed  in  1609  to  Trinitv  college, 
Cambridge,  m  1615  was  elected  a  fellow,  and 
was  pubUc  orator,  1619-27.  He  looked  for 
advancement  at  court,  but,  by  the  gift  of  a 
prebend  of  Lincoln  and  the  friendship  of  Nicholas 


Ferrar,  he  was  drawn  toward  a  religious  life,  an<l 
in  1630  was  presented  to  the  vicarage  of  Bemerton 
near  SaUsbury.  He  held  it  only  three  years, 
when  he  died  in   1633.     His  Country  Parson  fa 

fenerally  considered  to  be  a  picture  of  himself; 
'he  Temple,  or  Sacred  Poems  and  Private  Ejacu- 
lations contains  some  of  the  purest  pious  verse  in 
the  English  language. 

Herbert,  Victor,  conductor,  composer,  was  bom  in 
DubHn,  Ireland,  1859.  He  began  his  musical 
education  in  Germany  at  the  age  of  seven,  study- 
ing under  leading  masters,  and  gained  his  first 
position  of  prominence  as  princii)al  violoncello 
player  in  court  orchestra,  Stuttgart.  He  was 
also  heard  in  concerts  throughout  Europe  before 
coming  to  the  United  States  as  solo  violoncellist 
in  MetropoUtan  orchestra.  New  York,  1886. 
Subsequently  he  was  connected  with  Theodore 
Thomas's,  Seidl's,  and  other  orchestral  organiza- 
tions as  soloist  and  conductor.  Bandmaster  of 
22d  regiment  band.  New  York,  since  1894 ;  con- 
ductor of  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  orchestra,  1898-1904; 
Victor  Herbert's  New  York  orcliestra,  since  1904. 
Composer:  The  Captive,  an  oratorio;  Prince 
Ananias;  The  Wizard  ^  the  Nile;  The  Serenade; 
Cyrano  de  Bergerac;  The  Ameer;  The  Viceroy; 
The  Idol's  Eye;  The  Fortune  Teller;  The  Singing 
Girl;  Babette;  Babes  in  Toyland;  It  Happened  in 
Nordland,  etc.,  all  comic  operas.  He  nas  also 
written  several  compositions  for  orchestra, 
songs,  and  a  concert  for  violoncello  and  orchestra. 

Herder  {hir'-dir),  Johann  Gottfried  von,  German 
critic  and  poet,  was  bom  at  Mohrungen  in  East 
Prussia,  14  44.  He  studied  at  Konigsberg,  and 
there  berjune  acquainted  with  Kant  and  Hamann. 
In  1764  he  became  teacher  in  a  school  and  assist- 
ant-pastor of  a  church  at  Riga.  Between  1766 
and  1769  he  wrote  two  works,  in  which  he  main- 
tained that  the  truest  poetry  is  the  poetry  of  the 
people.  In  1769  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Goethe  at  Strassburg-  in  1770  was  appointed 
court-preacher  at  Biickeburg,  and  in  1776  first 
preacher  in  Weimar.  In  1802  he  was  ennobled 
by  the  elector  of  Bavaria.  He  wrote  many 
important  works,  among  them:  Fragments  of 
the  more  Modem  German  Literature;  Origin  of 
Language;  The  Oldest  Record  of  the  Human  Race; 
Folk-Songs;  Voices  of  the  Nations  in  Songs; 
Letters  for  the  Advancement  of  Humanity,  etc. 
He  died  at  Weimar,  1803. 

Herkimer  (Allr'-M-mA'),  Nicholas,  American  general, 
was  bom  about  1715.  In  1758  he  was  appointea 
a  lieutenant  of  militia,  and  commanaed  Fort 
Herkimer  at  the  time  the  French  and  Indians 
attacked  German  Flats.  Later  Herkimer  lived 
in  the  Conajoharie  district,  where  in  1775  he  was 
made  colonel  of  militia  and  chairman  of  the 
committee  of  safety.  In  1776  he  attained  the 
rank  of  brigadier-general.  In  the  next  year,  when 
Colonel  St.  Leger,  sent  out  by  General  Burgoyne, 
was  besieging  Fort  Schuyler,  Herkimer,  ^^ith  800 
militia,  marched  to  its  relief,  and  led  an  exp>edi- 
tion  against  a  British  force  of  tories  and  Indians. 
In  this  movement  he  fell  into  an  ambuscade  at 
Oriskany  in  August,  1777.  Herkimer's  horse 
was  killed,  and  he  himself  fatally  wounded. 

Herkomer  {hxir'-ko-mir),  Hubert  von,  English 
artist,  was  bom  in  Waal,  Bavaria,  1849.  His 
father,  Lorenzo  Herkomer,  a  skillful  wood-carver, 
emigrated  with  his  family  to  the  United  States, 
1851,  but  in  1857  removed  to  England  and 
settled  in  Southampton.  At  the  age  of  thirteen 
Herkomer  entered  the  art  school  at  Southampton, 
and  won  a  bronze  medal  there.  He  then  studied 
at  Munich,  established  himself  in  the  village  of 
Hythe,  and  there  painted  two  pictures,  which  he 
exhibited  at  the  Dudley  gallery.  He  finally 
removed  to  London,  where  he  occupied  himself 
successfully  with  water-color  painting  and 
designing    for   wood    engravings.     Subsequently 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


771 


he  turned  his  attention  to  etching  and  other 
branches  of  practice.  His  later  pictures  include : 
"At  Death's  Door";  "Der  Bittgang";  "Even- 
tide"; "A  Scene  in  the  Wostminster  Union"; 
"  A  Welshwoman ",  "Souvenir  de  Rembrandt " ; 
"The  Last  Muster,"  etc.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  royal  academy,  an  honorary  member  of 
the  imperial  academy  of  Vienna,  and  succeeded 
Raskin  as  Slade  professor  of  art  at  Oxford,- 
1885-94. 

Hermes  (/igr'-wds),  Georg,  Roman  Catholic  phi- 
losopher, was  bom  at  Dreyerwalde  in  West- 
phaha,  1775.  He  became  theological  professor 
at  Miinster  in  1807,  and  in  1819  at  Bonn.  In 
his  Die  Innere  Wahrheit  des  Christentums, 
Philosophische  Eivleitung  in  die  Christkatholische 
Theologie,  and  Christkatholische  Dogmatik,  he 
sought  to  base  the  Catholic  faith  and  doctrines 
on  a  critical  theory  of  knowledge  like  Kant's. 
The  Hermesian  method  departed  widely  from 
the  old  text-books  of  the  schools;  and  although 
his  substantial  orthodoxy  was  not  questioned, 
his  doctrines  were  condemned  by  a  papal  brief 
in  1835  as  heretical,  and  his  followers  were 
deprived  of  their  chairs.     Died,  1831. 

Heme  (h-Am),  James  A^  American  actor  and 
dramatist,  was  born  at  Troy,  N.  Y.,  1840.  He 
appeared  chiefly  in  his  own  plays,  chief  of  which 
are:  Hearts  of  Oak;  Margaret  Fleming;  Shore 
Acres;  Rev.  Griffith  Davenport;  Sag  Harbor. 
He  was  an  actor  of  great  ability  and  a  skillful 
stage  manager.     Died,  1901. 

Herod  (h^'-iid)  the  Great,  king  of  Judsea,  was  bom 
at  Askalon,  62  B.  C,  became  governor  of  Galilee 
about  47,  and  through  the  influence  of  Mark 
Antony  ascended  the  throne  of  Judsea  in  40. 
During  his  reign  occurred  the  birth  of  the  Messiah, 
and  the  consequent  massacre  of  the  innocents. 
Herod  was  so  cruel  by  nature  that  for  deeds  of 
blood  and  violence  his  name  became  a  proverb. 
Died,  4  B.  C. 

Herodotus  (he-rdd'-o-tiis).     See  page  16. 

Herrera  (Sr-rd'-ra),  Antonio  de,  Spanish  historian, 
was  born  at  Cuellar  near  Segovia,  1549.  Philip 
II.  made  him  chief  chronicler  of  America,  and 
historian  of  Castile,  which  offices  he  filled  for 
many  years.  He  wrote  a  history  of  Castilian 
Exploits  in  the  Pacific,  a  description  of  the  West 
Inoies,  a  history  of  England  and  Scotland  in  the 
time  of  Marj'  Stuart,  etc.     Died,  1625. 

Herrera,  Fernando  de,  Spanish  lyric  poet,  was  born 
at  Seville  about  1534,  and  took  orders  in  the 
church.  Many  of  his  love-poems  are  remarkable 
for  tender  feeling,  while  his  odes  display  a  lofty 
enthusiasm.  He  wrote  a  prose  history  of  the 
war  in  Cyprus,  and  translated  from  the  Latin  of 
Stapleton  a  Life  of  Sir  Thomas  More.  Died, 
1597 

Herrera,  Francisco,  "the  elder,"  Spanish  painter, 
was  bom  in  Seville,  1576.  He  painted  historical 
pieces,  wine-shops,  fairs,  carnivals,  and  scenes 
from  the  life  of  the  people,  and  was  one  of  the 
most  eminent  Spanish  painters  of  the  school  of 
Seville.  His  "Last  Judgment"  is  a  masterpiece 
of  drawing  and  coloring;  and  his  "Holy  Familv  " 
and  "Outpouriijg  of  the  Holy  Spirit  are  also 
much  esteemed.  The  cupola  of  the  church  at 
St.  Bonaventure  displays  his  skill  in  fresco- 
painting.  Some  of  his  best  works  are  in  the 
Louvre  at  Paris.     Died,  1656. 

Herrick,  Myron  T.,  financier,  ex-governor  of  Ohio, 
was  bom  at  Huntington,  Ohio,  1854.  He  was 
educated  in  the  district  schools  in  Ohio,  at  Oberlin 
college,  and  Ohio  Wesleyan  university;  was 
admitted  to  the  bar,  Cleveland,  1878.  He 
retired  from  law  practice,  1886,  to  become 
secretary  and  treasurer  of  the  society  for  savings, 
Cleveland,  of  which  he  has  been  president  since 
1894;  also  chairman  of  board  Wheeling  and 
Lake  Erie  railroad ;    officer  or  director  in  numer- 


ous other  railway  and  financial  enterprises. 
From  1903  to  1906  he  was  governor  of  Ohio,  and 
has  since  been  influential  in  the  politics  of  the 
state.      Appointed  ambassador  to  France,   1912. 

Herrick,  Robert,  English  poet,  was  born  in  Cheap)- 
side,  London,  1591,  son  of  a  goldsmith.  He  was 
educated  at  St.  John's  college  and  at  Trinity 
hall,  Cambridge.  After  taking  orders  as  a 
clergyman  of  the  church  of  England,  he  was 
presented  by  Charles  I.  to  the  vicarage  of  Dean 
Prior.  After  about  twenty  years'  residence,  his 
living  was  sequestered  in  the  civil  war,  and, 
rejoicing  in  his  freedom  from  the  "rude  salvages" 
of  Devon,  he  went  to  reside  in  Westminster. 
After  the  restoration  he  was  replaced  in  bis 
vicarage,  where  he  died  in  1674.  In  1648  he 
published  his  celebrated  collection  of  lyrical 
poems,  entitled  Hesperides,  or  the  Works  both 
Human  and  Divine  of  Robert  Herrick,  Esq.  About 
the  same  time  he  published  Noble  Numbers,  or 
Pious  Pieces.  His  poems,  not  fewer  than  thir- 
teen hundred  in  number,  include  some  of  the 
finest  lyrical  pieces  in  the  language. 

Herrick,  Robert,  educator,  novelist,  was  bom  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  1868.  He  was  graduated 
at  Harvard,  1890;  was  instructor  in  rhetoric, 
Massachusetts  institute  of  technology,  1890-93; 
instructor  in  rhetoric,  1893-95,  assistant  profes- 
sor, 1895-1901,  associate  professor,  1901-05, 
professor  English  since  1905,  university  of  Chi- 
cago. Author:  The  Man  who  Wins;  Literary 
Love  Letters  and  other  Stories;  The  Gospel  of 
Freedom;  Love's  Dilemmas;  Composition  and 
Rhetoric  (with  Professor  L.  T.  Damon) ;  The  Web 
of  Life;  The  Real  World;  Their  Child;  The 
Common  Lot;  Tlie  Memoirs  of  an  American 
Citizen,  etc. 

Herschel  (h-dr'-shel),  Caroline  Lucretla,  sister  of  the 
astronomer.  Sir  (Frederick)  William  Herschel, 
was  bom  in  Hanover,  1750.  When  William  was 
appointed  astronomer  to  George  III.  she  acted 
as  his  assistant,  and  in  that  character  received 
a  small  salary  from  the  king.  She  discovered 
seven  comets,  for  five  of  which  she  has  the  credit 
of  priority  of  discovery.  Several  remarkable 
nebulse  and  clusters  of  stars  included  in  her 
brother's  catalogues  were  described  from  her 
original  observations.  In  1798  she  published, 
with  an  introduction  by  her  brother,  A  Catalogue 
of  Stars  taken  from  Mr.  Flamsteed's  Observations, 
etc.  This  valuable  work  was  published  at  the 
expense  of  the  royal  society,  and  contained  661 
stars  omitted  in  the  British  catalogue.  She  was 
made  an  honorary  member  of  the  royal  society, 
and  died  in  1848. 

Herschel,  Sir  John  Frederick  William,  English 
astronomer,  son  of  Sir  (Frederick)  WilRara 
Herschel,  was  bom  in  1792.  About  1825  he 
began  his  observations  in  sidereal  astronomy, 
to  which  he  chiefly  devoted  himself.  His  great 
enterprise  was  his  expedition  toward  the  close 
of  1833  to  the  cape  of  Good  Hope  to  take  obser- 
vations of  the  southern  firmament.  In  1847 
appeared  his  Results  of  Astronomical  Observa- 
tions at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  one  of  the  most 
valuable  works  of  our  time.  His  residence  at 
the  cape  gave  not  only  valuable  additions  to 
astronomy,  but  also  to  meteorology.  His  obser- 
vations on  the  milky  way,  on  the  brightness 
and  the  color  of  stars,  on  variable  stars,  on  the 
sun's  rays,  on  the  atmospheric  air,  and  on  the 
Magellanic  clouds,  are  all  very  valuable.  He 
also  made  valuable  researches  in  light,  sound, 
and  celestial  physics.  His  best  known  work  is 
Outlines  of  Astronomy.     Died,  1871. 

Herschel,  Sir  (Frederick)  William,  German-Eng- 
lish astronomer,  was  bom  in  Hanover,  1738.  He 
was  educated  specially  as  a  professional  musician. 
In  1757  he  went  to  England,  where  he  became  a 
teacher  of  music  in  the  town  of  Leeds,   from 


772 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


which  he  went  to  Halifax  as  organist,  and  sub- 
sequently in  the  same  capacity  to  Bath.  Here 
he  turned  his  attention  to  astronomy.  Wanting 
a  telescope,  and  unable  to  afford  a  reflector,  he 
made  one  for  himself.  In  1781  he  discovered 
the  planet  Uranus,  which  discovery  resulted  in 
his  appointment  as  private  astronomer  to  George 
III.,  with  a  salary  of  200  pounds  a  year.  He  was 
knighted  by  George  III.,  and  made  a  D.  C.  L.  by 
tiie  university  of  Oxford.  He  contributed 
sixty-nine  papers  to  the  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions, and  to  vol.  i.,  Memoirs  of  the  Astronomic 
col  Society,  he  contributed  a  paper  On  the  Places 
of  145  New  Double  Stars.  He  greatly  added  to 
our  knowledge  of  the  solar  svstem;  discovered 
six  satellites  of  Uranus,  and  two  satellites  of 
Saturn;  detected  the  rotation  of  Saturn's  rings, 
the  period  of  rotation  of  Saturn  itself,  and  the 
existence  of  the  motion  of  binary  stars,  the  first 
revelation  of  systems  besides  our  own.  He 
threw  new  light  on  the  milky  way  and  the  con- 
stitution of  nebuliB,  and,  in  fact,  was  the  first 
to  give  the  human  mind  a  proper  conception  of 
the  immensity  of  the  universe.  He  erected  a 
monster  telescope,  as  it  was  then  considered,  of 
forty  feet  focal  length.  It  was  begiui  in  1785 
and  finished  in  1789.     Died,  1822. 

Herts  Quhrts),  Henrik,  Danish  poet  and  dramatist, 
was  bom  in  Copenhagen,  1798.  He  was  of 
Jewish  descent,  was  educated  at  the  university 
of  Copenhagen,  traveled  abroad,  and  returned 
as  a  professor  of  the  university.  His  first  impor- 
tant work  was  Letters  of  a  Ghost,  a  rhymed 
satirical  poem.  His  subsequent  works  include: 
Amor's  Clever  Pranks;  Emma;  The  Only  Error; 
King  Ren&s  Daughter;  Svend  Dyring's  Hotise; 
The  Saving's  Bank;  Love  and  Politics;  The 
Heirs,  etc.     Died,  1870. 

Hervieu  (tr'-vyH'),  Paul  Ernest,  French  author  and 
dramatist,  was  born  at  Neuilly-sur-Seine,  1857. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Lyc6e  Condorcet,  Paris, 
and  at  the  Ecole  de  Droit;  was  admitted  as 
an  advocate,  1877.  In  1900  he  was  elected  to 
the  French  academy.  He  has  written  several 
novels,  but  his  most  notable  achievements  are 
his  dramas,  which  are  marked  by  keen  obser- 
vation of  life  and  delicate  fancy. 

Hersog  (fiir'-tsoK),  Johann  Jakob.  German  theo- 
logian, was  born  at  Ba.sel,  1805.  He  became 
professor  at  Lausanne,  1830,  at  Halle,  1847,  and 
Erlangen,  1854.  He  wrote  books  on  the  Ply- 
mouth brethren  and  the  Waldenses,  lives  of 
Calvin  and  (Ecolampadius,  a  church-history, 
etc.,  and  edited  the  great  Healencyklopiidie  fux 
Protestantische  Theologie  und  Kirche  (22  vols.). 
Died,  1882. 

Hesiod  {he'-si-dd),  one  of  the  earliest  Greek  poets, 
was  born  in  Bceotia,  lived  in  the  eighth  century 
B.  C,  chiefly  at  Orchomenus,  probably  of  humble 
birth.  Of  the  works  ascribed  to  him  the  princi- 
pal were  the  Works  and  Days,  the  Theogony,  and 
the  Shield  of  Hercules.  His  poems  treat  of  the 
quiet  pursuits  of  ordinary  life,  the  origin  of  the 
world,  the  gods  and  heroes,  while  those  of  Homer 
are  occupied  with  the  restless  and  active  enter- 
prises of  the  heroic  age. 

Hewlett,  Maurice  Henry,  EngUsh  historical  writer 
and  novelist,  was  born  at  London,  1861.  He 
was  educated  at  the  London  international  college, 
at  Spring  Grove,  Isleworth;  was  admitted  as  a 
hamster,  1891.  Author:  Earthwork  out  of 
Tuscany;  The  Masque  of  Dead  Florentines; 
Songs  and  Meditations;  The  Forest  Lovers;  Pan 
and  the  Young  Shepherd;  Little  Novels  of  Italy; 
Richard  Yea-and-Nay;  New  Canterbury  Tales; 
The  Queen's  Quair;  The  Road  in  Tuscany;  Fond 
Adventures;  The  Fool  Errant;  The  Stooping 
Lady;  Half-way  House,  etc. 

Heybum,  Weldon  Brinton,  United  States  senator, 
lawyer,  was  bom  in  Delaware  county,  Pa.,  1852. 


He  received  an  acadenuc  education,  studied  law, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1876.  He  re- 
moved to  Shoshone  county,  Idaho,  1883,  and 
practiced*  there.  He  was  a  delegate  to  repub- 
lican national  conventions,  1888,  1892,  1900; 
was  republican  nominee  for  congress,  1898,  but 
was  defeated;  elected  United  States  senator 
from  Idaho  for  term,  1903-09,  said  reelected 
for  term,  1909-15.     Died,  1912. 

Heyne  {hl'-ni).  Christian  Gottlob,  German  classical 
scholar,  was  bom  in  Saxony,  1729.  In  1753  he 
obtained  the  situation  of  under-clerk  in  the 
Briihl  library  at  Dresden.  While  there  he  pre- 
pared his  edition  of  TibvUxis,  which  appeared 
m  1755.  In  1756,  unfortunately  for  Heyne,  the 
seven  years'  war  broke  out.  Frederick  the  Great 
marchinl  against  Dresden,  and  burned,  among 
other  things,  the  Briihl  library,  but  not  before 
Heyne  had  edited,  from  a  codex  there,  the 
Enchiridion  of  Epictetus.  In  1763,  following  the 
death  of  Gesner,  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Got- 
tingcn,  Heyne  was  appointed  his  successor. 
Among  his  other  works  were  editions  of  Virgil, 
Pindar,  ApoUodorus.  and  Homer's  Iliad;  six 
volumes  of  Omiaeula  Academica;  and  7,500 
reviews  of  books  in  the  Gottinger  Gdehrte  An- 
teigen.     Died,  1812. 

Heyae  {hV-tl),  Paul  Johann,  German  poet,  dram- 
atist, and  novelist,  was  bom  in  Berlin,  1830. 
He  was  educated  at  Berlin  and  Bonn,  and  settled 
at  Munich  in  1854.  He  has  published  collections 
of  novelettes,  good  specimens  of  which  are  con- 
tained in  Das  Such  der  Freundsctuift.  His  poetic 
works  include  narrative  ix>em.s,  such  as  Uriea, 
and  epics,  Die  Braut  von  Cypern  and  Thekla.  Aa 
a  dramatist  he  has  been  almost  as  copious  as  a 
novelist,  but  few  of  his  jiieces  have  been  une- 
quivocally successful.  His  more  recent  successful 
novels  are  Die  Kinder  der  Welt,  Im  Paradiese,  Mer- 
lin, etc.    Received  Nobel  prise  for  literature,  1910. 

Heseklah,  king  of  Judah,  son  and  successor  of 
Ahaz,  reigned  from  726  to  696  B.  C.  There  waa 
"none  like  him  among  all  the  kings  of  Judah" 
is  the  praise  bestowed  upon  him  in  the  book  of 
Kings.  His  efforts  seem  chiefly  to  have  been 
directed  toward  the  abolition  of  the  idolatry 
which  reigned  paramount  in  the  land,  and  the 
restoration  of  the  worship  of  Jehovah  to  its 
pristine  purity  and  glory.  At  the  head  of  a 
repentant  and  united  people  Hezekiah  returned 
to  assume  the  aggressive  against  the  Philistines, 
and  in  a  series  of  victories  not  only  re-won  the 
cities  his  father  had  lost,  but  captured  others. 
At  length  Sennacherib  with  a  mighty  host  ad- 
vanced against  Jerusalem,  but  by  some  catas- 
trophe 180,000  men  in  the  Assyrian  camp  were 
killed  in  a  single  night,  and  Sennacherib  waa 
obliged  to  retreat.  A  second  Assyrian  invasion, 
however,  under  Merodach-baladan  resulted  in 
the  capti\ity  and  the  end  of  Hezekiah's  rule. 

Hicks,  Elias,  American  Quaker  preacher,  was  bom 
at  Hempstead,  L.  I.,  1748.  At  twenty-seven  he 
was  a  well-known  and  influential  Quaker  preacher, 
and  for  many  years  traveled  through  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  He  exercised  great  influence 
among  his  co-reUgionists  until  his  Unitarianism 
brought  him  into  disfavor  with  orthodox  Friends; 
but  he  defended  his  views  with  perseverance, 
and  at  eighty  he  still  preached.  The  result  waa 
a  schism  of  the  society  into  two  divisions,  known 
as  orthodox  and  Hicksite  Friends.  He  was  a 
vigorous  abolitionist.      Died,  1830. 

Hicks-Beach,  Sir  Michael  Edward,  English  states- 
man, made  in  the  year  1906  Viscount  St.  Aldwyn, 
was  bom  in  London,  1837.  He  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford;  succeeded  his 
father  as  ninth  baronet  in  1854;  in  1864 
became  conservative  member  of  parliament  for 
East  Gloucestershire,  and  in  1885  for  West 
Bristol.     He    was    chief-secretarj'    for    Ireland, 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


773 


1874-78  and  1886-87;  colonial  secretary,  1878- 
80,  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  1885-86  — 
an  office  he  held  again  in  1895-1902. 

Hlero  (hi'-€-r6)  l^  king  of  Syracuse,  succeeded  his 
brother  Gelon  in  478  B.  C.  The  most  important 
event  of  his  reign  was  the  naval  victory  gained 
by  his  fleet  and  that  of  the  Cumani  over  the 
Etruscans  in  474,  which  deprived  the  latter  of 
their  supremacy  in  the  Tyrrhenian  sea.  Though 
violent  and  rapacious,  he  was  a  lover  of  poetry, 
and  the  patron  of  Simonides,  .iEschylus,  Bac- 
ohylides,  and  Pindar.  He  died  at  Catania  in 
467  B.  C. 

Hlero  II.,  king  of  Syracuse,  269-216  B.  C,  was  the 
son  of  a  noble  Syracusan  named  Hierocles.  He 
came  to  the  front  during  the  troubles  in  Sicily 
after  the  retreat  of  Pyrrhus,  275  B.  C.  He 
joined  the  Carthaginians  in  besieging  Messana, 
which  had  surrendered  to  the  Romans ;  but  was 
beaten  by  Appius  Claudius.  In  263  he  con- 
cluded a  fifteen  years'  peace  with  Rome,  and  in 
248  a  permanent  one.  In  the  second  Punic  war 
Hiero  supported  the  Romans  with  money  and 
troops.  He  was  a  patron  of  the  arts,  and 
Archimedes  was  his  relative  and  friend.  Died, 
216. 

Higrsinson,  Ella,  author,  was  bom  at  Council 
Grove,  Kansas,  in  1862,  daughter  of  Charles 
Reeves  Rhoads.  She  was  educated  at  Oregon 
City  seminary  and  in  a  private  school;  married 
Russell  Carden  Higginson,  New  York.  Author: 
The  Flower  that  Grew  in  the  Sand,  From  the  Land 
of  the  Snow  Pearls,  A  Forest  Orchid,  all  books  of 
short  stories;  When  the  Birds  Go  North  Afjain, 
poems;  The  Snow  Pearls,  a  poem;  MarieUa,  of 
Out-West,  a  novel;  The  Voice  of  April-Land, 
poems;  also  The  Takin'  In  of  Old  Mis'  Lane, 
which  won  McClure's  $500  prize  for  best  short 

.  story.  She  also  conducts  the  literary  depart- 
ment of  the  Seattle  Sunday  Times. 

Higginson,  Henry  Lee,  banker,  was  bom  in  New 
York,  1834.  He  entered  Harvard  in  1851,  but 
did  not   complete   course.     He   became  an  em- 

gloyee  in  the  counting-house  of  S.  and  E.  Austin, 
Boston;  then  went  to  Vienna;  studied  music; 
served  in  United  States  volunteers  in  civil  war, 
becoming  major  and  brevetted  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  1st  Massachusetts  cavalry,  and  was 
severely  wounded  at  Aldie,  Va.,  June,  1863. 
He  later  entered  the  firm  of  Lee,  Higginson  and 
Company,  bankers,  Boston.  He  has  devoted 
a  considerable  sum  to  organization  of  the  sym- 
phony orchestra  in  Boston,  and  has  dispensed 
numerous  other  philanthropies. 
Hii^rginson,  Thomas  Wentworth,  American  writer, 
was  bom  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1823.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard,  1841;  LL.  D.,  Harvard, 
Western  Reserve  university.  After  several 
years  in  the  ministry  he  entered  keenly  into  the 
movement  against  slavery;  took  part  in  the 
civil  war  as  captain  of  the  51st  Massachusetts 
volunteer  militia,  later  colonel  1st  South  Caro- 
lina (Union)  volunteers,  and  afterward  of  the 
33d  United  States  colored  troops.  Author: 
Outdoor  Papers;  Army  Life  in  a  Black  Regi- 
ment; Atlantic  Essays;  Oldport  Days;  Young 
Folks'  History  of  the  United  States;  Young  Folks' 
Book  of  American  Explorers;  Short  Studies  of 
American  Auihors;  Common  Sense  About  Women; 
Life  of  Margaret  Fuller  Ossoli;  Larger  History 
of  the  United  States;  The  Monarch  of  Dreams; 
Women  and  Men;  Travelers  and  Outlaws;  The 
Afternoon  Landscape,  poems;  The  New  World 
and  the  New  Book;  Concerning  All  of  Us;  Such 
As  They  Are,  poems;  English  History  for  Ameri- 
cans; Cheerful  Yesterdays;  Tales  of  the  En- 
chanted Islands  of  the  Atlantic;  Old  Cambridge; 
Contemporaries;  Henry  W.  Longfellow,  in  Ameri- 
can Men  of  Letters  series;  John  G.  Whittier,  in 
English  Men  of  Letters  series;    A  Reader's  His- 


tory of  American  Literature;  Part  of  a  Man't 
Life,  etc.      Died,  1911. 

HUdebrand  (hU'-de-brdnd),  Saint.  Sec  Gregorr 
VII.,  page  223. 

Hildreth  {hil'-dritJi),  Richard,  American  historian, 
was  born  in  Deerfield,  Mass.,  1807.  He  WOB 
graduated  at  Han'ard  college  in  1826;  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1830,  and  became  connected  with 
the  Boston  Atlas  and  other  newspapers.  For  a 
number  of  years  he  was  engaged  on  newspapers 
in  Demerara,  British  Guiana,  was  subsequently 
on  the  editorial  staff  of  the  New  York  Tribune, 
and  in  1861  became  United  States  consul  at 
Trieste,  Austria.  Among  his  most  notable 
works  are  the  White  Slave,  an  anti-slavery  novel ; 
History  of  the  United  States  (0  vols.);  Banks, 
Bankin{i  and  Paper  Currency;  Theory  of  Morals; 
Theory  of  Politics,  etc.     He  died,  1865. 

Hilgard  {hW-g&rd),  Eugene  Woidemar,  professor 
of  agriculture,  1874-1904,  professor  emeritus 
since  1903,  university  of  California;  director  Cal- 
ifornia agricultural  experiment  station,  1888- 
1904;  was  bom  at  Zweibriicken,  Rhenish 
Bavaria,  1833.  He  came  to  the  United  States 
in  1836;  was  graduated  at  Heidelberg,  Ph.  D., 
1853;  studied,  also,  Ziirich  and  Freiberg,  Saxony; 
LL.  D.,  Columbia,  university  of  Michigan,  uni- 
versity of  Mississippi.  He  was  state  geologist, 
Mississippi,  1855-73 ;  also  professor  of  chemistry, 
university  of  Mississippi,  1866-73,  and  prof essor  of 
geology  and  natural  history,  university  of  Michi- 
gan, 1873-75.  Received  the  Liebig  medal  for  dis- 
tinguished achievements  in  agricultural  sciences 
from  academy  of  sciences,  Munich;  also  gold 
medal,  Paris  exposition,  1900,  as  collaborator 
in  agricultural  science.  Author:  Report  on  the 
Geology  and  Agriculture  of  Mississippi;  Report 
on  the  Agricidtural  Features  of  the  Pacific  Slope; 
Reports  and  Bulletins  California  Experiment 
Station,  1877-1903.  Editor:  Cotton  Culture  in 
the  United  States,  10th  Census,  and  contribu- 
tor on  geological,  chemical,  and  agricultural 
subjects  to  many  American  and  European 
journals  and  government  reports,  1854-1911. 

Hill,  Adams  Sherman,  educator,  was  bom  in  Bost«n. 
Mass.,  1833.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard 
college,  1853;  Harvard  law  school,  1855;  LL.  D.. 
1903.  He  was  law  reporter,  correspondent,  and 
editor.  New  York,  Washington,  and  Chicago, 
1856-68;  assistant  professor  of  rhetoric,  1872-76, 
Boylston  profes.sor  of  rhetoric  and  oratory, 
Harvard,  1876-1904,  emeritus  professor  same, 
1904-10.  Author:  Principles  of  Rhetoric;  Our 
English;  Foundations  of  Rhetoric;  Beginnings 
of  Rhetoric  and  Composition,  etc.     Died,  1910. 

Hill,  Albert  Ross,  educator,  president  university  of 
Missouri  since  1908,  was  bom  in  Nova  Scotia, 
1869;  graduated  at  Dalhousie  university,  1892; 
Ph.  D.,  Cornell,  1895;  studied  at  Heidelberg, 
Berlin,  and  Strassburg;  LL.  D.,  university  of 
South  Carolina,  1905.  Taught  school  in  Nova 
Scotia,  1885-87;  professor  of  psychology  and 
education,  state  normal  school,  Oshkosh,  Wis., 
1895-97;  associate  professor  of  philosophy. 
1897-98,  professor,  and  director  of  psychological 
laboratories,  1898-1903,  university  of  Nebraska; 
professor  educational  psychology  and  dean  of 
teachers  college,  university  of  Miasouri,  1903-07 : 
professor  philosophy  of  education,  director  of 
school  of  education  and  dean  of  college  of  arts 
and  sciences,  Cornell  university,  1907-08.  He  waa 
president  of  the  Western  philosophical  associa- 
tion, 1904-05. 

Hill,  Ambrose  Powell,  American  soldier,  was  born 
in  Virginia,  1825.  He  was  graduated  at  West 
Point,  1847,  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  and 
entered  the  confederate  army  in  1861  as  colonel. 
He  ser\'ed  in  Johnston's  command  at  the  first 
battle  of  Bull  Run;  conaraanded  a  brigade  at 
Williamsburg;    became   a  major-general,    1862; 


774 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


took  part  in  the  seven  days'  battle  around  Rich- 
mond^ and  in  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run ; 
reinforced  Lee  at  Antietam;  commanded  the 
right  wing  of  Jackson's  corps  at  Fredericksburg; 
was  promoted  to  lieutenant-general,  1863; 
commanded  a  corps  at  Gettysburg;  repelled, 
with  Longstreet,  the  attack  on  Weldon  railroad ; 
was  killed  near  Petersburg,  Va.,  1865,  while 
reconnoitering. 
HIU,  David  Bennett,  American  laAvyer  and  politi- 
cian, was  born  at  Havana,  N.  Y.,  1843.  He  was 
educated  at  the  district  schools  and  Havana 
academy,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1864. 
He  early  entered  politics  and  was  a  delegate  to 
democratic  state  conventions,  1868-80,  chairman 
1877,  1881 ;  delegate  to  national  democratic 
conventions,  1876,  1884,  1896,  1900,  1904; 
seconded    nomination  of    William  J.  Bryan    for 

? residency,  1900 ;  member  of  New  York  assemblv, 
871-72;  city  attornev,  1865,  aldermah,  1880  aiid 
1881,  mayor,  1882,  Elinira,  N.  Y.;  lieutenant- 
governor  of  New  York,  1882-85;  governor  of 
New  York,  1885-91;  United  States  senator 
1891-97  J  prominent  candidate  for  presidential 
nomination  in  national  democratic  convention, 
1892;  candidate  for  governor  of  New  York,  1894, 
but  was  defeated.  President  New  York  state 
bar  association,  1886-«7.     Died,  1910. 

Hlllt  David  Jayne,  American  diplomat,  scholar, 
was  born  in  Plainfield,  N.  J.,  1850.  He  was 
graduated  at  Bucknell  university,  Pa.,  1874; 
LL.  D.,  Colgate,  university  of  Pennsylvania, 
Union  college;  was  a  student  in  universities  of 
Berlin  and  Paris.  President  of  Bucknell  uni- 
versity, 1879-88;  president  of  university  of 
Rochester,  1888-96;  resigned;  spent  nearly 
three  years  in  study  of  public  law  of  Europe; 
professor  of  European  diplomacv  in  school 
of  comparative  jurisprudence  and  diplomacy, 
Washington,  1899-1903.  Assistant  secretary  of 
state  of  United  States,  1898-1903,  envoy  extra- 
ordinary and  minister  plenipotentiary  of  United 
States  to  Switzerland,  1903-05,  to  the  Neth- 
erlands, 1905-07;  ambassador  to  Germany, 
1908-11.  Author:  Life  of  Washington  Irving; 
hife  of  William  CuUen  Bryant;  Elements  of 
Rhetoric;  Science  of  Rhetoric;  Elements  of  Psy- 
chology; Social  Influence  of  Christianity;  Prin- 
ciples and  Fallacies  of  Socialism;  Genetic  Phi- 
losophy; International  Justice;  A  Primer  of 
Finance;  The  Conception  and  Realization  of 
Neutrality;  The  Life  and  Work  of  Hugo  Grotius; 
The  Contemporary  Development  of  Diplomacy; 
A  History  of  Diplomacy  in  the  International 
Development  of  Europe,  etc.  Also  numerous 
political  pamphlets  in  EngUsh  and  German,  and 
printed  addresses. 

Hill,  James  J.,  railway  ofhcial,  capitalist,  was  bom 
near  Guelph,  Ont.,  1838.  He  was  educated  at 
Rockwood  academy;  left  his  father's  farm  for 
business  life  in  Minnesota;  was  in  steamboat 
offices  in  St.  Paul,  1856-€5;  agent  of  North- 
western packet  company,  1865 ;  later  established 
general  fuel  and  transportation  business  on  his 
own  account,  and  became  head  of  Hill,  Griggs 
and  Company.  He  estabUshed  in  1870  the  Red 
River  transportation  company,  wliich  was  the 
first  to  open  communication  between  St.  Paul 
and  Winnipeg;  organized,  1875,  the  North- 
western fuel  company,  and  three  years  later  sold 
out  his  interest,  in  the  meantime  having  organized 
a  syndicate  which  secured  control  of  the  St. 
Paul  and  Pacific  railroad,  from  the  Dutch  owners 
of  the  securities.  He  reorganized  the  system  as 
the  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis  and  Manitoba  railway 
company,  and  was  its  general  manager,  1879-82"- 
vice-president,  1882-83,  and  president,  1883-90. 
This  railway  became  part  of  the  Great  Northern 
system,  1890.  He  then  interested  himself  in 
building  the  Great  Northern  railway,  extending 


from  Lake  Superior  to  Puget  sound,  with  northera 
and  southern  branches,  and  a  direct  steamship 
connection  with  China  and  Japan.  He  became 
president  of  the  entire  Great  Northern  system, 
1893;  retired  in  1907  and  became  chairman  of 
the  board  of  directors  of  same;  was  chief  pro- 
moter and  is  president  of  the  Northern  Securities 
company;  is  now  director  of  Chicago,  BurUngton 
and  Quincy  railroad  company;  St.  Paul,  Minne- 
apolis and  Manitoba  railway  company;  Man- 
hattan trust  company;  Chase  national  bank. 
First  national  bank  of  city  of  New  York,  First 
national  bank  of  Chicago.  He  gave  S500.000 
toward  establishing  the  Roman  Catholic  theologi- 
cal seminary  at  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  and  has  dis- 
pensed numerous  other  pliilanthropies. 

HUl,  Sir  Rowland,  originator  of  penny  postage,  was 
bom  at  Kidderminster,  England,  1795,  anu  was  a 

.  teacher  from  an  early  age  down  to  1833.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  society  for  the  diffusion 
of  useful  knowledge,  1826,  interested  himself  in 
the  socialistic  schemes  of  Robert  Owen,  and  took 
an  active  share  in  the  colonization  of  South 
Australia.  Sensible  of  the  urgent  need  for 
reducing  the  high  rates  of  postage,  he  advocated, 
in  1837,  an  adhesive  postage  stamp  and  a  low 
and  uniform  rate  between  all  puices  in  the 
British  isles  in  a  pamphlet,  Post-office  Reform. 
Two  years  later  Hill  was  attached  to  the  treasury 
for  the  purpose  of  putting  his  projected  reforms 
into  execution;  ana  in  1840  the  present  uniform 
penny  rate  came  into  force.  In  1841  the  cod- 
ser\-ative  government,  which  had  opposed  the 
reduction,  came  into  office,  and  in  1842  Hill  was 
dismissed.  Four  years  later  a  sum  of  13,000 
pounds,  raised  by  public  subscription,  was  pre- 
sented to  him;  and  the  liberals,  returning  to 
power,  made  Hill  secretarj'  to  the  postmaster- 

feneral,  and  in  1854  secretary  to  the  poet-office, 
n  1864  he  resigned  owing  to  ill-health,  and  was 
awarded  a  pension  of  2,000  pounds  for  life, 
together  with  a  parliamentary  grant  of  20,000 
pounds.  Ho  died  at  Hampstead  in  1879,  and  was 
buried  in  Westmirmter  abbey. 

EUll,  Thomas,  American  educator  and  writer,  was 
bom  at  New  Brunswick,  N,  J.,  1818.  He 
graduated  at  Har^'ard,  1843,  and  from  the 
oivinitv  school,  1845.  He  was  pastor  of  the 
Unitarian  church  at  Waltham,  Mass.,  1845-59; 
president  of  Antioch  college,  1859-62;  president 
of  Harvard,  18(52-68,  resigning  on  account  of 
poor  health.  He  then  accompanied  Agassis  to 
South  America  on  a  scientific  expedition,  and  in 
1873  became  pastor  of  a  Unitarian  church  at 
Portland,  Me.  He  was  an  able  mathematician, 
an  authority  on  natural  sciences,  and  a  gifted 
classical  scholar.  He  invented  various  mathe- 
matical machines,  pubUshed  Geometry  and 
Faith;  Curvat-ure;  Jesus  the  Interpreter  of  Nature; 
Statement  of  the  Natural  Sources  of  Theology;  and 
was  co-editor  of  the  Hill-Wentworth  series  of 
mathematical  text-books.  Died  at  Waltham, 
Mass..  1891. 

HiUel  {hU'-U\  sumamed  Hababli,  "the  Baby- 
loruan,"  and  Hazaken,  "the  elder,"  one  of  the 
greatest  doctors  of  the  Jewish  law,  was  bom  in 
Babylonia  about  60  B.  C.  He  was  president  of 
the  sanhedrin  in  Jerusalem,  through  appoint- 
ment of  Herod  I.,  30  B.  C.  to  9  A.  D.,  and  was 
distinguished  for  his  humility,  gentleness,  and 
humane  spirit.  He  founded  the  Talmudic 
Judaism,  and  wrote  extensively  on  law  and 
morals.     Died,  10  A.  D. 

Hlllis  QM'-ls),  Newell  Dwlght,  clergyman,  author, 
was  bom  in  Magnolia,  la.,  1858.  He  was 
educated  at  Iowa  college,  Lake  Forest  university 
and  McCormick  theological  seminary;  M.  A.; 
D.  D.,  Northwestern  university.  He  entered  the 
Presbyterian  ministry;  was  pastor  at  Peoria, 
lU.,     1886-89;     at     Evanston,     III.,     1889-95; 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


776 


succeeded  the  late  Professor  David  Swing  as 
pastor  of  Central  church,  Chicago,  1895-  pastor 
of  Plymouth  church,  Brooklyn,  since  January, 
1899.  Author:  The  Investnient  of  Influence; 
A  Man's  Value  to  Society;  How  the  Inner  Light 
Failed;  Foretokens  of  Immortality;  Great  Books 
as  Life  Teachers;  Influence  of  Christ  in  Modern 
Life;  Quest  of  Happiness;  Success  Through  Self- 
Hdp;  Building  a  Working  Faith;  The  Quest  of 
John  Chapman;   The  Fortune  of  the  Republic,  etc. 

Hlncmar  {hlngk'-mdr),  French  churchman  of  the 
family  of  the  counts  of  Toulouse,  was  bom  about 
806.  He  was  educated  in  the  monastery  of  St. 
Denis,  was  abbot  of  Compidgne  and  St.  Germain, 
and  in  845  was  elected  archbishop  of  Rheims. 
His  suffragan  Rothadius  deposed  a  priest  whom 
Hincmar  ordered  him  to  restore.  For  his  refusal 
to  comply  Hincmar  excommunicated  the  bishop, 
who  appealed  to  the  pope,  and  the  pope,  Nicholas 
I.,  annulled  the  sentence.  Hincmar  helped  to 
degrade  and  imprison  Gottschalk,  who  died  in 
868  after  eighteen  years'  captivity,  for  his  pre- 
destinarian  views;  he  strenuously  opposed 
Adrian  II. 's  attempts  to  compel  obedience  in 
imperial  politics  by  church  censures;  and  with 
equal  firmness  he  resisted  the  emperor's  intruding 
vmwortliy  favorites  into  benefices.  He  died  in 
882. 

Hinrlchs,  Gustav,  musical  conductor,  was  bom  in 
Ludwigslust,  Mecklenburg,  Germany,  1850.  He 
was  graduated  at  Ludwigslust  gymnasium- 
studied  music  in  Hamburg  with  AngeTo  Reissland 
and  Edward  Marxsen,  teacher  of  Brahms,  and 
came  to  America  in  1870.  He  was  associate 
conductor  for  two  years  with  Theodore  Thomas 
at  the  National  opera.  New  York;  was  for  several 
years  professor  at  the  National  conservatory  of 
music.  New  York,  and  director  of  music  at 
Columbia  university  and  the  Metropolitan  opera. 
New  York.  He  managed  his  own  opera  com- 
pany ten  years  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  intro- 
duced to  America  the  operas  Cavalleria  Rusticana 
and  Pagliacci.  He  also  produced  there  his  own 
opera  in  three  acts,  Onti-Ora,  a  romantic  grand 
opera.  He  is  the  composer  of  operas,  sympho- 
nies, songs,  choruses,  etc.,  which  have  been 
performed  from  MSS. 

Hlpparchus  {hi-par'-kOs),  first  great  Greek  astrono- 
mer, was  born  at  Nicaea  in  Bithynia,  flourished 
between  160  and  125  B.  C,  and  made  observa- 
tions at  Rhodes.  He  discovered  the  precession 
of  the  equinoxes  and  the  eccentricity  of  the  sun's 
path,  determined  the  length  of  the  solar  year, 
estimated  the  distances  of  the  sun  and  moon  from 
the  earth,  drew  up  a  catalo^e  of  1,080  stars,  and 
fixed  the  geographical  position  of  places  on  the 
earth  by  giving  their  latitude  and  longitude. 

Hippocrates  (hi^pdk'-rd-tez),  Greek  physician,  the 
most  celebrated  of  antiquity,  was  bom  in  the 
island  of  Cos,  probably  about  460  B.  C. ;  and 
there,  after  visiting  Athens,  he  settled  in  practice. 
He  died  at  Larissa  in  Thessaly  in  377  or  359 
B.  C.  Seventy-two  works  bear  his  name.  He 
seems  to  have  gathered  up  all  that  was  sound  in 
the  past  history  of  medicine,  was  good  in  diag- 
nosis and  prognosis,  and  believed  that  the  four 
fluids  or  humors  of  the  body,  blood,  phlegm, 
yellow  bile,  and  black  bile,  are  the  primary  seats 
of  disease.  His  works  were  first  printed,  in  a 
Latin  translation  in  1525.  The  first  Greek 
edition  appeared  in  1526. 

Hlrsch  (hUrsh,  Ger.  hlrsh),  Emll  Gustav,  German- 
American  clergyman,  educator,  was  bom  in 
Luxemburg,  Germany,  1852.  He  received  his 
education  in  Germany ;  was  graduated  at  univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania,  1872;  student  at  univer- 
sities of  Berlin  and  Leipzig,  1872-76;  alumnus 
of  high  school  for  Jewish  science,  Berlin,  1872-76 ; 
rabbi,  1877;  LL.  D.,  Austin  college,  111.,  1896; 
L.  H.  D.,  Western  university  of  Pennsylvania, 


1900.  Minister  of  Har  Sinai  congregation, 
Baltimore,  1877;  Ardath-lsrael  congregation, 
Louisville,  Ky.,  1878;  Sinai  congregation, 
Chicago,  since  1880.  President  and  member  of 
public  librarv  board,  Chicago,  1888-97 ;  professor 
of  rabbinical  literature  and  philosophy,  univer- 
sity of  Chicago,  since  1892.  Editor  Zeitgeist, 
Milwaukee,  1880-87,  Reformer,  New  York,  1886, 
now  of  The  Reform  Advocate,  Chicago.  Editor 
of  biblical  department,  Jevnsh  Encyclopedia. 
Author  of  various  monographs  on  biblical  and 
religious  subjects,  and  prominent  as  orator  on 
public  and  patriotic  occasions. 

Hitchcock,  Charles  Henry,  American  geologist, 
was  born  at  Amherst,  Mass.,  1836.  He  was 
graduated  at  Amherst  college,  1856;  LL.  D., 
1896 ;  Ph.  D.,  Lafayette,  1870 ;  was  assistant  state 
geologist,  Vermont,  1857-61;  state  geologist, 
Maine,  1861-62;  state  geologist.  New  Hamp- 
shire, 1868-78;  professor  of  geoloRy,  Dartmouth 
college,  1868-1908,  professor  emeritus  since  1908. 
He  headed  the  expedition  occupying  Mt.  Waah- 
iiigton,  N.  H.,  in  winter  of  1870-71,  the  first 
high  mountain  observatory  in  this  country. 
Was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  geological 
society  of  America.  Best  known  as  compiler 
of  several  geological  maps  of  United  States 
and  for  researches  in  ichnology,  geology  of 
the  crystalline  schists  and  glacial  geology. 
Author:  Elementary  Geology,  with  Edward 
Hitchcock;  Mt.  Washington  m  Winter;  Report 
on  Geology  of  New  Hampshire  (3  vols.); 
Geological  Map  of  the  United  States;  and  150 
other  titles  in  reports,  pamphlets,  etc.,  on 
geology. 

Hitchcock,  Edward,  American  geologist,  was  bom 
at  Deerfield,  Mass.,  1793.  He  was  educated  at 
Yale  and  ordained  to  the  Congregational  min- 
istry, 1821 ;  pastor  of  the  Congregational  church 
at  Conway,  1821-25;  professor  of  chemistry 
and  natural  history  in  Amherst  college,  1825-45; 
president  and  professor  of  natural  theology  and 
geology,  1845-54,  and  subsequently  held  the 
chair  of  geology  until  his  death.     In   1824  he 

?ubUshed  The  Geology  of  the  Connecticut  Valley. 
n  1830  he  was  appointed  state  geologist,  and  as 
such  made  a  thorough  survey  of  the  geology  and 
mineralogical  resources,  including  also  the 
botany  and  zoology,  of  Massachusetts  in  1830, 
of  part  of  New  York  in  1836,  and  of  Vermont  in 
1857.  In  1850  he  was  appointed  agricultural 
commissioner  for  his  native  state,  visited  and 
examined  the  chief  agricultural  schools  of 
Europe,  and  subsequently  published  his  Report  on 
the  Agricultural  Schools  of  Europe.     Died,  1864. 

Hitchcocli,  F'rank  Harris,  American  politician,  post- 
master-general, 1909-13;  was  bom  at  Amherst, 
Ohio,  1867.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard,  1891 ; 
at  the  Columbian  university  law  school,  1894, 
LL.  M.,  1895;  was  admitted  to  bar  of  District 
of  Columbia,  1894,  and  to  that  of  the  United 
States  supreme  court,  1897.  He  entered  the 
government  service  in  1891 ;  was  chief  of  division 
of  foreign  markets,  L^nited  States  department  of 
agriculture;  chief  clerk  department  of  commerce 
and  labor;  member  of  Keep  commission,  and 
was  first  assistant  postmaster-general,  1905-08. 
He  was  chosen  chairman  of  the  republican 
national  committee  in  1908,  and  conducted  the 
presidential  campaign  of  that  year ;  was  appointed 
postmaster-general  by  President  Taft,  1909. 
Author  of  about  fifty  bulletins,  reports,  and 
circulars  on  foreign  trade  and  customs  tariffs. 

Hitcbcocit,  Roswell  Dwigbt,  American  clergyman 
and  theologian,  was  bom  in  Maine,  1817.  He 
was  graduated  at  Amherst  college  in  1836; 
entered  Andover  theological  seminary  in  1838; 
was  a  tutor  at  Amherst,  1839—42;  taught  in 
several  seminaries,  and  in  1845  became  pastor  of 
a  Congregational  church  in  Exeter,  N.  H.     In 


776 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


1852,  having  passed  a  year  In  study  at  Halle  and 
Berlin,  he  resigned  his  pastorate  and  became 
professor  of  natural  and  revealed  religion  in 
Bowdoin  college.  He  was  professor  of  church 
history  in  Union  theological  seminary,  New  York, 
1855-80;  in  1866  traveled  in  Italy  and  Greece; 
in  1869  in  Egypt  and  Palestine;  in  1871  was 
chosen  president  of  the  American  Palestine 
exploration  society,  and  in  1880  became  president 
of  the  Union  theological  seminary,  still  retaining 
his  professorship.  The  degree  of  D.  D.  was 
conferred  upon  nim  by  the  university  of  Edin- 
burgh in  1884.  In  1885  he  traveled  in  Spain 
and  Norway.  From  1863  to  1870  he  was  one  of 
the  editors  of  the  American  Theological  Review, 
to  which  he  furnished  many  papers,  mostly  upon 
ecclesiastical  history.  He  published  Complete 
Analysis  of  the  Bible,  Socialiam,  etc.     Died,  1887. 

Hoar,  George  Frlsble,  American  statesman,  lawyer, 
was  bom  in  Concord,  Ma.ss.,  1826.  He  was 
graduated  from  Harvard  college,  1846,  and  after- 
ward from  the  Dane  law  school.  Harvard  He 
practiced  law  at  Worcester,  was  elected  to  the 
state  legislature,  1852,  to  the  state  senate,  1867 : 
was  member  of  congress,  1869-77,  and  United 
States  senator  from  1877  until  his  death.  He 
was  an  able  lawyer,  a  keen  debater,  and  a  man  of 
scholarly  attainments.  He  left  valuable  Mem- 
oirs containing  his  observations  during  his  long 
career.  In  the  senate  he  was  a  steadfast  op- 
ponent of  President  McKinley's  policy  in  the 
Philippines.     Died  in  Worcester,  Mass.,  1904. 

Hobart  {ho'-bdrt).  Garret  AuKUstus,  American 
legislator  and  vice-president  of  the  United 
States,  was  bom  at  Long  Branch,  N.  J.,  1844. 
He  was  educated  in  Rutgers  college,  studied  law. 
entered  the  New  Jersey  assembly,  1872,  ana 
became  speaker  of  the  house  in  1873.  In  1876 
he  was  elected  to  the  state  senate,  and  was  made 
president  of  the  senate  in  1881.  P'rom  1880  to 
1891  he  was  chairman  of  the  republican  com- 
mittee of  New  Jersey,  and  in  1884  became  a 
member  of  the  republican  national  committee. 
He  was  nominated  and  elected  vice-president  by 
the  republican  party  in  1896,  and  to  a  greater 
extent,  perhaps,  than  any  of  his  predeceasors 
made  his  office  one  of  real  influence  and  power. 
Died  in  office,  1899. 

Hobbes  {hSbz),  John  Oliver,  pseudonym  of  Mrs. 
Pearl  Mary  Teresa  Craigie  {nie  Richards), 
novelist,  was  born  at  Boston,  Mass.,  1867,  and 
died  in  1906.  She  wrote  Some  Emotions  and  a 
Moral;  The  Sinner's  Comedy;  A  Sttidy  in  Temp- 
tations; The  Gods,  some  Mortals,  and  Lord 
Wickenham;  The  Hcrb-^moon;  The  Ambassador, 
a  play;  The  School  for  Saints;  Robert 
Orange,  etc. 

Hobbes,  Thomas,  English  philosopher,  was  bom  at 
Malmesbury,  England,  1588.  He  was  graduated 
at  Oxford,  and  in  1610  went  abroad  with  the 
earl  of  Devonshire  as  his  pupil,  and  made  a  tour 
of  France  and  Italy.  Meantime,  he  was  occupied 
with  classical,  political,  and  philosophical  studies, 
and  prepared  for  publication  his  first  work,  a 
translation  of  Thucydides,  which  came  out  in 
1628.  His  first  original  work,  De  Cive,  after- 
ward entitled  Elementa  Philosophica  de  Cive,  was 
printed  in  Paris,  1642.  He  published  soon  after 
two  small  treatises,  entitled  Human  Nature  and 
De  Corpore  Politico.  After  the  meeting  of  the 
long  parliament  he  went  to  Paris,  from  his  dread 
of  the  civil  troubles.  In  1647  he  was  appointed 
mathematical  tutor  to  the  prince  of  Wales,  after- 
ward Charles  II.  Then  followed  his  Leviathan, 
embodying  his  famous  "social  compact"  theory, 
and  Liberty  and  Necessity.  His  old  age  was  fruit- 
ful in  additions  to  his  writings,  and  was  marked 
by  some  sharp  controversies.  His  last  works 
were  a  translation  of  Homer  and  a  historj'  of  the 
civil  wars.     Died,  1679. 


Hobson,  BIcbmond  Peariwn,  congressman,  lecturer, 
was  bom  in  Greensboro,  Ala.,  1870.  He  was  grad- 
uated from  the  United   States  naval  academy, 

1889,  studied  at  the  Ecole  National  Superior 
des  Mines  and  Ecole  d' Application  du  G^nie 
Maritime,  Paris.  Served  on  flagship  New  York 
in  blockade  duty,  in  bombardment  of  Matanzas, 
in  expedition  against  San  Juan  de  Puerto  Rico; 
commanded  collier  Merrimac  and  sunk  her  in 
Santiago  harbor  to  prevent  the  exit  of  the 
Spanish  fleet.  As  a  result  was  captured  and 
made  a  prisoner  in  Spanish  fortress,  June  3  to 
July  6,  1898.  In  1899-1900  he  was  on  naval 
duty  in  the  far  East;  <lirected  reconstruction  at 
Hong-Kong  of  three  Spanish  gunboats  —  Ida  de 
Cuba,  Ida  de  Luzon,  and  Don  Juan  de  Austria. 
He  was  then  superintending  naval  construction 
of  the  Crescent  shipyard,  Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  May- 
June,  1902.  He  resfgned  from  the  United  States 
navy,  1903,  and  has  been  a  member  of  congress 
from  the  sixth  Alabama  district  since  1907. 
Author:  A  Study  of  the  Situation  and  Outlook  in 
Europe;  The  Disappearing  Gun  Afloat;  The 
YatJU  Defender,  arid  the  use  of  Aluminum  in 
Marine  Construction;  The  Sinking  of  the  Merri- 
mac; Why  America  Should  Hold  N'aval  Suprem- 
acy; Paramount  Importance  of  Immediate  Na7>al 
Expansion;  America  Must  be  Mistress  of  the 
Seas,  etc. 

Hodge,  Charles,  American  theologian,  was  bom 
in  Philadelphia.  Pa.j  1797.  He  was  graduated 
at  Princeton  college  in  1815,  and  in  1822  became 
a  professor  in  the  Princeton  thcolopical  sominarj", 
where  he  remained  until  the  cUjse  of  his  life.  He 
was  founder  and  long  the  editor  of  the  Princeton 
Review;  and  bosides  numerous  essays,  etc^  was 
the  author  of  Commentaries  on  Romans,  Corin- 
thians, and  Ephesians;  Historyof  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  America;  What  is  Darwinismf  and  of 
the  well-known  Systematic  Theology,  a  standard 
work  of  the  Calvanistic  churches.     Died,   1878. 

Hodgea«  George,  American  clerg^'man  and  writer, 
dean  of  the  Episcopal  theological  school,  Cam- 
bridge, Haas.,  since  1894.  was  bom  in  Rome, 
N.  Y.,  1856.  He  was  graauated  from  Hamilton, 
1877;  D.  D.,  Western  university  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, 1892;  D.  C.  L.,  Hobart,  1902.  Was 
ordained  prieat,  1882;  assistant,  1881-89,  and 
rector,  1889-04,  Calvary  church,  Pittsburg,  Pa. 
Author:  The  Episcopal  Church;  Christianity 
Between  Sundays;  The  Heresy  of  Cain;  In  This 
PreserU  World;  Faith  and  Social  Service;  The 
Battles  of  Peace;  The  Path  of  Life;  WHliam 
Penn,  in  the  Riverside  biographical  series; 
Fountairu  Abbey;  The  Human  Nature  of  the 
Saints;  When  the  King  Came;  The  Cross  and 
Passion;  Three  Hundred  Years  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  in  America;  The  Administration  of  an 
Instiiutiorud  Church;  The  Happy  Family;  The 
Pursuit  of  Happiness;  The  Year  of  Grace; 
Hcidemess,  etc 

Hodglns  (W;'-ir«),  John  GeorRe,  Canadian  edu- 
cator and  writer,  ex-librarian  and  historiographer 
of   the   education   department   of   Ontario   since 

1890,  was  bom  in  DubUn,  1821.  He  removed  to 
Canada,  1833,  and  was  educated  at  Upper  Canada 
academy,  Victoria  college,  Cobourg.  He  was 
graduated  in  law  at  Toronto  university,  1860; 
LL.  D.,  1870 ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  Ontario, 
1870;  was  secretary  of  the  board  of  education 
for  upper  Canada,  1846;  deputy  superintendent 
in  the  department  of  education,  1855;  deputy 
minister  of  education,  1876-90;  hon.  secretary 
of  the  international  congress  of  educators  at 
New  Orleans,  1885.  He  was  editor  of  the  Upper 
Canada  Journal  of  Education  nearly  thirty  years ; 
Lovell's  General  Geography;  First  Steps  in 
General  Geography;  School  History  of  Canada 
and  of  the  other  British  North  American  Provinces; 
Canadian    School    Speaker    and   Reciter;     School 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


777 


Manual;  Lectures  on  the  School  Law;  Sketches 
and  Anecdotes  of  the  Queen;  The  School  House 
and  its  Architecture,  etc. 

Hodglns,  Thomas,  Canadian  jurist,  judge  of  the 
admiralty  division  of  the  exchequer  court  and 
master-in-ordinarj',  supreme  court,  Ontario,  was 
bom  in  Dublin,  1828.  He  emigrated  to  Canada, 
1848:  was  graduated  from  Toronto  university, 
1856;  LL.  B.,  1858,  M.  A.,  1860,  hon.  LL.  D., 
1906;  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  1858;  queen's 
coxmsel  for  Dominion,  1873;  for  Ontario,  1876; 
bencher  of  the  law  society,  1874 ;  member  of  the 
senate  of  the  university  of  Toronto,  1876  and 
1893;  arranged  the  affiliation  of  that  university 
■with  the  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge. 
He  was  counsel  with  Sir  Oliver  Mowat  in  the 
Ontario  boundary  arbitration,  1878;  member 
for  West  Elgin  in  the  Ontario  legislature,  1871- 
78;  contested  West  Toronto,  1878,  and  West 
York,  1882,  for  the  Dominion  house  of  commons; 
declined  the  county  judgeship  of  York,  1875. 
Author:  Reports  on  Election  Cases;  Bills  of 
Exchange,  Notes  and  Cheques;  Manuals  on 
Voters'  Lists  and  Franchise  Laws;  British  and 
American  Diplomacy  affecting  Canada,  1782- 
1899;  articles  in  the  Contemporary  Review, 
Nineteenth  Century,  etc. 

Hodgkin  {hd]'-kln),  Thomas,  English  historian, 
was  born  at  Tottenham,  1831.  He  was  graduated 
at  University  college,  London,  and  was  a  partner 
in  the  banking  firm  of  Hodgkin,  Bamett  and 
Company,  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  now  amalgamated 
with  Lloyds'  bank,  1859-1902.  Since  1874  he 
has  devoted  his  leisure  time  to  historical  writing, 
and  has  now  completely  retired  fromi  business. 
Author:  Italy  and  her  Invaders;  Letters  of 
Cassiodorus;  Dynasty  of  Theodosius;  Life  of 
Theodoric;  Life  of  George  Fox;  Think  it  Out, 
a  pamphlet  on  the  Home  Rule  question;  Life  of 
Charles  the  Great,  in  Foreign  Statesmen  series; 
Political  History  of  England,  etc. 

Hodzuml,  Nobushige,  Japanese  educator  and  law 
writer,  professor  of  law  in  the  imperial  university 
of  Tokyo  since  1881,  was  bom  in  1855.  He  was 
educated  at  Tokyo  university.  Middle  Temple, 
London,  England,  and  at  Berlin  university.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  house  of  peers,  1890-92, 
and  with  two  colleagues  drafted  the  present 
Japanese  civil  code.  Author:  Ancestor  Worship 
and  Japanese  Law;  The  New  Japanese  Civu 
Codes  as  Material  for  the  Study  of  Comparative 
Jurisprudence;  Hoten-ron,  or  Treatise  on  Codi- 
fication; Inkyo-ron,  or  Treatise  on  Retirement 
from  Hoxise-headship;  Gonin-gumi,  or  the  System 
of  Mnttial  Help  arid  Supervision  among  Five 
Families,  etc. 

Hoe,  Robert,  manufacturer,  inventor,  was  bom  in 
New  York,  1839.  He  was  educated  in  the  public 
schools,  entered  printing  press  factory  of  R.  Hoe 
and  Company,  founded  by  his  grandfather, 
Robert,  and  developed  the  printing  press  from 
the  "Hoe  cylinder"  of  the  1846  patent  to  the 
present  double-sextuple  Hoe,  and  also  presses 
of  greatly  improved  type  for  printing  in  colors. 
He  also  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  circular 
saws  and  saw-bits,  with  large  factories  in  New 
York  and  London.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Metropolitan  museum  of  art.     Died,  1909. 

Hofer  (ho'-fer),  Andreas,  Tyrolese  patriot,  was  bom 
at  St.  Leonard,  1767.  In  1796  he  led  a  body  of 
Tyrolese  against  the  French  on  the  lake  of  Garda ; 
in  1808  secret  deputies,  among  whom  was  Hofer, 
arrived  at  Vienna,  to  represent  to  the  archduke 
John  the  sufferings  of  the  people,  and  their  wish 
to  be  reunited  to  Austria.  By  the  desire  of  the 
archduke,  Baron  von  Hormayr  sketched  for 
them  a  plan  of  insurrection,  which  met  with 
such  success  that,  in  three  davs,  from  the  11th 
to  the  13th  of  April,  1809,  nearly  the  whole 
country     was     liberated.     Napoleon,     however. 


at  once  marched  three  armiee  to  the  Tyrol,  to 
subdue  the  rebellious  peasantry.  At  first  Hofer 
concealed  himself  in  a  cave,  but  when  Spech- 
bacher,  Joachim  Haspinger,  a  Capuchin,  and 
Peter  Mayer,  at  the  heaid  of  the  armed  population, 
renewed  the  defense  of  the  Tyrol,  and  repeatedly 
defeated  the  enemy,  Hofer  iasuod  from  his  retreat, 
and  took  the  leadership  of  the  Tyrolese.  At  the 
battle  fought  August  13th  on  the  Iselberg, 
Lefebvre  was  driven  from  the  Tyrol.  Hofer 
continued  to  conduct  the  civil  and  military 
administration  until  the  peace  of  Vienna.  The 
French  and  Bavarians  poured  into  the  country 
for  the  third  or  fourth  time,  and  after  a  brief 
struggle  Hofer  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  ia 
concealment.  After  a  lapse  of  two  months  he 
was  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  the  French  by  a 
priest  named  Douay,  conveyed  to  Mantua,  tried, 
and  condemned  to  be  shot.  The  sentence  waa 
carried  into  execution  in  1810. 
Hoff  (Jidf),  Jakobus  Hendrlkus  van't,  Dutch  chem- 
ist, was  bom  at  Rotterdam,  1852.  He  waa 
appointed  professor  of  chemistry,  mineralogy, 
and  geology  at  An^isterdam,  and  in  1896  became 

Srofessor  of  chemistry  in  the  university  of  Berlin. 
[e  made  notable  researches  in  physical  chemis- 
try, and  was  the  founder  of  stereo-chemistrv.  Ia 
1901  he  received  the  Nobel  prize  for  the  most  im- 
portant contribution  to  chemistry.     Died,  1911. 

HOfTdlng  (hUf'-dSng),  Harold,  Danish  psychologist, 
philosopher,  and  educator,  professor  of  philosophy, 
university  of  Copenhagen,  was  bom  in  1843.  He 
graduated  from  the  university  of  Copenhagen, 
and  received  his  Ph.  D.  in  1870;  D.  Sc,  Oxford; 
LL.  D.,  St.  Andrews,  Aberdeen.  Was  lecturer 
at  the  university,  1880,  and  became  professor  of 
philosophy,  1883.  He  is  a  member  of  the  royal 
Danish  society  of  letters  and  sciences;  corre- 
spondent de  rinstitut  de  France,  etc.  Author: 
Psychology,  reprinted  in  German,  Russian, 
French,  English,  Spanish,  and  Polish  editions; 
Ethics;  History  of  Modem  Philosophy;  Phil- 
osophical Problems;  Modem  Philosophers;  The 
Philosophy  of  Religion,  etc. 

Hoffmann,  Emst  Theodor  Wilhelm,  German  writer, 
composer,  critic,  and  caricaturist,  was  bom  at 
Konigsberg,  1776.  In  1797  he  was  appointed 
assessor  at  Posen;  but  his  love  of  caricature  got 
him  into  trouble,  and  he  was  degraded  to  an 
inferior  post.  For  the  next  ten  years  he  led  a 
precarious  existence,  writing  meantime  a  remark- 
able essay  on  Mozart's  Don  Juan,  composing  an 
opera  on  Fouqud's  Undine,  and  for  two  months 
during  1808  was  director  of  the  theater  at  Bam- 
berg. In  1815  he  resumed  his  career  in  the 
Prussian  service,  and  from  1816  until  his  death 
held  a  position  in  the  supreme  court  at  Berlin. 
Hoffmann  was  the  arch-priest  of  ultra-German 
romanticism.  He  wagecl  incessant  war  upon 
the  sticklers  for  routine  and  conventionalism. 
His  wit  bubbled  over  in  irony,  ridicule,  sarcasm ; 
and  his  imagination  was  inexaustible,  but  utterly 
undisciplined,  wild,  and  fantastic.  His  shorter 
tales  were  mostly  published  in  the  collections 
PhantasiestOcke,  Nachtstucke,  and  Die  Serapions- 
briider.  His  longer  works  include  Die  Eiixiere 
des  Teufds;  Scltsame  Leiden  einea  Theater- 
direktors;  Klein  Zaches,  and  Lebensansichten  des 
Katers  Murr,  partly  autobiographical.  Of  his 
fairy  tales,  Der  Goldene  Topf  was  translated  by 
Carlyle  in  1827.     Died,  1822. 

Hotmann,  August  Wilhelm  von,  German  chemist, 
was  bom  at  Giesscn,  1818.  He  became  assistant 
there  to  Liebig,  and,  when  the  royal  college  of 
chemistry  was  established  in  London  in  1845, 
Hofmann  was  made  superintendent.  From  1856 
to  1865  he  was  chemist  to  the  British  roj'al  mint. 
In  1865  he  went  to  Berlin  as  professor  of  chem- 
istry, and,  ennobled  in  1888,  aied  there  in  1892. 
His  contributions  to  the  scientific  journals  were 


778 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


mainly  on  organic  chemistry.  In  the  course  of 
these  researches  he  obtained  aniUne  from  coal- 
tar  products.  He  devoted  much  labor  to  the 
theory  of  chemical  types.  His  Introduction  to 
Modem  Chemistry  led  to  great  reforms  in  the 
teaching  of  chemistry.  He  wrote  The  Ldfe-^vork 
of  lAebig;  on  the  chemists  Wohler  and  Dumas: 
and  Chemische  Erinnerungen. 

Hogarth  (hd'-g&rth),  WilUam,  English  painter, 
engraver,  and  pictorial  satirist,  was  bom  at 
London,  1697.  He  served  an  apprenticeship 
to  a  silversmith;  about  1720  began  business  for 
himself,  first  being  employed  in  engraving  coats 
of  arms,  crests,  etc.,  and  designing  plates  for 
booksellers;  and  in  1724  studied  art  at  Sir 
Jamies  Thomhill's  school  in  James  street.  He 
made  the  illustrations  for  Gray's  edition  of 
Butler's  Hvdibras.  He  secretly  married  the 
daughter  of  Sir  James  Thornhill  in  1729,  and  in 
1730  began  the  painting  of  his  satires,  among 
them  being:  "Harlot's  Progress";  "A  Mid- 
night Modem  Conversation " ;  "A  Rake's  Prog- 
ress"; "The  Distressed  Poet " ;  and  his  master- 
piece, the  famous  "Marriage  k  la  Mode."  He 
died  at  London,  1764. 

Holbein  (hoi' -inn),  Hans,  or  Johann,  called  "the 
younger,"  German  painter,  was  bom  at  Augs- 
burg, 1497.  He  went  to  Basel  with  his  brother, 
Ambrosius,  also  a  painter.  About  1526  he  con- 
tracted an  intimacy  with  Erasnms,  whose  por- 
trait he  painted,  and  soon  after  visited  England, 
where  he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life.  Henry 
VIII.  made  him  court  painter.  He  is  distin- 
guished as  an  historical  and  portrait  painter,  and 
engraver  on  wood.  As  an  engraver  he  is  chiefly 
known  by  the  celebrated  "Dance  of  Death,"  a 
series  of  fifty-three  woodcuts  engraved  from  lus 
own  designs,  although  it  is  seldom  found  with 
more  than  forty-six.  He  also  painted  the 
"Madonna  of  the  Burgomaster  Meyer  of  Basel"; 
"The  Ambassadors";  "The  Last  Supper"; 
"Tlie  Dead  Christ";  "The  Nativity";  "The 
Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  etc.     Died,  1543. 

Holberg  {hM'-bh-K),  Ludvlg,  Baron,  creator  of 
modem  Danish  literature,  was  bom  at  Bergen  in 
Norway,  1684.  He  studied  at  the  university  of 
Copenhagen,  became  professor  of  metaphysics  at 
Copenhagen  in  1718,  and  maintained  tus  con- 
nection with  the  university  up  to  the  time  of  his 
death  in  1754.  His  first  notable  works  were 
satirical  poems,  among  them  Peder  Poors,  in 
which  he  ridicules  the  pedantic  stiffness  and 
stupidity  of  contemporarj'  life  and  thought.  In 
1721  the  first  Danish  theater  was  opened  at 
Copenhagen,  and  Holberg  began  to  write  comedies 
with  mars-elous  success.  After  1724  he  turned 
to  history,  and  wrote,  among  other  books,  a 
History  of  Denmark;  General  Church  History; 
History  of  the  Jews,  and  Convparative  Biographies 
of  Great  Men  and  Women.  In  1741  he  proouced 
another  classic,  the  romance  Niels  Khm's  Sub- 
terranean Journey;  and  lastly  the  serious  reflec- 
tive works,  Moral  Thoughts  and  Epistles,  and  his 
own  Autobiography.  Peder  Poors,  the  Subter- 
ranean Journey,  and  the  Autobiography  have 
been  translated  into  English. 

Holden  (hol-den),  Edward  Singleton,  American 
astronomer,  was  bom  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  1846. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  scientific  school  in 
Washington  university  in  1866,  at  West  Point 
in  1870,  and  was  appointed  second  Ueutenant  of 
artillery.  For  a  year  he  was  at  Fort  Johnson, 
N.  C,  was  assistant  professor  at  West  Point,  and 
in  1872  became  instructor  of  the  engineer  corps. 
In  1873  he  became  professor  of  mathematics  in 
the  United  States  navy,  and  was  ordered  to  the 
naval  observatory  at  Washington,  D.  C.  In 
1881  he  became  professor  of  astronomy  in  the 
university  of  Wisconsin  and  director  of  the 
Washburn  observatory,  where  he  remained  with 


brief  intermissions  until  1885,  and  published  four 
volimies  of  observations.  In  1883  he  visited  the 
Caroline  islands  to  observe  a  total  eclipse  of  the 
sun.  He  was  president  of  the  university  of 
California,  1885-88  •  director  of  the  Lick  ob.serv- 
atory  on  Mt.  Hamilton,  1888-98 ;  and  Ubrarian 
of  the  United  States  military  academy  since  1901. 

Holland,  Sir  Henry,  English  physician  and  writer, 
was  born  at  Knutsford,  Cheshire,  1788.  He  was 
graduated  at  Edinburgh,  1811,  and  in  1815  pub- 
ushed  Travels  in  ACbania,  Thessaly,  etc.  He 
settled  in  London  in  1816;  became  one  of  the 
most  eminent  members  of  his  profession;  in 
1840  was  appointed  physician  to  the  prince 
consort,  in  1852  to  the  queen;  and  in  1853  was 
created  a  baronet.  He  published  Medical  Notes 
and  Reflections;  Chapters  on  Mental  Physiology; 
Essays  on  Scientific  Subjects;  RecoUeetioru  of  A 
Past  Life,  etc.     He  died  in  London,  1873. 

Holland,  Josiab  Gilbert,  American  writer,  was  born 
at  Belchertown,  Mass.,  1819.  He  studied  medi- 
cine and  practiced  for  some  three  vears,  and 
then  became  superintendent  of  public  schools 
at  Vicksburg,  Miss.  He  was  connected  with  the 
SpringMd  Republican  from  1849  until  1866;  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  Scribner's  Magazine  in 
1870,  and  remained  editor  of  it  and  of  its  suc- 
cessor, the  Century  Magazine,  until  his  death. 
He  was  a  prolific  author,  and  all  his  books  were  of 
a  high  moral  tone.  Some  of  the  best  known  of 
them  are  Letters  to  Young  People,  Married  and 
Single;  Bitter-Sweet;  Gold  Fod;  Miss  Gilbert" a 
Career;  Arthur  Bonnicastle;  The  Story  of  Seven 
Oak*;  Nicholas  Mintum,  etc.  Died  at  New 
York,  1881. 

Holland,  Tbomas  Erskine,  English  law  writer  and 
educator,  professor  of  international  law  and 
diplomacy  at  Oxford,  was  bom  in  1835.  He  was 
naduated  at  Oxford-  D.  C.  L.,  Oxford;  LL.  D., 
Bologna,  Glasgow,  Dublin.  He  became  a  bar- 
rister in  1863,  and  Vinerian  reader  in  English 
law,  1874.  He  is  a  fellow  of  the  British  academy ; 
associate  of  the  royal  academy  of  Belgium ;  hon. 
professor  in  the  university  of  Perugia;  hon. 
member  of  the  university  of  St.  Petersburg,  of 
the  juridical  society  of  Berlin,  of  royal  academies 
of  Bologna  and  Padua,  and  of  the  American 
societv  of  international  law,  etc.  He  was 
British  plenipotcntiarv  at  the  Geneva  conference, 
1906-  bencher,  Lincoln's  Inn,  1907.  Author: 
The  Elements  of  Jurisprudence;  The  Institutee  of 
Justinian;  An  Essay  on  Composition  Deeds; 
Essays  on  the  Form,  of  the  Law;  The  European 
Concert  in  the  Eastern  Question;  The  Admiralty 
Manual  of  Naval  Prize  Law;  Studies  in  Inter- 
national Law;  The  Laws  and  Customs  of  War  on 
Land;  Neutral  Duties  in  a  Maritime  War,  etc. 

Holland,  William  Jacob,  educator,  naturalist,  was 
born  in  Jamaica,  West  Indies,  1848,  of  American 
parentage.  He  was  graduated  at  Amherst, 
1869,  and  Princeton  theological  scminarv,  1874 ; 
Ph.  D.,  1886,  Sc.  D.,  1902,  Washington  and 
Jefferson;  LL.  D.,  Dickinson,  1896,  New  York 
university,  1897,  St.  Andrews  university,  1905. 
He  was  a  Presbyterian  pastor  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa., 
1874-91 ;  chancellor  Western  university  of 
Pennsylvania,  1891-1901;  since  1898  director 
of  Carnegie  institute,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  Was 
naturalist  in  United  States  eclipse  expedition  to 
Japan,  1887,  and  to  West  Africa,  1889.  He  is 
regarded  as  an  authority  on  zoology  and  museum 
administration.  Author:  The  Butterfly  Book; 
The  Moth  Book;  and  of  many  scientific  pap)er8 
published  by  the  United  States  government,  the 
zoological  society  of  London,  etc.  Editor  of  the 
Annals  and  Memoirs  published  by  the  Cam^ie 
museum. 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  jurist,  was  bom  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  1841.  He  was  graduated  from  Harvard, 
1861,  and  from  Harvard  law  school,  1866;  LL-D., 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


779 


Harvard,  1895,  Yale,  1886.  He  served  three  years 
in  the  20th  Massachusetts  volunteers;  was 
wounded  at  Ball's  Bluff,  1861^  at  Antietam,  1862 
and  at  Marye's  Hill,  Fredcncksburg,  1803,  ana 
received  brevets  as  major,  lieutenant-colonel,  and 
colonel.  After  the  war  he  engaged  in  practice  at 
Boston,  and  was  editor  of  the  American  Law 
Review,  1870-73.  Was  a  member  of  the  law  firm 
of  Shattuck,  Holmes  and  Munroe,  1873-82 ;  was 
professor  of  law.  Harvard  law  school,  1882; 
associate  justice,  1882-99,  chief-justice,  1899- 
1902,  supreme  judicial  court  of  Massachusetts- 
associate  justice  of  supreme  court  of  Unitea 
States  since  December,  1902.  Author:  The 
Common  Law,  lectures  at  Lowell  institute. 
Speeches,  etc.  Edited  the  twelfth  edition  of 
Kenfs  Commentaries. 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  American  physician  and 
poet,  was  bom  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1809.  He 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1829,  studied  law 
for  a  period,  but  subsequently  devoted  himself 
to  meaicine,  and,  after  attendance  in  the  hospi- 
tals of  Europe  for  several  years,  received  his 
degree  in  medicine  in  1836.  In  1838  he  became 
professor  of  anatomy  and  physiolo^  in  Dart- 
mouth college,  and  in  1847  was  appointed  to  the 
same  chair  at  Harvard.  He  gained  some  repu- 
tation as  an  anatomist,  and  was,  besides,  an  able 
microscopist  and  a  skillful  auscultator;  but  his 
widest  fame  is  as  a  poet,  a  wit,  and  a  man  of 
letters.  His  wit  and  humor  are  transcendent, 
his  poetry  the  perfection  of  conception  and  finish, 
and  all  his  literary  efforts  of  rare  originality  and 
excellence.  He  was  also  a  fascinating  and 
instructive  lecturer,  while  his  admirable  social 
quaUties  endeared  him  to  the  large  and  intel- 
lectual circle  he  so  adorned.  The  first  collection 
of  his  poems  appeared  in  1836,  and  attracted 
marked  attention.  Then  followed  his  Phi  Beta 
Kappa  poems,  Poetry;  Terpsichore;  Urania; 
and  Astraa,  all  of  which  addea  to  his  reputation. 
In  1857  he  contributed  his  Autocrat  of  the  Break- 
fast Table,  a  connected  series  of  prose  essays,  to 
the  Atlantic  Monthly,  which  was  followed  by 
The  Professor  at  the  Breakfast  Table;  The  Poet 
at  the  Breakfast  Table;  and  Over  the  Teacups. 
This  brilliant  series,  which  was  in  his  happiest 
vein,  was  interspersed  with  poems,  and  was 
fraught  with  humor,  pathos,  practical  wisdom, 
and  a  healthy  sentiment  grateful  and  refreshing. 
His  after-dinner  poems  and  other  short  lyrics 
are  not  surpassea  by  any  productions  of  their 
kind  in  the  language.  His  various  medical 
addresses,  papers,  and  pamphlets  are  now  a  part 
of  our  scientific  literature;  and  his  other  works 
include  Currents  and  Counter-Currents  in  Medical 
Science;  Elsie  Venner,  a  romance;  Songs  in 
Many  Keys;  Soundings  from  the  Atlantic;  The 
Guardian  Angel;  and  Mechanism  in  Thought 
and  Morals.     Died,  1894. 

Holmes,  William  Henry,  American  anthropologist, 
archaeologist,  was  born  in  Harrison  county, 
Ohio,  1846.  He  was  graduated  at  McNeely 
normal  college,  1870;  was  a  normal  school 
teacher,  1871-72;  assistant,  1872-80,  geologist, 
1880-89,  United  States  geological  survey;  cu- 
rator department  aboriginal  pottery.  United 
States  national  museum,  1882-93;  archaeologist 
United  States  bureau  ethnology,  in  charge  of 
explorations,  1889-98;  curator  anthropology. 
Field  museum  of  natural  history,  and  professor 
anthropic  geology,  university  of  Chicago,  1894-97 ; 
head  curator  department  anthropology,  1898- 
1902;  chief  bureau  American  ethnology  since 
1902;  curator  prehistoric  archaeology,  1903,  and 
national  gallery  of  art,  1907,  United  States 
national  museum.  Member  of  numerous  scientific 
societies,  foreign  and  domestic.  Author:  Archce- 
ological  Studies  Among  the  Cities  of  Mexico; 
Stone    Implements     of    tfie     Potomac-Chesapeake 


Tidewater  Province;  and  numerous  papers  in 
ethnology  and  archaeology,  especially  relating 
to  ceramic,  textile,  and  stone-working  arts  and 
ornaments. 

Hoist  (hoist),  Hermann  Eduard  von,  Qerman- 
American  historian,  was  bom  in  Fellin,  Livonia, 
Russia,  1841.  He  came  to  the  Unitetl  States  in 
1867,  engaged  in  literary  work  and  lecturing  for 
several  years;  returned  to  Europe,  and  became 
professor  in  the  university  of  Strassburg,  1872, 
and  at  Freiburg,  1874.  He  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  history  in  the  university  of  Chicago, 
1892,  which  post  he  retained  until  1900,  whenhe 
returned  to  Freiburg  and  retired.  He  published 
Constitutional  and  Political  History  of  the  United 
States;  Constitutional  Law  of  the  United  States; 
Life  of  John  Calhoun,  etc.     Died,  1904. 

Holt,  Henry,  publisher  and  author,  was  bom  at 
Baltimore,  Md.,  1840.  He  was  graduated  at 
Yale,  1862;  Columbia  law  school,  1864;  LL.  D., 
university  of  Vermont,  1901.  Began  publishing 
business  with  G.  P.  Putnam,  1863,  and  is  now 
president  of  Henry  Holt  and  Company,  pub- 
lishers, New  York.  Author:  Catmire — Man 
and  Nature;  Talks  on  Civics;  Sturmsee — Man 
and  Man;  On  the  Civic  Relations.  He  has 
contributed  many  articles  on  social  and  literary 
subjects. 

Holyoake  (hol'-yok;  hol'-l-ok),  George  Jacob, 
English  reformer,  founder  of  "secularism,"  waa 
bom  at  Birmingham,  1817.  He  taught  mathe- 
matics for  several  years  at  the  mechanics'  insti- 
tution in  Birminghaim,  lectured  on  Robert  Owen's 
socialist  system,  was  secretary  to  Garibaldi's 
British  contingent,  edited  the  Reasoner,  and 
promoted  the  bill  legalizing  secular  affirmations. 
Holyoake  was  the  last  person  imprisoned  in 
England  on  a  charge  of  atheism.  He  wrote  The 
Rochdale  Pioneers;  History  of  Co&peration  m 
England;  Self-help  a  Hundred  Years  Ago.  Other 
works  are  The  Limits  of  Atheism.;  Trial  of  Theism; 
Sixty  Years  of  an  Agitator's  Life;  Public  Speak- 
ing and  Debate,    etc.     Died,  1906. 

Homer.     See  page  9. 

Homer,  Wlnslow,  American  artist,  was  bom  at 
Boston,  1836.  While  young  he  worked  at  lithog- 
raphy in  Boston,  and  in  1859  went  to  New  York 
and  became  a  student  of  art  at  the  academy  of 
design.  He  obtained  the  notice  of  the  public 
by  two  pictures  entitled  "Home,  Sweet  Home," 
and  "The  Last  Goose  at  Yuletown."  He  pur- 
sued his  studies  in  Paris,  and  won  recognition 
as  an  artist  of  originality.  Among  his  pictures 
are  "Prisoners  from  the  Front";  "Snap  the 
Whip";  "Eating  Watermelon";  "Flowers  for 
the  Teacher";  "Undertow";  "Eight  Bells"; 
and  the  marine  paintings:  "A  Northeaster"; 
"Stormbeaten  " ;  "The  Maine  Coast, "  his  master- 
piece; and  "Wood's  Island  by  MoonUght."  The 
last  named  gained  the  medal  of  honor  at  the 
exhibition  of  the  academy  of  fine  arts  at  Phila- 
delphia in  1906.     Died,  1910. 

Homiakoff,  Nicholas  Alexeievitch,  Russian  states- 
man, president  of  the  Russian  duma,  was  bom 
in  1850.  His  father  was  a  well-known  member 
of  the  Slavophil  school,  and  he  is  the  godson  of 
Gogol.  He  was  for  some  years  director  of  the 
department  of  agriculture,  and  became  a  member 
of  the  second  duma,  taking  his  place  among  the 
"Octobrists."  He  is  an  ardent  upholder  of  the 
constitution,    and   a  strong   believer   in   reform. 

Honorius  {hd-nd'-rl-Hs),  Flavlus,  emperor  of  the 
West,  was  born  at  Constantinople,  384  A.  D. 
He  was  the  second  son  of  Theodosius  the  Great, 
at  whose  death  the  empire  was  divide<l  between 
his  sons  Arcadius  and  Honorius.  The  latter 
when  onlv  ten  years  old  received  the  western 
half.  Stifjcho  was  the  de  facto  ruler  of  the  western 
empire  until  408 ;  and  after  his  death  Alaric  the 
Goth    overran    Italy,    and   took   Rome   in   410. 


780 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Honorius  died  at  Ravenna,  which  he  had  made 
his  capital,  in  423. 

Hood,  John  Bell,  American  general,  was  bom  in 
Kentucky,  1831.  He  was  graduated  from  the 
United  States  military  academy  in  1853,  and 
appointed  lieutenant  of  infantry  in  the  same 
year.  He  was  actively  engaged  on  frontier  duty 
until  1861,  when  he  entered  the  confederate 
army,  where  he  served  in  every  position  from 
first  lieutenant  to  that  of  division  commander 
with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He  took  a 
conspicuous  part  in  the  Virginia  peninsular 
campaign,  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run, 
Antietam,  Gettysburg,  and  Chickamauga,  where 
he  lost  a  leg,  and  in  1864  succeeded  Johnston  in 
command  of  the  army  resisting  Sherman's  in- 
vasion of  Georgia.  He  met  the  federal  forces  in 
battle  at  Franklin,  Tenn.,  1864,  and  at  Nashville, 
December  15-16,  soon  after  which  he  was 
relieved  by  General  Richard  Taylor.  He  died 
in  1879. 

Hood,  Samuel,  Viscount,  English  admiral,  was 
born  at  Thomcombe,  Dorset,  1724.  He  entered 
the  British  navy  in  1741,  and  became  post-captain 
in  1756.  In  command  of  the  frigate  Vestal,  he 
took  a  French  frigate  after  a  fiercely-contested 
action,  1759.  In  1778  he  was  made  commissioner 
of  the  Portsmouth  dockyard.  In  1780,  pro- 
moted to  flag  rank,  he  was  sent  to  reinforce 
Rodney  on  the  North  American  and  West  Indian 
stations;  in  1781  he  fought  an  action  with  De 
Grasse,  and  was  engaged  in  the  battle  of  the 
Chesapeake.  In  the  West  Indies  in  1782  he 
showed  himself  a  ma.sterly  tactician  in  the  series 
of  manoeuvres  by  which  he  outwitte<l  De  Grasse 
off  St.  Kitts;  and  he  had  a  conspicuous  share 
in  the  decisive  victory  of  Dominica.  For  his 
services  he  was  made  Baron  Hood  in  the  Irish 
peerage.  In  1784  he  was  elected  to  parliament 
lor  Westminster  against  Fox;  and  in  1788  be- 
came a  lord  of  the  admiralty.  In  1793,  appointed 
to  the  Mediterranean,  he  directed  the  occupation 
of  Toulon  and  the  operations  in  the  gulf  of  Lyons. 
In  1796  he  was  made  Viscount  Hood,  and  died 
at  Bath,  1816. 

Hood,  Thomas,  English  poet  and  humorist,  was 
born  in  London,  1799.  In  1821  he  was  offered 
the  post  of  sub-editor  of  the  London  Magazine, 
at  once  entered  upon  its  duties  and  acquired  an 
extensive  literary  acquaintance.  His  first  sepa- 
rate publication  was  entitled  Odes  and  Addresses 
to  Great  People.  He  published  Whims  and  Odd- 
ities in  1826,  of  which  a  second  and  third  series 
appeared  during  the  foUoMnng  two  years.  In 
1829  he  commenced  The  Comic  Annual,  and 
continued  it  for  nine  years.  He  edited  The  Gem 
for  one  year,  contributing  to  its  pages  his  striking 
poem  entitled  Euqcnc  Aram's  Dream.  In  1831 
he  wrote  his  novel  of  Tylney  Hall.  In  1838  he 
commenced  the  publication  of  Hood's  Own,  to 
which  his  portrait  was  attached.  In  1844  he 
started  Hood's  Magazine,  and  contributed  to 
its  pages  until  within  a  month  of  his  death.  His 
Song  of  the  Shirt  and  Bridge  of  Sighs  are  among 
the  most  perfect  poems  of  their  kind  in  the  Eng- 
lish language.     He  died  in  1845. 

Hooke,  Robert,  English  natural  philosopher,  was 
bom  at  Freshwater,  isle  of  Wight,  1635.  He 
was  educated  at  Westminster  and  Christ  Church, 
Oxford.  In  1662  he  became  curator  of  experi- 
ments to  the  royal  society,  and  in  1677  its  secre- 
tary; in  1665  professor  of  geometry  at  Gresham 
college;  and  after  the  great  London  fire  of  1666 
surveyor  of  works.  He  has  justly  been  con- 
sidered one  of  the  greatest  philosophical  me- 
chanics. His  theory  of  gravitation  subsequently 
formed  part  of  Newton's;  he  anticipated  the 
invention  of  the  steam-engine.  His  other  dis- 
coveries were  the  law  of  the  extension  and  com- 
pression of  elastic  bodies,  the  simplest  theory  of 


the  arch,  the  balance-spring  of  watches  and  the 
anchor-escapement  clocks.  The  quadrant,  tele- 
8cop)e,  and  microscope  are  also  materially  in- 
debted to  him.     He  died  in  1703. 

Hooker,  Josepli,  American  general,  was  bom  in 
Hadley,  Mass.,  1814.  He  was  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1837,  and  fought  in  the  Florida  and 
Mexican  wars,  being  three  times  promoted  for 
gallant  conduct.  In  1853  he  resigned,  and  be- 
came a  farmer  in  California.  When  the  civil 
war  began  he  entered  the  army  again,  and  soon 
became  a  major-general.  He  fought  under  Mc- 
Clellan  on  the  march  to  Richmond,  and  afterward 
in  northern  Virginia  and  Mar>'land,  receiving  a 
wound  at  the  battle  of  Antietam.  His  bravery 
in  action  brought  him  the  nickname  "Fighting 
Joe  Hooker."  In  January,  18(>3,  he  was  made 
commander  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  and  in 
May  he  fought  the  bloody  battle  of  Chancellors- 
ville.  Owing  to  a  difference  between  Hooker 
and  his  commander-in-chief.  General  Halleck, 
the  former  resigned  his  command,  June  28,  1863, 
but  he  still  served  as  a  major-general,  and  fought 
under  Sherman  at  Atlanta.  After  the  war  he 
commanded  in  different  departments,  and  in 
1868  retired  from  the  army.  He  died  at  Garden 
City,  N.  Y.,  1879. 

Hooker,  Sir  Joseph  Dalton,  British  botanist,  was 
born  at  Haleswortb,  Suffolk,  in  1817.  He  gradu- 
ated as  an  M.  D.,  but  has  always  devoted  his 
attention  to  botany.  He  joined  the  antarctic 
expedition  of  the  Erebus  and  Terror.  When  he 
returned,  in  1843,  he  brought  with  him  5,340 
species  of  plants,  which  were  described  and  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  Flora  Antarctica.  His 
Himalayan  Journals  and  the  Rhododendrons  of 
the  Sikkim- Himalaya  were  important  additions 
to  our  knowledge  of  botany.  In  1871  he  made 
an  expedition  to  Morocco,  ascended  the  Greater 
Atlas,  the  summit  of  which  had  never  before  been 
reached  by  a  European,  and  secured  a  valuable 
collection  of  plants.  He  was  appointed  assistant- 
director  at  Kew  gardens  in  1855,  and,  on  the 
death  of  his  father  in  1865,  succeeded  him  as 
director,  retiring  in  1885.  He  was  president  of 
the  British  association  in  1868,  and  was  elected 
president  of  the  royal  society  in  1872.  His 
great  work,  which  he  undertook  in  conjunction 
with  George  Bentham,  is  the  Genera  Plantarum, 
the  first  part  of  which  appeared  in  1862;  and 
the  first  part  of  the  second  volume,  bringing 
down  the  work  to  the  Compositae,  was  published 
in  1873.     Died.  1911. 

Hooker,  Blcbard!,  English  theologian  and  writer, 
was  bom  in  Exeter,  England,  1554.  He  was 
graduated  from  Oxford,  1574,  was  a  fellow  of 
Coqjus  Christi  college,  Oxford,  and  deputv  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew.  The  archbishop  of  York  pro- 
moted liim  to  the  mastership  of  the  Temple  in 
London,  1585.  The  morning  and  afternoon 
services  belonged  respectively  to  him  and  to 
Walter  Travers,  the  one  inclining  to  the  Arminian 
view  and  maintaining  the  Anglican  form  of 
worship,  the  other  maintaining  Calvinistic 
opinions  and  inclining  to  the  Presbj'terian  form. 
A  controversy  arose,  which  W£is  the  occasion  of 
Hooker's  great  work  on  Ecclesiastical  Polity. 
In  1591  he  became  rector  of  Boscombe,  Wilt- 
shire, where  he  completed  the  first  four  books 
of  the  work.  From  1595  he  was  rector  of 
Bishopsboume,  Kent.     Died,  1600. 

Hooker,  Thomas,  English  clergyman  and  American 
colonist,  was  bom  at  Markfield,  Leicester,  about 
1586.  He  became  a  fellow  of  Emmanuel  collie, 
Cambridge,  and  was  for  three  years  a  Puritan 
lecturer  at  Chelmsford.  In  1630  he  retired  to 
Holland;  in  1633  sailed  for  Massachusetts,  and 
received  a  charge  at  Cambridge.  In  1636  ho 
removed  with  his  congregation  to  Connecticut, 
and   founded   Hartford.     He  was   joint-author. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


781 


with  John  Cotton,  of  the  Survey  of  the  Summe  of 
Church  Discipline.     Died,  1647. 

Hopkins,  Albert  Jm  lawver,  ex-United  States 
senator,  was  born  in  Dekalb  county.  III.,  1846. 
He  was  graduated  at  Hillsdale  college,  1870, 
studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  Illinois  bar. 
He  wiis  state's  attorney,  Kane  county,  1872-76; 
presidential  elector,  1884:  member  of  congress, 
1885-1903,  8th  Illinois  district;  United  States 
senator  from  Illinois,  1903-09.  He  was  sup- 
ported by  the  republican  congressional  delega- 
tion of  Illinois  as  candidate  for  speaker,  56th 
congress. 

Hopkins,  Edward  Washburn,  American  oriental 
scholar,  professor  of  Sanskrit,  Yale  university 
since  1895;  was  bom  at  Northampton,  Mass., 
1857.  He  was  graduated  at  Columbia,  1878; 
Ph.  D.,  Leipzig  university,  1881;  LL.  D., 
Columbia,  1902.  Was  instructor  at  Columbia, 
1881-85;  professor  of  Greek,  Sanskrit,  and 
comparative  philology,  Bryn  Mawr  college, 
1885-95.  Author:  Caste  in  Ancient  India; 
Manu's  Lawbook;  Religions  of  India;  The  Great 
Epic  of  India;  India,  Old  and  New;  and  many 
special  essays  on  oriental  and  linguistic  subjects. 
He  was  editor  of  the  Journal  of  American 
Oriental  Society,   1897-1907. 

Hopkins,  Mark,  American  educator,  was  bom  in 
Massachusetts,  1802.  He  was  graduated  at 
Williams  college  in  1824,  and  received  the  degree 
of  M.  D.  in  1828;  was  professor  of  moral  phi- 
losophy and  rhetoric  in  Williams  college  from 
1830  until  his  death ;  was  president  of  the  college, 
1836-72;  in  1857  became  president  of  the 
American  board  of  commissioners  for  foreign 
missions.  He  is  the  author  of  Evidences  of 
Christianity,  Law  of  Love  and  Love  as  a  Law,  and 
An  Outline  Study  of  Man.     Died,  1887. 

fiopkinson,  Francis,  American  politician  and 
author,  was  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1737. 
He  was  a  delegate  to  the  continental  congress 
from  New  Jersey,  and  was  one  of  the  signers  of 
the  declaration  of  independence.  He  wrote 
The  Battle  of  the  Kegs;  The  Pretty  Story;  The 
Political  Catechism,  and  other  works  in  prose  and 
verse.  His  son,  Joseph,  judge  of  the  United 
States  district  court,  wrote  "Hail  Columbia." 
Died,  1791. 

Hopper,  De  Wolf,  comedian,  was  bom  in  New 
York,  1858.  He  made  his  first  professional 
appearance  in  Our  Boys,  1878;  later  with 
Daniel  Frohman's  Madison  square  company  as 
Pittacus  Green  in  Hazel  Kirke  and  other  r61es; 
studied  vocal  music  and  joined  the  McCaull 
opera  company.  For  several  years  he  starred 
in  comedy  roles  at  the  head  of  his  own  company ; 
later  with  Weber  and  Fields  company;  then 
again  starred  at  the  head  of  his  own  companj^, 
playing  Mr.  Pickwick.  He  became  famous  m 
Wang  and  a  later  production,  Happyland. 

Horace,  Quintus  Horatlus  Flaccus,  famous  Roman 
poet,  was  bom  at  Venusia,  Italy,  65  B.  C. 
Athens  was  at  this  time  regarded  as  the  univer- 
sity of  the  world,  and  thither  Horace  repaired 
in  his  nineteenth  year  to  complete  his  education 
by  a  course  orf  philosophy  and  science  under 
Greek  masters.  But  the  civil  wars  which  fol- 
lowed the  death  of  Julius  Csesar,  in  44  B.  C, 
interrupted  him  in  his  studies.  The  arrival  of 
Brutus  at  Athens  roxised  the  patriotic  feelings  of 
the  youthful  Romans,  and  along  with  others 
Horace  ardently  embraced  the  cause  of  the 
republic.  Though  entirely  inexperienced  in  war, 
he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  military  tribune, 
with  the  command  of  a  legion,  and  in  this  charac- 
ter shared  in  the  defeat  at  Philippi,  42  B.  C. 
After  the  battle  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  by 
acting  as  clerk  in  the  quajstor's  office  he  contrived 
to  live  until  he  found  means  of  making  himself 
known  to  the  poets  Varius  and  Virgil,  by  whom 


his  name  was  first  mentioned  to  Maecenas.  Tha 
first  interview  with  his  future  patron  and  friend 
seems  not  to  have  betm  sati.sfactory.  for  it  was 
not  until  after  nine  months  had  elapsed  that 
MaH;enas  requested  him  to  repeat  his  visit.  The 
friend  of  the  prime  minister  found  easy  access  to 
the  emperor ;  Horace  was  soon  on  terms  of  famili- 
arity with  Augustus,  and  enjoyed  his  friendship 
and  patronage  during  the  remainder  of  his  life. 
But  the  friendship  of  Maecenas,  who  gave  him  an 
estate  in  the  Sabine  territory,  about  thirty-four 
miles  from  Rome,  made  him  independent  for  life. 
His  admiration  of  the  beautiful  sccnerv  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Tibur  (Tivoli)  induced  him  to 
pass  his  life  between  his  country  residence  and 
Rome.  His  works  consist  of  two  books  of 
Satires,  a  book  of  Epodes,  four  books  of  Odea,  two 
books  of  Epistles,  and  a  treatise  on  the  Art  of 
Poetry.     Died,  8  B.  C. 

Homaday  (hdr'^nd-dd),  William  Temple,  American 
naturalist,  director  of  the  New  York  zoological 
park  since  1896,  was  bom  in  Plainfield,  Ind.,  1854. 
He  was  educated  at  Iowa  agricultural  college; 
studied  zoology  and  muscology  in  this  country 
and  Europe,  and  as  collecting  zoologist  visited 
Cuba,  Florida,  the  West  Indias,  South  America, 
India,  Ceylon,  the  Malay  peninsula,  and  Borneo, 
1875-79.  He  was  chief  taxidermist  of  United 
States  national  museum,  1882-90 ;  in  real  estate 
business  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  1890-96.  Author: 
Two  Years  in  the  Jungle;  Free  Rum  on  the 
Congo;  The  Extermination  of  the  American 
Bison;  Taxidermy  and  Zoological  Collecting; 
The  Man  Who  Became  a  Savage;  The  American 
Natural  History;  Camp-Fires  in  Canadian 
Rockies,  etc. 

Homblower,  William  Butler,  American  lawyer, 
was  bom  in  Paterson,  N.  J.,  1851.  He  was 
graduated  at  Princeton  university,  1871 ;  LL.  B., 
Columbia  law  school,  1875;  LL.  D.,  Princeton, 
1895,  and  is  now  a  member  of  the  6rm  of  Hom- 
blower, Miller  and  Potter  of  New  York.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  commission  appointed  by 
Governor  Hill,  1890,  to  propose  amendments  to 
the  judiciary  article  of  the  New  York  constitu- 
tion; was  appointed,  1893,  by  President  Cleve- 
land, associate  justice  of  the  United  States 
supreme  court,  but  was  not  confirmed  by  senate 
owing  to  opposition  by  New  York  senators  for 
political  reasons.  He  is  a  member  of  the  board 
of  commissioners  of  statutory  consolidation 
engaged  in  examining  and  consolidating  all 
general  statutes  of  New  York  from  1777. 

Homung  {hdr'-nung),  Ernest  William,  English 
noveUst  and  journalist,  was  bom  at  Middles- 
borough,  England,  1866.  He  was  educated  at 
Uppingham  school.  Was  in  Australia,  1884-86, 
and  has  been  engaged  in  literary  work  ever  since. 
Author:  A  Bride  from  the  Bush;  Under  Two 
Skies;  The  Rogue's  March;  My  Lord  Duke; 
The  Amateur  dracksman;  Dead  Men  Tell  No 
Tales;  The  Black  Mask;  The  Shadow  of  the  Rope; 
Denis  Dent;  Stingaree;  A  Thief  in  the  Night; 
Mr.  Justice  Raffles,  etc. 

Horsford  {hdrs'-ferd),  El>en  Norton,  American 
chemist,  was  bom  in  Livingston  county,  N.  Y., 
1818.  He  studied  engineering  and  was  engaged 
on  the  geological  survey  of  the  state  of  New  York. 
In  1840  he  was  appointed  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  female  academy  at  Albany,  where 
he  remained  for  four  years.  He  afterward 
studied  in  Germany,  under  Liebig,  and,  on  his 
return  to  the  United  States  in  1847,  was  elected 
Rumford  professor  of  science  at  Harvard.  After 
sixteen  years'  service  there  he  resigned  to  engage 
in  chemical  manufactures.  He  wrote  exten- 
sively on  scientific  subjects.     Died,  1893. 

Hoskin,  Jobn,  Canadian  lawyer,  one  of  the 
board  of  governors  of  the  university  of  Toronto, 
was  bom  at  Hols  worthy,  Devon,  England,  1836. 


782 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


He  was  educated  in  London;  went  to  Canada, 
1854,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  1863.  He 
was  made  a  queen's  counsel  in  1873;  elected  a 
bencher  of  the  law  society  of  upper  Canada,  1876, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  dominion  senate  for 
Toronto  university;  hon.  LL.  U.,  1889;  D.  C.  L., 
Trinity  university.  He  was  chairman  of  the 
board"  of  trustees  of  the  university  of  Toronto 
until  its  reorganiration  in  1906,  and  was  then 
appointed  by  the  government  of  the  province 
chairman  of  the  new  board  of  governors.  He 
is  director  of  the  bank  of  commerce,  the  British 
American  assurance  company,  the  Western 
assurance  companv,  the  Toronto  general  trusts 
company,  ana  tlie  Toronto  gas  company; 
president  of  the  Canadian  landed  and  natiotial 
mvestment  company. 

Hosmer  (jUizf^mlr),  Harriet,  American  sculptor, 
was  bom  in  Watertown,  Mass.,  1830.  She  early 
showed  a  talent  for  sculpture  by  modeling  figures 
in  clay.  To  prepare  herself  for  her  chosen  career 
*he  studied  anatomy,  first  with  her  father,  and 
afterward  at  the  medical  school  at  St.  Louis. 
Returning  to  her  home  in  1851,  she  modeled  her 
first  work,  "Hesper,"  which  had  so  decided  a 
success  that  she  was  sent  to  Rome,  where  she 
became  the  pjipil  of  Gibson.  In  his  studio  she 
modeled  a  bust  of  "  Daphne,"  "ffinone,"  "  Beatrice 
Cenci,"  etc.  Her  most  ambitious  work  is  a 
colossal  statue  of  "Zenobia  in  Chains."  "The 
Sleepine  Faun,"  exhibited  in  Paris  in  1867,  is  one 
of  her  best  works.  She  devisetl  a  method  for 
converting  Italian  limestone  into  marble.  Died, 
1908. 

Hosmer,  James  Kendall,  American  author,  libra- 
rian of  Minneapolis  public  library,  1892-1904, 
was  born  at  Northfiekl,  Mass.,  1834.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard,  1855;  Ph.  D.,  university 
of  Missouri;  LL.  D.,  Washington  university. 
He  was  Unitarian  pastor  at  Deerfield,  Mass.. 
1860-66;  served  in  civil  war  as  private  in  52a 
Massachtisetts   volunteers;     after   tiie   war  was 

Srofessor  in  Antioch  college,  in  university  of 
[issouri,  and  professor  of  English  and  German 
literature,  Washington  university,  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
1874-92.  Author:  Color  Guard;  Short  History 
of  German  Literature;  Story  of  the  Jews;  Life  of 
Samuel  Adams  in  American  Statesmen  series; 
Life  of  Sir  Henry  Vane;  Short  History  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  Freedom;  How  Thankful  teas  Beuntched; 
Short  History  of  the  Mississippi  Valley;  History 
of  the  Louisiana  Purchase;  History  of  the 
Civil  War  in  America,  etc. 
Houdon  (<}a'-d(5N'),  Jean  Antoine,  French  sculptor, 
was  bom  in  Versailles,  France,  1741.  He 
studied  in  Paris  and  Rome,  and  executed  numer- 
ous busts  and  statues  of  prominent  persons,  and 
other  works,  which  placed  him  in  the  front  rank 
of  French  sculptors.  His  statue  of  a  muscula- 
skeleton  of  the  human  body  has  often  been  copied 
and  used  for  the  artistic  study  of  anatomy.  In 
1785  he  accompanied  Franklin  to  the  United 
States,  to  prepare  the  model  for  the  statue  of 
Washington  ordered  by  the  state  of  Virginia. 
The  statue  is  in  the  capitol  at  Richmond,  and 
according  to  Lafayette  and  others  is  the  best 
representation  of  Washington  ever  made.  He 
died  in  Paris,  1828. 
Hough  (M/),  Emerson,  .American  author,  was  bom 
at  Newton,  la.,  1857.  He  was  graduated  at  the 
state  university  of  Iowa,  1880.  He  traveled 
over  the  wildest  portions  of  the  West ;  explored 
Yellowstone  park  during  the  winter  of  1895,  and 
the  act  of  congress  protecting  the  park  buffalo 
was  due  to  this  trip.  He  was  for  ten  vears  writer 
of  ''Chicago  and  The  West"  "department 
of  Forest  and  Stream,  New  York.  Author:  The 
Singing  Mouse  Stories;  The  Story  of  the  Cowboy; 
The  Girl  at  the  Half-way  House;  The  Mississippi 
Bubble;    The    Way    to    the  West;    The    Law  of 


the  Land;  Hearts  Desire;  The  King  of  Gee  Whiz; 
The  Story  of  the  Outlaw;  The  Way  of  a  Man; 
The  Sowing;  The  Purchase  Price;  Young  Alaskans 
on  the  Trail,  etc.,  and  many  short  stories  in 
magazines. 

Houghton  {hd'-tiin;  tum'-tUn),  Richard  Monckton 
Slllnes,  Lord,  English  author,  was  bom  in  York- 
shire, 1809.  He  was  graduated  at  Trinity  college, 
Cambridge,  when  twenty-two,  and  was  elected  to 
parliament  six  years  later.  In  the  house  of  com- 
mons he  was  the  friend  of  the  poor,  wanted  all 
religions  to  be  equally  free,  was  in  favor  of 
education  for  the  rich  and  poor  alike,  and  was 
on  the  side  of  Italy  in  her  struggles  for  freedom. 
He  traveled  mucli  in  Europe  and  in  the  East, 
and  published  several  volumes  of  travels,  besides 
many  poems.  He  was  made  a  peer  in  1863,  with 
the  title  of  Baron  Houghton.     Died,  1885. 

Houston  (hu'stUn),  Edwin  James,  American 
electrical  engineer,  was  bom  at  Alexandria,  Va., 
1847.  He  is  one  of  the  inventors  of  the  Thom- 
son-Houston system  of  arc  lighting;  emeritus 
professor  of  physical  geographv  and  natural 
philosophv.  Central  high  school^  Philadelphia, 
and  of  physics  in  Franklin  institute,  Philadel- 
phia; was  chief  electrician  at  international 
electric  exhibition,  1884 ;  for  two  terms  president 
of  the  American  institute  of  electrical  engineers, 
and  received  the  degree  Ph.  I),  from  Princeton 
university.  Author:  Elements  of  Physical  Geog- 
raphy; Elements  of  Natural  Philosophy;  Ele- 
ments of  Chemistry;  Dictionary/  of  Electrical 
Word  Terms  and  Phrases;  Outlines  of  Natural 
Philosophy;  The  Electric  Transmission  of  Intdli- 
gence;  The  Measurement  of  Electric  Current; 
Electricity  and  Magnetism;  Electric  Furnaces; 
Alternating  Ctarrents;  Electric  Railways;  Electro- 
Dynamic  Machinery;  Electro-Therapeutics;  In- 
candescent Lighting;  Interpretation  of  Malhe- 
maiical  Formulae;  Magnetism;  Recent  Types  of 
Dynamo  Electric  Machinery;  Telegraphy;  Te- 
lephony; Electricity  in  Every  Day  Life;  The  Jaws 
of  Death,  etc. 

Houston,  Sam,  American  soldier,  was  bom  in 
Virginia,  1793.  He  enlisted  in  the  war  of  1812, 
was  choeen  ensign,  and  fought  under  Jack.son 
with  a  courage  that  won  his  lasting  friendship. 
In  1823  he  became  a  member  of  congress,  and  m 
1827  governor  of  Tennessee.  In  1829  he  married 
the  daughter  of  ex-Govemor  Allen  and  in  the 
following  April,  for  reasons  never  made  public, 
abandoned  wife,  country,  and  civilization,  waa 
adopted  as  a  son  by  the  chief  of  the  Cherokee 
nation,  and  was  formally  admitted  as  a  chief. 
In  1832  he  went  to  Washington  and  procured  the 
removal  of  several  United  States  Indian  agents 
on  chaises  of  fraud.  The  Texan  war  offered  a 
new  fieul  to  his  ambition,  and  he  was  made 
commander-in-chief;  fought  the  remarkable 
and  decisive  battle  of  San  Jacinto,  1836,  at  one 
blow  annihilated  the  Mexican  army,  and  achieved 
the  independence  of  Texas.  The  "hero  of  San 
Jacinto  was  elected  first  president  of  Texas, 
and  reelected  in  1841,  and  on  the  annexation  of 
Texas  to  the  United  States  in  1845  was  sent  to 
the  United  States  senate,  where  he  remained 
until  1859,  when  he  was  elected  governor  of 
Texas.  He  opposed  secession,  but  retired  to 
private  life  when  he  found  that  opposition  was 
iruitless.     Died,  1863. 

Howard,  George  Eaiiott.  educator,  historian,  waa 
bom  at  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  1849.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  the  university  of  Nebraska,  1876,  Ph.  D., 
1894 ;  student  of  history  and  Roman  law,  Munich 
and  Paris,  1876-78.  Was  professor  of  history, 
university  of  Nebraska,  1879-91 ;  head  of  history 
department,  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  university, 
1891-1901;  professor  of  history,  Cornell  uni- 
versity, summer,  1902;  professorial  lecturer 
in    history,    university     of     Chicago,    1903-04; 


THROUGHOUT  THE   WORLD 


788 


professor  of  institutional  history,  1904-06,  head 
professor  of  political  science  and  sociology,  since 
1906,  university  of  Nebraska.  Author:  Local 
Constitutional  History  of  the  United  States; 
Devdopment  of  the  King's  Peace;  History  of 
Matrimonial  I nstitiitions,  3  vols.;  Preliminariea 
of  the  American  Revolution;  Social  Control  and 
ike  Function  of  the  Family.  He  has  contributed 
many  articles  on  modern  English  liistory  and 
biography  to  New  International  Encyclopaedia; 
articles  on  marriage  and  divorce  to  Encydopcedia 
Americana;  also  on  divorce  to  new  editions  o! 
Bliss's  Encyclopcedia  of  Social  Reform,  and 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopcedia  of  Religious  Knowl- 
edge. 

Howard,  John,  noted  English  philanthropist,  was 
bom  near  London,  1726.  In  1756,  after  the 
Lisbon  earthquake,  he  sailed  for  that  city  to 
relieve  the  sufferers,  and  on  his  voyage  was 
captured  by  a  French  privateer  and  imprisoned. 
Appointed  high  sheriff  of  Bedford  in  1773,  his 
attention  was  called  to  the  state  of  the  prisons 
of  the  countrv,  the  condition  of  which,  and  the 
sufferings  inflicted  upon  the  prisoners,  reminded 
him  of  sufferings  he  had  himself  undergone. 
His  sympathies  thus  once  aroused,  he  extended 
bis  inquiries  over  the  whole  kingdom,  bringing 
to  light  an  amount  of  misery  and  degradation 
of  which  hitherto  his  countrymen  had  had  no 
conception.  In  1774  he  was  examined  before  a 
committee  of  the  house  of  commons,  and  many 
reforms  were  the  result.  In  1775  he  set  out  on 
an  extended  tour  through  France,  Holland,  and 
Germany,  with  the  view  of  acquainting  him- 
self with  the  state  of  continental  prisons ;  and  in 
1777  after  another  tour  through  England,  he 
published  a  volume  entitled,  The  State  of  the 
Prisons  in  England  and  Wales,  with  Preliminary 
Observations,  and  an  Account  of  some  Foreign 
Prisons.  The  philanthropic  work  thus  entered 
upon  engaged  him  wholly  for  the  rest  of  his  life. 
His  later  years  were  spent  in  visiting  the  principal 
lazarettos  and  hospitals  of  Europe,  an  account 
of  which  he  published  in  1789.     Died,  1790. 

Howard,  Lcland  Ossian,  American  entomologist, 
chief  of  bureau  entomology,  United  States  depart- 
ment of  agriculture,  since  1894,  was  born  at  Rock- 
ford,  III.,  1857.  He  was  graduated  at  Cornell, 
1877;  Ph.  D.,  Georgetown  university,  1896; 
was  assistant  entomologist,  United  States  depart- 
ment of  agriculture,  1878-94;  hon.  curator, 
department  of  insects.  United  States  national 
museum,  since  1895;  consulting  entomologist 
United  States  public  health  and  marine  hospital 
service,  since  1904;  member  of  many  scientific 
societies.  He  was  for  some  years  editor  of  Insect 
Life,  a  journal  of  the  department  of  agriculture; 
prepared  definitions  in  entomology  for  Century 
and  Standard  dictionaries ;  sometime  lecturer  on 
insects  at  Swarthmore  college,  and  in  the  post- 
graduate school  of  Georgetown  university. 
Author:  Mosquitoes — How  They  Live,  Etc.;  The 
Insect  Book,  and  many  government  publications. 

Howard,  Oliver  Otis,  American  soldier,  was  bom 
at  Leeds,  Me.,  1830.  He  was  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  college,  1850;  at  West  Point  1854; 
LL.  D.,  Waterville  college,  1865;  Shurtleff  col- 
lege, 1865;  Gettysburg  theological  seminary, 
1866,  and  Bowdoin  college.  He  served  in  the 
Florida  war,  and  in  many  actions  of  the  civil  war; 
was  special  commissioner  of  Indian  afifairs,  1865 ; 
lost  an  arm  at  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  1862;  was 
m.ade  major-general  of  volunteers,  1862 ;  accom- 
panied Sherman  on  his  march  to  the  sea.  At  the 
close  of  the  civil  war  he  was  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  freedmen's  bureau.  From  1869-73  he 
was  president  of  How^ard  university;  became 
brigadier-general  in  the  United  States  army, 
1864;  brevet  major-general,  1865;  superin- 
tendent of  West  Point  military  academy,  1881-82 ; 


commanded  the  department  of  the  East,  1888, 
Founder,  1895,  and  president  board  of  directors. 
Lincoln  memorial  university,  Cumberland  Gap, 
Tenn. ;  chevalier  legion  of  honor,  France,  1884 ; 
commander  medal  of  honor  legion,  1904.  Author: 
Donald's  SchoU  Days;  Net  Perces  Joseph;  Life 
of  Agenor  de  Gasparin;  Life  of  Zachary  Taylor; 
Isabella  of  CastUe;  Fighting  for  H  umanity ;  Henry 
in  the  War;  Our  Wild  Indians;  and  Autobiog- 
raphy, 2  vols.     Died,  1909. 

Howe,  Ellas,  inventor  of  the  lock-stitch  sewing- 
machine,  was  born  at  Spencer,  Mass.,  1819.  He 
worked  at  Lowell  and  Boston  as  a  mechanic. 
At  the  latter  place  he  developed,  constructed, 
and  patented  the  sewing-machine,  1846.  He 
made  an  unsuccessful  visit  to  England  to  intro- 
duce his  invention,  and,  returning  in  1849  to 
Boston,  found  his  patent  had  been  infringed. 
Harassed  by  poverty,  he  yet  entered  on  a  five 
years'  war  of  litigation  to  protect  his  rights, 
which  was  ultimately  successful  in  1854.  By 
his  royalties  he  in  time  obtained  S200,000  per 
annum,  and  amassed  a  fortune  of  $2,000,000. 
During  the  ci\nl  war  he  served  as  a  private. 
Died,  1867. 

Howe,  Julia  Ward,  American  author,  was  bom  in 
New  York,  1819,  daughter  of  Samuel  Ward. 
She  received  a  private  education,  and  married 
in  1843  the  eminent  philanthropist.  Dr.  Samuel 
Gridley  Howe.  With  him  she  conducted  the 
Boston  Commomvealth,  an  anti-slavery  paper, 
prior  to  the  civil  war.  After  the  slavery  question 
was  settled  she  became  active  in  woman  suffrage, 
prison  reform,  cause  of  peace,  etc.  She  was  a 
Unitarian  preacher,  lecturer,  and  writer.  Her 
"  Battle  Hj^n  of  the  Republic"  is  widely  known. 
Author:  Passion  Flowers;  Words  for  the  Hour; 
A  Trip  to  Cuba;  The  World's  Own;  From  the 
Oak  to  the  Olive;  Sex  and  Education;  Memoir 
of  S.  G.  Howe;  Life  of  Margaret  Fuller;  Modern 
Society;  Is  Polite  Society  Polite?  From  Sunset 
Ridge;  Reminiscences;  Sketches  of  Representa- 
tive Women  of  New  England,  etc.     Died,  1910. 

Howe,  Richard,  Earl,  British  admiral,  was  bom  in 
1726.  He  left  Eton  at  fourteen,  and  went  to  the 
south  seas  in  the  squadron  under  Anson.  He  was 
with  Admiral  Vernon  in  1745,  and  took  part  in 
the  siege  of  Fort  William.  In  1755  his  ship,  the 
Dunkirk,  captured  the  Alcide.  He  next  served 
under  Sir  E.  Hawke  in  the  expedition  against 
Rochefort.  He  was  commodore  of  the  squadron 
which  sailed  in  1758  for  St.  Malo.  In  the  same 
year  he  took  Cherbourg,  and  succeeded  to  the 
Irish  title  of  viscount.  He  took  part  in  the 
defeat  of  the  fleet  under  the  Marquis  de  Con- 
flans,  and  captured  the  Hero.  In  1776  he  com- 
manded a  fleet  on  the  American  coast,  and  in 
1778  defended  the  American  coast  against  a 
superior  naval  force  under  D'Estaing.  He  was 
made  a  viscount  of  Great  Britain  in  1782;  was 
made  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  1783,  and 
received  an  English  earldom  in  1788.  When  war 
with  France  broke  out  in  1793  he  took  the  com- 
mand of  the  channel  fleet,  and  next  year  gained 
a  signal  victory  off  Ushant.  George  III.  visited 
him  on  board  the  Queen  Charlotte,  gave  him  a 
sword,  and  made  him  a  knight  of  the  garter. 
His  last  service  was  in  bringing  back  the  mutinous 
seamen  at  Portsmouth  to  their  duty  in  1797. 
Died,  1799. 

Howe,  Samuel  Grldley,  American  philanthropist, 
was  bom  in  Boston,  1801.  He  was  graduated 
from  Brown  university,  1821,  and  from  Harvard 
medical  college,  1824.  He  organized  the  medical 
staff  of  the  Greek  army  in  1824-27,  retumed  to 
America  to  raise  contributions,  and,  returning 
with  supplies,  formed  a  colony  on  the  isthmus 
of  Corinth.  In  1831  he  went  to  Paris  to  study 
the  methods  of  educating  the  blind,  and  becoming 
involved  in  the  Polish  insurrection,  spent  five 


784 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


weeks  in  &  Pmssiaii  prison.  On  hia  return  to 
Boston  he  established  schools  for  the  blind  and 
for  idiots,  and  was  the  teacher  of  the  famous 
Laura  Bridgman,  who  was  blind,  deaf,  and  dumb. 
In  1851-53  he  edited  the  anti-slavery  Common- 
wealth, and  in  1867  revisited  Greece  with  supplies 
for  the  Cretans.  He  was  chairman  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts  state  board  of  charities,  1865-74. 
Died,  1876. 

Howe,  Sir  William,  English  general,  was  bom  in 
1729.  He  served  at  Quebec  under  Wolfe  and 
succeeded  General  Gage  in  command  of  the 
royal  troops  during  the  American  revolution. 
In  1775  he  was  made  commander-in-chief  of  the 
English  army  in  North  America;  had  command 
at  the  battles  of  Bunker  Hill,  Long  Island,  White 
Plain.s,  and  Brandywine.  He  was  superseded 
by  Sir  Henry  Clinton  in  1778,  as  he  had  failed 
to  crush  the  rebellion.     Died,    1814. 

Howe,  William  Wirt,  Americiui  jurist  and  law 
writer,  was  bom  at  Canandaigua,  N.  Y.,  1833; 
received  an  academic  education,  studied  law, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  served  in  the 
Union  army,  1861-65,  becoming  major.  Sub- 
sequently he  settled  to  the  practice  of  law  at 
New  Orleans.  He  was  judge,  chief  criminal 
court,  New  Orleans;  associate  justice  supreme 
court  of  Louisiana;  president  American  bar 
association,  1898;  president  board  civil  service 
commissioners,  New  Orleans,  1897-1900.  Trus- 
tee Carnegie  institution,  Washington-  professor 
of  Roman  and  civil  law,  George  Washington 
and  Tulane  universities,  and  United  States  dis- 
trict attorney  of  Louisiana,  1900-08.  Author: 
Municipal  History  of  New  Orleans,  Studies  in  the 
Civil  Law,  Comparative  Juriaprudenee,  etc. 
Died,  1909. 

Howeil,  Clarif,  editor,  was  bom  in  Barnwell  county, 
S.  C,  1863.  He  was  graduated  from  the  univer- 
sity of  Georgia,  1883;  entered  newspaper  work, 
succeeding  Henry  W.  Grady  as  managing  editor 
of  the  Atlanta  Constitution,  18S9,  and  succo«ding 
his  father  as  editor-in-chief  in  1897.  In  1901  he 
bought  Colonel  W.  A.  Hemphill's  stock  in  the 
Constitution.  He  was  member  of  the  Georgia 
house  of  representatives  six  years;  speaker, 
1890-91 ;  member  from  Georgia  of  democratic 
national  committee  since  1892;  member  and 
president  of  Georgia  senate,  Atlanta  district, 
1900-06 ;  director  of  associated  press  of  America 
since  1897. 

Howell,  William  Henry,  American  phvsician  and 
educator,  dean  of  Johns  Hopkins  medical  school, 
1899-1911;  was  born  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  1860. 
He  was  graduated  at  Johns  Hopkins,  1881,  Ph.D., 
1884;  M.D., university  of  Michigan,  1890;  LL.  D., 
Trinity,  1901 ;  was  associate  professor  of  physiol- 
ogy, Johns  Hopkins  university,  1888-89;  pro- 
fessor of  physiology  and  histology',  university  of 
Michigan,  1889-92;  associate  professor  of  physi- 
ology, Harvard  university,  1892-93,  and  professor 
of  physiology,  Johns  Hopkins  university,  since 
1893.  He  has  contributea  widely  to  both  Ameri- 
can and  foreign  medical  literature;  is  author  of 
Text-Book  of  Physiology,  etc. 

Howells,  William  Dean,  American  novelist,  was 
born  at  Martins  Ferrj-,  Ohio,  1837.  His  early 
education  was  largely  gained  in  newspaper 
offices,  though  he  was  given  the  degree  A.  M.  by 
Harvard,  1867;  Litt.  D.,  Yale,  1901;  Litt.  D., 
Oxford.  1904;  Columbia,  1906;  LL.  D.,  Adel- 
bert  college,  1904.  He  was  United  States  consul 
to  Vemce,  1861-65;  studied  Italian  language  and 
literature  there;  was  editorial  writer  on  New 
York  Nation,  1865-66;  assistant  editor.  1866-72. 
editor  1872-81,  Atlantic  Monthly;  editorial 
contributor  to  Harper's  Magazine,  1886-91; 
later  editor  Cosmopolitan  Magazine  for  short 
toie;  now  writer  of  "Editor's  Easy  Chair"  for 
Harper's.     Author:     Life   of  Abraham   Lincdn; 


Venetian  Life;  Italian  Journeys;  Suburban 
Sketches;  No  Love  Lost;  Their  Wedding  Journey; 
A  Chance  Acquaintance;  A  Foregone  Conclusion; 
Life  of  Rutherford  B.  Hayes;  A  Counterfeit  Pre- 
sentment; The  Undiscovered  Country;  Dr.  Breen's 
Practice;  A  Modern  Instance;  A  Woman's  Reason; 
The  Rise  of  Silas  Lapham;  Tuscan  Cities;  Modem 
Italian  Poets;  April  Hopes;  A  Hazard  of  New  For- 
tunes; The  Shadow  of  a  Dream;  The  Quality  of 
Mercy;  My  Literary  Passions;  The  Day  of  Their 
Wedding;  Their  Silver  Wedding  Journey;  Literary 
Friends  and  Acquaintance;  London  Films;  Cer- 
tain Ddightful  English  Towns;  Between  the  Dark 
and  the  Daylig'nt,  etc. 

Howlson  (hou'-'L-sUn),  GeoFKe  Holmes,  .\merican 
educator  and  writer.  Mills  professor  of  philosophy, 
university  of  California,  1884-1909,  emeritus 
professor,  1909;  was  bom  in  Montgomery 
county,  Md..  1834.  He  was  gra<iuated  at 
Marietta  college,  1852,  Lane  theological  sem- 
inary, 1855;  M.  A.,  Marietta,  1856;  LL.  D., 
same,  1883.  He  was  assistant  professor  of 
mathematics,  Washington  university,  St.  Louis, 
1864-66 ;  Tileston  professor  of  ix^lit  ical  economy, 
same.  1866-69;  professor  of  logic  and  philosophy 
of  science,  Massachusetts  institute  of  technology, 
1871-79;  lecturer  on  ethics.  Harvard,  1879-80; 
lecturer  on  philosophy,  university  of  Michigan, 
1883-84.  Author:  Treatise  on  Analytic  Geometry; 
Limits  of  Evolution  and  Other  Essays  in  Philos- 
ophy. Joint-author:  The  Conception  of  God, 
Contributor  to  leading  philosophical  journals. 
Co-editor:    Psychotogical  tieview,  etc. 

Howltt  (/iou'-U),Wllllam  and  Mary,  English  authors, 
may  properly  be  treated  together.  William 
Howitt  was  l>om  in  1792,  at  Ileanor,  in  Derby- 
shire. In  1823  he  marrie<l  Mi.ss  Mar>'  Ik>tham. 
a  lady  of  literary  acquirements,  born  1799,  ana 
whose  family,  like  his  own,  was  attached  to  the 
principles  of  (Quakerism.  The  Forest  Minstrel, 
with  their  joint  nuines  on  the  title-page,  was 
published  during  the  year  in  which  they  were 
nuirried.  For  three  or  four  years  thereafter 
they  emploved  themselves  in  contributions  to 
annuals  aim  magazines,  and  in  1827  a  selection 
from  these  fugitive  pieces  appeared  under  the 
title  of  The  Desolation  of  Eyam.  From  this  date 
until  1837  William  wrote  The  Book  of  Seasons, 
Popular  History  of  Priestcraft,  and  Tales  of  the 
Pantika.  During  the  same  period  Mary  pro- 
duced The  Seven  Temptations  and  a  country 
novel  entitled  Wood-Leighton.  In  1837  they 
removed  to  Esher,  in  Surrey,  and  at  that  place 
William  wrote  Rural  Life  in  England,  Colonizer 
tion  and  Christianity,  Boy's  Country  Book,  and 
Visits  to  Remarkable  Places,  first  series,  ilary 
at  the  same  time  employed  herself  in  writing 
Tales  for  Children,  many  of  which  are  popular.  In 
1852  William  went  to  Au.stralia,  where  he  re- 
mained two  years,  and  on  his  return  published 
the  following  works:  Land,  Labor,  and  Gold;  or. 
Two  Years  in  Victoria,  with  Visits  to  Sydney  and 
Van  Diemen's  Land,  etc.  William  died  in  1879; 
Mary  died  in  1888. 

Hnxie,  Vinnie  Beam,  sculptor,  was  bom  in  Madison, 
Wis.,  1847.  After  modeling  one  year  she  re- 
ceived a  commission  from  congress,  in  1862,  to 
execute  a  life-size  statue  of  Abraham  Lincoln. 
He  sat  for  his  bust  at  the  White  House,  and  his 
statue  is  now  in  the  rotunda  of  the  capitol.  Later 
congress  commissioned  her  to  make  the  heroic 
statue  of  Admiral  Farragut  which  now  stands  in 
Farragut  square,  Washington.  These  are  the 
only  two  statues  ever  ordered  by  the  United 
States  government  from  a  woman.  She  executed 
ideal  statues  of  "Miriam,"  "The  West,"  "Sap- 

Eho,"  "The  Spirit  of  the  Carnival,"  etc.;  also 
usts  in  marble  of  Mayor  Powell,  now  in  the  city 
hall,  Brookljm;  President  Lincoln,  for  Cornell 
imiversity,    and   other   distinguished   Europeans 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


785 


and  Americans.  She  married  Colonel  Richard 
L.  Hoxie,  United  States  engineers,   1878. 

Hoyles,  Newman  WriRiit,  Canadian  lawyer  and 
educator,  principal  of  law  school,  Osgoodc  Hall, 
Toronto,  since  1894,  was  bom  at  St.  John's, 
Newfoundland,  1844.  He  was  graduated  from 
Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  England,  1867;  ad- 
mitted to  Ontario  bar,  1872;  queen's  counsel,  1889. 
He  is  president  of  the  corporation  and  chairman 
oS  the  council  of  Wycliffe  college,  Toronto; 
member  of  the  senate  of  the  university  of  Toronto: 
president  of  Havergal  college,  'Toronto,  and 
lecturer  in  Canadian  jurisprudence,  George 
Washington  university,  Washington,  D.  C.  He 
has  written  numerous  articles  in  legal  magazines, 
and  is  prominent  in  the  auxiliary  work  of  the 
church  of  England. 

Boytt  Henry  Martyn,  American  lawyer,  solicitor 
general  of  the  United  States  1903-10,  was  born 
at  Wilkes-Barre,  Pa.,  1856.  He  was  graduated 
at  Yale  college,  1878 ;  law  department,  university 
of  Pennsylvania,  1881 ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
and  practiced  at  Pittsburg.  He  became  assistant 
cashier  United  States  national  bank.  New  York, 
1883;  treasurer  investment  company  of  Phila- 
delphia, 1886 ;  president  of  same,  1890 ;  resumed 
his  profession  at  Philadelphia,  1893.  He  was 
assistant  attornev-general  of  the  United  States, 
1897-1903.     Died,  1910. 

Hubbard,  Elbert,  author,  journalist,  lecturer,  was 
born  in  Bloomington,  111.,  1859,  and  received  a 
common  school  education;  hon.  M.  A.,  Tufts 
college.  He  is  editor  of  The  Philistine,  and 
proprietor  of  The  Roycroft  Shop,  devoted  to  mak- 
ing de  luxe  editions  of  the  classics.  Author: 
No  Enemy  but  Himself;  Little  Journeys  to  Homes 
of  Good  Men  and  Great;  Little  Journeys  to  the 
Homes  of  Am,erican  Authors;  Little  Journeys  to 
the  Homes  of  Famous  Women;  Little  Journeys 
to  the  Homes  of  American  Statesmen;  Little  Jour- 
neys to  the  Homes  of  Eminent  Painters;  Ali  Baba 
of  East  Aurora;  As  it  Seem^  to  Me;  A  Message 
to  Garcia;  Time  and  Chance;  The  Legacy;  Forbes 
of  Harvard;  One  Day;  A  Tale  of  the  Prairies; 
Little  Journeys  to  Homes  of  English  Authors; 
Little  Journeys  to  Homes  of  Great  Musicians; 
Little  Journeys  to  Homes  of  Eminent  Orators; 
Little  Journeys  to  Homes  of  Eminent  Artists; 
Little  Journeys  to  Homes  of  Great  Philosophers; 
Old  John  Burroughs;  Contemplations;  Conse- 
crated Lives;    The  Man  of  Sorrows,  etc. 

Hue  (uk;  hilk),  £:Tariste  R£gis,  Roman  Catholic 
missionary,  was  bom  at  Toulouse,  1813.  In 
1839  he  joined  the  mission  of  the  Lazarist  fathers 
to  China.  In  1844  with  Pere  Gabet  and  a  single 
native  convert,  he  set  out  for  Tibet,  and  in  Janu- 
ary, 1846,  reached  Lhasa.  Scarcely  had  a  mis- 
sion been  started  there,  when  an  order  for  their 
expulsion  was  obtained  by  the  Chinese  resident, 
and  they  were  conveyed  back  to  Canton.  Hue's 
health  having  broken  down,  he  returned  to 
France  in  1852.  He  wrote  Souvenirs  of  his  great 
journey,  L'Empire  Chinois,  Le  Christianisme  en 
Chine,  etc.     Died,  1860. 

Hudson,  Henry,  English  navigator,  of  whose  early 
life  nothing  is  known.  In  1607  he  sailed  in  search 
of  a  short  route  tb  China  and  India  by  way  of  the 
northern  ocean,  but  was  stopped  by  the  ice  off 
the  coast  of  Greenland  and  forced  to  return.  In 
1609,  while  in  the  service  of  the  Dutch  East  India 
company,  he  discovered  the  Hudson  river,  and 
sailed  up  to  where  Albany  now  stands.  On  a 
fourth  voyage,  1610,  he  discovered  Hudson  strait 
and  bay,  which  are  also  named  after  him.  Im- 
peded by  ice,  he  determined  to  spend  the  winter 
on  the  shores  of  the  bay.  Here  he  and  his  men 
suffered  terribly  from  want  of  food  and  started 
to  return  in  1611.  The  men  mutinied  on  the 
return  voyage,  got  piossession  of  the  ship,  put 
Hudson,  his  son  John,  and  seven  sailors  into  an 


open  boat  and  turned  them  adrift.  Nothing 
was  ever  known  of  their  fate. 

Hufeland  {had'-f64aTU)t  Christoph  Wilhelm,  noted 
German  physician,  was  bom  at  Langeiisalza,  in 
Thuringia,  1762.  He  was  educated  in  Germany, 
became  court  physician  at  Weimar,  in  1793  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Jena,  in  1798  president  of^the 
medical  college  at  Berlin,  and  in  18U9  professor 
in  the  university  of  Berlin.  Ilia  Makrobiotik,  or 
the  Art  of  Prolonging  Life,  has  been  translated 
into  almost  all  the  European  languages;  he  also 
wrote  a  work  on  the  physical  education  of  the 
young,  and  an  Enchiridion  Medicum.     Died,  1836. 

Huggins  {hUg'-lm),  Sir  William,  English  astrono- 
mer and  spectroscopist,  was  born  in  London,  1824. 
In  1852  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  British 
microscopical  society,  and  for  some  years  studied 
physiology  with  the  microscope.  But  having 
in  1856  built  an  observatory  near  London,  he 
began  the  study  of  the  physical  constitution  of 
stars,  planets,  comets,  and  nebulaj.  By  re- 
searches on  the  sun's  spectra  and  the  spectra 
of  certain  comets,  he  ascertained  that  their 
luminous  properties  are  not  the  same.  He 
determined  the  amount  of  heat  that  reaches  the 
earth  from  some  of  the  fixed  stars.  He  became 
a  fellow  of  the  royal  society,  1865,  and  president, 
1900.  He  was  president  of  the  British  association, 
and  received  the  order  of  merit  in  1902.    Died,  1910. 

Hugh  Capet  Qiu  ka'-pU),  founder  of  the  third  or 
Capetian  dynasty  of  French  monarclis,  was  born 
939  and  was  king  of  France,  987-996.  As  count 
of  Paris,  on  the  death  of  Louis  V.,  last  of  the 
Carlovingians,  he  usurped  the  throne  and  was 
confirmed  in  its  possession  by  a  confederacy  of 
nobles.  The  race  of  Capet  has  given  119  sover- 
eigns to  Europe,  thirty-six  kings  to  France, 
twenty-two  to  Portugal,  five  to  Spain,  eleven  to 
Naples  and  Sicily,  three  to  Hungary,  and  three 
to  Navarre;  three  emperors  to  the  East;  seven- 
teen dukes  to  Burgundy,  thirteen  to  Brittany, 
two  to  Lorraine,  and  four  to  Parma.     Died,  996. 

Hughes,  Charles  Evans,  lawyer,  ex-governor,  jurist, 
was  born  in  Glens  Falls,  N.  Y.,  1862.  He  was 
graduated  from  Brown  universitv,  1881,  A.  M., 
1884;  LL.  B.,  Columbia  law  school,  1884;  LL.  D., 
Brown,  1906;  Columbia,  Knox,  and  Lafavette, 
1907.  He  was  a  teacher  in  Delaware  academy, 
Delhi,  N.  Y.,  1881-82 ;  admitted  to  New  York  bar, 
1884;  practiced  in  New  York,  1884-91;  prize 
fellow,  Columbia  law  school,  1884-87;  professor 
of  contracts,  evidence,  etc.,  Cornell  university 
school  of  law,  1891-93;  active  practice  ii  New 
York,  1893-1906,  as  a  member  of  the  law  firm, 
Hughes,  Rounds,  and  Schurman.  He  was  special 
lecturer  at  Cornell  university  school  of  law,  1893- 
95,  New  York  law  school,  1893-1900,  and  Yale 
university,  1909.  Hewas  the  republican  nominee 
for  mayor  of  New  York,  1905,  but  declined;  at- 
torney for  Armstrong  commission  of  New  York 
legislature,  investigating  methods  of  large  life  in- 
surance companies.  Governor  of  New  York,1907- 
10;  he  drafted  and  led  to  a  successful  issue  a  bill 
for  the  creation  of  a  state  and  a  New  York  city 
public  utilities  commission ;  vetoed  a  bill  for  a  flat 
two  cents  a  mile  railroad  rate  as  unconstitu- 
tional ;  by  an  appeal  to  the  people  of  the  state 
forced  the  passage  of  anti-gambling  bills  in 
accordance  with  the  state  constitution.  He 
began  the  fight  for  direct  primaries,  but  resigned 
the  governorship  on  his  appointment  by  President 
Taft  to  the  supreme  court,  1910. 

Hughes,  Charles  James,  Jr.,  lawyer,  United 
States  senator  from  Colorado,  was  bom  in  Kings- 
ton, Mo.,  1853.  He  was  graduated  from  Rich- 
mond college,  1871 ;  was  a  law  student  at  the 
university  of  Missouri,  1872-73;  received  degree 
of  LL.  D.  from  university  of  Missouri  and  uni- 
versity of  Denver.  He  began  the  practice  of 
law  in   1877,   and  located  at   Denver  in   1879. 


784 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


weeks  in  a  Prussiaii  prison.  On  his  return  to 
Boston  he  e6tabli8he<l  schools  for  the  blind  and 
for  idiots,  and  was  the  teacher  of  the  famous 
Laura  Bridgman,  who  was  blind,  deaf,  and  dumb. 
In  1851-53  he  edited  the  anti-slavery  Common- 
wealih,  and  in  1867  revisited  Greece  with  supplies 
for  the  Cretans.  He  was  chairman  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts state  board  of  charities,  1865-74. 
Died,  1876. 

Howe,  Sir  William,  English  general,  was  bom  in 
1729.  He  served  at  Quebec  under  Wolfe  and 
succeeded  General  Gage  in  command  of  the 
royal  troops  during  the  American  revolution. 
In  1775  he  was  made  commander-in-chief  of  the 
English  army  in  North  America;  had  command 
at  the  battles  of  Bunker  Hill,  Long  Island,  White 
Plains,  and  Brandywine.  lie  was  superseded 
by  Sir  Henry  Clinton  in  1778,  as  he  had  failed 
to  crush  the  rebellion.     Died,    1814. 

Howe,  William  Wirt,  American  jurist  and  law 
writer,  was  bom  at  Canandaigua,  N.  Y.,  1833; 
receivcKl  an  academic  education,  studied  law, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  served  in  the 
Union  army,  1861-65,  becoming  major.  Sub- 
sequently he  settled  to  the  practice  of  law  at 
New  Orleans.  He  was  judge,  chief  criminal 
court,  New  Orleans;  associate  justice  supreme 
court  of  Louisiana;  president  American  bar 
association,  1898;  president  board  civil  service 
commissioners,  New  Orleans,  1897-1900.  Trus- 
tee Carnegie  institution,  Washington-  professor 
of  Roman  and  civil  law,  George  Washington 
and  Tulane  universities,  and  United  States  dis- 
trict attorney  of  Louisiana,  1900-08.  Author: 
Municipal  History  of  New  Orleans,  Studies  in  the 
CivU  Law,  Comparative  Jurisprudence,  etc. 
Died,  1909. 

Howell,  Clark,  editor,  was  bom  in  Barnwell  county, 
S.  C,  1863.  He  was  graduated  from  the  univer- 
sity of  Georgia,  1883;  entered  newspaper  work, 
succeeding  Henry  W.  Grady  as  managing  editor 
of  the  Atlanta  Constitution,  1889,  and  succeeding 
his  father  as  editor-in-chief  in  1897.  In  1901  he 
bought  Colonel  W.  A.  Hemphill's  stock  in  the 
Constitution.  He  was  member  of  the  Georgia 
house  of  representatives  six  years;  speaker, 
1890-91 ;  member  from  Georgia  of  democratic 
national  committee  since  1892;  member  and 
president  of  Georgia  senate,  Atlanta  district, 
1900-06;  director  of  associated  press  of  America 
since  1897. 

Howell,  William  Henry,  American  phvsician  and 
educator,  dean  of  Johns  Hopkins  medical  school, 
1899-1911;  was  bora  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  1860. 
He  was  graduated  at  Johns  Hopkins,  1881,  Ph.D., 
1884;  M.D., university  of  Michigan,  1890;  LL.  D., 
Trinity,  1901 ;  was  associate  professor  of  physiol- 
ogy, Johns  Hopkins  university,  1888-89;  pro- 
fessor of  physiology  and  histolog>',  university  of 
Michigan,  1889-92;  associate  professor  of  piiysi- 
ology,  Harvard  university,  1892-93.  and  professor 
of  physiology,  Johns  Hopkins  university,  since 
1893.  He  has  contributed  widely  to  both  Ameri- 
can and  foreign  medical  literature;  is  author  of 
Text-Book  of  Physiology,  etc. 

Howells,  William  Dean,  American  novelist,  was 
born  at  Martins  Ferrj',  Ohio,  1837.  His  early 
education  was  largely  gained  in  newspaper 
offices,  though  he  was  given  the  degree  A.  M.  by 
Harvard,  1867;  Litt.  D.,  Yale,  1901;  Litt.  D., 
Oxford,  1904;  Columbia,  1906;  LL.  D.,  Adel- 
bert  college,  1904.  He  was  United  States  consul 
to  Venice,  1861-65;  studied  Italian  language  and 
literature  there;  was  editorial  "WTiter  on  New 
York  Nation,  1865-66;  assistant  editor,  1866-72. 
editor  1872-81,  AUantic  Monthly;  editorial 
contributor  to  Harper's  Magazine,  1886-91; 
later  editor  Cosmopolitan  Magazine  for  short 
^me;  now  writer  of  "Editor's  Easy  Chair"  for 
Harper's.     Author:     Life   of  Abraham   Lincoln; 


Venetian  Life;  Italian  Journeys;  Suburban 
Sketches;  No  Love  Lost;  Their  Wedding  Journey; 
A  Chance  Acquaintance;  A  Foregone  Conclusion; 
Life  of  Rutherford  B.  Hayes;  A  Counterfeit  Fre- 
seniment;  The  Undiscovered  Country;  Dr.  Breen's 
Practice;  A  Modern  Instance;  A  Woman's  Reason; 
The  Rise  of  Silas  Lapham;  Tuscan  Cities;  Modem 
Italian  Poets;  April  Hopes;  A  Hazard  of  New  For- 
tunes; The  Shadow  of  a  Dream;  The  Quality  of 
Mercy;  My  Literary  Passions;  The  Day  of  Their 
Wedding;  Their  Silver  Wedding  Journey;  Literary 
Friends  and  Aaruaintance;  London  Films;  Cer- 
tain Ddightftd  English  Towns;  Between  the  Dark 
and  the  Daylight,  etc. 

Howlson  (hou'-l-siin),  George  Holmes,  .\merican 
educator  and  writer,  Mills  professor  of  pliilosophy, 
university  of  California,  1884-1909,  emeritus 
professor,  1909;  waa  bom  in  Montgomery 
county,  Md.,  1834.  He  was  gra<iuated  at 
Marietta  college,  1852,  Lane  theological  sem- 
inary, 1855;  M.  A.,  Marietta,  1856;  LL.  D.. 
same,  1883.  He  waa  assistant  professor  of 
mathematics,  Washington  university,  St.  Louis, 
1864-66 ;  Tileston  professor  of  political  economy, 
same,  1866-69;  profeasor  of  logic  and  pliilosophy 
of  science,  Massachusetts  institute  of  technology, 
1871-79;  lecturer  on  ethics,  Harvard,  1879-80; 
lecturer  on  pliilosophy,  university  of  Michigan, 
1 883-84 .  Author :  Treatise  on  A  nalytic  Geometry; 
Limits  of  Evolution  and  Other  Essays  in  Philos- 
ophy. Joint-author:  The  Conception  of  God. 
Contributor  to  leading  philosophical  journals. 
Co-editor:    Psychalooieal  Review,  etc. 

Hewitt  (>iou'-{/),  William  and  Mary,  English  authors, 
may  properly  be  treated  together.  William 
Howitt  was  Ixjm  in  1792,  at  Heanor,  in  Derby- 
shire. In  1823  he  married  Miss  Mar>'  Itotham. 
a  lady  of  literary  acquirements,  born  1799,  ana 
whose  family,  like  his  own.  was  attached  to  the 
principles  of  (Quakerism.  The  Forest  Minstrel, 
with  their  joint  iiumes  on  the  title-page,  wa» 
published  during  the  year  in  which  they  were 
nmrried.  For  three  or  four  years  thereafter 
they  employed  themselves  in  contributions  to 
annuals  and  magazines,  and  in  1827  a  selection 
from  these  fugitive  pieces  appeared  under  the 
title  of  The  Desolation  of  Eyam.  From  this  date 
until  1837  William  wrote  The  Book  of  Seasons, 
Popular  History  of  Priestcraft,  and  Tales  of  the 
Pantika.  During  the  same  period  Mary  pro- 
duced The  Seven  Temptations  and  a  country 
novel  entitled  W ood-Leighton.  In  1837  they 
removed  to  Elsher,  in  Surrey,  and  at  that  place 
William  wrote  Rural  Life  in  England,  Coloniza- 
tion and  Christianity,  Boy's  Country  Book,  and 
Visits  to  Remarkable  Places,  first  series.  Mary 
at  the  same  time  employed  herself  in  writing 
Tales  for  Children,  many  of  which  are  popular.  In 
1852  William  went  to  Au.stralia,  where  he  re- 
mained two  years,  and  on  his  return  published 
the  following  works :  Land,  Labor,  and  Gold;  or. 
Two  Years  in  Victoria,  with  Visits  to  Sydney  and 
Van  Diemen's  Land,  etc.  William  died  in  1879; 
Mary  died  in  1888. 

Hoxle,  Vlnnle  Ream,  sculptor,  was  bom  in  Madison, 
Wis.,  1847.  After  modeling  one  year  she  re- 
ceived a  commission  from  congress,  in  1862,  to 
execute  a  life-size  statue  of  Abraham  Lincoln. 
He  sat  for  his  bust  at  the  White  House,  and  his 
statue  is  now  in  the  rotunda  of  the  capitol.  Later 
congress  commissioned  her  to  make  the  heroic 
statue  of  Admiral  Farragut  which  now  stands  in 
Farragut  square,  Washington.  These  are  the 
only  two  statues  ever  ordered  by  the  United 
States  government  from  a  woman.  She  executed 
ideal  statues  of  "Miriam,"  "The  West,"  "Sap- 

Eho,"  "The  Spirit  of  the  Carnival,"  etc.;  also 
usts  in  marble  of  Mayor  Powell,  now  in  the  city 
hall,  Brooklyn;  President  Lincoln,  for  Cornell 
university,    and   other   distinguished   Europeans 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


785 


and  Americans.  She  married  Colonel  Richard 
L.  Hoxie,  United  States  engineers,   1878. 

Hoyles,  Newman  WrlRJit,  Canadian  lawyer  and 
educator,  principal  of  law  school,  Osfroode  Hall, 
Toronto,  since  1894,  was  bom  at  St.  John's, 
Newfoundland,  1844.  He  was  graduated  from 
Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  England,  1867;  ad- 
mitted to  Ontario  bar,  1872;  queen's  coimsel,  1889. 
He  is  president  of  the  corporation  and  chairman 
of  the  council  of  Wycliffe  college,  Toronto; 
member  of  the  senate  of  the  university  of  Toronto: 
president  of  Havergal  college,  "roronto,  and 
lecturer  in  Canadian  jurisprudence,  George 
Washington  university,  Washington,  D.  C.  He 
has  written  numerous  articles  in  legal  magazines, 
and  is  prominent  in  the  auxiliary  work  of  the 
church  of  England. 

Boyt,  Henry  Martyn,  American  lawyer,  solicitor 
general  of  the  United  States  1903-10,  was  born 
at  Wilkes-Barre,  Pa.,  1856.  He  was  graduated 
at  Yale  college,  1878 ;  law  department,  university 
of  Pennsylvania,  1881 ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
and  practiced  at  Pittsburg.  He  became  assistant 
cashier  United  States  national  bank,  New  York, 
1883;  treasurer  investment  company  of  Phila- 
delphia, 1886 ;  president  of  same,  1890 ;  resumed 
his  profession  at  Philadelphia,  1893.  He  was 
assistant  attornev-general  of  the  United  States, 
1897-1903.     Died,  1910. 

Hubbard,  Elbert,  author,  journalist,  lecturer,  was 
born  in  Bloomington,  111.,  1859,  and  received  a 
common  school  education;  hon.  M.  A.,  Tufts 
college.  He  is  editor  of  The  Philistine,  and 
proprietor  of  The  Roycroft  Shop,  devoted  to  mak- 
ing de  luxe  editions  of  the  classics.  Author: 
No  Enemy  bvi  Himself;  Little  Journeys  to  Homes 
of  Good  Men  and  Great;  Little  Journeys  to  the 
Homes  of  American  Authors;  Little  Jo-wrneys  to 
the  Homes  of  Famous  Women;  Little  Journeys 
to  the  Hom.es  of  American  Statesmen;  Little  Jour- 
neys to  the  Homes  of  Eminent  Painters;  AH  Baba 
of  East  Aurora;  As  it  Seems  to  Me;  A  Message 
to  Garcia;  Time  and  Chance;  The  Legacy;  Forbes 
of  Harvard;  One  Day;  A  Tale  of  the  Prairies; 
Little  Journeys  to  Homes  of  English  Authors; 
Little  Journeys  to  Homes  of  Great  Musicians; 
Little  Journeys  to  Homes  of  Eminent  Orators; 
Little  Journeys  to  Homes  of  Eminent  Artists; 
Little  Journeys  to  Homes  of  Great  Philosophers; 
Old  John  Burroughs;  Contemplations;  Conse- 
crated Lives;    The  Man  of  Sorrows,  etc. 

Hue  {uk;  hilk),  ^variste  R^gis,  Roman  Catholic 
missionary,  was  bom  at  Toulouse,  1813.  In 
1839  he  joined  the  mission  of  the  Lazarist  fathers 
to  China.  In  1844  with  Pere  Gabet  and  a  single 
native  convert,  he  set  out  for  Tibet,  and  in  Janu- 
ary, 1846,  reached  Lhasa.  Scarcely  had  a  mis- 
sion been  started  there,  when  an  order  for  their 
expulsion  was  obtained  by  the  Chinese  resident, 
and  they  were  conveyed  back  to  Canton.  Hue's 
health  having  broken  down,  he  returned  to 
France  in  1852.  He  wrote  Souvenirs  of  his  great 
journey,  L'Empire  Chinois,  Le  Christianisme  en 
Chine,  etc.     Died,  1860. 

Hudson,  Henry,  English  navigator,  of  whose  early 
life  nothing  is  known.  In  1607  he  sailed  in  search 
of  a  short  route  tb  China  and  India  by  way  of  the 
northern  ocean,  but  was  stopped  by  the  ice  off 
the  coast  of  Greenland  and  forced  to  return.  In 
1609,  while  in  the  service  of  the  Dutch  East  India 
company,  he  discovered  the  Hudson  river,  and 
sailed  up  to  where  Albany  now  stands.  On  a 
fourth  voyage,  1610,  he  discovered  Hudson  strait 
and  bay,  which  are  also  named  after  him.  Im- 
peded by  ice,  he  determined  to  spend  the  winter 
on  the  shores  of  the  bay.  Here  ne  and  his  men 
suffered  terribly  from  want  of  food  and  started 
to  return  in  1611.  The  men  mutinied  on  the 
return  voyage,  got  possession  of  the  ship,  put 
Hudson,  his  son  John,  and  seven  sailors  into  an 


open  boat  and  turned  them  adrift.  Nothing 
was  ever  known  of  their  fate. 

Hufeland  (JUSD'-fl-l&rU)^  Cbrlstoph  WUhclm,  noted 
German  physician,  was  born  at  Langensalza,  in 
Thuringia,  1762.  He  was  educated  in  Germany, 
became  court  physician  at  Weimar,  in  1793  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Jena,  in  1798  president  of^the 
medical  college  at  Berlin,  and  in  18U9  professor 
in  the  university  of  Berlin.  His  Makrobiotik,  or 
the  Art  of  Prolonging  Life,  has  been  translated 
into  almost  all  the  European  languages ;  he  also 
wrote  a  work  on  the  physical  education  of  the 
young,  and  an  Enchiridion  Medicum.     Died,  1836. 

Huggins  (hUg'-lm),  Sir  William,  English  astrono- 
mer and  spectroscopist,  was  born  in  London,  1824. 
In  1852  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  British 
microscopical  society,  and  for  some  years  studied 
physiology  with  the  microscope.  But  having 
in  1856  Duilt  an  observatory  near  London,  he 
began  the  study  of  the  physical  constitution  of 
stars,  planets,  comets,  and  nebulas.  By  re- 
searches on  the  sun's  spectra  and  the  spectra 
of  certain  comets,  he  ascertained  that  their 
luminous  properties  are  not  the  same.  He 
determined  the  amount  of  heat  that  readies  the 
earth  from  some  of  the  fixed  stars.  He  became 
a  fellow  of  the  royal  society,  1865,  and  president, 
1900.  He  was  president  of  the  British  association, 
and  received  the  order  of  merit  in  1902.    Died,  1910. 

Hugh  Capet  {hH  k&'-pU),  founder  of  the  third  or 
Capetian  dynasty  oi  French  monarclis,  was  born 
939  and  was  king  of  France,  987-996.  As  count 
of  Paris,  on  the  death  of  Louis  V.,  last  of  the 
Carlovingians,  he  usurped  the  throne  and  was 
confirmed  in  its  possession  by  a  confederacy  of 
nobles.  The  race  of  Capet  has  given  119  sover- 
eigns to  Europe,  thirty-six  kings  to  France, 
twenty-two  to  Portugal,  five  to  Spain,  eleven  to 
Naples  and  Sicily,  three  to  Hungary,  and  three 
to  Navarre;  three  emperors  to  the  East;  seven- 
teen dukes  to  Burgundy,  thirteen  to  Brittany, 
two  to  Lorraine,  and  four  to  Parma.     Died,  996. 

Hughes,  Charles  Evans,  lawyer,  ex-governor,  jurist, 
was  bom  in  Glens  Falls,  N.  Y.,  1862.  He  was 
graduated  from  Brown  universitv,  1881,  A.  M., 
1884;  LL.  B.,  Columbia  law  schoo'l,  1884;  LL.  D., 
Brown,  1906;  Columbia,  Knox,  and  Lafayette, 
1907.  He  was  a  teacher  in  Delaware  academy, 
Delhi,  N.  Y.,  1881-82 ;  admitted  to  New  York  bar, 
1884;  practiced  in  New  York,  1884-91;  prize 
fellow,  Columbia  law  school,  1884-87;  professor 
of  contracts,  evidence,  etc.,  Cornell  university 
school  of  law,  1891-93;  active  practice  ii  New- 
York,  1893-1906,  as  a  member  of  the  law  firm, 
Hughes,  Rounds,  and  Schurman.  He  was  special 
lecturer  at  Cornell  university  school  of  law,  1893- 
95,  New  York  law  school,  1893-1900,  and  Yale 
university,  1909.  Hewas  the  republican  nominee 
for  mayor  of  New  York,  1905,  but  declined ;  at- 
torney for  Armstrong  commission  of  New  York 
legislature,  investigating  methods  of  large  life  in- 
surance companies.  Governor  of  New  York,  1907- 
10;  he  drafted  and  led  to  a  successful  issue  a  bill 
for  the  creation  of  a  state  and  a  New  York  city 
public  utilities  commission ;  vetoed  a  bill  for  a  flat 
two  cents  a  mile  railroad  rate  as  unconstitu- 
tional; by  an  appeal  to  the  people  of  the  state 
forced  the  passage  of  anti-gambling  bills  in 
accordance  with  the  state  constitution.  He 
began  the  fight  for  direct  primaries,  but  resimed 
the  governorship  on  his  appointment  by  President 
Taft  to  the  supreme  court,  1910. 

HuKhes,  Charles  James,  Jr.,  lawyer,  United 
States  senator  from  Colorado,  was  bom  in  Kings- 
ton, Mo.,  1853.  He  was  graduated  from  Rich- 
mond college,  1871 ;  was  a  law  student  at  the 
university  of  Missouri,  1872-73;  received  degree 
of  LL.  D.  from  university  of  Missouri  and  uni- 
versity of  Denver.  He  began  the  practice  of 
law  in   1877,   and  located  at  Denver  in   1879. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


780 


that  have  earned  for  him  the  title  of  the  "modem 
Wagner."  In  1900  he  became  professor  of  music 
at  Berlin.  Since  1911  principal  of  theory  schoola 
of  royal  Hochschule  fiir  Musik. 

Humplireys  {hum'-frlz),  Milton  Wylle»  American 
educator  and  scholar,  professor  of  Greek,  univer- 
sity of  Virginia,  since  1887,  was  bom  in  Green- 
brier county,  Va.  (now  W.  Va.),  1844.  He  was 
graduated  at  Washington  and  Lee,  A.  M.,  1869; 
Ph.  D.,  Leipzig,  1874;  LL.  D.,  Vanderbilt.  He 
was  a  gunner  in  the  confederate  artillery  from 
March,  1862,  to  the  end  of  the  war.  He  was 
assistant  professor  of  Latin  and  Greek,  1867-70, 
adjunct  professor  of  ancient  languages,  1870-75, 
Washington  and  Lee,  except  1872-74,  when  he 
was  in  Europe;  professor  of  Greek,  Vanderbilt 
imiversity,  1875-83,  and  professor  of  Latin  and 
Greek,  university  of  Texas,  1883-87.  President, 
1882-83,  of  the  American  philological  associa- 
tion, and  was  ten  years  American  chief  editor  to 
Revue  de  PhUologie,  Paris.  Edited,  with  notes: 
The  Clouds  of  Aristophanes,  The  Antigone  of 
Sophocles,  etc. 

Huneker  (hiin'-^-kSr),  James  Gibbons,  journalist, 
music  critic,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1860. 
He  was  graduated  at  Roth's  military  academy, 
Philadelphia,  1873;  studied  law  and  conveyanc- 
ing at  law  academy,  Philadelphia,  five  years. 
Was  in  Paris,  1878-80;  studied  piano  there 
with  Theodore  Ritter,  then  returned  to  the 
United  States;  associated  for  ten  years  with 
Rafael  Joseffy  as  teacher  of  piano  at  National 
conservatory,  New  York.  Music  and  dramatic 
critic  of  New  York  Recorder,  1891-95,  and  of  the 
Morning  Advertiser,  1895-97.  He  was  music  and 
dramatic,  now  art,  editor,  of  the  New  York  Sun. 
Author:  Mezzo-tints  in  Modern  Music;  Chopin — 
The  Man  and  His  Music;  Melomaniacs;  Over- 
tones; Iconoclasts — A  Book  of  Dramatists;  VisiorV' 
aries.  He  also  wrote  the  article  on  music,  N'ew 
International  Encydopcedia,  and  has  been  a  con- 
tributor to  leading  magazines. 

Hunt,  Helen.     See  Jackson,  Helen  Hunt. 

Hunt,  James  Henry  Leigh,  English  poet  and  essay- 
ist, was  born  at  Southgate,  near  London.  1784. 
He  was  a  school-fellow,  at  Christ's  hospital,  of 
Coleridge  and  Charles  Lamb,  and  at  one  time  the 
friend  of  Byron.  In  1813,  as  editor  of  The 
Examiner,  he  wrote  some  articles  severely  criti- 
cising the  prince  regent,  afterward  George  IV., 
and  for  these  he  was  prosecuted  by  order  of 
the  government,  and  sentenced  to  two  years' 
imprisonment  in  the  Surrey  jail.  While  in  jail 
he  wrote  The  Descent  of  Liberty,  a  Masque;  The 
Story  of  Rimini,  an  ItaUan  tale  in  verse;  and 
The  Feast  of  the  Poets.  In  1818  he  commenced 
a  small  periodical  called  The  Indicator,  in  which 
many  of  his  essays  appeared.  In  1828  he  pub- 
lished Lord  Byron  and  some  of  his  Contemporaries, 
in  which,  having  quarreled  with  Byron  during 
a  visit  to  Italy,  he  indulged  in  some  severe 
animadversions  upon  the  character  of  that  poet. 
All  his  life  was  devoted  to  literature,  and  all  his 
writings  have  a  fascination  of  their  own.  Among 
his  last  works  was  his  Autobiography.  He  died 
at  Putney,  England,  1859. 

Hunt,  Thomas  Sterry,  American  chemist  and 
geologist,  was  born  in  Connecticut,  1826.  In 
1845  he  became  assistant  to  Professor  Silliman 
in  his  chemical  laboratory  at  Yale  college,  and 
in  1847  was  appointed  chemist  and  mineralogist 
to  the  geographical  survey  of  Canada.  He  held 
this  post  for  more  than  twenty-five  years,  resign- 
ing in  1872  to  accept  the  chair  of  geology  in  the 
Massachusetts  institute  of  technology.  His 
contributions  to  American  and  Eurof>ean  scientific 
societies  and  journals  are  very  numerous;  and  a 
collection  of  many  of  them  was  published  in 
1874.  He  furnished  many  important  articles 
in  his  specialty  to  Appleton's  American  Cyclo- 


pedia, and  was  a  member  of  the  leading  societies 
of  both  continents.  lie  published:  Chemical 
and  ecological  Essays;  The  Domain  of  Physiology; 
A  New  Basis  for  Chemiatry,  etc.  He  died  in  New 
York.  1892. 

Hunt,  Walter,  English  painter,  was  bom  in  Middle- 
sex, England,  1861.  He  has  been  a  constant 
exhibitor  at  the  royal  academy  since  1881.  The 
following  are  among  his  best  pictures:  "A  Rainy 
Day";  "Pensioners";  "Toby":  "The  Dogs' 
Home";  "Waiting  to  be  Fed'*;  ''Foundlings^'; 
"Retribution";  '^The  Dog  in  the  Manger"; 
"Overmatched";  "To  the  Rescue";  "A  Foster- 
Mother";  "The  Orphan";  "The  Otter  Hunt  — 
the  Find";  "Puss  at  Bay";  "Babes  in  the 
Wood"-  "Off  the  Scent";  "Motherless"; 
"An  Old  Offender" ;  "Home  from  Work, "  etc. 

Hunt,  William  Henry,  creator  of  the  English  school 
of  water-color  painting,  was  born  in  London, 
1790,  the  crippled  child  of  a  tinplate  worker.  He 
is  ranked  by  Ruskin  with  the  greatest  colorists 
of  the  school.  He  generally  chose  very  simple 
subjects  for  his  pictures,  such  as:  "Peaches  and 
Grapes";  "Old  Pollard";  "Wild  Flowers"; 
"Too  Hot";  "Fast  Asleep,"  etc.,  but  they  are 
conceived  in  a  finely  poetical  spirit,  and  present 
the  perfection  of  finish.     Died,  1864. 

Hunt,  William  Holman,  EngUsh  painter,  was  bom 
in  London,  1827.  In  1845  he  was  admitted  a 
student  of  the  royal  academy,  and  next  year 
exhibited  his  first  picture,  "Harkl"  followed 
by  scenes  from  Dickens  and  Scott,  and  by  the 
"Flight  of  MadeUne  and  Porpliyro,"  in  1848. 
He  shared  a  studio  with  D.  G.  Rossetti,  and  the 
two,  along  with  Millais  and  a  few  others,  inaugu- 
rated the  "pre-Raphaelite  brotherhood,"  which 
aimed  at  detailed  and  uncompromising  truth 
to  nature.  Among  the  first  of  his  pre-Raphaelite 
works  was  "Rienzi,"  in  1849.  It  was  followed 
by  "A  Converted  British  Family  sheltering  a 
Christian  Missionary";  "Valentine  rescuing 
Sylvia";  "The  Hireling  Shepherd";  "Claudio 
and  Isabella";  "Strayed  Sheep";  and  "The 
Light  of  the  World,"  now  in  Keble  college,  Ox- 
ford. The  result  of  several  visits  to  the  East 
appeared  in  "The  Scapegoat";  "The  Finding 
of  Christ  in  the  Temple,  now  in  the  Birmingham 
art  gallery;  "The  Shadow  of  Death,"  in  the 
corporation  gallery,  Manchester;  and  "The 
Triumph  of  the  Innocents,"  to  which  must  be 
added  "Isabella  and  the  Pot  of  Basil,"  "May 
Morning  in  Magdalen  Tower."  In  1905  he  was 
nominated  to  the  order  of  merit,  and  was  made 
a  D.  C.  L.  by  Oxford.     Died,  1910. 

Hunt,  William  Morris,  American  genre  and  por- 
trait painter,  was  bom  in  Brattleboro.  Vermont. 
1824.  He  was  educated  at  Diisseidorf,  and 
under  Couture  at  Paris;  but  made  the  technique 
of  the  French  school  subsidiary  to  his  own  original 
ideas,  and  was  one  of  the  first  to  introduce  the 
characteristics  of  the  French  school  into  the 
United  States.  Among  his  productions  are: 
"The  Lost  Kid";  "The  Choristers";  "Girl  at 
the  Fountain " ;  "Marguerite";  " Morning  Star  " ; 
"Bugle  Call,"  etc.  He  also  painted  portraits 
of  many  celebrated  persons,  excelling  in  this 
department  of  art,  but  gaining  his  high  reputa- 
tion through  his  skill  and  originality  in  genre- 
painting.  He  painted  ''The  Flight  of  Night," 
and  other  decorations  in  the  state  capitol  at 
Albany,  N.  Y.     Died,  1879. 

Hunt^,  Jolin,  noted  British  sur^eon^  anatomist, 
and  physiologist,  was  bom  in  Lanarkshire, 
Scotlaiid,  1728.  He  spent  five  years  at  the 
university  of  Edinburgh,  and,  deciding  to  adopt 
the  profession  of  medicine,  went  to  London  and 
studied  at  Chelsea  hospital.  His  progress  in 
anatomy  and  surgery  was  so  rapid  that  in  the 
second  session  he  was  able  to  undertake  the 
directing  of  the  pupils  in  their  dissections.     He 


790 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


studied  surgery  under  Cheselden  at  Chelsea 
hospital  during"  the  summer  months  of  1749  and 
1760,  and  subsequently  under  Pott.  After  ten 
years  in  the  dissecting  room  his  health  gave 
way,  and  in  1759  he  applied  for  an  appointment 
in  the  British  army,  was  immediately  made 
staff-surgeon,  and  sent  out  to  Belle  isle,  and  after- 
ward to  the  peninsula.  In  1763,  peace  having 
been  proclaimed,  he  settled  permanently  in 
London  as  a  surgeon.  In  1767  he  was  elected 
a  fellow  of  the  royal  society,  and  in  the  following 
year  was  appointed  surgeon  to  St.  George's 
hospital.  In  1776  he  was  appointed  surgeon- 
extraordinary  to  the  king.  In  1785  he  built 
a  museum,  which  became  the  place  of  meeting 
of  the  Lyceum  Medicum,  a  society  established 
by  Hunter  and  Fordyce.  His  famous  operation 
for  the  cure  of  aneurism,  that  of  simply  tying 
the  artery  at  a  distance  from  the  tumor,  and 
between  it  and  the  heart,  has  been  more  fruitful 
in  important  results  than  any  since  Ambroise 
Park's  application  of  ligatures  to  divided  arteries. 
He  wrote  Natural  History  of  the  Human  Teeth; 
Treatise  on  Blood,  Inflammation,  and  Gunshot 
Wounds,  etc.  He  died  in  1793,  and  was  buried 
in  the  church  of  St.  Martin's-in-the-Fields,  Lon- 
don, but  was  removed  in  1859  to  Westminster 
abbey. 
Huntingdon  {hiin'-4lng-diin),  Selina,  Countess  of, 
daughter  of  Earl  Ferrers,  was  bom  in  1707.  She 
married  the  earl  of  Huntingdon,  1728,  and  be- 
came a  widow  in  1746.  Joining  the  Methodists 
in  1739,  she  made  Whitefield  her  chaplain  in 
1748,  and  assumed  a  leadership  among  his  fol- 
lowers, who  became  known  as  "  the  countess  of 
Huntingdon's  connection."  For  the  education 
of  ministers  she  estabUshed  in  1768  a  college  at 
Trevecca  in  Brecknockshire,  and  built  or  bought 
numerous  chapels,  the  principal  one  at  Bath. 
She  died  in  London,  1791,  bequeathing  to  four 

Eersons  her  sixty-four  chapels,  most  of  which 
ecame  identical  with  the  Congregational 
churches. 

Huntington,  Daniel,  American  painter,  was  bom 
in  New  York,  1816,  and  was  educated  at  Hamilton 
college.  In  1835  he  began  to  study  art  under 
Morse,  and  still  later  with  Inman.  In  1839  he 
visited  Italy;  returned  the  next  year  and  com- 
menced work,  but  was  compelled  to  desist  in 
consequence  of  failing  eyesignt.  He  was  again 
in  Europe  in  1844,  where  he  painted  some  note- 
worthy pictures.  After  his  return  he  wa.s  en- 
gaged chiefly  on  portraits,  but  painted  also  a 
few  historical  pictures.  Among  them  are: 
"Henry  VIII.  and  Catharine  Parr,"  and  "Marv 
Signing  the  Death  Warrant  of  Lady  Jane  Grey.'' 
Thereafter  he  became  a  permanent  resident  of 
New  York,  and  painted  the  portraits  of  many 
notable  people.  He  is  probably  best  known 
by  his  picture,  "The  RepubUcan  Court  in  the 
Time  of  Washington,"  in  which  there  are  more 
than  sixty  figures,  of  which  nearly  all  are  accu- 
rate portraits  taken  from  original  paintings.  He 
was  for  many  years  president  of  the  national 
academy  of  design.     Died,  1906. 

Hunyadi  {hoon'-ydd-l),  J&nos,  Hungarian  general, 
was  born  at  Hunyad,  Transylvania,  about  1387. 
He  was  governor  of  Transylvania  in  1442,  and 
distinguished  himself  against  the  Turks,  who 
at  that  time  were  the  terror  of  the  whole  of 
Christendom.  During  the  period  of  his  rule 
he  was  the  shield  of  Hungary,  not  only  against 
external  foes,  but  also  against  the  lawless  attempts 
of  the  nobles.  During  the  minority  of  Ladislaus 
V.  he  was  elected  regent  of  Hungary.  The  most 
splendid  of  his  deeds  was  the  storming  of  Bel- 
grade, where  the  monk  John  Capistran,  canying 
the  holy  cross,  raised  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
Christian  warriors  to  such  a  height  that  a  most 
complete   victory    brought    that    fortress    again 


into  the  possession  of  the  Hungarians.  Shortly 
after  dvsentery  broke  out  in  the  camp,  and 
Hunyadi,  after  a  short  illness,  died  in  1456. 
Hurd,  Henry  Mills,  American  physician,  superin- 
tendent Johns  Hopkins  hospital,  1889-1911;  was 
bom    in    Union    City,    Mich.,     1843.      He    was 

riuated  at  the  university  of  Michigan,  1863, 
D.,  1866,  A.  M.,  1870,  LL.  D.,  1895.  Was 
superintendent  eastern  Michigan  asvlum,  Pontiac, 
1878-89,  and  professor  psychiatry,  1889-1906, 
Johns  Hopkins.  He  was  president  of  the 
American  academy  of  medicine,  1896;  secretary, 
1892-97,  and  president,  1898-99,  American 
medico-psychological  association.  Editor  .Ameri- 
can Journal  of  Insanity  since  1897 ;  of  Johns 
Hopkins  Hospital  Bulletin  and  of  Johns  Hopkins 
Hospital  ReporU,  1890-1911.  Author:  Hints  to 
Hospital  Visitors,  with  Dr.  John  S.  Billings; 
also  editor,  with  same,  Hospitals,  Dispensaries 
and  Nursing,  1893. 

Hurlbot,  Jesse  LTinaii*  Methodist  Episcopal  clergy- 
man, editor,  waa  bom  in  New  York,  1843.  He 
was  graduated  at  Wesleyan  university^  Con- 
necticut, 1864.  Was  pastor  Methodist  Episcopal 
churches,  1865-79;  agent  Sunday  school  union, 
Methodist  Episcopal  church,  1879-84;  assistant 
editor  of  Sunday  school  literature,  1884-88;  editor 
of  Sunday  school  literature  and  secretary  of 
Sundav  school  union  and  tract  society,  1888- 
1900;  pastor  Morristown,  N.  J.,  1901-04;  South 
Orange,  N.  J.,  1904-05;  Bloomfield,  N.  J..  1906- 
09;  district  superintendent,  Newark  district, 
since  1909.  Author:  Outline  Normal  Lessons; 
Studies  in  the  Four  Gospels;  Studies  in  Old  Testa^ 
ment  History;  Revised  Normal  Lessons;  Manual 
of  Biblical  Geography;  Our  Church;  HurUnWs 
Story  of  the  Bible,  etc. 

Hurst  {h&rst),  Joiin  Fletcher,  American  clerg^inan 
and  writer,  was  bom  in  Maryland,  1834.  He 
was  graduated  at  Dickinson  college,  and  became 
a  Methodist  Episcopal  clergyman.  In  1871, 
after  some  years  of  travel  in  Europe,  he  became 

Srofeesor  of  theology  in  Drew  sfminary,  Madison, 
I.  J.,  and  from  1873  until  1880  was  president  of 
that  institution.  At  Cincinnati  in  the  last- 
named  year  he  was  elected  bishop.  In  1891 
he  was  made  cliancellor  of  the  American  univer- 
sity, at  Washington.  He  published :  History  of 
Rationalism;  Outline  of  Church  History;  Sliort 
History  of  the  Reformation;  Short  History  of  the 
Medical  Church;  The  Success  of  the  Gospel,  etc. 
He  died  at  Washington,  1903. 
Hubs,  or  Hub  (hOs;  Ger.,  hdbs)^  John,  Bohemian 
religious  reformer,  was  bom  at  Husinetz,  in 
Bohemia,  in  1369.  He  studied  at  the  univer- 
sity of  Prague,  was  appointed  dean  of  the  philo- 
sophical faculty  in  1401,  and  rector  of  the  univer- 
sity, 1402.  He  also  became  in  the  latter  year 
preacher  in  the  Bethlehem  chapel  in  Prague,  and 
labored  with  the  greatest  earnestness  for  the 
instruction  of  the  people,  and  in  the  discharge 
of  all  his  clerical  functions.  As  a  preacher  he 
was  greatly  esteemed  both  by  the  common 
people  and  by  the  students,  while  as  confessor  to 
Queen  Sophia  he  obtained  access  to  the  court. 
At  this  time  he  became  acquainted  •with  the 
writings  of  Wycliffe,  which  exercised  a  great 
influence  over  him.  Archbishop  Sbinko  burned 
the  writings  of  Wycliffe  in  1410,  in  compUance 
with  a  brief  of  Pope  Alexander  V.,  and  com- 
plained to  the  pope  of  Huss  as  a  Wycliffite.  In 
1412,  Pope  John  XXIII.  having  published  a 
bull  of  indulgence  in  order  to  organize  a  crusade 
against  Ladislaus,  the  excommunicated  king  of 
Naples,  whose  kingdom  the  pope  claimed  as  a 
papal  fief,  Huss  boldly  raised  his  voice  against 
the  whole  procedure  as  unchristian,  while  Jerome 
of  Prague  also  stood  forth  to  condemn,  in  the 
strongest  manner,  both  the  bull  and  the  venders 
of   indulgences.     An   interdict   against   Hxiss   in 


THOMAS  HENRY   HUXLEY 
From  a  photograph 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


793 


1412  was  the  consequence.  Huss,  however, 
appealed  from  the  pope  to  a  general  council  and 
to  Christ,  and  wrote  a  book  On  the  Church,  in 
which  he  condemned  the  abuses  of  the  papacy, 
and  denied  the  unconditional  supremacy  of  the 
Roman  pontiff.  In  1414  he  went  to  Constance 
to  the  general  council,  under  a  safe-conduct  from 
the  emperor,  but  his  opponents  procured  his 
imprisonment  as  a  heretic,  and,  on  refusal  to 
retract,  he  was  burned  at  the  stake,  1415. 

Hutcbeson  (hitch' -e-sun),  Francis,  Scottish  philoso- 
pher, was  born  in  1694.  He  studied  for  the 
church  at  Glasgow,  1710-16,  and  then  started  a 
successful  private  academy  in  Dublin.  His 
"Inquiry  into  the  Original  of  our  Ideas  of  Beauty 
and  Virtue,  etc.,  attracted  much  notice,  and  was 
followed  by  his  Essay  on  the  Passions,  1728.  In 
1729  he  was  appointed  professor  of  moral  phi- 
losophy at  Glasgow,  where  he  died  in  1746.  His 
largest  work  is  A  System  of  Moral  Philosophy. 
Hutcheson  was  a  pioneer  of  the  Scottish  school 
in  metaphysics,  and  his  ethical  system  is  a 
development  of  Shaftesbury's. 

Hutchins  (huch'-lm),  Harry  Bums,  American 
educator,  president  university  of  Michigan  since 
1910,  dean  of  the  department  of  law,  1895-1910; 
was  bom  at  Lisbon,  N.  H.,  1847.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  the  university  of  Michigan,  Ph.  B.,  1871 ; 
LL.  D.,  university  of  Wisconsin.  He  was  assist-: 
ant  professor  of  history  and  rhetoric,  university 
of  Michigan,  1872-76,  professor  of  law,  1884-87; 
professor  of  law,  Cornell,  1887-94;  acting  presi- 
dent of  university  of  Michigan,  1897-98,  and 
1909-10.  He  revised  and  annotated  five  volumes 
Michigan  Supreme  Court  Reports,  under  appoint- 
ment of  the  supreme  court,  1882-83;  edited 
American  edition  of  Williams  on  Real  Property, 
and  contributes  to  legal  periodicals. 

Hutchinson  {huch'-ln-sun),  Anne,  religious  enthu- 
siast, was  bom  about  1590,  and  emigrated  from 
Lincolnshire,  England,  to  Boston,  Mass.,  1634. 
Living  in  a  community  prone  to  religious  excite- 
ment, she  claimed  to  be  a  medium  of  divine 
revelations,  and  held  meetings  for  women  in 
which  she  held  Antinomian  doctrines.  Great 
controversies  arose,  and  a  synod  was  called,  in 
which  her  teachings  were  condemned  and  she 
was  banished  from  the  colony.  She  and  her 
friends  now  obtained  from  the  chief  of  the 
Narragansetts  Uberty  to  reside  in  Rhode  Island, 
where  they  set  up  a  community  on  the  highly 
commendable  principle  that  no  one  was  to  be 
"accounted  a  delinquent  for  doctrine."  After 
the  death  of  her  husband,  who  shared  her  opin- 
ions, she  removed  to  a  Dutch  settlement  in  the 
colony  of  New  York,  where,  in  1643,  she  and  her 
whole  family  of  fifteen  persons  were  taken  pris- 
oners by  the  Indians,  and  all  but  one  daughter 
barbarously  murdered. 

Hutctiinson,  Thomas,  American  magistrate  and 
historian,  was  bom  in  Boston,  1711.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard,  and  began  the  practice  of 
mw.  He  was  several  times  elected  to  the  general 
court,  and  for  three  years  served  as  speaker.  In 
1760  he  held  at  one  time  four  offices:  judge  of 
probate,  councilor,  chief-justice,  and  lieutenant- 

?;ovemor.  In  tlie  time  of  the  stamp  act  he 
avored  the  British  government,  for  which  his 
house  was  sacked  and  many  valuable  manuscripts 
relating  to  the  history  of  Massachusetts  were 
destroyed.  In  1769  he  was  made  governor  of 
the  colony,  but  did  not  receive  his  commission 
until  1771.  In  1774  he  retumetl  to  England, 
w^here  he  died,  1780,  having  been  pensioned  by 
the  government.  He  pubUshed  The  History  of 
the  Colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  A  Brief, 
Statement  of  the  Claims  of  the  Colonies. 
Hntchlson,  John,  Scotch  sculptor,  was  bom  in 
Edinburgh,  Scotland,  1832.  He  was  appren- 
ticed to  a  wood-carver  in  Eklinburgh  at  the  age 


of  thirteen;  executed  wood  carvings  and  other 
ilecorutions  in  rehef  for  the  picture  gallery  at 
Ilospitalfield,  Arbroath,  1852,  and  studied  in 
Edinburgh  and  in  Rome.  Principal  worka  — 
statues:  "Roman  Dancing  Girl  Resting"; 
"King  Robert  Bruce";  "Greek  Torch  Racer"; 
"John  Knox,"  a  colossal  bronze  statue  in  Edin- 
burgh, etc.;  and  busts  of  Principal  TuUoch- 
Norman  Macleod;  Queen  Victoria,  by  commana 
of  the  queen;  the  prince  consort,  and  other 
distinguished  persons.  He  executed  studies  in 
bronze  and  marble  of  ideal  subjects:  "Hamlet," 
"Don  Quixote,"  "Dante,"  etc.     Died,  1910. 

Hutten  (hoot'-en),  Ulrlch  von,  German  reformer 
and  humanist,  was  born  in  1488.  When  he  was 
ten  years  of  age  he  was  placed  in  the  monastery 
at  Fulda;  but,  disliking  this  mode  of  life,  he  fled 
to  Erfurt  in  1506,  where  he  associated  with 
scholars  and  poets  He  then  live<l  at  various 
places  in  northern  Germany  until  1512,  when  he 
went  to  Pavia  to  study  law.  After  passing 
several  years  in  Italy  he  returned  to  Germany, 
and  made  himself  conspicuous  by  his  publica- 
tions, especially  those  concerning  the  affairs  of 
Reuchlin,  and  displayed  no  small  learning  and 
great  power  of  satire.  In  1518  he  accompanied 
Albert,  archbishop  of  Mainz,  to  the  diet  of  Augs- 
burg, where  Luther  had  his  famous  conference 
with  Cajetan.  He  took  sides  with  Luther,  was 
persecuted  by  his  enemies,  and  availed  himself 
of  the  protection  of  Franz  von  Sickingen,  but 
was  soon  forced  to  flee.  From  this  time  he  was 
compelled  to  adopt  a  wandering  life,  and  died  in 
1523  in  the  isle  of  Ufnau,  in  the  lake  of  Zurich. 

Hutton  {hiU"n)^  Maurice,  Canadian  educator,  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  since  1887,  and  principal  since 
1901,  University  college,  Toronto,  was  bom  at 
Manchester,  England,  1856.  He  was  educated 
at  Magdalen  college  school  and  Worcester  college, 
Oxford;  M.  A.,  Oxford;  LL.  D.,  Toronto  and 
Queen's.  He  was  fellow  of  Merton  college, 
Oxford,  1879-86;  lecturer  on  classics  and 
ancient  history  at  Firth  college,  Sheffield,  1880, 
and  professor  of  classics  in  the  University  college, 
Toronto,  1880.  He  is  the  author  of  Hellenism, 
and  various  articles  of  a  popular  character  on 
the  classics  and  on  Oxford,  published  in  the 
Canadian  Magazine,  the  Transactions  of  the 
Canadian  Institute,  and  the  University  of  Toronto 
Monthly. 

Huxley  (hiUcs'4l\  Thomas  Henry,  noted  English 
biologist  and  comparative  anatomist,  was  bom 
at  Ealing,  England,  1825.  He  was  graduated 
at  London  xuiiversity,  1845.  In  1846  he  entered 
the  medical  service  of  the  royal  navy,  and  did 
duty  at  Haslar  under  the  late  Sir  John  Richard- 
son until  the  winter  of  the  same  year,  when  he 
was  appointed  assistant-surgeon  on  board  the 
Rattlesnake.  This  ves.sel,  commanded  by  Cap- 
tain Owen  Stanley,  was  commissioned  to  survey 
the  intricate  passage  within  the  Barrier  Reef, 
skirting  the  eastern  shores  of  Australia,  and  to 
explore  the  sea  lying  between  the  north  end  of 
that  reef  and  New  Guinea  and  the  Louisiade 
archipelago.  Imbued  with  a  passion  for  natural 
history,  Huxley  tlevoted  himself  with  zeal  and 
intelligence  to  the  study  of  the  numerous  marine 
animals  collected  from  time  to  time  during  the 
survey,  and  made  them  the  subject  of  scientific 
papers,  which  he  sent  home,  diffident  as  to  their 
value.  In  1851  papers  on  other  branches  of  the 
same  subject  were  printed  in  the  Philosophical 
Transactions,  and  in  the  same  year  Huxley  was 
elected  a  fellow  of  the  royal  society.  In  1854 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  natural  history  in 
the  royal  school  of  mines,  and  among  his  lectures 
in  that  institution  he  delivered  courses  to  work- 
ingmen  with  beneficial  results.  In  1857,  in  con- 
junction with  Dr.  Tyndal,  he  wrote  a  paper. 
Observations  on  Glaciers,  which  was  printed  in  the 


794 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Philosophical  Transactions;  and  in  the  following 
year  (Slivered  the  royal  society's  Croonian 
lecture  On  the  Theory  of  the  Vertebrate  Shall,  in 
which  a  highly  important  anatomical  question 
was  discussed.  In  1872  he  was  made  lord  rector 
of  Aberdeen  university:  was  Rede  lecturer  at 
Cambridge  in  1883,  and  president  of  the  royal 
society,  1883-85.  Among  his  manv  works  in 
addition  to  those  mentioned  are:  Oceanic  Hy- 
drozoa;  Evidence  as  to  Man's  Place  in  Nature; 
Lay  Sermons;  Critiques  and  Addresses;  Physioa- 
raphy;  Elements  of  Biolo^j;  The  Crayfish; 
Science  and  Culture;  Evolution  and  Ethics,  etc. 
He  was  an  able  advocate  of  Darwinian  evolution, 
and  was  well  known  for  his  agno.stic  speculations, 
and  as  a  popularizer  of  biological  science.  lie 
died  in  Ea.stboume,  England,  1895. 

Huygens  {hi'-genz;  Dutch,  hoi'-gSns),  or  Huyghens, 
Christian,  l3utch  physicist  and  astronomer,  was 
born  at  The  Hague  in  1G29.  He  devoted  himself 
to  mathematics,  improved  the  telescope,  and 
devised  new  methods  for  grinding  and  construct- 
ing lenses.  He  also  invented  the  first  pendulum 
clock ,  defined  the  rings  of  Saturn ;  and  developed 
the  wave  theory  of  light.  He  frequently  visited 
England,  was  made  a  fellow  of  the  royal  society. 
1663,  and  at  the  invitation  of  Louis  XIV.  Uvea 
for  a  number  of  years  in  Paris  where  he  pro- 
duced many  of  his  scientific  works.     Died,  1695. 

Hyde,  William  De  Witt,  American  educator  and 
writer,  president  of  Bowdoin  college  since  1885, 
was  born  in  Winchendon,  Mass.,  1858.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard,  1879 ;  S.  T.  D.,  Harvard ; 
liL.  D^  Svracuse.  Author:  Practical  Ethics; 
Social  Theology;  Practical  Idealism;  The  Evolu- 
tion of  a  College  Student;  God's  Education  of 
Man;  The  Art  of  Optimism;  Scfiool  Speaker  and 
Reader;  The  Cardinal  Virtues;  Jesus'  Way; 
The  New  Ethics;   From  Epicurus  to  Christ,  etc. 

Hyndtnan  {hind'-man)^  Henry  Mayers,  English 
barrister,  journalist,  and  social  reformer,  waa 
born  in  London,  1842.  He  was  graduated  at 
Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  and  became  war 
correspondent  for  the  Pcul  Mall  Gazette,  1866, 
during  the  Italian  war.  He  was  in  Australia, 
New  Zealand,  Polynesia,  America,  1869-71; 
visited  America,  1874-80  at  intervals,  and  in 
1881  founded  the  social  democratic  federation. 
In  1884  he  founded  Justice,  and  began  his  career 
as  an  agitator  for  social  remedies.  He  was  a 
vigorous  opponent  of  the  South  African  war, 
1899-1900;  took  a  very  active  part  in  estab- 
lishing the  new  "International"  at  the  interna- 
tional socialist  congress,  Paris,  1900;  active 
agitator  against  Transvaal  war,  190 1-02.  Author : 
Indian  Policy  and  English  Jiistice;  Bankruptcy 
of  India;  England  far  All;  Nationalization  of 
Land  in  1772  OTid  1882;  Historical  Basis  of 
Socialism;  Socialism  atid  Slavery,  reply  to 
Herbert  Spencer;  A  Commune  for  London;  Mr. 
Gladstone  and  the  Eight  Hours  Law;  Commercial 
Crises  of  the  IQth  Century;  Economics  of  Socialism; 
Colonies,  Dependencies,  and  Capitalism,  etc. 

Hypatla  (hl-pk'-shl-d),  Greek  female  philosopher, 
daughter  of  Theon,  an  astronomer  of  Alexandria. 
She  was  renowned  for  her  knowledge  of  mathe- 
matics and  of  the  Platonic  philosophv,  of  which 
she  was  a  teacher  at  Alexandria.  She  was  also 
celebrated  both  for  beauty  and  modesty.  She 
met  a  tragic  fate.  Being  accused  by  the  clergy 
of  undue  influence  over  Orestes,  prefect  of 
Alexandria,  against  St.  Cyril,  then  archbishop 
there,  she  was  attacked  bv  a  mob  led  by  priests 
dr^ged  into  a  church,  stripped  of  her  clothing, 
and  killed.  This  occurred  about  415  A.  D.,  when 
she  was  about  sixty  years  of  age.  Hvpatia  has 
been  made  the  subject  of  a  romance  by  Charles 
Kmgsley. 

Hyrcanus  (hir-k&'-nHs),  John,  Jewish  high  priest 
who  hved  about   135  B.  C      He  succeeded  his 


father,  Simon  Maccabsus,  in  the  high  priest-^ 
hood  as  one  of  the  Asmonean  rulers  of  .Tudea. 
He  was  at  first  compelled  to  pay  tribute  to 
Antiochus  Sidetes,  after  whose  defeat  and  death 
in  130  B.  C.  he  reestablished  his  independence, 
razed  Samaria,  took  several  other  cities  from 
Syria,  conquered  the  Idumseans,  and  formed  an 
alliance  with  the  Romans.  His  reign  tias  been 
compared  to  that  of  Solomon.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Aristobulus,  a  weak,  irreso- 
lute character,  who  took  the  title  of  king  of 
Judea.     Died  about  105  B.  C. 

Hyslop  (hia'4drt),  James  Hervey,  American  psy- 
chologist ana  psvchic  investigator,  professor  of 
logic  and  ethics,  Columbia  university,  1895—1902, 
was  born  at  Xenia,  Ohio,  1854.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  Wooster  university,  1877;  Ph.  D.,  Johns 
Hopkins,  1887.  Taught  in  Lake  Forest  univer- 
sity ,  Smith  college,  Northampton,  Mass. ,  Buck- 
nell  university,  Lewisburg,  Pa.,  and  Columbia. 
Author:  Elements  q/"  Logic;  Ethics  of  Hume; 
Elements  of  Ethics;  Democracy;  Logic  and  Argu- 
ment; Syllabus  of  Psychology;  Problems  of 
Philosophy;  Science  and  a  Future  Life;  Enigmas 
of  Psychical  Research;  Borderland  of  Psychical 
Research.  Editor  of  Proceetlirufs  and  Joturrud  of 
American  Society  for  Psychical  Research. 

Hyvemat,  Eusene  XaTler  Louis  Henry,  French- 
American  educator  and  orientalist,  professor  of 
oriental  laneuagcs  and  archaeology,  Catholic 
university  of  America,  since  1889,  was  bom  at 
St.  Julie'n-en-Jarret,  Loire,  France,  1858.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  university  of  France, 
Lyons,  1876;  studied  divinity,  S<5minaire  de  St. 
Sulpice,  laiiy.  1877-79,  and  at  Paris,  1879-82; 
D.  D.,  pontifical  university  of  Rome,  1882.  He 
was  chaplain  at  St.  Louis  of  the  French. 
Rome,  1882-85;  professor  interpreter  of  oriental 
languages  for  Propaganda,  Rome,  1885-89; 
protesaor  of  Aaajrriolof^  and  Eg>-ptology,  Roman 
seminary,  Rome,  W86-88;  intrusted  with 
scientific  mission  in  Armenia  by  the  French 
government,  1888-89;  chief  department  Semitic 
and  Egj-ptian  literatures.  Catholic  university  of 
America,  since  1889.  Author:  Les  Actes  det 
Martyrs  de  I'Egypte;  Album  de  Paliographis 
Copte;  Du  Caucase  au  Golfe  Persique,  with  Dr. 
Paul  MuUer-Simonis;  and  has  been  a  contributor 
to  Vigouroux's  Dictionnaire  de  la  Bible,  The 
Jewish  Encyclopcedia,  and  various  American, 
French,  and  German  reviews. 

Iberville    d»  (de'-bir'-vel'),  Pierre  le  Moyne,  Sleur, 

French-Canadian  commander,  was  born  at  Mont- 
real, Canada,  1661,  and  was  distinguished  in 
the  French  service.  In  1686  he  joined  the  ex- 
pedition of  De  Troye  from  Canada  against  the 
English  forts  on  Hudson's  bay;  in  1G90  took 
part  in  the  Indian  and  French  massacre  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Schenectady;  in  1694  captured 
Fort  Nelson  on  Hud.son's  bay;  in  1696  destroyed 
St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  taking  most  of  that 
province  from  the  British ;  and  in  1697  defeated 
them  in  naval  fights  in  Hudson's  bay.  Sailing 
from  Brest  in  1698  with  two  frigates  he  reached 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  with  his  brother 
Bienville;  fortified  Biloxi,  the  first  post  on  the 
Mississippi,  and  in  1700  ascended  the  river.  In 
1701,  on  account  of  the  unhealthiness  of  the 
climate,  he  tran.'^ferred  the  colony  from  Louisiana 
to  Mobile,  and  began  the  settlement  of  Alabama. 
In  1702  he  fortified  Dauphin  island,  in  Mobile 
bay;  in  1706,  with  three  ships,  he  captured  the 
isle  of  Nevis,  one  of  the  Leeward  group.  Died 
at  Havana,  Cuba,  1706. 
Ibrahim  Pasha  (ib'-rd-him'  pd-sh&').  Egyptiaa 
general,  adopted  son  of  Mehemet  Ali,  vicerov 
of  Egypt,  was  bom  in  1789.  Mehemet  Ali 
having  conceived  the  design  of  adding  Syria  to 
his   dominions,    Ibrahim   crossed    the   Egyptian 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


796 


border  with  an  army  in  1831,  took  Acre  by  storm, 
and  quickly  made  himself  master  of  the  whole 
of  Syria.  When  war  broke  out  between  Mo- 
hemet  Ali  and  the  sultan  in  1839,  Ibrahim 
was  again  successful,  totally  routing  the  Turks 
in  the  great  battle  of  Nisib.  The  interference 
of  the  great  powers  eventually  compelled  him 
to  return  to  Egypt,  suffering,  during  his  passage 
through  the  desert,  the  most  terrible  hardships 
and  losses,  while  the  attempt  to  elevate  Egypt 
to  complete  independence  came  to  an  end.  "  In 
1848,  when  the  aged  pasha  had  sunk  into  abso- 
lute dotage,  Ibrahim  went  to  Constantinople 
and  was  installed  viceroy  of  Egypt.  Died, 
1848. 

Ibsen  (ib'-sen;  Ip'sen),  Henrlk,  Norwegian  poet 
and  dramatist,  was  born  at  Skien,  in  south  Nor- 
way, 1828.  He  studied  medicine,  was  a  chem- 
ist's ajssistant  at  Grimstad,  1842-50,  but  soon 
devoted  himself  wholly  to  literature.  His  first 
drama,  Katilina,  was  a  failure;  but  after  a  short 
period  of  study  at  Christiania,  and  nearly  two 
years  of  journalism,  he  became  director  of  Ole 
Bull's  theater  at  Bergen,  for  which  he  wrote  five 
romantic  dramas.  In  1857  he  became  director 
of  the  national  theater  in  Christiania.  His  next 
dramas  were  The  Warriors  in  Hdgeland,  The 
Pretenders,  Love's  Comedy.  The  first  two,  repro- 
ducing the  spirit  of  the  old  sages,  placed  Ibsen 
in  the  foremost  rank  of  Scandinavian  dramatists: 
the  last  was  a  precursor  of  his  satirical  social 
dramas.  In  1862  the  national  theater  became 
bankrupt,  and  Ibsen,  enraged  because  Norway 
held  aloof  from  the  Danes  in  their  struggle  against 
the  Germans,  forsook  his  country,  1864-91,  living 
in  Rome,  Dresden,  and  Munich.  The  Norwegian 
parliament  granted  him  a  pension  in  1866.  In 
1866-67  appeared  Brand  and  Peer  Gynt,  dra- 
matic poems.  There  followed  Emperor  and 
Galilean;  Pillars  of  Society;  A  Doll's  House; 
Ghosts;  An  Enemy  of  the  People;  The  Wild  Duck; 
Rosmersholm;  The  Lady  from  the  Sea;  Hedda 
Gabler;  The  Master  Builder  Solness;  Little  Eyolf; 
When  We  Dead  Awaken;  and  John  Gabriel  Bork- 
man.  These  plays  aroused  a  storm  of  controversy 
in  the  literary  world  from  1889,  because  of  their 
author's  passionate  advocacy  of  individual 
liberty.  The  interest  and  method  of  his  plays 
are  almost  exclusively  psychological.     Died,  1906. 

Ide,  Henry  Clay,  diplomatist,  was  bom  at  Barnet, 
Vt.,  1844.  He  was  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
college,  1866;  LL.  D.,  same,  1900,  Tufts  college, 
1903.  He  was  a  member  of  Vermont  state  senate, 
1882-85;  United  States  commissioner  to  Samoa, 
1891 ;  chief-justice  of  Samoa  under  joint  appoint- 
ment of  England,  Germanv,  and  the  United 
States,  1893-97;  member  Taft  commission,  on 
establishment  of  civil  government  in  Philippmes, 
1900;  secretary  of  finance  and  justice,  1901, 
vice-governor,  1904-05,  acting  governor,  1905-06, 
governor  general,  1906,  Philippine  islands; 
minister  to  Spain  since  1909.  Author:  Code  of 
Procedure  in  Civil  Actions  and  Special  Proceed- 
ings in  the  Philippine  Islands,  The  Land  Registra- 
tion Act,  The  Internal  Revenue  Law  of  1904  of  the 
Philippine  Islands,  etc. 

Ignatieft  (Ig-na'-tySf),  Nikolai  Pavlovltch,  Russian 
diplomat,  was  bom  at  St.  Petersburg,  1832.  In 
1856  he  entered  the  diplomatic  service,  and  in 
1858  induced  China  to  give  up  the  Amur  province. 
In  1860,  while  ambassador  at  Peking,  he  secured 
another  large  strip  of  territory  of  tiie  maritime 
province.  With  Khiva  and  Bokhara  he  con- 
cluded treaties.  In  1864  he  was  made  ambas- 
sador at  Constantinople.  An  ardent  panslavist, 
he  intrigued  with  the  Balkan  Slavs,  and  took  a 
principal  part  in  the  diplomatic  proceedings 
before  and  after  the  Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877. 
The  treaty  of  San  Stefano  was  mainly  his  work. 
Under  Alexander  III.   he  was  minister  of  the 


Interior,  1881-82,  and  subsequently  retired  to 
private  life.     Died,  1908. 

Ignatius  de  Loyola  ^^(^-na'-ah^-ua  dd  l&-yd'-la). 
See  Loyola,  iKnatlos  de,  page  237. 

Ihmsen,  Maximilian  Frederick  journalist,  was 
bom  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  1868.  He  was  educated 
in  the  public  schools  in  Stuttgart,  Germany,  in 
Allegheny,  Pa.,  and  the  Pittsburgh  Catholic 
college.  He  became  clerk  in  the  Pittsburgh 
post-office,  1887;  reporter  Pittsburgh  Leader,  1888, 
Pittsburgh  Post,  1889;  was  first  newspaperman 
to  reach  the  dam  above  South  Fork,  Pa.,  which, 
by  bursting,  caused  the  Johnstown  flood ;  Wash- 
ington corresDondent  Pittsburgh  Post,  1890; 
attached  to  Wasliington  bureau.  New  York 
Herald,  1891;  political  reporter  same,  1893; 
Albany  correspondent  New  York  Journal,  1895; 
city  editor,  1896-98,  and  1901-02,  Washington 
correspondent,  1898-1900,  later  political  editor 
New  York  American.  He  was  largely  interested 
and  active  in  the  movement  to  nominate  William 
Randolph  Hearst  as  presidential  candidate,  1904; 
organized  municipal  ownership  league  of  New 
York,  1905;  was  manager  W.  R.  Hearst's 
mayoralty  campaign.  New  York,  1905;  organ- 
ized independence  league  and  was  chairman 
of  independence  league  New  York  state  com- 
mittee during  governorship  campaign,  1906.  He 
is  now  publisher  of  the  Los  Anga.es  Examiner. 

Ihne  (e'-ne),  Wllhelm,  German  historian,  was  bom 
at  Fiirth  in  1821,  and  was  educated  at  Bonn. 
He  was  a  private  tutor  in  England,  1843-47, 
later  had  charge  of  a  school  at  Liverpool,  1849-G3, 
and  in  1873  became  a  profe8.sor  at  Heidelberg. 
He  published  his  great  History  of  Rome,  in  8 
vols.,  1868-90;  Early  Rome^876;  and  a  number 
of  other  historical  works.     Died,  1902. 

Illlngton,  Margaret  (Mrs.  Bowes),  former  actress, 
was  bom  at  Bloomington,  III.,  1881,  daughter  of 
I.  H.  and  Mary  Ellen  Light.  She  was  educated 
at  Illinois  Wesleyan  university  and  studied  at 
Chicago  musical  college.  In  1903  she  married 
Daniel  Frohman,  from  whom  she  was  divorced 
in  1909;  married  in  the  same  year  Edward  J. 
Bowes.  She  made  her  d^but  in  The  Pride  of 
Jennico  at  the  Criterion  theater.  New  York,  1900; 
played  in  Daniel  Frohman's  stock  company. 
Lyceum  theater,  New  York,  1902-03;  created 
leading  r61e  in  The  Japanese  Nightingale,  1903; 
The  Two  Orphans,  1904;  Mrs.  LeffingweU'a 
Boots,  1905;  The  Lion  and  the  Mouse,  London, 
England,  1906;  His  House  in  Order,  Empire 
theater.  New  York,  1906;  The  Thief,  Lyceum 
theater,  New  York,  1907;  retired  from  stage, 
1909. 

Inchbald  (Inch'-bdld),  Elizabeth,  English  actress, 
dramatist,  and  novelist,  daughter  of  John  Simp- 
son, was  born  near  Burv  St.  Edmunds,  1753. 
In  1772  slie  went  to  London  to  seek  a  theatrical 
engagement,  and  married  Joseph  Inchbald,  an 
actor.  She  made  her  d^but  the  same  year  at 
Bristol  as  Cordelia,  became  a  widow  in  1779,  and 
in  1780  appeared  at  Covent  Garden.  Here  she 
remained,  without  notable  success,  until  1789, 
when  she  found  her  true  vocation  —  literature, 
and  to  it  she  thenceforth  devoted  herself.  Her 
earliest  efforts  were  plays,  her  first  being  The 
Mogul  Tale,  a  farce.  She  wrote  or  adapted 
nineteen  plavs,  the  best  of  which  are  the  come- 
dies: Such  things  Are,  The  Midnight  Hour,  The 
Wedding  Day;  the  farces:  Appearance  is  Against 
Them,  The  Widow's  Vow,  and  her  adaptation 
from  Kotzebue,  Lovers'  Vows.  She  edited  Inch- 
bald's  British  Theater,  a  Modem  Theater,  and  a 
Collection  of  Farces.  But  her  fame  rests  mainly 
upon  her  novels,  A  Simple  Story  and  Nature  arid 
Art,  which  rank  among  English  standard  novels. 
She  died  in  1821. 

Ingalls,  John  James.  .American  lawyer,  essayist, 
and  statesman.  United  States  senator,  was  bom 


796 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


at  Middleton,  Mass.,  1833.  He  was  graduated 
at  Williams  college,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted 
to  practice  in  Massachusetts  in  1857,  and  in  1858 
settled  in  Kansas.  In  1860  he  was  secretary  of 
the  territorial  council,  or  legislature,  and  in  1861 
was  secretary  of  the  state  senate.  Of  that  body 
he  was  elected  a  member  in  1862.  He  was 
elected  United  States  senator  from  Kansas  in 
1873,  and  was  again  elected  in  1879  and  1885 
During  his  last  senatorial  term  he  was  president 
■pro  tern,  of  the  senate.  He  was  a  man  noted 
among  his  contemporaries  for  scholarly  attain- 
ments and  a  quick  and  acute  perception.  Ho 
•was  an  eloquent  speaker,  his  power  of  sarcastic 
rejoinder  being  a  marked  trait.  As  a  writer  of 
essays  and  a  lecturer  his  diction  was  elegant  and 
concise,  and  he  excelled  in  the  power  of  pictur- 
esque description.  He  was  the  author  of  the 
famous  sonnet  Oppftrtunity.  He  died  at  Las 
Vegas,  New  Mexico,  1900. 

Ingalls,  Melville  Ezra,  railroad  president,  was  bom 
in  Harrison,  Me.,  1842.  He  was  educated  at 
Bridgeton  academy,  studied  at  Bowdoin  college, 
and  graduated  at  Harvard  law  school,  1863. 
He  practiced  first  at  Gray,  Me.,  but  soon  removed 
to  Boston.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Massachu- 
setts senate,  1867 ;  president  in  1870,  receiver  in 
1871,  of  the  Indianapolis,  Cincinnati  and  La- 
fayette railroad,  and  from  a  bankrupt  condition, 
with  the  aid  of  reorganizations  in  1873  and  1880, 
he  put  its  successor,  the  Cincinnati,  Indianapolis, 
St.  Louis  and  Chicago,  upon  a  sound  footing, 
consolidating  it  with  other  roads  into  the  Cleve- 
land, Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  St.  Louis  railroad, 
comprising  the  "Big  Four"  system,  of  which  he 
became  chairman.  Resigned,  1912.  He  was 
also  president  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  railway 
company  from  1888  until  1900,  and  is  now 
president  of  the  Merchants'  national  bank, 
Cincinnati.  He  was  democratic  candidate  for 
mayor  of  Cincinnati,  1903,  and  president  of 
national  civic  federation,   1905. 

Ingelow  (ln'-]e-l6),  Jean,  English  poet  and  novelist, 
was  bom  at  Boston,  Lincoln.shire,  England,  1820. 
A  great  part  of  her  poetry  is  of  a  devotional 
type,  sweet  and  simple,  and  filled  with  beautiful 
thoughts.  Among  her  noted  works  is  the  ballad, 
The  High  Tide  on  the  Coast  of  Lincolnshire,  and 
the  larger  poem,  A  Start/  of  Doom.  Her  works 
of  fiction  are  Off  the  Skelligs;  Fated  to  be  Free; 
Sarah  de  Berenger;  Don  John;  and  others.  She 
died,  1897. 

IngersoU  (Ing'-gir-sol),  Robert  Green,  American 
lawyer,  orator,  and  writer,  was  bom  at  Dresden, 
N.  v.,  1833.  He  settled  to  the  practice  of  law 
at  Peoria,  111.,  1857;  became  colonel  of  the 
11th  Illinois  cavalry,  1862,  was  captured  and 
exchanged;  resigned  and  retired  to  private  life, 
and,  in  1866,  was  attorney-general  of  the  state. 
He  was  a  well-known  orator,  lecturer,  and 
religious  controversialist.  He  published  The 
Gods,  and  Other  Lectures;  Some  Mistakes  of 
Moses;  Great  Speeches,  etc.  Died  at  Dobbs 
Ferry,  N.  Y.,  1899. 

Ingraham  {ing'-grd-am\  Joseph  Holt,  American 
clergyman  and  novelist,  was  bom  at  Portland, 
Me.,  1809.  After  some  years  spent  at  sea,  he 
became  a  teacher  of  languages  in  Mississippi,  and 
was  ordained  Episcopal  clergyman  in  1855; 
prior  to  his  ordination  he  wrote  stories  of  adven- 
ture, Captain  Kyd,  etc.,  but  subsequently  con- 
fined himself  to  biblical  subjects.  His  best 
known  work  is  The  Prince  of  the  House  of  David. 
He  died  at  Holly  Springs,  Miss.,  1860. 

Ingram  (Ing'-gram),  Arthur  Foley  Wlnnington, 
bishop  of  London  since  1901,  dean  of  the  Chapeb 
Royal,  was  bom  in  Worcestershire,  1858.  He 
was  educated  at  Marlborough  college  and  Keble 
college,  Oxford;  was  private  tutor,  1881-84; 
curate    at    St.    Mary's,    Shrewsbury,     1884-85; 


private  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Lichfield, 
1885-89;  head  of  Oxford  house,  Bethnal  Green, 
chaplain  to  the  archbishop  of  York  and  to  the 
bishop  of  St.  Albans,  1889;  rector  of  Bethnal 
Green,  1895;  mral  dean  of  Spitalfields,  1890; 
canon  of  St.  Paul's  cathedral,  1897-1901,  and 
bishop  of  Stepnev.  1897-1901.  Author:  Work 
in  Great  Cities;  Old  Testament  DimcuUies;  New 
Testament  Difficulties;  Church  DimcuUies;  Mes- 
sengers, Watchmen,  Stewards;  The  Men  who 
Crucify  Christ;  Christ  and  His  Friends;  Bcm- 
■ners  of  the  Christian  Faith,  etc. 

Ingres  {&ti'-gr'),  Jean  Dominique  Auguste,  French 
painter,  was  bom  at  Montaxiban,  1780.  He 
studied  under  David,  and  after  taking  the  grand 
prix  in  1801,  worked  in  Rome,  1806-20.  At 
Florence,  where  he  spent  four  years,  he  painted 
"The  Vow  of  Louis  XIII."  To  this  period 
belong  his  best  portraits,  and  his  "CEdipus  and 
the  Sphinx,"  Venus  Anadyomene,"  "Virgil 
reading  the  Mneid,"  "Raphael  and  the  Foma- 
rina,"  etc.  In  1825  he  was  made  professor  of 
fine  arts  at  Paris,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
French  institute.     Dietl,  1807. 

Inman,  Henry,  American  painter,  was  bom  in 
Utica,  N.  Y.,  1801.  He  was  noted  for  his  skill 
as  a  portrait  painter,  and  bj-sides  making  por- 
traits of  Chief-justice  Marshall  and  many  otlier 
distinguished  Americans,  he  vi.sited  England  and 
paintMl  portraits  of  Wordsworth  and  Macaulay. 
In  1845  no  began  a  series  of  historical  paintings 
for  the  capitoi  at  Washington,  but  before  they 
were  completed  he  died  in  New  York,  1846. 

Innes  (in'-ls),  Cosmo,  Scottish  hi.storian  and 
antiquary,  was  bom  at  Durris,  Scotland,  1798. 
He  was  graduated  both  at  Glasgow  and  Oxford, 
and  in  1822  passed  as  an  advocate.  He  became 
sheriff  of  Moray  in  1840,  then  an  official  of  the 
court  of  sessions,  and  in  1846  professor  of  con- 
stitutional law  and  history  in  the  university  of 
E<linburgh.  He  is  best  known  as  the  author  of 
Scotland  in  the  Middle  Ages  and  Sketches  of 
Early  Scotch  History.  He  prepared  vol.  i.  of 
Acts  of  the  Scottish  Parliament,  published  also 
Legal  Antiquities,  and  several  memoirs,  including 
one  of  Dean  Ramsay.     Died,  1874. 

Inness  (In'-te),  Georsat  American  artist,  was  born 
at  Newburr,  N.  Y.,  1826;  studied  in  New  York, 
France,  and  Italy.  He  excelled  as  a  painter  of 
American  landscapes,  and  became  a  national 
academician  in  1868;  resided  in  Italy,  1871-75; 
died  at  Bridge  of  Allan,  Scotland,  1894.  Among 
his  best  paintings  are:  "Delaware  Valley"; 
"American  Sunset";  "Pontine  Marshes  ; 
"Niagara  Falls";  "Sunset  —  Montclair";  "Au- 
tumn Oaks,"  etc.     Died,  1894. 

Inness,  George,  Jr,,  artist,  painter,  was  bom  in 
Paris,  France,  1S54,  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  his  father  in  Rome,  Italy,  1870-74 ; 
studied  one  year  in  Paris,  1875;  after  that  lived 
in  Boston  and  New  York,  where  he  occupied 
studio  with  his  father,  1878.  He  resided  with 
his  family  in  Montclair,  N.  J.,  after  1880,  but 
had  his  studio  in  Paris,  1895-99,  and  exhibited 
annually  at  the  Paris  salon.  He  received  a  gold 
medal  at  the  1899  Paris  salon. 

Innocent  III.,  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  popes,  was 
bom  at  Anagni,  Italy,  1161,  son  of  Count  Trasi- 
mund,  a  Roman  noble.  He  was  educated  at 
Paris,  Rome,  and  Bologna,  and  was  elected  pope 
in  1198.  He  aimed  at  making  the  papacy 
supreme  in  all  European  affairs;  extenaed  the 
territorial  pK)wer  of  the  church,  and  made  nearly 
all  Christendom  subject  to  its  sway;  attempted 
the  recovery  of  Palestine;  promoteKl  a  crusade 
against  the  Albigenses;  excommunicated  Otto 
IV.,  emperor  of  Germanv*  put  England  under 
an  interdict,  and  deposed  King  John;  was  zesal- 
ous  for  the  purity  as  well  as  supremacy  of  the 
church,  and  countenanced  every  movement  that 


THROUGHOUT  THE   WORLD 


7«7 


contributed  to  enhance  its  influence  and  stereo- 
^rp>e  its  beliefs  as  well  as  its  fornia  of  worship. 
Though  unrelenting  toward  those  whom  he  con- 
ceived to  be  the  enemies  of  the  faith,  he  was 
p)ersonally  a  man  of  blameless  life,  and  did  much 
to  reform  and  universalize  Roman  Christianity. 
The  papal  power  probably  attained  its  greatest 
height  during  his  pontificate.  He  died  at 
Perugia,  Italy,  1216. 

Ireland,  John,  American  prelate,  Roman  Catholic 
archbishop  of  St.  Paul  since  1888,  was  born  in 
Ireland,  1838.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in 
boyhood;  was  educated  in  the  cathedral  school, 
St.  Paul ;  studied  theology  in  France,  and  waa 
ordained  priest  in  1861;  LL.  D.,  Yale,  1901. 
He  was  chaplain  of  the  5th  Minnesota  regiment 
in  the  civil  war;  rector  of  the  cathedral  at  St. 
Paul;  secretary  and  later  coadjutor  to  Bishop 
Grace,  of  St.  Paul,  and  was  consecrated  arch- 
bishop in  1888.  He  has  been  active  in  establish- 
ing Roman  Catholic  colonies  in  the  Northwest, 
and  in  the  organization  of  total  abstinence  socie- 
ties.    Author:     The  Church  and  Modem  Society. 

Irene  (Lat..  l-re'-ne;  Eng.,  i-ren'),  Byzantine 
empress,  once  a  poor  orphan  girl  of  Athens, 
Greece,  was  bom  about  752.  Her  beauty  and 
talents  drew  the  attention  and  love  of  the 
emperor  Leo  IV.,  and  he  married  her  in  769. 
After  his  death  she  ruled  as  regent,  during  the 
minority  of  her  son  Constantine  VI.  She  was 
banished  to  Lesbos  in  802,  where  she  died  in  the 
foUo'wing  year.  The  Greek  church  counts  her 
among  its  saints. 

Irving,  Edward,  Scottish  preacher,  was  bom  at 
Annan,  1792.  He  was  graduated  at  Edinburgh 
university,  and  in  1810  became  a  schoolmaster 
at  Haddington,  in  1812  at  Kirkcaldy.  Here 
three  years  later  he  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  in 
1819  was  appointed  assistant  to  Dr.  Chalmers 
in  Glasgow.  In  1822  he  was  called  to  the  Cale- 
donian church,  Hatton  Garden,  London,  and 
his  success  there  as  a  preacher  was  phenomenal. 
In  1825  he  began  to  announce  his  convictions 
in  regard  to  the  imminent  second  advent  of 
Christ ;  this  was  followed  up  by  the  translation  of 
The  Coming  of  the  Messiah,  professedly  written 
by  a  Christian  Jew,  but  really  by  a  Spanish  Jesuit. 
By  1828,  when  his  Homolies  on  the  Sacraments 
appeared,  he  had  begun  to  elaborate  his  ^'iew8 
oi  the  incarnation,  and  was  charged  with  heresy. 
He  was  arraigned  before  the  presbytery  of  Lon- 
don in  1830,  convicted  of  heresy,  ejected  from 
his  new  church  in  Regent's  square  in  1832,  and 
finally  deposed  in  1833  by  the  presbytery  of 
Annan,  which  had  licensed  him.  The  majority 
of  his  congregation  supported  him,  however, 
and  a  new  communion,  the  Catholic  Apostolic, 
was  developed,  commonly  known  as  Irvingite, 
though  Irving  had  little  to  do  with  its  develop- 
ment. Shortly  after  his  health  failed,  and  he 
went  to  Glasgow,  where  he  died  of  consumption, 
1834. 

Irving,  Sir  Henry  (John  Henry  Brodribb),  English 
actor,  was  born  in  Keinton,  near  Glastonbury, 
1838.  He  acted  at  the  Theater  Royal,  Edin- 
burgh, 1856-59,  'and  afterward  for  seven  years 
at  Manchester.  He  played  in  London,  1859, 
but  attracted  little  notice  until  his  appearance 
at  St.  James's  theater,  1866.  He  soon  established 
a  connection  with  the  Lyceum,  of  which  he  be- 
came manager  in  1878.  There  he  played  his 
chief  parts,  in  conjunction  with  Miss  Ellen  Terry, 
producing,  among  other  plays,  Hamlet,  The 
Merchant  of  Venice,  Faust,  Macbeth,  Henry  VIII., 
The  Bells,  and  other  well-known  productions. 
He  first  came  to  the  United  States  in  1883,  with 
Miss  Terrj'  and  his  Lyceum  company,  and  made 
his  d^but  in  New  York,  as  Mathias,  in  The  Bells. 
He  made  subsequent  tours  in  1884-85,  1887-88, , 
1893.  and  several  times  thereafter.     He  died  in 


England,  1906,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster 
abbey. 
Irving,  Isabel,  actress,  waa  bom  at  Bridgeport, 
Conn.,  1871.  She  made  her  d6but  as  Gwendolyn 
Hawkins  in  The  Schoolmistress,  with  Rosina 
Vokes  company,  1887 ;  waa  with  Augustin  Daly's 
company,  1888-94;  leading  woman  at  Lyceum 
theater,  New  York,  and  in  John  Drew's  company 
several  years;  has  also  played  leading  rAles  in 
England.  She  was  selected  by  Charles  Frohman 
to  create  the  r61e  of  Lady  Jocelvn  Leigh  in  To 
Have  and  To  Hold,  at  the  Knickerbocker  theater. 
New  York;  later  starred  under  the  management 
of  James  K.  Hackett  in  The  Crisis;  played 
Louise  in  all-star  cast  of  The  Two  Orphans,  under 
the  management  of  Liebler  and  Company,  1905 ; 
was  engaged  by  Clyde  Fitch  to  play  the  comedy 

Eart  in  The  Toast  of  the  Town,  1906;  waB  starred 
y  Liebler  and  Company  in  Susan  in  Search  of  a 
Husband,  and  The  Girl  Who  Has  Everythino,  1907. 
Created  title  r61e  in  Water,  1908;  played  leading 
part  in  The  Flag  Lieutenant  and  The  Commanding 
Officer,  1909.  She  married  W.  H.  Thompson,  1899. 
Irving, Washington,  distinguished  American  author, 
was  bom  in  the  city  of  New  York  1783.  He 
was  the  youngest  son  of  William  Irving,  who 
had  emigrated  from  Scotland,  and  settled  in 
New  York  as  a  merchant  before  the  revolution. 
Irving,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  entered  a  law  oflSice; 
but  found  greater  profit  from  his  father's  well- 
stocked  library,  Chaucer  and  Spenser  being  his 
favorite  authors.  New  York,  at  this  period, 
was  a  town  of  about  50,000  inhabitants,  many 
of  whom  were  descendants  of  the  original  Dutch 
settlers,  having  quaint  manners  and  customs, 
of  which  Irving  was  a  curious  observer.  In  1804 
he  visited  and  traveled  extensively  in  Europe; 
returned  to  New  York  in  1806,  and  contributed 
a  series  of  genial  and  humorous  essays  to  a  periodi- 
cal called  Salmagundi.  In  1809  he  wrote  A 
History  of  New  York,  from  the  Beginning  of  the 
World  to  the  End  of  the  Dutch  Dynasty,  by  Died- 
rick  Knickerbocker,  a  burlesque  chronicle  written 
in  so  quiet  a  vein  of  humor  that  it  has  sometimes 
been  taken  for  a  veritable  history.  Having  no 
inclination  for  law,  he  engaged  in  commerce. as 
a  silent  partner  with  his  brothers,  but  devoted 
his  time  to  literature,  and  in  1813  edited  the 
Analectic  Magazine  in  Philadelphia.  At  the 
close  of  the  war,  in  1815,  he  visited  England, 
where  he  was  warmly  welcomed  by  Campbell, 
whose  biography  he  had  formerly  writtea,  and 
was  introduced  by  him  to  Walter  Scott.  In 
1819  he  published  the  well-known  Sketch  Book, 
containing  The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow  and  Rip 
Van  Winkle.  He  then  went  to  Paris,  and  in  1822 
wrote  Bracebridge  Hall^  and  in  1824  the  Tales  of 
a  Traveler.  At  the  invitation  of  Edward  Everett. 
American  ambassador  to  Spain,  he  accompanied 
him  to  Madrid  to  translate  documents  connected 
with  the  life  of  Columbus.  With  these  materials 
he  wrote  his  History  of  the  Life  and  Voyages  of 
Columbus,  Voyages  of  the  Companions  of  Colum- 
bus, The  Conquest  of  Granada,  and  many  Spanish 
works.  In  1842  he  was  appointed  United  States 
minister  to  Spain.  In  1849  was  published  his 
Life  of  Goldsmith,  and  his  great  work,  the  Life 
of  Washington,  was  published  in  1855-59.  He 
spent  the  last  years  of  his  life  at  Sunnyside,  in 
his  own  "Sleepy  Hollow,"  on  the  Hud.son,  near 
Tarrytown,  where  be  died,  1859. 
Irwin,  Agnes,  American  educator,  was  bom  at 
Washington,  D.  C,  1841,  daughter  of  William 
W.  Irwin.  She  was  educated  in  private  schools; 
Litt.  D.,  universitv  of  Pennsylvania,  1898 ;  LL.  D., 
St.  Andrew's,  Scotland,  1906.  She  first  taught 
in  the  school  of  Mrs.  Hoffman,  New  York, 
later  conducted  a  private  school  in  Philadelphia, 
and  from  1894  to  1909  was  dean  of  RadcUfife 
college,  Cambridge,  Mass. 


798 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENt 


Irwln,  May,  actress,  was  bom  at  Whitby,  Ontario, 
1862,  daughter  of  Robert  E.  Campbell.  She 
made  her  d6but  at  the  Adelphi  theater,  Buffalo, 
1876 ;  waa  a  member  of  Tony  Pastor's  company, 
1877-83,  Augustin  Daly's  company,  1883-87; 
later  with  Charles  Frohman,  and  Rich  and  Harris; 
subsequently  starred  in  The  Widow  Jones;  The 
Swell  Miss  FitzweU;  Courted  Into  Court;  Kate 
Kip  —  Buyer;  Sister  Mary;  Belle  of  Bridgeport; 
Madge  Smith,  Attorney;  Mrs.  Black  is  Back; 
Mrs.  Wilson — Andrews;  Mrs.  Peckham's  Carouse, 
etc.  She  mdrried  Frederick  W.  Keller,  1878,  who 
died  in  1886.     Married  Kurt  Eisfeldt,  1907. 

Irwin,  Wallace,  author,  was  bom  at  Oneida,  N.  Y., 
1875.  He  studied  at  Stanford  university,  1896- 
99,  and  became  a  special  writer  on  San  Francisco 
Examiner,  1900 ;  waa  editor  San  Francisco  News 
Letter,  1901;  editor  Overland  MorUhly,  1902. 
Burlesque  writer  Republic  theater,  1903 ;  writer 
of  topical  verse.  New  York  Globe,  1904-05,  and 
on  staff  Collier's  Weekly,  1906-07.  Author:  The 
Love  Sonnets  of  a  Hoodlum;  The  Rubaiyai  of 
Omar  Khayyam,  Jr.;  Fairy  Tales  Up  to  Now; 
Nautical  Lays  of  a  Landsman;  ^t  the  Sign  of  the 
Dollar;  Chinatoum  Ballads;  Random  Rhymes 
of  Odd  Numbers,  etc.  He  is  a  prolific  contributor 
to  magazines  and  weeklies. 

Isabella  (Iz'-d-bW-d),  c^ueen  of  Castile,  daughter 
of  John  II.,  was  born  in  1451,  and  united  in  1469 
to  Ferdinand  V.,  king  of  Aragon.  On  the  death 
of  ^er  brother,  Henry  IV.,  in  1474,  she  took 
possession  of  the  throne  of  Castile,  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  Joanna,  the  true  inheritor  of  the  crown. 
When  a  union  of  the  kingdoms  of  Aragon  and 
Castile  took  place,  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  to- 
gether assumed  the  royal  title  of  Spain.  She 
was  a  woman  of  fine  intellect,  a  wise  and  humane 
ruler,  was  always  present  during  the  tran.saction 
of  state  business,  and  her  name  was  placed  beside 
that  of  the  king  in  state  ordinances.  She  proved 
also  a  stanch  supporter  of  Columbus  in  his  search 
for  the  western  route  to  India.     Died,  1504. 

Isabey  (e'-zd'-bi'),  Jean  Baptiste,  court  painter 
and  favorite  of  Napoleon,  was  born  at  Nancy, 
1767.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Girardet,  Claudet^  Du- 
mont,  and  David.  He  painted  the  portraits  of 
Josephine,  Napoleon,  his  marshals,  and  the  chief 
personages  of  Europe.  He  visited  the  Russian 
court  at  the  invitation  of  Alexander.  Died  at 
Paris,  1855. 

Isaiah  (l-zd'-yd,  X-z&'-yd),  one  of  the  most  eminent 
of  the  Hebrew  prophets,  flourished  about  740- 
701  B.  C.  He  was  the  son  of  Amos,  but  of  his 
p>ersonal  history  very  little  is  known.  He  prophe- 
sied under  Uzziah,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah, 
kings  of  Judah.  His  prophecies,  though  de- 
livered later  in  point  of  time  than  several  of  those 
uttered  by  other  prophets,  occupy,  in  our  Bible, 
the  first  place,  both  on  account  of  their  bulk, 
and  for  the  sublimity  and  imp>ortance  of  the 
predictions. 

Isidore  (W-i-dor)  of  Seville,  or  Isidorus  Hispalensls, 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  ecclesiastics  of  the 
seventh  century,  was  bom  at  Cartagena,  Spain, 
about  560.  He  is  particularly  remarkable  as 
among  the  earliest  representatives  of  the  church 
of  Spain,  and  of  that  great  movement  in  the 
western  church  by  which  the  doctrinal  and  moral 
system  of  Christianity  was  brought  into  harmony 
with  the  habits  and  institutions  of  those  various 
races  and  nationalities  which,  by  successive  im- 
migrations and  wars,  were  eventually  erected 
into  the  Hispano-Gothic  kingdom,  which  exer- 
cised so  powerful  an  influence  on  what  is  called 
Latin  Christianity.  The  episcopate  of  Isidore, 
which  began  in  600,  is  rendered  notable  bv  the 
half-ecclesiastical,  half -civil  councils  of  Seville  in 
619,  and  of  Toledo  in  633,  which  were  held  under 
his  presidency,  and  the  canons  of  which  may  almost 
be  said  to  have  formed  the  basis  of  the  constitutional 


law  of  the  Spanish  kingdoms,  both  for  church 
and  for  state,  down  to  the  great  constitutional 
changes  of  the  fifteenth  centurv'.  He  also  col- 
lected with  the  same  object  all  the  decrees  of 
councils  and  other  church  laws  anterior  to  his 
time.      Died,  636. 

Ismail  Paslia  {W-mOril'  pi-sha'),  khedive  of  Egypt, 
was  born  in  1830.  He  succeeded  Said  Pasha  as 
fifth  viceroy  of  Egypt,  1863;  promoted  the  Sue* 
canal  project,  and  gained  wealth  by  the  cultiva- 
tion of  cotton  during  the  American  war.  The 
sultan  settled  the  direct  succession  in  his  line  in 
1866,  and  his  ambition  afterward  made  him 
master  of  the  upper  and  white  Nile,  Darfur,  and 
surrounding  territory.  He  almost  rebuilt  Cairo, 
preatly  improved  Alexandria,  and  constructed 
immense  public  works.  Financial  disaster  coeo- 
ing  in  1879,  he  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son, 
Mohammed  Tewfik,  and  lived  after  1888  in 
Constantinople.     Died,  1895. 

laoerates  (i-«dV-ra-tfz),  Greek  orator  and  teacher, 
was  bom  in  Athens,  436  B.  C.  He  received  aa 
excellent  education,  in  his  youth  heard  the  orator 
Gorgias,  and  joined  the  circle  of  Socrates,  but 
abandoned  philosophy  for  speech-writing,  which 
also  he  gave  up  when  tie  found,  after  six  speeches, 
that  he  had  not  the  practical  gifts  for  winning 
cases  in  a  law  court.  About  390  B.  C.  he  set  up 
as  a  teacher  of  oratory,  though  he  professed  also 
to  give  a  general  practical  education.  He  drew 
to  him  pupils  subsequently  distinguished  as 
statesmen,  historians,  and  orators.  He  himself 
composed  model  speeches  for  his  pupils,  such  as 
the  Panegyricus  and  the  PUUaricus.  But  he  also 
wrote  speeches  intended  to  be  practical;  the 
Arehidatnua  may  actually  have  been  composed 
for  the  Spartan  king  Archidamus.  But  the 
majority,  for  instance  the  Symmachicus,  the 
Areopaifiticus,  the  Panathenaicus,  and  the  letters 
to  Philip  of  Macedon,  were  designed  to  be  circu- 
lated and  read  —  tbev  are  in  fact  the  earliest 
political  pamphlets  known.  As  a  politician, 
Isocrates'  one  idea  was  to  unite  all  Greeks  to- 

f ether  in  a  joint  attack  upon  the  common  foe, 
'ersia.  The  outcome  was  the  destruction  of 
Greek  freedom  at  Chasronea  bv  Philip,  a  blow 
which  "killed  with  report  that  old  man  eloquent." 
For  melody,  artistic  merit,  perfection  of  form  and 
literary  finish,  Isocrates  stands  unrivaled,  though 
his  work  is  labored  and  his  style  is  apt  to  become 
monotonous.      Died,  338  B.  C. 

Israels  (^s'-rd-^«'),  Josef,  Dutch  painter,  was  bom 
at  Groningen,  1824.  He  studied  at  Amsterdam, 
under  Kruseman,  and  next  at  Paris,  under 
Picquet,  and  received  gold  medals  of  honor  at 
Paris,  Brussels,  and  Rotterdam.  He  also  had 
conferred  upon  him  the  Belgian  order  of  Leopold, 
and  was  nominated  a  member  of  the  French 
legion  of  honor.  Principal  works:  "Old  and 
Worn-out";  "Silent  Conversation";  "The 
Frugal  Meal";  "Past  Mother's  Grave";  "Do- 
mestic Sorrow";  "The  Eve  of  the  Separation"; 
"From  Darkness  to  Light";  "The  Pancake"; 
"The  Poor  of  the  Village";  "The  Shoemaker"; 
"A  Cottage  Madonna";  "The  Tranquil  House"; 
"The  Cradle";  " Interior  of  the  Orphans'  Home 
at  Katwvk";  "The  Tme  Support";  "The 
Mother";*  "The  Children  of  the  Sea";  "Mind- 
ing the  Flock";  "The  Little  Sick  Nurse"; 
"The  Sower."     Died,  1911. 

Ito  (e'-to).  Marquis  Hirobumi,  Japanese  statesman, 
was  bom  in  the  province  of  Choshu,  1841.  In 
1871  he  visited  the  United  States  for  the  purpose 
of  examining  the  coinage  system,  and  on  his 
return  to  Japan  was  successful  in  establishing  a 
mint  at  O.saka.  In  1878  he  was  transferred  from 
the  office  of  minister  of  public  works  to  that  of 
minister  of  the  interior.  He  became  prominent 
in  the  Japanese  cabinet  in  1886,  made  many 
reforms,    and    in    1888    prepared    the    written 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


790 


constitution  of  Japan  which  was  promtilgated  In 
1889.  In  1897-98  he  made  a  tour  of  the  United 
States  and  Europe.  In  tiie  latter  year  he  visited 
China  to  arrange  an  alliance  between  that  country 
and  his  own,  and,  in  1900,  on  the  rosiRnation  of 
the  Yainagata  ministry,  he  was  summoned  bv  the 
emperor  to  form  a  cabinet.  He  revisitecf  the 
United  States  in  1901,  and  subsequently  became 
the  chief  administrative  officer  of  Ck>rea.  Assas- 
sinated, 1909. 

Ito,  Count  Tuko,  Japanese  admiral,  chief  of  the 
naval  general  staff,  was  bom  in  Satauma  province, 
1843.  He  was  educated  at  the  Tokyo  Kaisei 
college.  Entered  the  imperial  Japanese  navy, 
1868 ;  attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-commander, 
1872;  commanded  the  Adzuma,  Nisshin,  Fuso, 
and  Hiyei  in  succession;  took  part  in  the  civil 
war  of  1877  in  command  of  Nisshin,  and  with  the 
Hiyei  went  to  the  Persian  gulf,  1880;  was 
promoted  rear-admiral  and  commander  of  the 
standing  sciuadron,  1886 ;  vice-admiral  and  chief 
of  Yokosuka  naval  station,  1892;  fought  the 
battle  of  Yalu  with  all  the  combined  sauadrons 
under  command,  1894 ;  chief  of  the  naval  general 
staff,  1895;  created  viscount  for  services  in  the 
war,  and  made  a  full  admiral  in  1898. 

Ivan  III.  (e-vdn',  i'-v&n),  Vasilevitch,  czar  of 
Russia,  sometimes  named  "the  great,"  may  be 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Russian  empire. 
He  was  born  in  1440,  was  at  first  only  grand-duke 
of  Moscow,  but  succeeded  in  shaking  off  entirely 
the  yoke  of  the  Tartars,  and  in  subjecting  a  num- 
ber of  the  Russian  principalities  to  his  own  sway. 
In  1472  he  married  Sophia,  a  niece  of  Constantine 
Palseologus,  assumed  the  title  of  "ruler  of  all 
Russia,  and  adopted  the  two-headed  eagle  of 
the  Byzantine  empire.    Died,  1505. 

Ivan  IV.,  Vasilevitch,  czar  of  Russia,  called  "the 
terrible,"  was  bom  in  1530.  He  did  much  for 
the  advancement  of  his  country  in  arts  and  com- 
merce, as  well  as  for  its  extension  by  arms.  He 
subdued  Kazan  and  Astrakhan,  and  made  the 
first  annexation  of  Siberia.  He  concluded  a 
commercial  treaty  with  Queen  Elizabeth  of 
England,  after  the  English  had  discovered  the 
way  to  Archangel  by  sea.  But  his  hand  fell 
with  merciless  cruelty  upon  the  boyars  of  his 
kingdom,  and  upon  some  of  his  towns,  as  Moscow, 
Tver,  and  Novgorod.  Ivan  died  of  sorrow  for 
his  son,  whom  three  years  before  he  had  slain  in  a 
mad  fit  of  rage.     Died,  1584. 

Ives  (ivz),  Frederic  Euf^ene,  American  inventor, 
was  born  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  1856.  He  was 
educated  in  the  public  schools  at  Litchfield, 
Norfolk,  Newtown,  Conn.  In  charge  of  photo- 
graphic laboratory,  Cornell  university,  1874-78, 
he  realized  the  first  practically  successful  process 
of  orthochromatic  photography,  and  invented 
the  process  of  half-tone  photo-engraving  now 
universally  employed,  1886.  His  experiments  in 
color  photography  on  the  so-called  trichromatic 
principle,  commenced  in  1878,  culminated  in  the 
three-color  printing  process  in  the  typographic 
press,  now  an  important  industry,  and  in  the 
Kromskop  and  Tripak  systems.  His  recent  inven- 
tions include  gla.ss  sealed  spectroscope  gratings, 
the  diffraction  chromoscope,  and  the  universal 
colorimeter.  He  has  lectured  before  scientific 
societies  in  America  and  England,  and  is  a 
member  of  many  scientific  societies.  Author: 
Isochromatic  Photography  with  ChorophyU,  A  New 
Principle  in  Heliochromy.  Contributor  to  tech- 
nical and  educational  journals  on  photographic 
processes. 

IztlilxochitI  (esh'-tlU-sho'-chefl),  Fernando  de 
Alva,  Mexican  antiquarian,  was  bom  in  Mexico, 
about  1568.  He  was  a  descendant  of  the  kings 
of  Tezcuco,  was  interpreter  of  the  native  lan- 
guages to  several  viceroys  of  Mexico,  and  a 
laborious    collector    of    the    ancient    MSS.    and 


traditions  of  his  country.  Both  Presscott  and 
Lord  Kingsborough  made  use  of  his  writings 
in  the  compilations  of  their  histories.  Many 
valuable  manuscripts  of  his  are  in  the  archives  of 
Mexico.     Died,  1648. 

Jackson,  Abraham  Valentine  Williams,  American 
educator  and  scholar,  professor  Indo-Iranian 
languages,  Columbia  university,  since  1895,  was 
born  in  New  York,  1862.  He  was  graduated 
at  Columbia,  1883;  L.  H.  D.,  1885,  Ph.  D.,  1886, 
LL.  D.,  1904.  Was  university  student,  Halle, 
Germany,  1887-89;  instructor  in  Anglo-Saxon 
and  Indo-Iranian  languages,  Columbia,  1889-91 ; 
adjunct  professor  English  language  and  literature, 
Columbia,  1891-95,  and  has  done  much  public 
lecturing.  He  traveled  in  India,  1901  and  1911, 
Persia  and  Central  Asia,  1903,  1907,  and  1910. 
Author:  A  Hymn  of  Zoroaster;  An  Aveatan  Gram- 
mar; An  Avestan  Reader;  Zoroaster,  the  Prophet 
of  Ancient  Iran;  Persia,  Past  and  Present;  and 
many  articles  in  Journal  American  Oriental  Society 
since  1886,  and  other  journals  of  learning,  maga- 
zines, etc.  He  edited  A  History  of  India,  9  vols., 
and  the  Columbia  university  Indo-Iranian  series, 
in  five  volumes. 

Jackson,  Andrew,  seventh  president  of  the  United 
States,  was  born  in  North  Carolina,  1767.  Hia 
father,  a  Scotch-Irishman,  emigrated  to  America 
in  1765.  When  Jackson  grew  up  he  was  sent 
to  study  for  the  church,  but  on  the  outbreak  of 
the  American  revolution  he  and  his  brothers  were 
summoned  to  the  field.  Though  but  thirteen 
years  old,  he  fought  under  Sumter,  and  remained 
with  the  army  until  the  end  of  the  war.  In  1784 
he  commenced  the  study  of  law,  and  in  1788  was 
appointed  solicitor  for  the  western  district  of 
South  Carolina,  now  the  state  of  Tennessee.  In 
1796  he  was  a  member  of  the  convention  which 
modeled  the  constitution  and  organized  the  state 
of  Tennessee,  and  was  elected,  respectively, 
representative,  United  States  senator,  judge  of 
the  state  supreme  court,  and  major-general  of 
state  militia.  In  1813,  at  an  outbreak  of  hostili- 
ties with  the  Creek  Indians,  he  raised  a  volunteer 
force  of  3,000  men  and  defeated  them.  Jack- 
son's final  victory  on  March  27,  1814,  broke  the 
power  of  the  Indian  race  in  North  America.  He 
was  appointed  major-general  of  the  United 
States  army;  defended  New  Orleans  against  the 
attack  of  the  British  under  General  Packenhara, 
December,  1814.  The  result  of  this  action  gave 
General  Jackson  a  great  and  enduring  popularity. 
After  Spain  had  ceded  Florida  to  the  United 
States  he  was  made  governor  of  the  territory, 
and  subsequently  was  chosen  United  States 
senator  from  Tennessee.  He  was,  in  spite  of 
opposition,  elected  president  of  the  United  States 
by  the  democratic  party  in  1828,  and  in  1832 
reelected  by  a  still  more  overwhelming  majority. 
His  administration  was  marked  by  singular 
firmness.  He  vetoed  impiortant  measures  against 
large  majorities,  destroyed  the  bank  of  the 
United  States,  and  took  the  first  steps  toward 
a  specie  currency  and  an  independent  treasury. 
He  retired  with  undiminished  popularity  after 
witnessing  the  election  of  his  favorite,  President 
Van  Buren.     Died,  1845. 

Jackson,  Helen  Hunt,  American  author  and  poet, 
was  bom  in  Amherst,  Maas.,  1831.  Her  maiden 
name  was  Helen  Maria  Jlske.  She  studied  at 
Ipswich  female  seminary,  and  in  1852  was  mar- 
ried to  Major  E.  B.  Hunt,  of  the  United  States 
engineers.  She  afterwara  married  William  8. 
Jackson,  and  lived  most  of  the  latter  part  of  her 
life  at  Colorado  Springs,  Colo.  She  began  to 
write  verses  about  1870  over  the  signature  "H. 
H.,"  which  soon  became  familiar  to  magazine 
readers.  She  had  always  been  interested  in  the 
welfare  of  the  Indians,  and  her  book,  A  Century 


800 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


of  DishoTun,  made  her  their  champion.  In  1883 
Mrs.  Jackson  was  made  a  commissioner  by  the 
government  to  look  into  the  condition  of  the 
Mission  Indiana  of  California.  Her  last  book, 
Ramona,  which  deals  with  Indian  life,  leaped 
at  once  into  great  popularity.  She  died  at  San 
Francisco,  1885. 

Jackson,  Samuel  Macaulay,  American  educator  and 
writer,  professor  of  church  history,  New  York 
university,  1895-1912;  was  born  in  New  York 
city,  1851.  He  was  graduated  from  the  college 
of  the  city  of  New  York,  1870,  Union  theological 
seminary,  1873;  LL.  D.,  Washington  and  Lee  uni- 
versity, 1892;  D.  D.,  New  York  university,  1893. 
He  was  a  Presbyterian  pastor,  Norwood,  N.  J., 
1876-80;  assistant  editor  Schaff'a  Bible  Dic- 
tionary, 1880;  associate  editor,  Schaff-Herzog 
Encyclopaedia  of  Religious  Knowledge,  1884;  joint- 
editor.  Encyclopaedia  of  Living  Divines,  1887; 
editor.  Concise  Dictionary  of  Religious  Knowledge, 
1891;  church  terms  in  the  Standard  Dictionary, 
1895,  and  of  the  same  in  the  supplement  to  Wef>- 
ster'a  International  Dictionary,  1900;  church  his- 
tory department,  Johnson's  Universal  Cyclopaedia, 
1893-95 ;  religious  editor.  New  International Ency- 
dopcedia,  1902-04,  and  was  chief  editor  of  new 
edition  of  Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia,  1907-11. 
His  other  publications  include :  Hiddreich  Zwingli, 
Handbooks  for  Practical  Workers  in  Church  and 
Philanthropy,  etc.     Died,  1912. 

Jackson,  Thomas  Jonathan,  better  known  the 
world  over  as  "Stonewall  Jackson,"  American 
general,  was  bom  in  Lewis  county,  Virginia  (now 
West  Virginia),  1824.  He  was  graduated  at 
West  Point  academy  in  1846,  and  after  serving 
with  distinction  in  the  Mexican  war,  he  became 
a  professor  in  the  military  institute  at  Lexington, 
Va.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  he  was 
appointed  brigadier-general  in  the  confederate 
service.  At  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  July,  1861, 
his  command  on  that  occasion  "stood  like  a  stone 
wall,"  hence  the  sobriquet.  In  September  he 
received  the  rank  of  major-general;  defeated 
General  Banks  at  Front  Royal,  1862;  fought  an 
indecisive  battle  with  Fremont  at  Cross  Keys; 
commanded  a  corps  in  the  battle  of  Gaines'  Mill 
and  Malvern  Hill ;  again  defeated  General  Hanks 
at  Cedar  mountain;  captured  Harper's  Ferry 
with  11,000  federal  prisoners;  commanded  a 
corps  at  Antietam;  and  was  made  lieutenant- 
general  for  his  services  in  largely  contributing 
to  the  federal  defeat  at  Fredericksburg.  In 
1863,  by  a  clever  Sank  movement,  he  defeated 
the  11th  corps  of  General  Hooker's  army  at 
Chancellorsville ;  and  on  the  evening  of  the 
same  day  was  fired  at  by  a  patrol  party  of 
his  own  men,  who  mistook  him  and  his  staff, 
in  the  darkness,  for  a  detachment  of  Union 
cavalry,  and  died  of  his  wounds  on  May  10. 
1863. 

Jacob!  (Ger.  y&-ko'-i>e),  Abraham,  American  physi- 
cian, was  born  at  Hartum,  Westphalia,  1830. 
He  studied  at  the  universities  of  Greifswald  and 
Gottingen;  was  graduated  from  Bonn,  M.  D., 
1851;  LL.  D.,  university  of  Michigan,  1898, 
Columbia,  1900,  Yale,  1905,  Harvard,  1906. 
He  became  identified  with  German  revolutionarj' 
movement;  was  held  in  detention  at  Berlin  and 
Cologne,  1851-53,  for  "high  treason,"  and 
settled  in  practice  in  New  York,  1853;  was 
professor  of  diseases  of  children,  New  York 
medical  college,  1860-65,  and  at  New  York 
university,  1865-70;  later  professor  of  diseases 
of  children,  college  of  physicians  and  surgeons. 
He  was  co-editor  of  American  Journal  of  Obstet- 
rics and  Diseases  of  Women  and  Children,  1868-71. 
Author:  Dentition  and  Its  Derangements;  The 
Raistng  and  Education  of  Abandoned  Children 
xn  Europe;  Infant  Diet;  Diphtheria;  Treatise 
on   Diphtheria;    Pathology  of  the  Thymus  Gland; 


Therapeutics  of  Infancy  and  Childhood;  Intesiinal 
Diseases,  etc.  Member  of  many  medical 
societies. 

Jacobi,  Friedrich  Heinrlcb,  German  philosopher, 
was  born  at  Diisseldorf,  1743.  He  was  trainea 
for  a  mercantile  career,  but  in  1772  was  appointed 
finance  officer  for  Jtilich  and  Berg,  and  devoted 
himself  to  literature  and  philosophy.  He  elabo- 
rated no  system  of  philosophy,  but  criticised  all 
other  philosophies  from  his  special  doctrine  — 
that  by  the  "reason,"  not  the  understanding, 
we  have  immediate  conviction  or  belief  not  only 
of  the  reaUty  of  objects  perceived  by  the  senses, 
but  also  of  the  reality  of  the  highest  verities  that 
lie  beyond  the  apprehension  of  sense.  From 
this  standpoint  he  examined  Spinoza,  Hume, 
Kant,  and  Schelling.  He  also  expounded  bis 
view  in  philosophical  romances  —  Woldemcw 
and  AUxvills  Briefsammlung — in  an  Open  Letter 
to  Fichte,  and  in  other  writings.     Died,  1819. 

Jacob!,  Karl  Gustav  Jakob,  celebrated  German 
niathernalician,  was  born  in  Prunsia,  1804.  In 
1829  hi"  Ix^canie  a  professor  at  Konigsberg,  and 
published  hip  celebrated  work,  Fundamenta  nova 
Theoria  Functionum  Ellipticarum,  for  which 
he  received  the  great  medal  of  the  academy  of 
sciences  of  Paris.  He  also  wrote  a  great  number 
of  memoirs  on  the  different  branches  of  the 
higher  mathematics,  chiefly  on  Series  and  Definite 
Integrals,  and  was  a  regular  contributor  to  the 
celet>rated  Journal  fur  reine  und  angewandt  Mathc- 
matik  of  Crelle.     Died.   1851. 

Jaeobr  (/o-Ard'-^t),  Harold,  American  astronomer, 
professor  of  astronomy  at  Columbia  university, 
since  1894,  was  born  at  New  York,  1865.  He 
was  graduated  at  Columbia,  1885 :  Ph.  D.,  same. 
Was  assistant  astronomer  United  States  eclipse 
expedition  to  West  Africa  in  United  States 
sUnuner  Penaacola,  1889-90;  acting  director. 
1903-06,  director  since  1906,  Columbia  observa- 
tory. Author:  Practical  Talks  by  an  Astronomer, 
technical  papers  on  astronomical  photography, 
stellar  parallax  and  star  clusters,  publisnea  by 
leading  European  and  American  societies;  also 
contributes  articles  on  astronomical  subjects  to 
daily  pajK-rs  of  principal  cities.  Public  lecturer 
on  astronomy  and  other  subjects. 

Jacotot  {zhd'-ko'-to'),  Jean  Josepli,  inventor  of  the 
"universal  method"  of  education,  was  bom  at 
Dijon,  France,  1770.  He  was  successively  sol- 
dier, military  secretary,  and  holder  of  various 
professional  chairs.  The  principles  of  his  system 
are  that  the  mental  capacities  of  all  men  are 
equal;  the  unequal  results  of  education  depend 
almost  exclusively  upon  will;  everyone  is  able 
to  educate  himself,  provided  he  is  once  started 
in  the  right  way;  knowledge  should  first  be 
acquired  through  instinctive  experience,  or  by 
the  memory.  He  expounded  his  views  in  En- 
seignement  Universel.     Died,  1840. 

Jacquard  (zhd'-kdr*),  Joseph  Marie,  French  in- 
ventor, was  bom  at  Lyons,  1752.  He  attempted 
to  establish  a  manufactory  for  weaving  figured 
fabrics,  planned  several  ingenious  improvements 
in  machinerj',  and  brought  to  perfection  the 
apparatus  for  figured  weaving,  which  now  per- 
petuates his  name  —  the  Jacquard  loom.  Among 
his  contrivances  may  be  mentioned  also  a  ma- 
chine for  weaving  nets  for  fishing.  His  machine 
was  discovered,  he  was  arrested,  and  sent  to 
Paris;  but  upon  examination  the  inspectors. 
Napoleon  and  Camot  being  two  of  them,  awarded 
him  a  gold  medal.  He  resided  at  Lyons  for 
many  years,  encountering  much  opposition 
from  a  prejudice  excited  against  machinery,  but 
eventually  triumphed.  He  passed  his  latter 
years  in  tranquil  retirement,  and  died  in  1834. 
During  his  Ufe  he  received  the  cross  of  the  l^oa 
of  honor,  and  in  1840  a  public  statue  was  erected 
to  his  memory  at  Lyons. 


THROUGHOUT  THE   WORLD 


801 


Jahn  (ydn),  Frledrlch  Ludwtg,  the  "Tumvater" 
or  father  of  gymnastics,  was  born  at  Lanz  in 
Prussia,  1778.  In  1811  he  started  the  first 
gymnasium  in  Berlin.  His  systeui,  meant  to 
revive  patriotism,  attracted  the  Prussian  youth, 
and  to  the  training  thus  obtained  must  be  largely 
attributed  the  expulsion  of  the  French.  Jahn 
received  the  command  of  a  volunteer  corps; 
and  after  the  peace  of  1815  resumed  his  teaching, 
and  publishecl  Die  DeiUsche  Turnkunst.  But  the 
gymnasiums  began  to  witness  political  gather- 
ings, too  liberal  to  please  the  Prussian  govern- 
ment, and  they  were  closed  in  1818.  Jahn,  who 
had  taken  a  prominent  part  in  the  movement, 
was  arrested  in  1819  and  suffered  five  years' 
imprisonment.  He  was  elected  to  the  Frankfort 
national  assembly  in  1848.     Died,  1852. 

Jahn,  Otto,  German  philologist,  archi£ologist  and 
classical  editor,  was  born  at  Kiel,  1813.  He 
lectured  at  Kiel,  Greifswald,  and  Leipzig.  De- 
prived of  his  chair  in  1851  for  his  part  in  the 
political  movements  of  1848-49,  he  became  in 
1855  professor  of  archaeology  at  Bonn.  He 
published  works  on  Greek  art,  representations 
of  ancient  life  on  vases,  a  number  of  Latin  and 
Greek  classics,  besides  a  Life  of  Mozart,  and  a 
number  of  masterlv  essavs  on  music.  Died, 
1869. 

James  I.  of  England,  VI.  of  Scotland,  the  only  son 
of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  and  Henry,  Lord  Darn- 
ley,  was  born  in  Edinburgh,  1566.  When  his 
mother  was  forced  to  resign  the  crown,  James 
was  proclaimed  king  of  Scotland,  1567.  The 
training  of  his  childhood  was  under  the  care  of 
the  earl  of  Mar.  His  tutor  was  the  famous 
scholar,  George  Buchanan.  In  1578  the  earl 
of  Morton,  then  regent,  was  driven  from  power, 
and  James  assumed  full  control.  The  new 
government  was  unpopular,  and  Morton  was 
once  more  made  regent.  He  was  at  length  con- 
demned and  executed,  as  one  of  the  murderers 
of  Lord  Darnley.  In  the  winter  of  1589  James 
went  to  Denmark,  where  he  married  Princess 
Anne,  daughter  of  Frederick  IT.,  king  of  that 
country.  By  the  death  of  Elizabeth  in  1603, 
James  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  England.  He 
soon  became  unpopular  with  his  new  subjects. 
The  anger  of  the  Roman  Catholics  toward  him, 
because  of  his  severities,  led  to  the  famous  gun- 
powder plot.  He  really  governed  through  his 
favorites,  Kerr  and  Buckingham,  both  of  them 
unpopular;  and  England's  prestige  as  a  power, 
whnch  had  been  gained  under  Elizabeth,  soon 
disappeared.  The  so-called  King  James  Bible 
was  completed  during  his  reign.  He  has  been 
described  as  two  men  in  one  —  "a  witty,  well- 
read  scholar,  who  wrote,  disputed  and  harangued, 
and  a  nervous,  driveling  idiot  who  acted."  He 
has  been  called  by  one  historian  "the  wisest  fool 
in  Christendom."     Died,  1625. 

James  II.  of  England  and  VII.  of  Scotland,  son  of 
Charles  I.  and  Henrietta  Maria,  was  born  in  1633. 
In  1648,  during  the  civil  war,  he  made  his  escape 
to  France.  For  some  time  he  served  in  the 
French  army  under  Turenne ;  but  on  peace  being 
made  with  Crosawell  he  was  obliged  to  leave 
both  the  army  and  territory  of  Louis  XIV.  He 
then  entered  the  military  service  of  Spain.  At 
the  restoration  he  was  made  lord  high  admiral 
of  England.  On  the  death  of  Charles  II.,  1685, 
James  succeeded  to  the  crown  without  opjxjsition. 
On  becoming  king  he  promised  to  maintain  the 
church  and  to  respect  the  liberties  of  the  people, 
but  his  government,  nevertheless,  was  arbitrary 
and  tyrannical;  he  paraded  his  Catholicism, 
persecuted  the  covenanters,  subordinated  Eng- 
lish interests  to  French,  permitted  the  "bloody 
assize,"  suspended  the  test  act,  violated  the 
rights  of  the  universities,  gave  church  offices 
to  Roman  Catholics,   and  by  these  and  many 


other  acts  of  despotism  made  his  deposition 
necessary;  leading  slutesmcn  invited  William 
of  Orange  to  assume  the  throne,  and  James  fled 
to  France;  an  invasion  of  Ireland  in  1689  ended 
in  his  defeat  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne.  He 
retired  again  to  France,  and  lived  at  St.  Qcrmaina 
until  his  death,  1701. 

James  IV.  of  Scotland,  son  of  James  III.  and  Mar- 
garet of  Denmark,  was  born  in  1473.  His  rule 
gave  promise  of  being  both  vigorous  and  popular, 
while  the  personal  beauty  ho  possessed  and  his 
open  frankness  won  the  hearts  of  liis  people. 
He  exhibited  great  energy  and  good  sense  in  the 
management  of  public  affairs,  in  vindicating  the 
law.  and  punislung  crime,  in  encouraging  ship- 
building, and  in  developing  the  agriculture  and 
the  manufactures  of  the  country.  In  1503  the 
king  married  Margaret,  eldest  daughter  of  Henry 
VII.  of  England,  an  alliance  which  led  to  the 
union  of  the  two  crowns  just  one  hundred  years 
later.  Henry  VIII.  came  to  the  English  throne 
in  1509,  and,  m  the  disputes  which  followed,  James 
invaded  England  with  an  army.  He  was  met 
by  the  earl  of  Surrey,  and  in  the  battle  which 
took  place  at  Flodden,  1513,  the  king  and  many 
of  his  nobles  were  killed.  He  was  forty  years 
old,  and  had  reigned  twenty-six  years. 

James,  Edmund  Janes,  American  educator,  was 
born  in  Jacksonville,  111.,  1855.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Illinois  state  normal  school  and  at 
the  Northwestern  and  Harvard  universities; 
Ph.  D.,  1877,  university  of  Halle;  LL.  D.,  Cornell 
college,  Weslevan,  Queen's  college.  He  was 
principal  of  the  high  school,  Evanston,  111., 
1878-79;  principal  Model  high  school,  Normal. 
111.,  1879-82;  professor  of  public  finance  and 
administration,  Wharton  school  of  finance  and 
economy,  university  of  Pennsylvania,  1883-95; 
professor  of  political  and  social  science,  university 
of  Pennsylvania,  1884-95;  professor  of  public 
administration,  and  director  of  extension  division 
of  the  university  of  Chicago,  1896-1901 ;  presi- 
dent of  the  Northwestern  university,  1902-04, 
and  president  of  the  university  of  Illinois  since 
1904.  Author:  Relation  of  tJic  Modern  Munici- 
pality to  the  Gas  Supply;  The  Legal  Tender  De- 
cisions; The  Canal  and  the  RaUway;  Federal 
Constitution  of  Germany;  Federal  Constitution 
of  Switzerland;  Ediication  of  Business  Men  in 
Europe;  Charters  of  City  of  Chicago;  Growth  of 
Great  Cities  in  Area  and  Population;  Government 
of  a  Typical  German  City  —  Halle;  also  over 
100  papers,  monographs,  and  addresses  in  trans- 
actions of  societies,  etc. 

James,  George  Payne  Bainsford,  English  historical 
novelist,  was  bom  in  London,  1801.  He  was 
educated  at  Putney  and  in  France,  and  by  seven- 
teen had  written  some  Eastern  tales,  which  found 
favor  with  Washington  Irving.  Thereafter  he 
ceased  to  write,  dictating  instead  to  an  amanu- 
ensis his  "thick-coming  fancies."  In  all  he 
published  seventy-seven  works,  historical  ro- 
mances mostly,  but  also  biographies,  poems, 
etc.  The  best  were  among  the  earUest :  Riche- 
lieu and  Henry  Masterton.  He  was  British  con- 
sul at  Richmond,  Va.,  1852-56,  and  then  at 
Venice  until  his  death  in  1860. 

James,  Henry,  American  author,  was  bom  in  New 
York,  1843.  He  was  educated  in  France  and 
Switzerland,  and  at  Harvard  law  school.  He 
began  his  literary  career  as  contributor  to  periodi- 
cals, 1866,  and  since  1869  has  lived  in  England. 
Author:  Watch  and  Ward;  A  Passionate  Pil- 
grim; Roderick  Hudson;  Transatlantic  Sketches; 
The  American;  French  Poets  and  Novelists;  The 
Europeans;  Daisy  Miller;  An  International 
Episode;  lAfe  of  Hawthorne;  A  Bundle  of  Letters; 
Confidence;  Diary  of  a  Man  of  Fifty;  Washir^g- 
ton  Square;  The  Portrait  of  a  Lady;  Siege  of  Lon- 
don;   Portraits  of  Places;    Tales  of  Three  Cities; 


802 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


A  Little  Tour  in  France;  The  Author  of  Bdtraffio;  1 
The  Bostonians;  Princess  Casamaasima;  Partial 
Portraits;  The  Aapem  Papers;  The  Reverberator;  I 
A  London  Life;  The  Tragic  Muse;  Terminations;  j 
The  Spoils  of  Poynton;  What  Maisie  Knew;  > 
In  the  Cage;  The  Two  Magics;  The  Awkward  \ 
Age;  Th^,  Soft  Side;  The  Sacred  Fount;  The  j 
Wings  of  the  Dove;  The  Better  Sort;  Question  | 
of  our  Speech;  The  Lesson  of  Balzac;  American 
Scene,  etc. 

James,  William,  eminent  American  psvchologist 
and  philosophical  writer,  was  born  in  >Jew  York,  | 
1842.  He  was  educated  privately,  and  at  Law-  | 
rence  scientific  school,  1861-63;  M.  D.,  Harvard 
medical  school,  1869;  Ph.  D.  and  Litt.  D., 
Padua,  1893;  LL.  D.,  Princeton,  1896,  Edin- 
burgh, 1902,  Harvard,  1903.  He  was  instructor 
and  later  assistant  professor  of  comparative 
anatomy  and  physiology,  1872-80,  assistant 
professor  of  philosophy,  1880-85,  professor  of 
same,  1885-89,  professor  of  psychology,  1889-97. 
and  professor  of^  philosophy,  1897-1907,  Harvard 
university.  He  was  GifTord  lecturer  on  natural 
religion,  university  of  Edinburgh,  1899-1901. 
Corresponding  member  of  the  French  institute, 
Paris,  royal  Prussian  academy  of  sciences;  mem- 
ber national  academy  of  sciences,  etc.  Author: 
Principles  of  Psychology,  2  vols.  •  Psychology  — 
Briefer  Course;  The  Will  to  Believe,  and  Other 
Essays  in  Popular  Philosophy;  Talks  to  Teacher » 
on  Psychology  and  to  Stuaenta  on  Life's  Ideals; 
Human  Immortality  —  Tvix)  Suppoaed  Objections 
to  the  Doctrine;  The  Varieties  of  keligious  Exper- 
iences; Pragmatism  —  A  New  Name  for  some  Old 
Ways  of  Thinking,  etc.     Died,  1910. 

Jameson  (jam'-sun),  Mrs.  (Anna  Brownell  Murphy), 
British  writer,  was  bom  in  Dublin,  1794.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  an  artist,  and  nxany  of  her 
books  are  about  pictures,  painters,  and  other 
art  matters.  In  1823  she  married  Robert 
Jameson,  and  went  with  him  to  Canada,  where 
he  held  a  government  office.  The  marriage 
was  not  a  happy  one,  and  she  separated  from 
her  husband,  and  gave  herself  up  to  writing. 
Among  her  books  are:  Memoirs  of  Cdebrated 
Female  Sovereigns;  Characteristics  of  Women; 
Memoirs  of  Italian  Painters;  The  History  of  Sacred 
and  Legendary  Art;  and  Legends  of  the  Madonna. 
She  died  in  London,  1860. 

Jameson*  John  Franklin,  American  educator, 
historian,  was  bom  in  Boston,  1859.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Amherst  college,  1879;  Ph.  D.,  Johns 
Hopkins.  1882,  LL.  D.,  1902;  LL.D.,  Amherst, 
1898;  was  assistant  and  associate  professor  of  I 
history,  Johns  Hopkins,  1882-88;  professor  of 
history.  Brown,  1888-1901 ;  head  of  department 
of  history,  university  of  Chicago,  1901-05,  and 
director  department  of  historical  research, 
Carnegie  institution,  Washington,  since  1905.  He 
was  managing  editor  of  American  Historical 
Review,  1895-1901  and  since  1905;  president 
American  historical  association,  1906-07.  Author: 
WHlem  Usselinx,  Founder  of  the  Dutch  and  Swedish 
West  India  Companies;  History  of  Historical 
Writing  in  America;  Dictionary  of  United  States 
History,  etc.  He  edited  the  Correspondence  of 
John  C.  Calhoun,  and  has  been  editor  of  historical 
publications  of  Carnegie  institution  since  1905. 

Jameson,  Rt.  Hon.  Sir  Leander  Starr,  South 
African  politician,  was  bom  at  Edinburgh,  1853. 
He  studied  medicine  there  and  at  London,  and 
began  practice  at  Kimberley  in  1878.  Through 
Cecil  Rhodes  he  engaged  in  pioneer  work,  was 
in  1891  made  administrator  of  the  South  African 
company  at  Fort  Salisburv,  and  won  enormous 
popularity.  During  the  troubles  at  Johannes- 
burg between  the  Uitlanders  and  the  Boer 
government,  Jameson,  who  by  order  of  Rhodes 
had  concentrated  the  military  forces  of  Rhodesia 
at  Mafeking  on  the  Transvaal  frontier,    started 


with  six  hundred  troopers  to  support  the 
Uitlanders,  1895.  At  Doornkoop  they  were  over- 
powered by  an  overwhelming  force  of  Boers, 
and.  sleepless  and  famishing,  were  comp>elled 
after  a  sharp  fight  to  surrender,  January  2, 
1896.  Handed  over  to  the  British  authorities, 
Jameson  was  in  Mav  condemned  in  London  to 
fifteen  months'  imprisonment,  but  was  released 
in  December.  In  1900  he  was  elected  to  the 
legislative  assembly,  and  was,  from  1904  to  1908, 
premier  of  Cape  Colony.  Member  of  parliament. 
Harbor  division.  Cape  Town,  1910-12.  Created 
baronet,  1911. 

Janet  {zhd'-ni'),  Paul,  French  philosopher,  was 
bom  in  Paris,  1823.  He  was  professor  at 
Bourges,  Strassburg,  the  Lyc^'e  of  Louis-le- 
Granu,  Paris,  and  mially,  in  1864,  he  became 
professor  of  the  history  of  philosophy  at  the 
Sorbonne,  and  a  member  oi  the  academy  of 
moral  and  pK>litical  sciences.  Among  his  works 
are:  Histoire  de  la  Science  Politique;  Les  Prob- 
Ihnea  du  XIX.  Siide;  Philosophte  de  la  Rivolu- 
ttoh  Franfaiae;  Lea  Cauaea  Finalea;  La  Philoao- 
phie  Franfaiae  Contemporaine;  Lea  MaUrea  de  la 
Penaie  Modeme;  etc.  He  alao  contributed  to 
the  Revue  dea  Deux  Mondea,  Dictionnaire  dea 
Seieneea  Philoaophi^uea  Le  Tempa,  etc..  and  waa 
an  officer  of  the  legion  of  honor.     Died,  1899. 

Janewmy  (/dn'-tM),  Edward  Gamaliel,  American 
physician,  was  bom  in  New  Jersey,  1841;  grad- 
uated at  Rutgers  college,  1800;  acting  medical 
cadet,  Unitea  States  army  hospital,  Newark, 
N.  J.,  1862-63;  graduated  at  the  college  of 
physicians  and  surgeons.  New  York,  1864 ;  LL.  D. 
From  1864  he  was  In  practice  In  New  York; 
identified  with  the  Beilevue  hospital  medical 
college  after  1868,  first  as  curator,  in  1872  as 
professor  of  pathological  anatomy,  and  later  as 
professor  of  medicine  and  dean.  He  held  many 
nospital  appointments,  and  was  health  com- 
missioner of  New  York,  1875-82.      Died,  1911. 

Jans«n  {j&n'-aen;  D.,  yOn'-aen),  Cornelius,  some- 
times called  Jansenius,  bishop  of  Ypres,  in  the 
Netherlands,  and  founder  of  the  Jansenists,  was 
born  at  Acquoi,  near  Leerdam  in  Holland,  1585. 
He  studied  at  Utrecht,  Louvain,  and  Paris; 
filled  a  chair  at  Bayoune*  and  in  1630  became 
professor  of  theology  at  Louvain.  In  1636  he 
was  made  bishop  of  Ypres.  He  died  in  1638, 
just  as  he  had  completed  his  great  work,  the 
Augxutinua,  in  4  vols.,  which  sought  to  prove 
that  the  teaching  of  St.  Augustine  against  the 
Pelagians  and  semi-Pelagian.s  on  grace,  free-will, 
and  predestination  was  directly  opposed  to  the 
teaching  of  the  Jesuit  schools.  Jansen  repudi- 
ated the  ordinary  Catholic  dogma  of  the  freedom 
of  the  will,  and  refused  to  admit  merely  sufficient 
g^ace,  maintaining  that  inferior  grace  is  irresist- 
ible, and  that  Christ  died  for  alL  On  the  pub- 
lication of  the  Augustinua  in  1640,  it  was  received 
with  loud  clamor,  especially  by  the  Jesuits,  and 
was  prohibited  by  a  decree  of  the  inqui.sition  in 
1641 ;  in  the  following  year  it  was  condemned  by 
Urban  VIII.  in  the  buU'/n  Eminenti.  Jansen  was 
supported  by  such  writers  as  Amauld,  Pascal, 
and  the  Port-royalists.  The  controversy  raged 
in  France  with  more  or  less  violence  for  nearly  a 
century,  when  a  large  number  of  Jansemsts 
emigrated  to  the  Netherlands. 

Jastrow  (y&s'-trd),  Joseph,  American  educator, 
professor  of  psychology',  university  of  Wisconsin, 
since  1903,  was  born  at  Warsaw,  Poland,  1863. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  university  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, 1882;  Ph.  D.,  Johns  Hopkins.  1886.  He 
was  in  charge  of  the  psychological  section  of 
World's  Columbian  exposition.  1893,  and  presi- 
dent of  American  psychological  association,  1900. 
Author:  Time-Relations  of  Mental  Phenomena; 
Epitomes  of  Three  Sciences,  part  author;  Fact 
and  FcMe  in  Psychology;   The  Subconacious,  etc.. 


THROUGHOUT  THE   WORLD 


808 


and  a  frequent  contributor  on  psychological 
subjects  in  scientific  journals  and  magazines. 

Jastrow,  Morris,  Jr.,  American  orientalist,  profes- 
sor of  Semitic  languages,  and  librarian,  univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania,  was  born  in  Europe,  1861. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  university  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, 1881;  Ph.  D.,  university  of  Leipzig,  1884, 
and  also  studied  at  other  universities  of  Germany 
and  P'rance.  He  is  a  recognized  authority  on 
Semitic  religions,  languages,  and  literatures. 
Author:  Religion  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyr- 
ians; The  Study  of  Religion;  etc.  Editor,  with 
memoir.  Selected  Essays  of  James  Darmesteter, 
translated  by  Helen  Bachman  Jastrow;  series  of 
Handbooks  on  the  History  of  Religion,  and  of  the 
Semitic  department  of  the  Internxitional  Enci/do- 
paedia.  He  was  also  a  contributor  to  Hastings's 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  the  Encydopcedia  Biblica; 
Jewish  Encyclopaedia;  Encydopcedia  Britannica; 
Hastings'  s  Dictionary  of  Religions;  Journal 
American  Oriental  Society,  and  various  other 
technical  publications. 

Jay,  John,  American  statesman  and  jurist,  was 
born  in  New  York  city,  1745,  and  was  there 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1768.  In  1774,  as  a 
member  of  the  first  continental  congress,  he 
formed  one  of  the  committee  of  three  which 
drew  up  the  celebrated  address  to  the  people  of 
Great  Britain.  He  largely  assisted  in  framing 
the  New  York  state  constitution,  in  1777  was 
appointed  chief-justice  of  New  York,  and  in  the 
following  year  became  president  of  congress. 
He  next  took  part  in  negotiating  the  treaty  of 
peace  entered  into  at  Paris,  1783,  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States.  On  his  return 
he  was  appointed  secretary  of  foreign  affairs, 
and  in  1789  chief-justice  of  the  United  States 
supreme  court.  In  1794  he  proceeded  on  a 
special  mission  to  England,  where  he  concluded 
a  treaty  which  met  with  violent  opposition  from 
the  anti-federalist  party.  He  afterward  held 
the  governorship  of  New  York  state,  and,  after 
refusing  a  second  nomination  to  the  chief- 
justiceship,  died,  1829. 

Jebb,  Sir  Bichard  Claverhouse,  British  Greek 
scholar,  was  bom  at  Dundee,  Scotland,  1841. 
He  was  graduated  from  Trinity  college,  Cam- 
bridge, as  senior  classic  in  1862,  and  was  elected 
fellow.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  organizing 
inter-collegiate  classical  lectures,  and  was  secre- 
tary to  the  newly-founded  Cambridge  philological 
society.  In  1869  he  became  public  orator  of  the 
university,  in  1875  professor  of  Greek  at  Glasgow, 
and  in  1889  regius  professor  of  Greek  at  Cam- 
bridge. In  1891  he  was  elected  member  of  par- 
liament for  Cambridge  university.  His  books 
include  Characters  of  Theophrastv^;  The  Attic 
Orators;  Primer  of  Greek  Literature;  Modern 
Greece;  Translations  into  Greek  and  Latin  Verse; 
Richard  Bentley;  Introduction  to  Homer;  Erasmus; 
Influence  of  Classical  Greek  Poetry;  and  his 
Bacchylides.  But  his  greatest  work  is  his  trans- 
lation of  Sophocles.     Died,  1905. 

Jeejeebhoy  (je-jeb-hoi').  Sir  Jamsetjee,  Hindu 
philanthropist,  was  born  at  Bombay,  India,  1783. 
He  was  taken  into  partnership  by  his  father-in- 
law,  a  Bombay  merchant,  in  1800.  When  peace 
was  restored  in  Europe  in  1815  Indian  trade  with 
Europe  increased  enormously.  By  1822  he  had 
amassed  2,000,000  pounds,  and  began  to  exhibit 
a  magnificent  liberaUty.  He  contributed  gen- 
erously to  various  educational  and  philanthropic 
institutions  in  Bombay,  and  spent  upward  of  a 
quarter  of  a  million  pounds  in  benevolence. 
Parsee  and  Christian,  Hindu  and  Mussulman 
were  alike  the  objects  of  his  beneficence. 
Queen  Victoria  knighted  him  in  1842,  and  in 
1857  he  was  made  a  baronet.     Died,  1859. 

Jefferson,  Charles  Edward,  Congregational  clergy- 
man, was  born  at  Cambridge,  Ohio,   1860.     He 


was  graduated  at  Ohio  Weslcyan  university, 
1882,  school  of  theology,  Boston  university, 
1887;  D.  D.,  Oberiin,  1898,  Union,  1898,  Yale, 
1903.  He  was  ordained  to  the  Congregational 
ministry,  1887;  now  pastor  of  Broadway  taber- 
nacle. New  York.  Author:  Quiet  Talks  with 
Earnest  People  in  My  Study;  Quiet  Hints  to 
Growing  Preachers  in  My  Study;  Doctrine  and 
Deed;  Things  Fundamental;  The  Minister  as 
Prophet;  Faith  and  Life;  Tlie  World's  Christmas 
Tree;  The  Old  Year  and  the  New;  The  New 
Crusade,  etc. 

Jefferson,  Joseph,  American  actor,  was  bom  at 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1829.  He  came  from  a  family 
of  actors,  and  made  his  first  appearance  as  a 
child  in  Pizarro.  From  1850  to  1858  ho  played 
minor  parts,  and  managed  several  theaters  in  the 
South,  meanwhile  visiting  London.  Shortly  after 
he  made  his  first  substantial  success  as  Dr.  Pan- 
gloss  in  The  Heir  at  Law,  at  New  York.  He 
toured  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  1861-65, 
returned  by  way  of  London,  and  played  an 
engagement  at  the  Adelphi  theater  in  that  city 
in  an  adaptation  of  Rip  Van  Winkle.  lie  pre- 
sented the  same  play  m  New  York,  1806,  and 
confined  himself  almost  solely  to  it  for  fifteen 
years.  In  1880  he  produced.  The  Rivals  with 
himself  as  Bob  Acres,  and  in  the  two  last-named 
characters  his  great  reputation  was  made  on  the 
American  stage.  He  published  his  Autobiography 
in  1890,  and  made  his  last  appearance  at  Pater- 
son,  N.  J.,  1904.  He  died  at  Palm  Beach,  Fla., 
1905. 

Jefferson,  Thomas.     See  page  479. 

Jeffrey,  Francis,  Lord,  Scottish  critic  and  jurist 
was  born  at  Edinburgh,  1773.  He  studied  at 
Glasgow  and  Oxford,  and  in  1794  was  admitted 
to  the  Scottish  bar,  but  as  a  whig  made  little 
progress  for  many  years.  In  the  trials  for  sedition, 
1817-22,  he  acquired  a  great  reputation;  in  1820 
and  again  in  1823  he  was  elected  lord  rector 
of  Glasgow  university;  in  1829  dean  of  the 
faculty  of  advocates.  In  1830  he  was  elected 
to  parliament  for  Perth,  and  on  the  forma- 
tion of  Earl  Grey's  ministry  became  lord  ad- 
vocate. After  the  passing  of  the  reform  bill  he 
was  returned  for  Edinburgh,  which  he  repre- 
sented until  1834,  when  he  was  made  a  judge  of 
the  court  of  sessions.  From  1815  he  liv^  at 
Craigcrook,  where  he  died  in  1850.  It  is  as 
literary  critic  and  leader  in  a  new  departure  in 
literary  enterprise  that  Jeffrey  holds  his  title  to 
fame.  Together  with  Sydney  Smith,  Francis 
Homer,  and  a  few  others,  he  established  the 
Edinburgh  Review,  of  which  he  was  editor  until 
1829.  His  own  contributions  were  very  numer- 
ous and  brilliant,  if  biased.  A  selection  of  them 
was  published  in  1844. 

Jeffreys,  George,  Baron,  English  judge,  was  bom 
at  Acton  near  Wrexham,  1648,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1668.  He  rose  rapidly,  and  became 
in  1671  common  sergeant  of  the  city  of  London. 
Hitherto  nominally  a  Puritan,  he  now  began  to 
intrigue  for  court  favor,  was  made  solicitor  to 
the  duke  of  York,  was  knighted  in  1677,  and 
became  recorder  of  London  in  1678.  Actively 
concerned  in  the  popish  plot  prosecutions,  he 
was  made  chief-justice  of  Chester  and  king's 
sergeant  in  1680,  baronet  in  1681,  and  chief- 
justice  of  king's  bench,  1683.  His  first  exploit 
was  the  judicial  murder  of  Algernon  Sidney,  but 
in  every  state-trial  he  proved  subservient  to  the 
crown,  thus  earning  the  favor  of  James,  who 
raised  him  to  the  peerage  in  1685.  Among  his 
earliest  trials  were  those  of  Titus  Gates  and 
Richard  Baxter;  later  he  was  sent  to  try  the 
followers  of  Monmouth,  and  hanged  331,  trans- 
ported 849  to  the  American  plantations,  and 
whipped  or  fined  thirty-three  others.  He  was 
lord  chancellor  from  1685  until  the  downfall  of 


804 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


James,  and  supported  all  the  kin^s  measures 
as  president  of  the  newly-revised  court  of 
high  commission,  and  in  the  trial  of  the  seven 
bishops.  On  James's  flight  he  tried  to  follow 
his  example,  but  was  caught  at  Wapping,  dis- 
guised as  a  sailor,  and  sent  to  the  Tower  to  save 
him  from  the  mob.  Here  he  died  in  1689. 
Jelliffe,  Smith  Ely,  American  physician,  was  bom  in 
New  York,  1866.  He  was  graduated  at  the 
Brooklyn  polytechnic,  1886;  medical  depart- 
ment of  Columbia  university,  1889;  Ph.  D., 
Columbia,  1899.  He  began  practice,  1889, 
spent  one  year  in  Europe,  and  since  1895  has 
practiced  in  New  York.  He  is  professor  of 
mental  diseases  at  Fordham  university;  visiting 
neurologist  to  the  city  hospital ;  and  an  authority 
in  mental  and  nervous  diseases.  Author: 
Essentials  of  Vegetable  Pharmacognosy,  with 
Dr.  H.  H.  Rusby;  Morphology  and  Histology  of 
Plants,  with  same;  Nerixms  Diseases  in  BuUer's 
Diagnostics;  Outlines  of  Pharmacognosy;  reviser 
of:  May's  Physiology;  Butler's  Materia  Medica; 
Shaw  on  Nervous  Diseases.  Editor  and  transla- 
tor: Dubois'  Psycfioneuroses;  co-editor:  Ency- 
clopedia Americana;  managing  editor :  Journal  of 
Nervous  and  Mental  Disease;  contributor  to 
medical,  botanical,  and  pharmaceutical  press. 

Jenkln,  Henry  Charles  Flcemlng,  British  engineer 
and  electrician,  was  born  in  England,  1833. 
Educated  at  Elidinburgh  and  at  the  university 
of  Genoa,  Italy.  Later  he  entered  Fairbaim  s 
shops  at  Manchester,  and  took  a  practical  course 
in  mechanics  and  engineering.  In  1859  he  bc^an 
experiments  in  conjunction  with  Sir  William 
Thomson  (Lord  Kelvin)  in  electricity,  and  was 
specially  occupied  with  practical  work  in  cable 
telegraphv,  1858-73.  He  was  made  fellow  of  the 
royal  society,  1865,  became  professor  of  engi- 
neering in  University  college,  London,  same  year, 
and  in  1868  professor  at  Edinburgh  university. 
He  published  Magnetism,  and  Electricity,  Mt»- 
eellaneous  Papers,  etc.     Died,  1885. 

Jenks,  Jeremiah  Whipple,  American  economist  and 
educator,  professor  of  political  economy  and 
politics,  Cornell,  1891-1912,  professor  of  economics 
and  finance.  New  York  university,  since  1912,  was 
born  in  St.  Clair,  Mich.,  1856.  He  was  graduated 
from  the  university  of  Michigan,  1878;  LL.  D., 
1903;  Ph.  D.,  university  of  Halle,  1885.  Studied 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  Michigan  bar. 
Taught  Greek,  Latin,  and  German  at  Mt.  Morris 
college ;  professor  of  political  science  and  English 
literature,  Knox  college,  1886—89;  professor  of 
political  economy  and  social  science,  Indiana  uni- 
versity, 1889-91 ;  expert  agent  of  United  States 
industrial  commission  on  investigation  of  trusts 
and  industrial  combinations  in  the  United  States 
and  Europe,  1899-1901 ;  and  consulting  expert  of 
United  States  department  of  labor  on  same  sub- 
ject. Special  commissioner  of  war  department, 
United  States,  to  investigate  questions  of  cur- 
rency, labor,  internal  taxation  and  police  in  the 
Orient,  1901-02.  Appointed  financial  adviser  to 
Chinese  republic,  1912.  Author:  The  Trust 
Problem;  Report  on  Certain  Economic  Questions 
in  the  English  and  Dutch  Colonies  in  the  Orient. 
Editor  and  part  author:  Trusts  and  Industrial 
Combinations.  Compiler:  Statutes  and  Digested 
Decisions  of  Federal,  State,  and  Territorial  Law 
Relating  to  Trusts  and  Industrial  Combinations. 
Part  author  and  compiler  of  Reports  of  Commission 
on  International  Exchange,ctc.,  and  frequent  con- 
tributor to  periodical  literature  on  economic  and 
political  questions.  He  was  special  expert  on 
currency  reform  to  the  government  of  Mexico; 
member  of  the  United  States  commission  on  inter- 
national exchange  in  special  charge  of  reform  of 
currency  in  China,  and  since  1907  a  member  of 
the  United  States  inamigration  conunission. 


Jenner  (jhi'-ir),  Edward,  English  physician,  dis- 
coverer of  vaccination^  was  bom  at  Berkeley 
vicarage,  Gloucestershire,  1749.  He  was  ap- 
prenticed to  a  surgeon  at  Sodbury,  in  1770  went 
to  London  to  study  under  John  Hunter,  and  in 
1773  settled  at  Berkeley,  where  he  acquired  a 
large  practice.  In  1775  he  began  to  investigate 
the  truth  of  the  traditions  respecting  cow-pox, 
became  convinced  that  it  was  efficacious  as  a 
protection  against  small-pox,  and  was  led  to 
hope  that  he  would  be  able  "to  propagate  it 
from  one  human  being  to  another,  until  he  had 
disseminated  the  practice  over  all  the  globe,  to 
the  total  extinction  of  small-pox."  Many  inves- 
tigations delayed  the  actual  discovery  of  the 
prophylactic  power  of  vaccination,  and  the 
crowning  experiment  was  made  on  May  14,  1796. 
This  exiKTiinent  was  followed  by  many  others; 
and  in  1798  Jenner  published  his  Inquiry  intt> 
the  Causes  and  Effects  of  the  Variolar  Vaccina. 
Yet  the  practice  met  with  violent  opposition  for 
a  year,  when  upward  of  seventy  of  tne  principal 
physicians  and  surgeons  in  London  signed  a 
declaration  of  their  entire  confidence  in  it. 
Jermer's  discovery  was  soon  promulgated  through- 
out the  civilised  world.  Honors  were  conferred 
upon  him,  and  he  was  elected  an  honorary  mem- 
ber of  nearly  all  the  learned  societies  of  Europe. 
Parhament  voted  him  in  1802  a  grant  of  10,000 
pounds,  and  in  1807  a  second  grant  of  20,000 
pounds.     He  died  at  Berkeley,  1823. 

Jeremiah,  one  of  the  four  great  prophets  of  Israel, 
author  of  the  book  in  the  Bible  which  bears  his 
name,  and  of  the  book  of  Lamentations,  flourished 
about  62^580  B.  C.  The  writings  of  this  prophet, 
dictated  by  him  to  Baruch,  although  arranged 
with  little  regard  to  order,  exhibit  great  tender- 
ness and  elfgiac  beauty  of  sentiment,  but  lack 
the  sublime  grandeur  of  Isaiah.  He  often  bor- 
rows from  his  poetic  predecessors.  Several  of 
the  Psalm*  have  l>ecn  attributed  to  him,  especially 
by  modem  critics.  Hitzig  numbers  thirty-four, 
which  he  believes  to  be  the  composition  of 
Jeremiah.  There  is  no  reason  to  douot  that  the 
Lamentation*  are  properly  ascribed  to  him,  while 
the  apocr>'phal  work  of  his,  mentioned  by 
Jerome,  deserves  little  notice. 

Jeroboam  (jir-(i-b6'-am),  first  king  of  the  divided 
kingdom  of  Israel,  ruled  about  937-915  B.  C. 
He  was  made  by  Solomon  superintendent  of  the 
labors  and  taxes  exacted  from  his  tribe  of  Eph- 
raim  at  the  construction  of  the  fortifications  of 
Zion.  The  growing  disaffection  toward  Solomon 
fostered  his  ambition ;  but  he  was  obliged  to  flee 
to  Egj'pt.  After  Solomon's  death  he  headed 
the  successful  revolt  of  the  northern  tribes 
against  Rehoboam,  and,  as  their  king,  estab- 
lished idol  shrines  at  Dan  and  Bethel  to  wean 
away  his  people  from  the  pilgrimages  to  Jeru- 
salem.    He  reigned  twenty-two  years. 

Jerome  (je-rdm'),  Jerome  Klapka,  English  humorist, 
writer,  and  lecturer,  was  bom  at  Walsall,  Eng- 
land, 1859.  He  has  been  at  various  times  clerk, 
school-master,  actor,  and  journalist;  editor  of 
Idler,  with  Robert  Barr,  1892-97,  and  of  To-Day, 
1893-97.  Author:  On  the  Stage  and  Off;  Idle 
Thoughts  of  an  Idle  Fellow;  Three  Men  in  a 
Boat;  Diary  of  a  Pilgrimage;  Novel  Notes;  John 
Ingerfidd;  Barbara;  Fennel;  Sunset;  New 
Lamps  for  Old;  Ruth;  Wood  Barrow  Farm; 
Pruae's  Progress;  Rise  of  Dick  Halward;  Sketches 
in  Lavender;  Letters  to  Clorinda;  The  Second 
Thoughts  of  an  Idle  Fellow;  Three  Men  on  the 
Bumm^;  Miss  Hobbs;  Paul  Kelver;  Tea  Table 
Talk;  Tommy  and  Co.;  Idle  Ideas  in  1905; 
Susan  in  Search  of  a  Husband;  Passing  of  the 
Third  Floor  Back;  The  Angel  and  the  Author,  etc. 

Jerome  of  Prague,  the  friend  of  Huss,  was  bom  at 
Prague  between  1360  and  1370.  He  studied  at 
Oxford,    became   a   convert   there  to   Wycliffe's 


DOCTOR  JENNER  PERFORMING  HIS   FIRST  VACCINATION 

From  the  painting  by  Georges-Gaston  Alclinguc 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


807 


doctrines,  and  zealously  taught  them  after  his 
return  home  in  1407.  The  king  of  Poland 
employed  him  to  reorganize  the  university  of 
Cracow  in  1410;  the  king  of  Hungary  invited 
him  to  preach  before  him  at  Budapest.  Jerome 
entered  with  his  whole  soul  into  the  contest 
carried  on  by  IIuss.  When  Huss  was  arrested 
at  Constance.  Jerome  hastened  to  his  side  to 
defend  him,  but,  being  refused  a  safe-conduct, 
he  set  out  to  return  to  Prague,  was  arrested  in 
Bavaria,  1415,  and  was  brought  back  to  Con- 
stance. He  recanted,  but  withdrew  his  recanta- 
tion, and  went  to  tlie  stake,  1416. 

Jerome,  Saint,  Sophronlus  Euseblus  Hicronymus, 
was  bom  at  Stridon  Dalmatia,  at  some  period 
between  331  and  345.  He  studied  Greek  and 
Latin,  rhetoric  and  philosophy  under  ^Uus 
Donatus  at  Rome,  where  he  was  also  admitted  to 
the  right  of  baptism.  After  a  residence  in  Gaul 
he  seems  to  have  revisited  Rome;  but  in  the 
year  370  he  had  settled  in  Aquileia  with  his 
friend  Rufinus,  and  retired  in  374  to  the  desert 
of  Chalcis,  where  he  spent  four  years  in  peniten- 
tial exercises  and  in  study,  especially  of  the 
Hebrew  language.  In  379  he  was  ordained  and 
went  in  382  to  Rome,  where  he  resided  until  385, 
a£  secretary  of  the  pope  Damascus,  and  where, 
although  already  engaged  in  his  great  work  of 
the  revision  of  the  Latin  version  of  the  Bible,  he 
attained  to  great  popularity  and  influence  by  his 
sanctity,  learning,  and  eloquence.  Many  pious 
persons  placed  themselves  under  his  spiritual 
direction,  the  most  remarkable  of  whom  were 
Lady  Paula  and  her  daughter  Eustochium. 
These  ladies  followed  him  to  the  holy  land, 
whither  he  returned  in  385.  He  permanently 
fixed  his  residence  at  Bethlehem  in  380,  Lady 
Paula  having  founded  three  convents  and  a 
monastery,  the  latter  governed  by  Jerome  him- 
self. His  conflict  with  the  Pelagians  rendering 
even  his  life  insecure  at  Bethlehem,  he  was  com- 
pelled to  go  into  concealment  for  over  two  years ; 
and  soon  after  his  return  to  Bethlehem,  in  418, 
he  was  seized  with  a  lingering  illness,  which 
terminated  in  his  death,  420.  He  is  universally 
regarded  as  the  most  learned  and  eloquent  of  the 
Latin  fathers. 

Jerome,  William  Travers,  American  la^'yer,  was 
born  at  New  York,  1859.  He  was  educated  at 
Williston  seminary  and  Amherst  college;  was 
graduated  at  Columbia  law  school,  1884;  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar,  1884.  He  was  justice  of  special 
sessions,  1895-1902.  Elected  district  attorney. 
New  York  county,  1901,  and  reelected  as  inde- 
pendent candidate,  1905.  During  his  career  as 
district  attorney  he  appeared  in  many  noted 
trials,  and  attained  a  high  rank  as  a  lawyer  and 
pleader.    Author :   Liquor  Tax  Law  in  New  York. 

Jerrold  Q'Sr'-vM),  DouRlas  William,  English  jour- 
nalist, author,  and  wit,  was  born  in  London,  1803. 
He  was  in  the  main  self-educated,  served  as  a 
midshipman  in  the  royal  navy,  and  about  1821 
produced  a  successful  comedy.  He  is  chiefly 
remembered,  however,  for  his  contributions  to 
Punch,  with  which  he  was  connected  from  1841 
until  within  a  short  time  of  his  death.  His  best 
play  is  Black-eyed  Siisan,  published  in  1829 ;  his 
best  novels  are  St.  Giles  and  St.  James,  and  The 
Chronicles  of  Clovernook.  The  most  popular  of 
his  works,  however,  is  Mrs.  Caudle  8  Curtain 
Lectures,  originally  published  in  Punch.  An 
edition  of  his  Works  was  published  during  his 
lifetime;  and  his  Life  and  Remains  was  edited  by 
his  son,  Blanchard  Jerrold,  about  a  year  after 
the  father's  death  in  1857. 

Jerrold,  William  Blanchard.  son  of  Douglas  Jerrold, 
was  bom  in  London,  1826.  He  was  a  writer  for 
many  of  the  principal  newspapers  of  London,  and 
wrote  also  many  plays,  novels,  books  of  travel, 
and  other  works.     Among  his  best  books  are  i 


Tripn  through  the  Vin*yard«  of  Spain;  The  Story 
of  Madge  and  the  Fairy  Content;  London,  illus- 
trated by  Dor6,  and  Life  of  Napoleon  III.  He 
died  in  1884. 

JeTons  (jiv'-um),  Frank  Byron,  English  classical 
writer,  subwarden,  1902-09,  professor  philosophy 
since  1910,  Durham  university;  was  bom  in 
1858.  He  was  graduated  at  Wadham  college, 
Oxford,  and  was  university  treasurer,  1898- 
1902.  Author:  The  Dcvdoprnent  of  the  Athenian 
Democracy;  A  History  of  Greek  Literature;  The 
Prehistoric  Antiquities  of  tlie  Aryan  Peoples: 
Plutarch's  Romane  Questions;  A  Manual  of  Greek 
Antiquities:  An  Introduction  to  the  History  of 
Religion;    Religion  in  Evolution,  etc. 

Jevons,  William  Stanley,  English  economist  and 
logician,  was  bom  in  Liverpool,  1835.  Ho 
studied  there  and  at  University  college.  London. 
He  was  assayer  to  Sydney,'  Australia,  mint. 
1854-59,  in  1866  became  professor  of  logic  ana 
political  economy  at  Owens  college,  Manchester, 
and  in  1876-81  held  the  chair  of  political  economy 
at  University  college,  London.  He  was  drowned 
in  1882  while  bathing  at  Bexhill,  near  Hastings. 
He  popularized  the  mathematical  methods  of 
Boole,  and  wrote  Elementary  Lessons  in  Logic; 
Principles  of  Science;  Studies  in  Deductive 
Logic;  Theory  of  Political  Economy;  Pure  Logic 
and  other  Minor  Works. 

Jewett,  Sarah  Ome,  American  author,  was  bom  at 
South  Berwick,  Me.,  1849,  daughter  of  the  late 
Dr.  Theodore  H.  Jewett.  She  was  educated  at 
Berwick  academy;  Litt.  D.,  Bowdoin  college. 
Author:  Deephaven;  Play  Days;  Old  Friends 
and  New;  Country  By-Ways;  The  Mate  of  the 
Daylight  and  Friends  Ashore;  A  Country  Doctor; 
A  Marsh  Island;  A  White  Heron,  and  Other 
Stories;  The  Story  of  the  Normans;  The  King  of 
Folly  Island,  and  Other  People;  Betty  Leicester  — 
A  Story  for  Girls;  Strangers  and  Wayfarers;  A 
Native  of  Winby,  and  Other  Tales;  The  Life  of 
Nancy;  The  Country  of  the  Pointed  Firs;  Betty 
Leicester's  English  Christmas;  The  Queen's  Tunn; 
The  Tory  Lover,  etc.  She  traveled  extensively 
in  the  United  States,  West  Indies,  and  Europe. 
Died,  1909. 

Joan  of  Arc  (jo-dn';  jon  uv  drk'\  or  Jeanne  d'Arc, 
the  maid  of  Orleans,  French  national  heroine, 
was  bom  of  poor  but  devout  parents,  in  the 
village  of  Domrem-y,  1412.  Her  rehgious  faith 
was  ardent  almost  from  her  cradle.  During  that 
unhappy  time  of  national  degradation  a  proph- 
ecy, ascribed  to  Merlin,  was  current  in  Lorraine, 
that  the  kingdom  lost  by  a  woman  —  Queen 
Isabella  —  should  be  saved  by  a  virgin,  and  no 
doubt  this  together  with  her  visions  helped  to 
define  her  mission  to  the  brooding  and  enthusi- 
astic mind  of  the  young  peasant  girl.  She  put 
on  male  dress  and  a  suit  of  white  armor,  mounted 
a  black  charger,  bearing  a  banner  of  her  own 
device.  Her  sword  was  one  that  she  divined 
would  be  found  buried  behind  the  altar  in  the 
church  of  St.  Catharine  de  Fierbois.  Thus 
equipped  she  put  herself  at  the  head  of  an  army 
of  6,000  men,  dictated  a  letter  to  the  English, 
and  advanced  to  aid  Dunois  in  the  relief  of  Orleans. 
Her  arrival  fired  the  fainting  hearts  of  the  French 
with  a  new  enthusiasm,  and,  on  April  29,  1429, 
she  threw  herself  into  the  city,  and,  after  fifteen 
days  of  fighting,  the  English  were  compelled  to 
raise  the  siege  and  retreat.  At  once  the  face  of 
the  war  was  changed,  the  French  spirit  again 
awoke,  and  within  a  week  the  enemy  were  swept 
from  the  principal  positions  on  the  Loire.  But 
all  thoughts  of  self  were  lost  in  devotion  to  her 
mission,  and  now,  with  resistless  enthusiasm, 
she  urged  on  the  weak-hearted  dauphin  to  hia 
coronation.  On  May  24,  1430,  with  a  handful 
of  men  she  forced  her  way  into  Compi6gne,  which 
was  then  b^eged  by  the  forces  of  Burgimdy; 


808 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


was  left  behind  by  her  men,  taken  prisoner,  and 
sold  to  the  English  by  John  of  Luxembourg. 
In  December  she  was  carried  to  Rouen,  the 
headquarters  of  the  English,  heavily  fettered  and 
flung  into  a  gloomy  prison,  and  at  length  she 
was  arraigned  before  the  spiritual  tribunal  of 
Pierre  Cauchon.  Her  trial  was  lone,  and  was 
disgraced  by  every  form  of  shameful  brutality. 
She  was  burned  at  the  stake  on  May  30,  1431. 

JTohn,  Saint,  the  apostle,  was  bom  about  4  A.  D., 
and  was  one  of  the  earliest  of  Christ's  disciples. 
During  the  crucifixion  our  Lord  commended  His 
mother  to  his  care,  and  the  apostle  "took  her  to 
his  own  home."  John  afterward  became  bishop 
of  Ephesus.  According  to  TertuUian,  he  was 
plunged  into  a  caldron  of  boiling  oil  during  the 
persecution  under  Domitian,  but  received  no 
injury.  He  was  subsequently  exiled  to  the  island 
of  Patmos,  where  he  is  said  to  have  written  the 
book  of  Revelation.  He  was  also  author  of  the 
gospel  and  epistles  which  bear  his  name.  Died 
about  99. 

John  the  Baptist,  forerunner  of  Christ,  was  the  son 
of  the  priest  Zacharias  and  Elizabeth,  the  cousin 
of  Mary,  mother  of  our  Lord.  He  was  baptized 
and  preached  repentance  and  forgiveness  of  sins. 
When  he  had  baptized  Jesus,  the  office  of  the 
forerunner  ceased.  He  had  denounced  Herod 
Antipas  for  taking  Herodias,  his  brother  Philip's 
wife,  was  flung  into  prison,  where  he  was  executed 
at  the  request  of  Salome,  daughter  of  Herodias. 

John  IIm  Casimir,  king  of  Poland,  was  bom  in  1C09, 
the  younger  son  of  Sigismund  III.  Having 
embarked  for  Spain  for  the  purpose  of  persuading 
Philip  III.  to  form  a  league  again.st  France,  he 
was  shipwrecked,  and  imprisoned  for  two  years 
at  Vincennes.  Being  released  on  a  promise 
given  by  his  brother,  king  of  Poland,  never  to 
wage  war  against  France,  he  traveled  through 
western  Europe,  became  a  Jesuit,  and  was  made 
cardinal  by  Innocent  X.  Returning  to  Poland 
he  succeeded  his  brother  Ladislas  in  1648,  and 
married  his  widow,  Maria  Luisa  Gonzaga.  Dur- 
ing his  reign  Poland  was  attacked  by  Russia  and 
Sweden,  resulting  in  wars  which  terminated  in 
the  cession  of  several  provinces  on  the  Baltic  and 
Dnieper.  His  wife  intriguing  for  the  son  of  the 
prince  of  Cond6  as  successor  to  the  throne,  and 
the  nobles  contending  among  themselves,  he 
abdicated  at  the  diet  of  Warsaw,  1668,  and 
retired  to  France,  where  he  was  kindly  received 
by  Louis  XIV,     Died,  1672. 

John  III.,  Sobleski,  king  of  Poland,  was  bom  about 
1624.  He  was  sent  to  Paris  to  complete  his 
education,  and  entered  the  musketeers  of  Louis 
XIV.  under  Cond6;  but  in  1648  he  returned  to 
combat  the  revolted  Cossacks.  He  fought  bravely 
against  them  and  against  the  Swedish  and  other 
invaders,  and  next  to  Czamiecki  he  was  foremost 
in  saving  the  country  from  ruin.  Shortly  before 
the  abdication  of  John  Casimir  he  received  the 
chief  command  of  the  army.  In  1672  he  defeated 
the  Turks  and  Tartars,  and  when  King  Michael, 
being  besieged  by  the  Turks  in  Kamenetz,  con- 
cluded an  ignominious  treaty,  he  caused  its 
rejection  by  the  senate,  hastened  to  Podolia,  and 
routed  the  Turks  at  Khotin  1673.  The  king  had 
died  a  few  days  before,  and  Sobieski  was  elected 
his  successor  in  1674.  He  resumed  the  war,  and 
rescued  the  fortress  of  Trembowla,  but  subse- 
quently, at  Zurawno.  barely  escaped  surrender. 
In  1683  he  hastened  to  tHe  rescue  of  Vienna, 
which  was  besieged  by  an  army  of  300  000  Turks. 
The  Poles,  numbering  about  one-tenth  as  many, 
were  joined  by  a  somewhat  larger  body  of  Ger- 
man troops.  Scarcely  had  they  arrived  before 
Vienna  when  Sobieski  gave  the  signal  for  attack. 
The  Turks  were  driven  within  their  intrench- 
ments,  and  attacked  there  on  the  next  day.  The 
charge  was  terrible,  and  after  a  short  struggle 


the  Turks  were  completely  routed.  Sobieski, 
after  a  triumphal  entry  into  Vienna,  pursued  the 
enemy  into  Hungary,  which  was  soon  restored 
to  the  emperor.  He  afterward  made  attempts 
to  conquer  Wallachia,  but  failed.  The  last  years 
of  his  life  were  embittered  by  civil  as  well  aa 
doniestic  troubles.     Died,  169G. 

John,  king  of  England,  sumamed  Lackland,  was 
born  in  1167.  He  was  the  youngest  son  of 
Henry  II.,  and  the  successor,  in  1199,  of  Richard 
I.,  his  brother.  He  had  several  wars  with  PhiUp 
II.  of  P'rance,  who  espoused  the  cause  of  Arthur, 
the  son  of  Geoffrey.  John's  deceased  elder 
brother,  and  the  rightful  heir  to  the  throne.  In 
1203  he  murdered  his  nephew  Arthur  at  Rouen, 
and  imprisoned  Arthur's  sister  Eleanor,  known 
as  the  damsel  of  Brittany,  in  Bristol  castle.  In 
1207  Pope  Innocent  III.  appointed  Stephen 
Langton  to  the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury, 
but  John  refused  to  sanction  the  nomination; 
whereupon  the  pontiff  laid  England  under  an 
interdict  in  1208,  excommunicated  Jolin,  and 
absolvetl  the  people  from  their  allegiance  to  the 
king  in  1212,  and  authorized  Philip  of  France  to 
dethrone  him.  Terrified  at  this,  John  yielded 
to  the  pope,  and  swore  that  he  would  hold  his 
kingdom  as  the  pope's  vassal,  paying  an  annual 
tribute.  In  1215,  on  the  demand  of  his  barons, 
who  were  beaded  by  Stephen  Langton,  now 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  he  signed  Magna 
Charta.  Though  John  thus  accept^  the  charter 
which  has  been  solemnly  ratified  on  thirty-eight 
different  occa.sion8  by  subsequent  kings,  yet  he 
had  no  intention  of  being  bound  by  it.  Ho 
actually  procured  from  the  pope  a  bull  annulling 
the  charter,  and  introduced  foreign  soldiers  to 
fight  against  the  barons,  who  immediately  offered 
the  throne  to  Louis,  son  of  Philip  of  France,  an 
offer  which  was  readily  accepted,  but  which  led 
to  no  result.  In  the  following  year,  while  the 
king  was  marching  into  Lincolnshire,  he  had  the 
miraortune  to  lose  all  his  baggage  in  crossing  the 
Welland,  and  died  a  few  days  later,  of  acute 
fever,  in  the  castle  of  Newark,  on  the  Trent. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Henry  III.  During 
this  rei^  the  English  lost  nearlv  all  their  I'rench 
pos.sessions,  even  Normandv  falling  to  the  crown 
of  France.     Died,  1216. 

John  II~  king  of  France,  sumamed  "the  good,"  the 
second  son  of  the  Valois  family,  was  bom  in  1319. 
He  succeeded  his  father,  Philip  VI.  of  Valois,  in 
1350.  He  commenced  his  reign  by  acts  of 
despotism  and  cruelty.  England,  being  appealed 
to  by  the  friends  of  those  whom  he  nad  slain, 
invaded  France,  when  John  was  defeated  by 
£xiward,  the  black  prince,  at  Poitiers  in  1356,  and 
carried  to  Bordeaux  and  then  to  London,  where 
he  was  a  prisoner  for  three  vears.  His  ransom, 
by  a  treaty  with  Edward  III.  at  Bretigny,  was 
the  surrender  to  the  English  of  eight  of  the  best 
French  provinces  and  the  payment  of  an  immense 
sum  in  gold.  His  son,  the  duke  of  Anjou,  who 
had  been  left  in  London  as  a  hostage  for  the 
fulfilment  of  the  treaty,  escaped  in  violation  of 
his  parole,  and  John  voluntarily  returned  as  a 
prisoner  to  London  in  1364,  where  he  suddenly 
died  in  that  year. 

John,  king  of  Saxony,  was  bom  in  1801.  He  was 
the  youngest  son  of  Duke  Maximilian  of  Saxony 
and  Princess  Carolina  of  Parma.  He  was  com- 
mander of  the  national  guard,  1831—46.  His 
brother,  Frederick  Augustus  II.,  dying  without 
issue,  in  1854,  he  became  king.  In  the  war  of 
1866  he  took  the  side  of  Austria.  The  Prussians 
entered  Saxony,  and  the  Saxon  army,  having 
withdraTvn  to  Bohemia,  fought  against  them  in 
the  battle  of  Koniggratz.  Peace  was  concluded 
between  Prussia  and  Saxony,  and  the  king 
agreed  to  pay  a  large  sum,  and  to  cede  the  fortress 
of    £u>nigstein.     Subsequently    Saxony    entered 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


809 


the  North  German  confederation,  and  her  troops 
took  part  in  tlie  Franco-Pnis-siiui  war  of  1870-71. 
Under  the  pseudonym  Philaicthes,  John  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  Dante's  Divina  Commedia, 
with  critical  and  historical  notes,  and  left  manu- 
script translations  of  seventy  English  i>oems. 
Died,  1873. 

John  of  Austria,  or  Don  Juan  d* Austria,  natural 
son  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  was  born  at 
Regensburg,  about  1547.  He  was  early  taken 
to  Spain,  and  after  the  death  of  his  father  was 
acknowledged  by  his  half-brother  PhiUp  II.  In 
1570  he  was  sent  with  an  army  against  the  Moors 
in  Granada,  whom  he  completely  expelled  from 
the  country.  In  1571,  with  the  fleets  of  Spain, 
the  pope,  and  Venice,  he  defeated  the  Turks  in 
the  great  sea-fight  of  Lepanto.  In  1573  he  took 
Tunis,  and  conceived  the  scheme  of  forming  a 
kingdom  for  himself.  But  Philip,  jealous  of  this 
design,  sent  him  to  Milan,  and  in  1576  as  viceroy 
to  the  Netherlands.  He  sought  to  win  the  favor 
of  the  people  by  mildness;  hard  pressed  for  a 
time  by  William  the  Silent,  he  with  the  help  of 
Parma  s  troops  won  the  victory  of  Gembloux  in 
1578  But  Philip  now  feared  he  might  make 
himself  king  of  the  Netherlands,  and  Don  John's 
death  at  Namur,  1578,  was  not  without  suspicion 
of  poison. 

John  of  Gaunt  {g&nt;  gdtit),  or  Ghent,  fourth  son  of 
Edward  III.,  who  made  him  duke  of  Lancaster, 
was  bom  in  1340,  at  Ghent.  In  the  French 
wars  he  served  with  great  bravery  under  his 
brother,  Edward,  the  black  prince.  In  1359  he 
married  Blanche,  heiress  of  the  duke  of  Lancaster, 
and  himself  became  duke  in  1362.  In  1371  he 
married  Constance,  daughter  of  Peter  the  Cruel, 
king  of  Castile.  On  the  death  of  Peter,  John 
claimed  the  kingdom  in  the  name  of  his  wife, 
but  the  military  expedition  organized  to  obtain 
the  throne  of  Castile  proved  unsuccessful. 
Toward  the  end  of  his  father's  reign  he  became 
the  chief  man  in  the  kingdom,  and  perhaps 
wished  to  succeed  him;  at  any  rate,  the  young 
king,  Richard  II.,  distrusted  him  and  sent  him 
on  another  wild  expedition  to  recover  his  Castilian 
kingdom.  This  resulted  in  a  treaty  between 
John  and  Henry  Trastamara,  who  had  possession 
of  the  throne,  by  which  John's  daughter  Catharine 
should  succeed  as  queen  of  Castile.  On  the  death 
of  his  second  wife,  he  married  Catharine  Swyn- 
ford,  by  whom  he  had  already  had  three  sons  and 
a  daughter.  From  the  eldest  child  Henry  VII. 
was  descended.  John  of  Gaunt  died  at  London, 
1399. 

John  of  Salisbury,  English  schoolman,  by  Bishop 
Stubbs  styled  "for  thirty  years  the  central  figure 
of  English  learning,"  was  bom  at  Old  Sarum, 
about  1118.  He  studied  at  Paris  and  Chartres, 
and  from  1150  lived  at  Canterbury,  meanwhile 
often  visiting  Italy.  From  1164  to  1170  he  had  to 
take  refuge  at  Rheims,  but  he  returned  in  time 
to  witness  Becket's  murder.  In  1176  he  became 
bishop  of  Chartres.  His  Latin  works  include 
over  300  letters,  the  Policralicus,  etc.  Died, 
1180. 

John  XXII.,  popej  otherwise  Jacques  d'Use,  was 
bom  at  Cahors,  France,  about  1244.  Attempt- 
ing, after  his  election  as  pope  in  1316,  to  carry 
out  the  vast  policy  of  Gregory  VII.,  he  inter- 
posed his  authority  in  the  contest  for  the  impe- 
rial crown  between  Louis  of  Bavaria  and  Fred- 
erick of  Austria,  supporting  the  latter  and 
excommunicating  his  rival.  A  long  contest 
ensued  both  in  Germany  and  Italy,  where  the 
Guelph  or  papal  party  was  represented  by 
Robert,  king  of  Naples,  and  the  Ghibelline  by 
Frederick  of  Sicily.  The  latter  was  also  excom- 
municated by  John;  but  in  1327  Louis  entered 
Italy,  and,  crowned  at  Milan  with  the  iron  crown, 
advanced  upon  Rome,  expelled  the  papal  legate, 


and  was  crowned  emperor  by  two  Lombard 
bishops.  He  now  causod  the  popo  to  bo  deposed 
on  a  charge  of  heresy  and  breach  of  fealty. 
When  Louis  returned  to  Germany,  Guolphio 
predominance  at  Rome  was  restored;  but  Jolm 
died  at  Avignon  in  1334,  having  accumulated 
18,000,000  gold  florins. 

John  XXIII.,  pope,  a  Neapolitan  named  Balthazar 
Cossa.  was  born  at  Naples  about  1360.  After 
completing  his  education  at  Bologna,  he  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  became  chamberlain  to  Boniface 
IX.,  who  in  1402  made  him  a  cardinal.  Ho 
promoted  the  election  of  Alexander  V.,  when 
Gregory  XII.  was  deposed.  The  plague  driving 
Alexander  from  Rome,  he  was  invited  to  Bologna 
by  Cardinal  Cossa.  The  pope  fell  ill  and  died  in 
the  house  of  his  entertainer,  who  succeeded 
Alexander  in  1410.  By  the  decree  of  a  council 
held  at  Constance  in  1414,  John  was  deposed  and 
imprisoned  for  four  years  under  charge  of  Lewis, 
duke  of  Bavaria.  At  the  end  of  that  time  he 
was  liberated,  and  found  such  favor  with  the 
existing  pope,  Martin  V.,  that  he  was  created  by 
that  pontiff  cardinal-bishop  of  Tusculum,  and 
dean  of  the  sacred  colleges,  and  allowed  prece- 
dence over  the  other  cardinals.  He  was  author 
of  an  admired  poem,  De  Varietate  Fortunoe.  He 
died  at  Florence,  Italy,  1419. 

Johnson,  Andrew,  seventeenth  president  of  the 
United  States,  was  bom  at  Raleigh,  N.  C,  1808. 
He  was  self-educated,  a  tailor  by  trade,  and 
made  his  entry  into  politics  in  1840  as  a  presi- 
dential elector  in  Tennessee  for  Van  Buren,  the 
democratic  candidate.  In  1841  he  was  elected 
to  the  senate  of  Tennessee,  and  in  1843  became  a 
member  of  congress,  where  for  ten  years  he  sup- 
ported the  policy  of  the  democratic  party.  In 
1853  he  was  elected  governor  of  Tennessee,  and 
again  in  1855.  In  1857  he  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  senate,  in  which  he  advocated  the 
Union  policy  of  the  republican  party ;  and  on  the 
occupation  of  Nashville  by  the  federals,  1862, 
was  appointed  by  President  Lincoln  military 
governor  of  Tennessee.  In  this  position  he  gave 
such  satisfaction  to  the  North  that  in  1864  he 
was  nominated  by  the  republican  party  for  the 
office  of  vice-president,  and  was  elected  with 
President  Lincoln,  then  reelected  for  his  second 
term.  On  April  14,  1865,  by  the  assassination  of 
President  Lincoln,  he  succeeded  to  the  presidency. 
Some  indiscreet  and  violent  speeches,  during  a 
tour  to  Chicago  and  St.  Louis,  turned  the  tide 
against  him,  and  in  the  congressional  elections 
his  opponents  triumphed  by  increased  majorities. 
His  vetoes  were  generally  nullified  by  the  two- 
thirds  vote  of  both  houses.  In  1867  Jackson 
suspended  Stanton,  secretary  of  war,  who 
was  reinstated  by  the  senate  the  following  year. 
An  attempt  to  gain  possession  of  the  war  depart- 
ment during  this  quarrel  led  to  the  impeach- 
ment of  the  president  in  1868,  but  he  was  ac- 
quitted by  a  single  vote.  Chief-justice  Salmon 
P.  Chase,  one  of  the  most  eminent  American 
statesmen  and  jurists,  presided  at  this  remarka- 
ble trial.  His  term  of  office  expired  in  1869; 
and  afterward  he  was  elected  United  States 
senator,  taking  his  seat  in  1875.     Died,  1875. 

Jolinson,  Clifton,  author,  illustrator,  was  bom  at 
Hadley,  Mass.,  1865.  He  was  educated  in  the 
conunon  schools  there,  1870-80,  and  ten  years 
later  entered  upon  a  literanf  career.  Author: 
The  New  England  Country;  The  Country  School; 
The  Farmer's  Boy;  What  They  Say  in  New 
England;  Country  Clouds  and  Sunshine;  Among 
English  Hedgerows;  Alona  French  Byways;  Tm 
Isle  of  the  Shamrock;  New  England  and  Its 
Neighbors;  The  Land  of  Heather;  Old-Time 
Schools  and  School-Books;  Highvxiys  and  Bytoaya 
of  the  South;  Hmhways  and  Byways  of  the  MissxS' 
sippi  Valley.     Editor  of  school  editions  of  Jacob 


810 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Abbott's  A  Boy  on  a  Farm;  Maria  Edgeworth's 
Waste  Not  Want  Not  Stories.  Illustrator: 
White's  Natural  History  of  Selbourne;  Barrie's 
Window  in  Thrums;  Burroughs's  Year  in  the 
Fields;  Warner's  Being  a  Boy;  Dickens's  Child's 
History  of  England;  Blackmore's  Lorna  Doone; 
Jefferies'  An  English  ViUage. 

Johnson,  Eastman,  American  artist,  was  bom  in 
Lovell,  Me.,  1824.  He  studied  two  years  in  royal 
academy,  Diisseldorf.  Among  many  notable 
genre  pictures  are:  "The  Old  Kentucky  Home" ; 
"Husking  Bee";  "The  Old  Stage  Coach";  "Pen- 
sion Agent";  "Prisoner  of  State."  Among  his 
sitters  were  many  prominent  men  and  women. 
He  is  represented  in  the  Metropolitan  museum 
of  art  ana  Lenox  galleries,  New  York ;  Corcoran 
gallery.  White  House  and  treasury  building, 
Washington;  capitol  at  Albany;  Knickerbocker, 
Century,  and  Union  League  clubs,  chamber  of 
commerce,  etc..  New  York.     Died,  1906. 

Johnson,  Hiram  Y/^  governor  of  California, 
1911-15,  was  born  in  Sacramento,  California, 
1867;  studied  law.  In  1906  was  associated  with 
Francis  Heney  in  the  San  Francisco  graft  prose- 
cutions. When  Heney  was  shot  down  in  open 
court,  Johnson  took  his  place  and  sent  Abe  Ruef , 
leader  of  the  grafters,  to  the  penitentiary  for 
fourteen  years.  Elected  governor  of  California 
on  a  platform  designed  to  free  the  stjite  of  the 
domination  of  the  Southern  Pacific  railroad  and 
similar  influences.  Procured  passage  of  twenty- 
three  progressive  amendments  to  state  consti- 
tution. In  1912  nominated  vice-president  on  the 
progressive  ticket.  Signed  Anti-alien  land  bill 
in  1913. 

Johnson,  John  A„  American  politician,  late  gov- 
ernor of  Minnesota,  was  bom  in  St.  Peter,  Mmn., 
1861.  He  was  educated  in  the  public  schools, 
St.  Peter;  LL.  D.,  university  of  Pennsylvania, 
1907.  He  went  to  work  at  an  early  a^e  in  a 
printing  office  in  St.  Peter,  continued  m  that 
business,  and  became  a  member  of  the  firm  of 
Essler  and  Johnson,  publishers  of  the  St.  Peter 
Herald,  of  which  he  was  editor.  He  served  seven 
years  in  Minnesota  national  guard,  becoming 
captain.  Was  state  senator  from  St.  Peter  dis- 
trict ;  governor  of  Minnesota,  1904-09,  and  was  a 
prominent  candidate  for  the  democratic  presi- 
dential nomination,  1908.     Died,  1909. 

Johnson,  Joseph  French,  American  educator  and 
economist,  was  bom  at  Hardwick,  Mass.,  1853. 
He  was  graduated  at  Harvard,  1878;  studied 
political  economy  and  history  in  Germany  for 
one  year,  and  entered  journalism,  1881.  He  was 
engaged  on  the  Springfield  Republican,  later  as 
financial  editor  of  the  Chicago  TrUmne,  and 
established  at  Spokane,  Wash.,  the  Spokesman, 
1890,  which  he  sold  in  1893.  He  was  professor 
in  Wharton  school  of  commerce,  university  of 
Pennsylvania,  1893-1901;  lecturer  on  finance, 
Columbian  university,  Washington,  D.  C,  1899- 
1903;  has  been  professor  of  political  economy. 
New  York  university,  since  1901,  and  dean  of 
the  school  of  commerce,  accounts  and  finance, 
since  1903.  Author:  Money  and  Currency; 
Syllabus  of  Money  and  Banking:  and  articles  on 
financial  and  economic  topics  in  leading  reviews. 
He  is  also  editor  of  the  Journal  of  Accountancy. 

Johnson,  Beverdy,  American  lawyer  and  politician, 
was  bom  in  Annapolis,  Md.,  1796.  He  was 
educated  at  St.  John's  college,  Annapolis,  Md., 
studied  law  with  his  father,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1815.  He  began  to  practice  in 
Upper  Marlboro,  and  in  1817  removed  to  Balti- 
more. From  1821  until  1825  he  was  a  state 
senator.  From  1845  to  1849  he  sat  in  the  United 
States  senate  as  a  whig,  but  he  supported  the 
Mexican  war  beyond  the  lines  of  the  political 
party  to  which  he  belonged.  Later  he  was 
appointed  attorney-general  in  President  Taylor's 


cabinet.  He  opposed  the  doctrines  of  the  Ameri- 
can or  know-nothing  party,  in  1856  united  with 
the  democrats,  and  supported  the  administration 
of  James  Buchanan.  He  again  entered  the 
United  States  senate  in  1863,  sustained  the  gov- 
ernment throughout  the  civil  war.  and,  when 
peace  was  restored,  argued  in  favor  of  the 
prompt  readmission  of  the  southern  states.  Min- 
ister to  Great  Britain,  1868-69.     Died,  1876. 

Johnson,  Dr.  Samuel,  English  writer  and  lexicog- 
rapher, waa  bom  at  Lichfield,  1709,  where  hw 
father  was  a  bookseller.  He  was  educated 
partly  at  Lichfield  and  partly  at  Stourbridge,  and 
entered  Pembroke  college,  Oxford,  1728.  Here 
he  remained  for  three  years,  and  was  compelled 
to  leave  the  university  without  a  degree.  In 
1731  his  father  died,  greatly  involved  in  debt; 
and,  to  procure  a  living,  Johnson  became  usher  in 
s  school  in  Market  Bosworth,  Leicestershire. 
Disgusted  with  the  ill-treatment  be  received 
there,  he  left,  and  was  next  employed  in  Bir- 
mingham in  translating  for  a  bookseller.  Here 
in  1735  he  married  the  widow  of  Mr.  Porter,  a 
mercer.  His  wife  was  twenty  years  his  senior, 
but  this  disparity  she  compensated  for  by  bring- 
ing her  husband  800  pounds.  Relying  upon  this 
capital,  he  opened  a  classical  boarding  school, 
but  procured  only  three  pupils,  one  of  wliom  was 
the  celebrated  Garrick.  i)i8appointe<l  in  this 
enterprise,  he  started  in  company  with  Garrick 
for  London.  They  reached  the  metropolis  in 
1737,  where  Johnson  was  employed  by  Cave,  the 
founder  and  proprietor  of  the  Gentleman's  Maga- 
zine. In  1738  his  poem  London,  an  imitation  of 
the  third  satire  of  Juvenal,  was  published,  and 
attracted  some  notice.  From  1740  to  1743  he 
wrote  the  parliamentary  debates  for  the  GentU- 
man's  Magazine,  and  in  1747  issued  the  pro»- 
pectuB  of  his  English  Dictionary,  for  whicn  he 
waa  to  receive  1,575  pounds.  In  1750  he  com- 
menced his  amusing  periodical.  The  Rambler, 
and  in  1755  his  ^reat  Dictionary  appeared.  P^or 
this  work  the  university  of  Oxford  awarded  him 
the  degree  of  M.  A.  On  the  death  of  his  mother 
in  1759,  Johnson  wrote  the  admirable  story  of 
Raaaelaa  to  pay  her  funeral  expenses.  In  1762 
a  pension  of  300  pounds  per  annum  was  granted 
to  him  by  the  king,  and  subsequently  he  received 
the  title  of  doctor  of  laws  from  both  the  universi- 
ties of  Dublin  and  Oxford.  In  1781  he  published 
his  Lives  of  the  Poets,  and,  after  a  life  spent  in 
incessant  literary  labor,  died  at  his  house  in 
Bolt-court,  Fleet  street,  London,  1784 

Johnson,  Tom  Loftin,  American  poHtician  and 
reformer,  was  bom  at  Georgetown,  Ky.,  1854. 
He  went  to  Indiana  in  boyhood,  and  was  edu- 
cated there;  became  clerk  in  street  railway 
office,  Louisville,  Ky.,  1869-75.  He  invented 
several  street  railway  devices;  bought  a  street 
railway  in  Indianapolis;  later  acquired  large 
street  railway  interests  in  Cleveland,  Detroit,  and 
Brooklyn.  He  also  engaged  in  the  business  of 
iron  manufacturing  in  Cleveland.  Was  menaber 
of  congress,  1891-95,  prominent  advocate  of 
the  "single-tax"  theories  of  Henry  George.  He 
was  mayor  of  Cleveland,  1901-10.  and  during  his 
tenure  of  office  gained  national  prominence  by 
his  campaign  for  a  three-cent  fare  on  the  Cleve- 
land street  railwav  system,  which,  however,  failed 
in  1909.     Died,  1911. 

Johnston,  Albert  Sydney,  American  general,  waa 
bom  in  Kentucky,  1803,  and  was  graduated  at 
West  Point,  1826.  In  1837  he  superseded  Gen- 
eral Houston  as  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Texan  army ;  next  became  Texan  war  secretary, 
and  served  as  a  colonel  of  American  regulars 
during  the  Mexican  war.  In  1857  he  commanded 
the  expedition  sent  against?  the  Mormons  of  Utah ; 
and  in  1861  was  made  military  commander  of 
the  department  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  by 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


811 


the  confederate  government.  After  the  sur- 
render of  Fort  Donelson  he  formed  a  junction 
with  tlie  army  of  General  Beauregard,  and  fell 
in  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  18G2. 

Johnston,  Alexander,  Scottish  painter,  was  bom 
at  Edinburgh,  1815,  and  first  exhibited  at  the 
royal  academy  in  1836.  His  earlier  pieces  were 
derived  from  Scottish  song  and  story,  and 
include:  "The  Gentle  Shepherd";  "Sunday 
Morning";  "The  Covenanter's  Marriage"; 
"The  Covenanter's  Burial."  Then  followed: 
"The  Arrest  of  John  Brown  the  Lollard";  "The 
Pressgang";  "John  Bunyan  in  Bedford  Jail"; 
"The  Cotter's  Saturday  Night";  "Robin 
Adair":  "The  Child  Queen,  and  Her  Four 
Maries  ,  "The  Flight  of  Mary  Modena"; 
"Charlotte  Corday";  "Flora  ^acdonald"; 
"The  Elopement  of  Dorothy  Vernon,"  etc. 
He  died  at  Hampstead,  1891. 

Johnston,  Alexander,  American  historian,  was  bom 
at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1849.  He  was  graduated  at 
Rutgers  college,  1870;  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
1876  J  and  was  professor  of  political  economy 
and  jurisprudence  at  Princeton  from  1883  until 
his  death  in  1889.  He  wrote:  History  of  Ameri- 
can Politics;  The  Genesis  of  a  New  England 
State;  History  of  the  United  States;  The  United 
States:  its  History  and  Constitution,  etc. 

Johnston,  Sir  Harry  Hamilton,  English  traveler 
and  writer,  was  born  at  Kennington,  London, 
1858.  He  was  graduated  at  King's  college,  Lon- 
don ;  was  a  student  at  the  royal  academy  of  arts, 
1876-80.  Medalist  South  Kensington  school  of 
art,  1876;  silver  medalist  zoological  society, 
1896;  D.  Sc,  Cambridge.  He  traveled  in  North 
Africa,  1879-80;  explored  Portuguese  West 
Africa  and  River  Congo,  1882-83 ;  commanded  a 
scientific  expedition  of  the  royal  society  to  Mount 
Kilimanjaro,  1884;  was  vice-consul  in  Came- 
roons,  1885;  acting  consul  in  Niger  coast  pro- 
tectorate, 1887;  consul  for  province  of  Mozam- 
bique, 1888 ;  made  an  expedition  to  Lakes  Nyasa 
and  Tanganyika,  which  led  to  the  founding  of 
the  British  Central  Africa  protectorate,  1889; 
commissioner  and  consul-general,  1891 ;  consul- 
general  of  regency  of  Tunis,  1897-99;  special 
commissioner,  commander-in-chief  and  consul- 
general  for  Uganda  protectorate,  etc.,  1899—1901. 
Author:  Essays  on  the  Tunisian  Question;  River 
Congo;  Kilimanjaro;  History  of  a  Slave;  Life 
of  Livingstone;  British  Central  Africa;  A  History 
of  the  Colonization  of  Africa  by  Alien  Races;  The 
Uganda  Protectorate;  British  Mammals;  The 
Nile  Quest;  Liberia;  George  GrenfeU  and  the 
Congo,  etc. 

Johnston,  Joseph  Eg^leston,  American  soldier,  was 
born  in  Virginia,  1807.  He  was  graduated  at 
West  Point,  1829;  served  in  the  Mexican  war, 
1846-47;  and  was  commissioned  quartermaster- 
general  of  the  United  States  army,  1860.  He 
joined  the  confederate  army  as  a  brigadier- 
general  at  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war,  served 
with  distinction  throughout  that  conflict,  and  in 
1865  was  in  command  of  the  army  of  the  Ten- 
nessee. He  published  a  volume  of  memoirs, 
chiefly  military,  in'l874.     Died,  1891. 

Johnston,  Joseph  Forney,  lawyer.  United  States 
senator,  was  born  in  North  Carolina,  1843.  He 
left  school  to  join  the  confederate  army  as  a 
private  in  1861 ;  served  during  the  war,  was 
wounded  four  times,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of 
captain.  After  the  war  he  was  admitted  to  the 
bar;  practiced  law  seventeen  years;  was  a 
banker  ten  years;  and  was  elected  governor  of 
Alabama  in  1896,  reelected  in  1898,  serving  four 
years.  He  was  unanimously  elected  to  the 
United  States  senate  from  Alabama  to  fill  out 
the  unexpired  portion  of  the  term  of  Hon.  E.  W. 
Pettus,  deceased,  ending  1909,  also  for  the  term 
1909-16. 


Johnston,  Mary,  American  novelist,  was  bom  at 
Buchanan  Botetourt  county,  Va.,  1870,  daughter 
of  John  WiUiam  Johnston.  She  was  educated  at 
home,  and  exhibited  literary  talent  at  an  early 
age.  Author:  Prisoners  of  Hope;  To  Have  and 
To  Hold;  Audrey;  Sir  Mortimer;  The  Goddess  of 
Reason,  Leuns  Rand,  The  Long  Roll. 

JoinTilie  (zhwdN'-vel'),  Jean,  Sire  de,  French  histori- 
cal writer,  was  born  in  1224,  and  became  soneschal 
to  the  count  of  Champagne  and  king  of  Navarre. 
He  took  part  in  the  unfortunate  crusade  of  Louis 
IX.,  1248-54,  returned  with  him  to  France,  and 
lived  thereafter  partly  at  court  and  partly  on  his 
estates.  At  Acre  in  1250  he  composed  a  Christian 
manual,  his  Credo;  and  throughout  the  crusade 
he  took  notes  of  events  and  wrote  down  his 
impressions.  When  almost  eighty  he  undertook 
his  delightful  Vie  de  Saint  Louis.  His  style  con- 
forms closely  to  his  character:  it  is  veracious, 
flowing,  naive,  often  siniruiarly  expressive. 
Died,  1317. 

J6kai  (yo'-kd-e),  Maurice,  Hungarian  novelist,  was 
bom  at  Komorn,  Hungary,  1825.  He  published 
his  first  book  in  1845,  and  took  part  as  a  journalist 
in  the  revolution  of  1848.  In  1863  he  entered 
the  Hungarian  parliament,  and  during  his  long 
career  there  was  one  of  the  principal  supporters 
of  Koloman  Tisza,  1875-90.  He  wrote  about 
200  novels,  including  Timor's  Two  Worlds; 
Black  Diamonds;  The  Romance  of  the  Coming 
Century;  The  New  Landlord;  Pretty  Michal; 
The  Lion  of  Janina;  A  Christian,  but  a  Roman; 
The  Baron's  Sons;  Tales  from  Jokai,  etc.  Died, 
1904. 

Joliet  (Fr.,  zho'-lyd';  Eng.,  jo'-ll-it).  Louts,  French- 
Canadian  explorer,  one  of  the  early  explorers  of 
the  Mississippi,  was  bom  at  Quebec,  1645.  He 
studied  for  the  priesthood  at  the  Jesuit  college, 
Quebec.  He  abandoned  this  intention,  however, 
and  spent  some  years  as  an  Indian  trader,  thus 
getting  a  knowledge  of  the  languages  and  the 
geography  of  the  West.  With  Marquette  he 
was  selected  to  explore  the  western  country  and 
to  push  through  to  the  Mississippi.  They  started 
West  in  May,  1673,  reaching  the  Mississippi  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Wisconsm  in  June.  They 
floated  down  the  Mississippi,  passing  the  mouths 
of  the  Missouri  and  the  Ohio,  and  going  far 
enough  to  be  sure  that  the  river  flowed  into  the 
gulf  of  Mexico.  Joliet  upset  his  canoe  on  his 
way  back,  losing  all  his  maps  and  papers,  so  that 
the  only  accurate  report  of  the  expedition  was 
Marquette's.  Joliet  was  given  the  seigniory  of 
Anticosti  island  in  1680,  and  later  that  of 
Joliette.  Few  men  have  contributed  more  to 
the  geography  of  that  time  than  did  Joliet. 
Died,  1700. 

Joly  de  Lotblnlftre,  Sir  Henry  Gustave,  Canadian 
statesman,  was  born  in  1829.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris,  France,  and  admitted  to 
the  bar  of  Quebec,  1855;  queen's  counsel,  1878. 
He  was  a  member  for  Lotbiniftre  of  the  Canadian 
assembly,  1861;  returned  in  first  election  of 
house  of  commons,  1867-74 ;  leader  of  opposition, 
1874-78;  declined  seat  in  senate,  1874  and  in 
1877;  premier  of  Quebec,  1878-79;  leader  of 
opposition,  1883-S5;  vice-chairman.  Dominion 
liberal  convention,  1883;  minister  of  inland 
revenue  for  Dominion  of  Canada,  1896-1900; 
and  lieutenant-governor  of  British  Columbia, 
1900-06.  He  always  took  an  active  interest 
in  forestry,  and  was  vice-president  of  the  Ameri- 
can forestry  congress,  1885.  He  published 
various  writings  on  forestry  and  on  the  metric 
system.     Died,  1908. 

Jomlnl  {zho'-me'-ne')f  Henri,  Baron,  noted  Swiss 
soldier  and  military  writer,  was  bom  at  Payeme. 
Switzerland,  1779.  When  very  young  he  entered 
the  Swiss  guard  of  Louis  XVL,  but  when  it  was 
disbanded   returned   to   his   own   country,    and 


812 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


before  he  was  twenty  years  old  was  made  head 
of  the  war  department.  In  1803  he  went  to 
Paris  and  became  aide-de-camp  to  Ney,  who 
recommended  him  to  the  emperor.     In  1809  he 

§uarreied  with  Ney  in  Spain  and  went  back  to 
witzerland;  but  in  1812  he  was  invited  by 
Napoleon  to  join  the  campaign  against  Russia, 
and  was  appointed  historian  of  the  grand  army. 
When  the  cause  of  Napoleon  was  almost  lost  he 
resented  an  affront  he  had  received  by  ^oing  over 
to  the  allies.  Napoleon  bore  him  no  ill-wiU  for 
this  course,  saying,  "He  was  not  a  Frenchman, 
and  there  was  no  love  of  country  to  retain  him." 
The  emperor  of  Russia  made  him  his  aid  and 
lieutenant-general,  and  he  served  in  the  war 
against  Turkey.  He  is  known  now  chiefly  by  his 
works  on  military  history  and  the  art  of  war. 
He  died  at  Passy,  near  Paris.  1869. 

Jones,  Henry  Arthur,  English  dramatic  author,  was 
born  at  Grandborough,  England,  1851.  He  was 
educated  at  Winslow,  Bucks;  hon.  M.  A.  from 
Harvard  university,  1907.  Author:  A  Clerical 
Error;  Silver  King;  Saints  and  Sinners;  Mid- 
dleman; Judah;  The  Dancing  Girl;  Crusaders; 
The  Bauble  Stwp;  The  Temptir;  The  Masquerade 
ers;  The  Case  of  Rebellious  Susan;  The  Triumph 
of  the  Philistines;  Michael  and  his  Lost  Angel; 
The  Rogues  Comedy;  The  Physician;  The  Liars; 
The  Mananivres  of  Jane;  CJarnac  Sahib;  The 
Lackey's  Carnival;  Mrs.  Dane's  Defence;  The 
Princess's  Nose;  The  Idol;  Whitewashing  Julia; 
Joseph  Entangled;  The  Chevaleer;  The  Heroic 
Stubbs;  The  Hypocrites;  The  Evangelist;  The  Re- 
nascence of  the  English  Drama;  essays,  lectures,  etc. 

Jones,  Inigo,  English  architect,  was  bom  in  London 
about  1573.  In  his  youth  his  talent  for  drawing 
attracted  the  notice  of  the  earls  of  Arundel  and 
Pembroke;  the  latter  enabled  him  to  visit  Ital^ 
to  study  landscape  painting.  At  Venice  his 
attention  was  drawn  to  the  works  of  Palladio, 
which  awoke  in  him  a  passion  for  architecture, 
to  which  his  attention  was  thenceforward  wholly 
directed.  Having  been  appointed  first  architect 
to  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark,  when  tliat  monarch 
visited  James  I.  in  England,  Jones  attended  him, 
remained  there,  and  became  architect  to  the 
queen.  In  1620  he  was  named  one  of  the  com- 
missioners for  repairing  St.  Paul's  cathedral, 
and  in  1622  completed  the  banqueting-house 
at  Whitehall.  He  realized  considerable  wealth, 
but  during  the  civil  war  was  exposed  to  some 
persecution  on  account  of  his  being  a  Roman 
Catholic.  He  wrote  a  book  on  Stonehenge. 
Died,  1652. 

Jones,  Jcnkln  Lloyd,  independent  minister,  editor, 
and  lecturer,  was  bom  at  Cardiganshire,  Soutli 
Wales,  1843.  His  parents  moved  to  Wisconsin 
when  he  was  an  infant.  He  served  as  a  private 
in  the  6th  Wisconsin  battery  for  three  years  in 
the  civil  war;  was  graduated  from  MeadviUe,  Pa., 
theological  seminary,  1870;  was  nine  years  pastor 
of  All  Souls  church,  Janesville,  Wis. ;  secretary  of 
western  Unitarian  conference  for  nine  years; 
organized  and  was  first  secretary  of  western 
Unitarian  Sunday  school  society;  in  1878,  with 
others,  established  Unity,  a  weekly  paper,  now 
organ  of  the  congress  of  religion,  and  has  been  its 
editor  since  1879;  organizwi  and  since  1882  has 
been  pastor  of  All  Souls  church,  Chicago.  Author : 
The  Faith  that  Makes  Faithftd,  with  WilUam  C. 
Gannett;  Practical  Piety;  Word  of  the  Spirit; 
Jess:  Bits  of  Wayside  Gospel;  A  Search  for  An 
Infidel;  Bits  of  Wayside  Gospd,  second  series; 
Nuggets  from  a  Welsh  Mine;  Reinforcement  of 
Faith;  Conscience  Calls;  Love  and  Loyalty, 
sermons,  etc. 

Jones,  John  Paul,  American  naval  commander, 
was  bom  at  Arbigland,  in  Scotland,  1747.  His 
original  name  was  John  Paul.  He  became  a 
sailor,  was  for  a  short  time  engaged  in  the  slave- 


trade,  and  afterward  settled  in  Virginia,  assuming 
the  name  of  Jones.  He  ardently  embraced  the 
cause  of  the  American  colonies.  When  the  con- 
gress, in  1775,  resolved  to  fit  out  a  naval  force,  he 
offered  his  services;  and,  visiting  the  British 
coast  in  a  brig  of  eighteen  guns,  performed  some 
remarkably  bold  exploits,  and  took  advantage 
of  his  familiarity  witn  the  scenes  of  his  boyhooid 
to  make  a  hostile  visit  to  the  shores  of  the  Solway 
Firth.  In  1779  he  was  appointed  to  the  command 
of  a  small  squadron  of  French  ships  displaying 
the  American  flag,  with  which  he  again  visited 
the  British  coasts,  causing  great  alarm  and  taking 
some  prizes.  Off  Flamborough  he  fell  in  with  a 
fleet  of  forty-one  British  merciiantmen,  convoyed 
by  the  forty-gun  Serapis  and  the  twenty-gun 
Countess  of  Scarborough.  Jones  lashed  his  Bon 
Homme  Richard  to  the  Serapis  and  after  three 
hours  of  desperate  fighting  compelled  her  sur- 
render, after  which,  his  own  ship  sinking,  he 
transferred  his  crew  to  the  Serapis.  The  king  of 
France  made  him  a  chevalier  of  the  order  of 
military  merit.  After  the  war  Jones  attempted, 
along  with  John  Ledyard,  to  estabUsh  a  fur- 
trade  betwe<;n  the  northwestern  coast  of  America 
and  China,  but  failed.  In  1787  he  accepted  an 
appointment  in  the  Russian  service,  and  the 
command  of  a  fleet  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dneiper, 
with  which  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  Turkish 
war,  but  soon  left  the  service.  He  died  at  Paris, 
1792. 

Jones*  Samuel  Milton,  American  political  reformer, 
known  as  "Golden  Rule"  Jones  because  of  his 
persistent  advocacy  of  that  practice  in  politics 
and  in  business,  was  bom  in  Wales,  1846.  Brought 
to  America  in  1849.  he  worked  as  a  boy  in  the  oil 
fields.  He  established  large  manufacturing 
nlunts  at  Toledo,  Ohio,  and  gained  an  immense 
fortune  and  a  splendid  reputation  in  business. 
Elected  as  a  republican  mayor  of  Toledo  in  1897, 
he  was  reelected  on  an  indep>endcnt  ticket  in 
1899,  1901,  and  1903;  used  his  oQice  to  defeat 
graft  and  dishonesty  and  to  secure  the  rights  of 
the  common  citizen.     Died,  1904. 

Jones,  Wesley  I*,  lawyer.  United  States  senator, 
was  bom  near  Betuany,  111.,  1863.  He  was 
graduated  at  Southern  Illinois  college,  1886; 
read  law  in  Chicago,  and  moved  to  the  territory 
of  Washington  just  before  its  admission  as  a  state, 
1889.  He  first  worked  in  a  real  estate  office; 
began  law  practice,  1890.  He  took  part  as 
speaker  in  Blaine  campaign,  1884,  and  Harrison 
campaign,  1888,  in  Illinois,  and  since  that  in 
every  campaign  in  Washington.  He  was  mem- 
ber of  congress  from  the  stat©-at-large,  1899- 
1909,  and  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
senate  for  the  term  1909-15. 

Jones,  Sir  William,  English  orientalist,  was  bom  in 
London,  1746.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow  and 
at  University  college,  Oxford,  where  his  remark- 
able attainments  attracted  attention.  In  1765 
he  became  tutor  to  the  son  of  Earl  Spencer;  in 
1774  was  called  to  the  bar,  and  in  1776  became 
commissioner  of  bankrupts,  publishing  mean- 
while a  Persian  Grammar,  1772,  Latin  Commen- 
taries on  Asiatic  Poetry,  1774,  and  a  translation 
of  seven  ancient  Arabic  poems,  1780.  In  1783 
he  obtained  a  judgeship  in  the  supreme  court  of 
judicature  in  Bengal,  and  was  knjghted.  He  at 
once  devoted  himself  to  Sanskrit,  whose  startling 
resemblance  to  Latin  and  Greek  he  was  the  first 
to  point  out  in  1787.  He  established  the  Asiatic 
society  of  Bengal  in  1784,  and  was  its  first  presi- 
dent. He  had  finished  his  translation  of  Sakun- 
tala,  the  Hitopadesa,  parts  of  the  Vedas,  and 
Manu,  when  he  died  at  Calcutta,  1794.  There  is 
a  monument  to  his  memory,  erected  by  the  Kaat 
India  company,  in  St.  Paul's  cathedral. 

Jonson,  BenJamliL,  or  Ben,  English  dramatist,  was 
bom    at    Westminster,    about    1573,    and    was  • 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


818 


educate<l  at  Westminster  school.  The  first  piece 
that  brought  him  into  prominence  was  Every 
Man  in  His  Humor,  published  in  1598.  The  best 
of  his  subsequent  productions  are  Voltxme,  or 
the  Fox,  The  SUctU  Woman,  and  7'Ae  Alchemist. 
He  also  composed  two  tragedies,  Sejanua  and 
Catiline's  Conspiracy,  on  which  he  —  but  only 
he  —  set  a  high  value.  His  Masques,  written 
for  the  courts  of  James  and  Charles,  are  very 
graceful.  Jonson  had  a  pension  from  these 
monarchs,  but  his  improvidence  involved  him 
in  difficulties,  and  he  died  in  poverty,  1637. 

Jordaens  (ydr'-dHns),  Jakob,  Flemish  painter,  was 
born  at  Antwerp,  1593.  He  rants  next  to 
Rubens  among  Flemish  painters,  and  was  master 
in  the  guild  of  St.  Luke.  He  excelled  in  humor- 
ous scenes  of  Flemish  life,  also  painted  scriptural 
and  mythological  subjects.  Among  his  works  are : 
"Jesus  in  the  Midst  of  the  Doctors " ;  "The  Ador- 
ation of  the  Shepherds";  "The  Satyr  and  the 
Man  who  Blew  Hot  and  Cold,"  etc.    Died,  1678. 

Jordan,  David  Starr,  American  naturalist  and 
educator,  president,  1891-1913,  chancellor  since 
1913,  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  university,  Cal.;  was 
bom  at  Gainesville,  N.  Y.,  1851.  He  was 
graduated  at  Cornell  university,  M.  S.,  1872; 
M.  D.,  Indiana  medical  college,  1875;  Ph.  D., 
Butler  university,  1878;  LL.  D.,  Cornell,  1886. 
Johns  Hopkins,  1902.  He  was  professor  in 
various  collegiate  institutions,  1872—79 ;  assistant 
to  United  States  fish  commission,  1877-91  and 
1894-1909;  professor  of  zoology,  1879-85,  and 
president,  1885-91,  Indiana  university.  Chief 
director,  World  peace  foundation,  since  1910.  He 
is  also  United  States  commissioner  in  charge  of  fur 
seal  investigations,  etc.  Author:  A  Manual  of 
Vertebrate  Animals  of  Northern  United  States; 
Science  Sketches;  Fishes  of  North  and  Middle  Amer- 
ica; Footnotes  to  Evolution;  The  Story  of  Matka; 
Care  and  Culture  of  Men;  The  Innumerable  Com- 
pany; Imperial  Democracy;  Animal  Life;  Animal 
Forms,  with  V.  L.  Kellogg  and  H.  Heath;  The 
Strength  of  Being  Clean;  Standeth  God  Within 
the  Shadow;  To  Barbara,  verse;  The  Philosophy 
of  Hope;  The  Blood  of  the  Nation;  Food  arid 
Gam.e  Fishes  of  North  America,  with  B.  W. 
Evermann;  A  Guide  to  the  Study  of  Fishes; 
Voice  of  the  Scholar;  The  Call  of  the  Twentieth 
Century;  also  numerous  papers  on  ichthyology 
in  proceedings  of  various  societies  and  govern- 
ment bureaus. 

Joseph,  favorite  son  of  Jacob  by  his  wife  Rachel, 
who  excited  the  envy  of  his  elder  brothers  and 
was  by  them  sold  into  Egyptian  slavery,  was  bom 
in  Haran  and  died  in  Egypt.  He  flourished  about 
the  nineteenth  century  B.  C.  Having  acquired 
the  confidence  of  Pharaoh  through  his  successful 
interpretation  of  dreams,  he  was  placed  as 
viceroy  at  the  head  of  the  arrangements  for 
provisioning  the  kingdom  during  seven  consecu- 
tive years  of  famine,  and  was  thus  enabled  to 
preserve,  in  the  persons  of  his  father  and  brothers, 
with  their  families,  the  future  Israelitish  nation. 
His  body  was  embalmed  and  carried  up  into 
Canaan  by  the  Israelites  at  their  exodus. 

Joseph  I^  emperor  o^f  Germany,  was  born  at  Vienna, 
1678,  and  was  crowned  king  of  Hungary  in  1687. 
He  then  succeeded  his  father,  Leopold  I.,  as 
emperor  of  Germany  in  1705.  He  granted 
privileges  to  the  Protestants,  and,  in  alliance 
with  Britain,  prosecuted  successfully  the  war  of 
the  Spanish  succession  against  France,  under 
command  of  Prince  Eugene  and  the  duke  of 
Marlborough.     He  died  in  1711. 

Joseph  11^  emperor  of  Germany,  son  of  Francis  I. 
and  Maria  Theresa,  was  bom  in  1741.  In  176h4 
he  was  elected  king  of  the  Romans,  and  after  his 
father's  death,  in  1765,  emperor  of  Germany; 
but  until  his  mother's  death  his  power  was  liniited 
to  the  command  of  the  army  and  the  direction  of 


foreign  affairs.  Although  he  failed  to  add 
Bavaria  to  the  Austrian  dominions,  he  acquired 
Galicia,  Lodomeria,  and  Zips,  at  the  first  parti- 
tion of  Poland  in  1772-  and  in  1780  he  appro- 
priated a  great  part  of  Passau  and  Salzburg.  As 
soon  as  he  found  himself  in  full  possession  of  the 
government  of  Austria  he  declared  himself  inde- 
pendent of  the  pope,  and  prohibited  the  publica- 
tion of  any  new  papal  bulls  without  his  placet. 
He  suppressed  700  convents,  re<luced  the  number 
of  the  regular  clergy  from  63,000  to  27,000, 
prohibited  papal  dispensations  as  to  marriage, 
and  in  1781  published  the  edict  of  toleration  for 
Protestants  and  Greeks.  He  also  abolished 
serfdom,  reorganized  taxation,  and  curtailed 
the  feudal  privileges  of  the  nobles.  In  1788  he 
engaged  in  an  unsuccessful  war  with  Turkey; 
and  the  vexation  caused  by  this,  and  by  revolts 
in  his  dominions,  hastened  his  death,  1790. 

Josephine,  Marie  Josiphe  Rose  Tascher  de  la 
Pagerie,  first  empress  of  the  French,  was  bom  in 
Martinique,  1763.  She  married  first  the  Vicomte 
de  Beauharnais,  by  whom  she  became  mother  of 
Eugene  Beauharnais,  and  Hortense,  mother  of 
Napoleon  III.  Her  husband  perished  during  the 
reign  of  terror,  and  she  married,  in  1796,  Napoleon 
Bonaparte,  the  newly-appointed  commander-in- 
chief  of  tne  army  of  Italy.  Sharing  her  hus- 
band's fortunes,  she  became  in  time  the  occupant 
of  an  imperial  throne,  which  she  adorned  by  her 
beauty,  grace,  and  womanly  virtues.  Failing, 
however,  to  afford  an  heir  to  the  new  monarchy, 
Napoleon,  despite  the  promptings  of  his  better 
nature,  resolved  to  divorce  her,  which  act  was 
consummated  in  1809.  Josephine  thereupon 
retired  into  privacy  at  her  chdteau  of  Malmaison. 
Died,  1814. 

Josephus  {jo-se'-fus),  Flavlus,  celebrated  Jewish 
historian,  was  bom  at  Jerusalem,  37  A.  D.  He 
was  of  priestly  descent,  and  took  part  in  the 
revolt  of  the  Jews  against  the  Romans,  66-73 
A.  D.,  and  served  as  one  of  the  Jewish  generals. 
He  was  taken  prisoner  by  Vespasian,  by  whom, 
however,  and  by  Vespasian's  successors,  Titus 
and  Domitian,  he  was  treated  with  great  favor. 
As  a  dependent  of  the  Flavian  family,  he  assumed 
his  name  of  Flavius.  His  Antiquities  of  the  Jews, 
in  twenty  books,  gives  an  account  of  Jewish 
history  from  the  creation  of  the  world  to  66  A.  D. 
A  remarkable  passage  in  this  work  relating  to 
Jesus  Christ  is  now  believed  to  be  spurious.  His 
other  works  are :  History  of  the  Jewish  War,  and 
an  Autobiography.     He  died  about  100  A.  D. 

Joshua  (jdsh'-u-a),  celebrated  Hebrew  warrior 
under  whose  leadership  the  land  of  Canaan  was 
conquered,  was  the  son  of  Nun,  of  the  tribe  of 
Ephraim,  and  was  bom  in  Egypt.  The  so-called 
book  of  Joshua,  in  its  present  form,  containing 
an  account  of  the  conquest  and  division  of  the 
"land  of  promise,"  is  of  composite  structure. 
The  compiler  made  copious  use,  especially  in  the 
earlier  chapters,  of  documents  drawn  up  during 
the  period  of  the  conquest.     He  died  about  1425 

Josiah  (jo-al'-a),  king  of  Judah,  succeeded  bis 
father  Amon  at  eight  years  of  age,  and  flourished 
about  641-609  B.  C.  He  reestablished  the  wor- 
ship of  Jehovah,  and  instituted  the  rites  in  the 
newly-discovered  "book  of  the  law."  He  fell  at 
Megiddo  attempting  to  check  Pharaoh-Necho'a 
advance  against  the  Assyrians. 

Joubert  (you'-bSrt),  Petrus  Jacobus,  Boer  general 
and  statesman,  was  born  in  Cape  Colony,  1831. 
He  was  a  farmer  and  ranchman ;  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Volksraad;  was  attorney-general  in 
1870;  and  in  1874  was  acting-president.  He 
was  one  of  the  triumvirate  who  organized  a 
Transvaal  revolt  against  the  British  government 
in  1880,  held  the  chief  command  in  the  engage- 
ments at  Lung's  Nek,  Ingogo  river,  and  Majtioa 


814 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


hill.  In  1899  he  was  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Boer  forces  in  the  war  with  England.  He  con- 
ducted the  siege  of  Ladysmith,  but  was  forced  to 
retire  on  account  of  ill-health.     Died,  1900. 

Joule  (jomZ),  James  Prescott,  English  physicist, 
was  bom  at  Salford,  England,  1818.  He  waa  a 
pupil  of  Dalton's,  and  devoted  his  time  to  physi- 
cal and  chemical  research;  made  discoveries  in 
connection  with  the  production  of  heat  by 
voltaic  electricity,  demonstrated  the  equivalence 
of  heat  and  energy,  and  established  on  experi- 
mental grounds  the  doctrine  of  the  conservation 
of  energy.     Died,  1889. 

Jourdan  (zfu}!nr'-daN'),  Jean  Baptlste,  Comte, 
French  marshal,  was  born  at  Limoges,  France, 
1762.  He  served  in  the  wars  of  the  republic, 
1792-96,  and  in  1799  was  appointed  commander 
of  the  army  of  the  Danube  by  the  directory. 
In  1797  he  became  president  of  the  council  of 
five  hundred,  but  was  expelled  in  1799,  owing 
to  his  opposition  to  Bonaparte,  by  whom,  how- 
ever, he  was  afterward  employed.  He  subse- 
quently followed  the  fortunes  of  Joseph  Bona- 
parte m  Naples  and  Spain.  He  owed  his  title 
to  Louis  XVIII.     Died,  1833. 

Jowett  {jou'-Ht),  Benjamin,  English  classical  scholar, 
master  of  Balliol  college,  Oxford,  was  bom  at 
Camberwell,  1817.  He  was  a  fellow  and  tutor 
of  his  college  until  his  election  to  the  mastership 
in  1870.  In  1882  he  was  appointed  vice-chan- 
cellor of  the  university.  His  name  will  always 
be  associated  with  Balliol  college,  where  his 
influence  was  felt,  and  made  the  deepest  impres- 
sion. He  wrote  On  the  Interjrretation  of  Scrip- 
ture, a  commentary  on  certain  epistles  of  St. 
Paul;  but  he  achieved  his  greatest  literary  suc- 
cesses by  his  translation  of  Plato's  Dialoguea,  the 
History  of  Thucydides,  and  the  Politics  of  Aris- 
totle.    Died,  1893. 

Jowett,  Bev.  J.  H.,  clergyman,  was  born  in  Eng- 
land, 1864;  educated  at  Edinburgh  and  Oxford. 
He  was  first  called  to  be  minister  of  St.  James's 
Congregational  church,  Newcastle-on-T5me,  re- 
maining there  six  years.  From  1895  to  1911  he 
was  minister  of  Carr's  Lane  Congregational 
church,  Birmingham,  and  in  1910  president  of 
the  free  church  council.  Since  1911  he  has  been 
pastor  of  the  Fifth  Avenue  Presbj'terian  church 
of  New  York  City.  Author:  Apostolic  Optimism; 
From  Strength  to  Strength;  Meditations  for  Quiet 
Moments;  Brooks  by  the  Traveller's  Way;  Thirst- 
ing for  the  Springs;  The  Passion  for  Souls;  Silver 
Lining. 

Joy,  George  William,  British  artist,  was  bom  at 
Dublin,  Ireland,  1844.  He  was  educated  at 
Harrow,  and  studied  at  Kensington,  the  royal 
academy,  and  at  Paris  under  Charles  Jalabert 
and  Bonnat.  Pictures:  "Domenica";  "Chess- 
players"; "Laodamia";  "Young  Nelson's 
First  Farewell";  "Wellington  at  Angers"; 
"The  Death  of  General  Gordon";  "Reverie,'* 
for  New  Zealand  government;  "Joan  of  Arc"; 
"Lear  and  Cordelia";  "The  Drummer  of  the 
Peninsular";  "Christ  and  a  Little  Child"; 
"A  Merchantman  Seeking  Goodly  Pearls"; 
"A  Diimer  of  Herbs";  "The  King's  Daughter" ; 
"Dreams  on  the  Veldt";  "Griselda";  "A  Dream 
of  Fair  Women";  and  many  portraits.  He 
obtained  gold  medals  at  Paris,  Munich,  and 
Berlin,  and  also  the  Chicago  medal. 

Ju&rez  {hwa'-^d^),  Benito,  Mexican  politician,  was 
bom  m  Oaxaca,  1806,  of  Indian  parents.  He 
became  an  advocate,  and  was  governor  of  his 
native  state  in  1847-52.  Exiled  by  Santa  Anna 
m  1853,  he  returned  two  years  later,  and  in  1857 
7c?r^o  u^°*®^  president  of  the  supreme  court.  In 
1858  he  assumed  the  executive,  but  was  compelled 
to  retire  to  Vera  Cmz,  whence  he  issued  decrees 
abolishing  religious  orders  and  confiscating 
Church  property.     In  1861  he  entered  the  capital. 


and  was  elected  president  for  four  years.  In 
1862  the  French  emf>eror  declared  war  against 
Judrez,  who  retreated  to  the  northern  frontier; 
but,  on  the  withdrawal  of  the  French,  he  reen- 
terwi  Mexico  city  in  1867,  the  emperor,  Maxi- 
milian, having  meanwhile  been  shot  by  court- 
martial.  Judrez  was  elected  president  again 
in  1871.     He  died  in  1872. 

Juch  (yOdK),  Emma  Johanna  Antonla  (Mrs. 
Francis  L.  Wellman),  operatic  singer,  was  bom 
during  the  sojourn  of  her  parents  in  Vienna, 
Austria-Hungary,  1863,  daugiiter  of  Justin  Juch. 
They  returned  to  the  United  States  when  she 
was  two  years  old,  making  their  home  in  New 
York.  She  was  graduated  at  the  normal  school, 
1879,  and  marriM,  in  1894,  Francis  L.  Wellman, 
New  York.  She  studied  three  years  with 
Murio-Celli;  made  her  ddbut  in  concert  at 
Chickering  hall,  N.  Y.,  and  her  operatic  ddbut 
in  her  majesty's  ^rand  Italian  opera,  London, 
1881,  as  Felina  in  Mianon.  Later  she  sang 
during  three  seasons  under  Colonel  Mapleson  in 
Boprana  rAles,  alternating  ^ith  Nilsson  as  Elsa 
in  Lohengrin  under  management  of  Theodore 
Thomas.  Was  prima  donna  with  the  American 
opera  company  three  seasons,  and  since  then 
has  sung  in  festivab,  orchestral  symphonic  con- 
certs, and  in  the  Emma  Juch  grand  English  opera 
company. 

JudHon,  Adonlram,  American  missionary,  was  born 
in  Maiden,  Mass.,  1788.  He  first  contemplated 
becoming  a  playwright,  but  in  1812,  having 
married,  sailed  for  India.  Settling  in  Rangoon 
as  a  Baptist  missionary,  he  began  to  preach  and 
write  in  Burmese,  translating  portions  of  the 
new  testament.  During  the  Burmese  war  he  was 
irapri.soned  at  Ava;  and  he  subsequently  labored 
in  various  towns  of  British  Bumiah  and  among 
the  Karens  with  remarkable  success.  In  1833 
his  translation  of  the  Bible  was  completed,  and 
there  followed  a  Burmese-English  dictionary. 
He  died  at  sea,  1850. 

Judson,  Harry  Pratt,  American  educator,  president 
of  the  university  of  Chicago  since  1907,  was  born 
in  Jamestown,  N.  Y.,  1849.  He  was  graduated 
at  WiUiams  college,  1870,  LL.  D.,  1893;  LL.  D., 
1903,  Queens  university,  Canada.  He  was 
teacher  and  principal  of  high  school,  Troy,  N.  Y., 
1870-S5;  professor  of  history,  university  of 
Minnesota,  1885-92;  and  h^ad  professor  of 
poUtical  science  and  dean  of  the  faculties  of  arts, 
literature  and  science,  Chicago  university,  1892- 
1907.  Author:  History  of  the  Troy  Citizens' 
Corps;  Caesar's  Army;  Ccesar's  Commentaries 
(co-editor) ;  Europe  in  the  Nineteenth  Century; 
The  Growth  of  the  American  Nation;  The  Higher 
Education  as  a  Trainina  for  Business;  The 
Latin  in  Eriglish;  The  Mississippi  Valley,  in 
Shaler's  United  States  of  America;  The  Young 
American;  The  Government  of  Illinois;  Graded 
Literature  Readers,  co-editor;  The  Essentials  of 
a  Written  Constitution,  etc. 

Julian  {jeU'-yan;  jSb'-ll-an),  or  Julianus,  Flavius 
Claudius,  sumamed  the  Apostate,  Roman 
emperor,  361-63,  was  bom  in  Constantinople, 
probably  331  A.  D.  He  was  the  youngest  son 
of  Constantine  the  Great,  and  was  educated  in 
the  tenets  of  Christianity,  but  apostatized  to 
paganism.  In  355  he  was  declared  Caesar,  and 
sent  to  Gaul,  where  he  obtained  several  victories 
over  the  Germans;  and  in  361  the  troops  in 
Gaul  revolted  from  Constantius  and  declared 
for  Julian.  He  took  from  the  Christian  churches 
their  riches,  and  divided  them  among  his  soldiers. 
He  sought  likewise  to  induce  the  Christians,  by 
flattery  or  by  favor,  to  embrace  paganism.  _  His 
malice  was  further  evinced  by  extraordinary 
indulgence  to  the  Jews,  and  an  attempt  to  rebuild 
the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  that  the  prophecy  of 
Christ  might  be  falsified;    but  the  design  was 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


815 


fnistrated.  He  did  not  long  survive  hia  disap- 
pointment, being  killed  in  363  in  his  expedition 
against  the  Persians. 

Jullen  (zhii'-ly&N'),  Stanislas  Algnan,  Chinese 
scholar,  was  born  at  Orleans,  France,  1799.  He 
became  at  twenty-one  assistant  professor  at  the 
College  de  France.  He  gave  himself  with  such 
zeal  to  the  study  of  Chinese  that  in  less  than  a 
year  he  was  able  to  make  a  Latin  translation  of 
Mencius.  He  succeeded  Abel  R^musat  as  pro- 
fessor of  Chinese  at  the  College  de  France,  1832, 
and  became  head  of  the  College  Inip^riale,  1854. 
He  was  also  keeper  of  the  Biblioth^que  Imp^riale. 
Julien  produced  admirable  French  versions  of 
specimens  of  the  Chinese  drama  and  of  Chinese 
romances,  as  well  as  a  collection  of  Indian 
novels.  Among  his  translations  were  the  great 
manuals  of  Chinese  religion  and  philosophy  con- 
taining the  doctrines  of  Laotse  and  others;  and 
the  life  and  journeys  of  Hiouen-Tsang.  His 
Syntaxe  Nouvelle  de  la  Langue  Chinoise  appeared 
1869-70.     Died,  1873. 

Julius  11^  Pope  (Cardinal  Giuliano  della  Rovere), 
was  born  in  Italy,  1443,  became  pope  in  1503. 
He  endeavored  to  extend  the  papal  territory,  and, 
after  drivine  Cesare  Borgia  from  the  Romagna, 
formed  the  league  of  Cambrai  with  Maximilian 
and  Louis  XII.  against  Venice  in  1508.  After 
the  submission  of  the  republic,  he  turned  his 
arms  against  France  in  1510.  In  1511  the  holy 
league  was  formed,  and  the  French  army  driven 
back  over  the  Alps.  He  sanctioned  the  marriage 
of  Henry  VIII.  with  Catharine  of  Aragon,  com- 
menced to  rebuild  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  and  was 
the  patron  of  Michaelangelo  and  Raphael.  Died, 
1513. 

Junker  (yddng'-kSr),  Wllhelm,  African  traveler,  was 
bom  of  German  parents  in  Moscow,  1840.  He 
studied  medicine  in  Germany,  and  in  1876-78 
traveled  among  the  western  tributaries  of  the 
upper  Nile.  In  1879  he  explored  the  Welle- 
Makua,  afterward  proved  to  be  identical  with  the 
Ubangi,  an  afSuent  of  the  Congo.  After  four 
years  among  the  Mangbuttu  and  Niam-Niam,  and 
some  time  with  Emin  Pasha,  he  reached  Cairo  in 
1887.  He  died  at  St.  Petersburg,  1892.  Pub- 
lished Reisen  in  Afrika,  etc. 

Jimot  {zhu'-nd'\  Andoche,  marshal  of  France,  was 
born  at  Bussy-le-Grand,  1771,  and  distinguished 
himself  in  the  early  wars  of  the  republic.  Napo- 
leon took  him  to  Egypt  as  adjutant.  Later  he 
was  made  governor  of  Paris,  and  in  1807  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  the  army  of  Portugal. 
He  quickly  made  himself  master  of  all  the 
strong  places  in  the  kingdom,  was  created  Due 
d'Abrant^s,  and  app>ointed  governor  of  Portugal; 
but,  defeated  by  Wellington  at  Vimeiro,  was 
obliged  to  conclude  the  treaty  of  Cintra  and 
retire  from  Portugal.  He  served  in  Germany 
and  Russia,  and,  made  one  of  the  scapegoats  for 
the  Russian  disaster,  was  sent  to  govern  Illyria. 
Becoming  deranged,  he  was  taken  to  his  father's 
house  near  Dijon,  threw  himself  from  a  window, 
1813,  and  died  seven  days  afterward. 

Josserand  (zhu's'-rd^'),  Jean  Adrlen  Antoine 
Jules,  French  diplomat  and  man  of  letters, 
French  ambassador  at  Washington  since  1902, 
was  born  at  Lyons,  1855.  He  was  educated  at 
Lyons  and  Paris,  and  entered  the  foreign  office 
in  1876.  LL.  D.,  Chicago  university,  Columbia, 
university  of  Pennsylvania,  McGill,  and  Harvard. 
He  was  councillor  of  the  French  embassy  at  Lon- 
don, 1887-90;  member  of  the  legion  of  honor, 
1883,  and  minister  at  Copenhagen,  1898.  Author: 
Les  Anglais  au  moyen  Age;  La  Vie  Nomade  et  lea 
Routes  d' Angleterre  au  xiv.  siicle;  Le  Roman  au 
temps  de  Shakespeare;  Histoire  liitSraire  du 
Peuple  anglais;  Shakespeare  en  France;  Lea 
sports  et  jeux  d'exercice  dans  I'ancienne  France, 
etc. 


Jussleu  (zha'-ayH'),  Antoine  Laurent  de,  French 
botanist,  was  born  at  Lvons,  I"' ranee,  1748.  At 
the  age  of  seventeen  he  began  his  botanical 
studies  under  his  uncle  liemard,  and  four  years 
later  was  nominated  demonstrator  and  assistant 
to  Lemonnier,  the  professor  of  botany  in  the 
Jardin  du  Roi.  He  reformed  the  arrangement  of 
the  gardens  and  collections  of  plants  under  hia 
charge,  and  applied  to  them  his  own  and  his 
uncle's  ideas  in  regard  to  the  natural  method. 
For  thirty  years  he  continued  to  develop  his 
novel  views;  and  when  his  Genera  Flantarum, 
which  he  began  in  1778,  was  completed  in  1789, 
the  natural  system  was  finally  established  as  the 
true  basis  of  botany.  In  1793  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  botany  in  the  newly  organized  Jardin 
des  Plantes,  where  he  continued  to  teach  until 
1826,  when  blindness  compelled  him  to  resign  hia 
chair  to  his  son  Adrien.  He  founded  the  library 
of  the  museum,  one  of  the  best  in  Europe.  Hia 
papers  in  the  Annales  du  Mus&um  and  hia 
articles  in  the  Dictionnaire  des  Sciences  NatureUea 
rank  among  the  most  valuable  contributions  to 
the  literature  of  botany,  and  embody  all  the 
results  of  his  own  investigations.  Died  in  Paris, 
1836. 

Justin,  surnamed  the  Martyr,  was  bom  at  Shechem 
in  Samaria  about  100  A.  D.,  and  was  successively 
a  stoic  and  a  Platonist ;  and  after  his  conversion 
to  Christianity  wandered  about,  arguing  for  the 
truth  of  the  new  faith.  At  Rome  between  150 
and  160  he  wrote  the  Apologia  of  Christianity 
addressed  to  the  emperor,  followed  by  a  second 
one.  He  is  said  to  have  been  martyred  about 
165  A.  D. 

Justinian  {]iis-tln'-l-an)  the  Great  (Flavins  Anicius), 
nephew  of  the  emperor  Justin,  was  bom  483 
A.  D.,  in  the  village  of  Tauresium.  His  reign, 
which  extended  from  527  over  a  period  of  thirty- 
eight  years,  was  the  most  brilliant  in  the  history 
of  the  eastern  empire.  He  had  the  fortune  or 
the  skill  to  select  the  ablest  generals  of  the  last 
days  of  Roman  military  ascendancy.  In  Ida 
first  war  —  that  with  Persia  —  he  concluded  a 
treaty  by  which  the  long  impending  crisis  was 
at  last  warded  off;  but  the  rejoicings  which 
celebrated  its  termination  had  almost  proved 
fatal,  by  a  domestic  revolution,  to  the  authority 
of  Justinian  himself.  Belisarius,  with  a  relentless 
hand,  repressed  the  tumult,  30,000  victims  hav- 
ing, it  is  said,  fallen  in  a  single  day.  He  then 
reannexed  the  Vandal  kingdom  of  Africa  to  the 
empire,  and,  conjointly  with  Narses,  restored 
the  imperial  authority  as  well  in  Rome  as  in 
northern  Italy  and  a  large  portion  of  Spain. 
Justinian  constructed  or  renewed  and  strength- 
ened the  vast  line  of  fortifications  along  the 
eastern  and  south-eastern  frontier  of  his  empire. 
These  works  of  defense  and  the  construction  of 
many  public  buildings,  both  in  his  capital  and  in 
other  cities  of  the  empire,  involved  an  enormous 
expenditure,  and  the  fiscal  administration  of 
Justinian  pressed  heavily  on  the  public  resources ; 
but  it  is  admitted  to  have  been  ably  and  uprightly 
conducted.  It  is,  however,  as  a  legislator  that 
Justinian  has  gained  renown.  Immediately  on 
his  accession  he  compiled  a  code  which  com- 
prised all  the  constitutions  and  laws  of  his  pred- 
ecessors, now  known  as  the  Code  of  Justinian. 
The  authoritative  commentaries  of  the  jurists 
were  next  harmonized  and  published  under  the 
title  Digesta  or  Pandectce.  The  code  was  repub- 
lished in  534  with  the  addition  of  Justinian's  own 
constitutions.  His  third  great  legal  undertaking 
was  the  composition  of  a  systematic  treatise  on 
the  laws  for  the  guidance  of  students  and  lawyers, 
published  a  short  time  before  the  Digest  under 
the  title  of  Inatitutionea.  His  personal  virtues 
were  of  a  high  degree,  and  his  public  adminis- 
tration, with    the   single   exception  of   that    of 


816 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


ecclesiastical  affairs,  in  which  he  was  an  arbi- 
trary and  imperious  intenneddler,  exhibits  great 
ability  and  just  and  upright  intentions.  He  died 
in  666. 

Juvenal,  or  Juvenalls,  Declmus  Junius,  celebrated 
Latin  poet  and  satirist,  was  bom  in  Aquinum, 
about  60  A.  D  He  was  a  friend  of  Martial  and 
contemporary  of  Statius  and  Quintilian.  His 
satires,  sixteen  in  number,  are  written  in  indig- 
nant scorn  of  the  vices  of  the  Romans  under 
the  empire,  in  the  descriptions  of  which  the 
historian  finds  a  portrait  of  the  manners  and 
morals  of  the  time.  He  practiced  at  Rome  a*  an 
advocate,  and,  it  is  thought,  also  visited  Egypt. 
Died  about  140  A.  D. 

Juxon  (jUk'-sun),  William,  English  prelate,  was 
born  at  Chichester,  1582.  He  was  graduated  at 
St.  John's  college,  Oxford,  succeedfed  Laud  aa 
its  president  in  1621,  and  became  a  prebendary 
of  Chichester  and  dean  of  Worcester,  1628; 
bishop  of  London,  1633,  and  lord  high  treasurer, 
1635.  In  Charles's  vacillation  about  the  fate  of 
Strafford,  Juxon  advised  him  to  refuse  his  assent 
to  the  bill.  He  ministered  to  the  king  in  his 
last  moments,  and  it  was  into  his  hands  that 
Charles  delivered  his  son  George  with  the  word 
"Remember."  After  the  restoration  Juxon  was 
appointed  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  died 
in  1663. 

Kalakaua  (fca'-id-fcou'-d),  David,  king  of  the 
Hawaiians,  1874-91,  was  bom  in  Honolulu, 
1836,  and  was  descended  from  Keawe,  an 
ancient  king  of  the  islands.  He  received  an 
English  education  with  Prince  Lunalilo  and 
fifteen  other  hereditary  chiefs  in  the  royal 
school  at  Honolulu.  In  1860  he  visited  Cali- 
fornia. On  the  death  of  Lunalilo,  who  ap- 
pointed no  successor,  Kalakaua  was  elected  king 
m  1874  by  the  legislature,  over  Enuna,  queen 
dowager  and  reUct  of  Kamehameha  IV.  The 
partisans  of  Emma,  on  hearing  the  result,  broke 
into  the  courthouse  and  attacked  the  legislature 
which  had  elected  her  rival.  Assistance  being 
asked  from  the  English  and  American  ships  in 
port,  the  rioters  were  dispersed,  and  Kalalcaua 
was  crowned  the  seventh  king  of  the  Hawaiians. 
In  1887  he  granted  a  new  constitution  restricting 
the  royal  prerogative.     Died,  1891. 

Karnes  (kdtnz),  Henry  Home,  Lord,  Scottish  phi- 
losopher and  critic,  was  bom  at  Kames  in  Ber- 
wickshire, 1696.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1723,  and  appointed  to  the  bench  as  Lord 
Kames  in  1752.  Besides  books  on  Scotch  laws 
he  published  Essays  on  Morality;  An  Introdvic- 
tion  to  the  Art  of  Thinking;  Elements  of  Criticism, 
his  best-known  work ;  and  Sketches  of  the  History 
of  Man.     Died,  1782. 

Kamlmura,  Hikonojo,  Japanese  admiral,  was  bom 
in  Satsuma,  1850.  He  commanded  a  cruiser  in 
the  Chino-Japanese  war,  1894-95,  was  promoted 
vice-admiral,  1903,  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Russo-Japanese  war  was  placed  in  conunand  of 
the  second  Japanese  squadron.  In  1904  he  sank 
the  Russian  cruiser  Rurik  off  Ulsan,  Korea,  and 
gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Russian 
squadron. 

Kane,  Ellsha  Kent,  arctic  explorer,  was  bom  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1820.  He  entered  the  United 
States  navy  as  a  surgeon,  in  which  capacity  he 
visited  China,  India,  the  East  Indies,  and,  under 
leave  of  absence,  Arabia,  Egypt,  Greece,  and 
western  Europe.  In  1850  he  commenced  his 
career  of  arctic  discovery  as  surgeon,  naturalist, 
and  historian  to  the  first  Grinnell  expedition.  ■  In 
the  spring  of  1853  he  was  again  sent  out,  this 
time  as  commander  of  a  second  Grinnell  expedi- 
tion, in  which  he  achieved  important  results. 
Died,  1857. 

Kant,  Immanuel.     See  page  306. 


Kasson  {k&a'-un),  John  Adam,  American  lawyer, 
diplomat,  was  bom  at  Charlotte,  Vt.,  1822.  He 
was  graauated  at  the  university  of  Vermont, 
1842;  was  admitted  to  the  Massachusetts  bar, 
1845,  and  removed  to  Iowa  and  engaged  in  prac- 
tice of  law,  1857.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  free 
soil  convention,  Buffalo,  1848,  national  republi- 
can convention,  Chicago,  1860;  first  assistant 
postmaster-general,  1861-62;  commissioner  to 
international  postal  congress,  Paris,  1803;  mem- 
ber of  Iowa  legislature,  1868-72;  member  of 
congress  from  Iowa,  1863-67,  1873-77,  1881-84; 
United  States  minister  to  Austria,  1877-81,  to 
Germany,  1884-85;  commissioner  to  Congo 
international  conference,  1886;  special  envoy  to 
Samoan  international  conference,  1893;  United 
States  special  commissioner  plenipotentiary  to 
negotiate  reciprocity  treaties,  1897-1901 ;  mem- 
ber of  American-Canadian  joint  high  commission, 
1898.  Author:  Evolution  of  the  United  StcUea 
Constitution  and  History  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine; 
and  numerous  essavs  and  sp>eeches.      Died,  1910. 

Katsura  (k&'-tsdb-ra).  Marquis  Taro,  Japanese 
statesman,  four  timeepremier  of  Japan,  was  bom 
in  the  province  of  Cnoshu,  1847.  Duriiig  the 
restoration  era,  in  1867.  he  distinguished  himself 
in  the  civil  war;  studied  military  science  in 
Germany,  and  for  some  time  was  military  attach6 
in  Berlin.  On  his  return  home  he  was  gazetted 
major-general,  was  appointed  vice-minister  of  the 
war  omce,  under  General  Oyama,  and  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  reform  of  the  Japanese 
army.  In  1891  he  was  promoted  to  lieutenant- 
general,  and  in  the  following  year  was  appointed 
to  the  command  of  the  third  division  of  ttie  army. 
During  the  Chino-Japanese  war  he  marched  with 
his  division  through  Korea  to  Manchuria;  and 
later  on  served  under  General  Nodsu.  For  his 
services  he  was  created  a  viscount,  and  two  years 
after  promoted  to  the  rank  of  general.  In  1898 
he  was  appointed  war  minister,  and  held  that 
post  until  the  downfall  of  the  Yamagata  cabinet 
in  1900.  He  was  premier  of  Japan  from  1901 
until  1906,  covering  the  period  of  the  war  with 
Russia,  arid  in  1906  was  appointed  a  member  of 
the  high  military  council  of  Japan.  Grand  cross 
of  the  bath^  1906,  marquis,  1907.  He  became 
premier  again  in  1908,  1909,  and  1912.  Resigned, 
1913. 

Kauffmann  (kouf-mAn\  Angelica,  Swiss  historical 
and  portrait  painter,  was  bom  at  Coire,  Grisons, 
in  the  Tyrol,  1741.  She  began  to  paint  portraits 
when  a  mere  child.  In  1765  Lady  Wentworth 
persuaded  her  to  go  to  London,  where  she 
became  famous  as  a  painter  of  portraits  and  of 
classical  and  mythological  pictures.  She  was 
also  an  accomplished  singer.  In  1781  she 
married  the  Italian  painter  Zucchi,  and,  return- 
ing to  Rome,  spent  remainder  of  her  life  in  a 
circle  of  poets,  artists,  and  scholars.     Died,  1807. 

Kaulbach  (kovl'-b^K),  W'ilhclm  von,  German 
painter,  was  bom  at  Arolsen,  1805.  He  studied 
at  Diisseldorf,  Munich,  Euid  Rome,  and  from  1849 
was  director  of  the  Munich  academy  of  painting. 
His  realistic  tendencies  came  out  in  his  illustra- 
tions of  Schiller,  Goethe's  Faust,  and  Reineke 
Fuchs,  and  in  his  Madhouse.  In  1834  he  com- 
pleted his  grandiose  "Battle  of  the  Huns";  in 
1838  the  "Destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus." 
For  several  years  he  was  painting  the  vestibule 
of  the  new  museum  at  Berlin  with  a  cycle  illus- 
trating the  progress  of  civilization.  His  last 
gigantic  painting  was  the  "Sea-fight  of  Salamis" 
at  Munich.     Died,  1874. 

Kaunltz  (kou'-nUs\  Wenzel  Anton,  Prince  von, 
Austrian  statesrnan,  was  bom  at  Vienna,  1711. 
He  distinguished  himself  in  1748  at  the  congress 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  as  Austrian  ambassador 
at  the  French  court  in  1750-52  converted  old 
enmity     into     friendship.       In     1753     he     was 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


817 


appointed  chancellor,  and  for  almost  forty  years 
had  the  principal  direction  of  Austrian  politics. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  ecclesiastical 
reforms  of  Joseph  II.,  and  was  a  liberal  patron  of 
arts  and  sciences.     Died,  1794. 

Kean,  Charles  John,  British  actor,  was  born  in 
Waterford,  Ireland,  1811,  son  of  Edmund  Kean. 
He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  made  his  d6but 
at  Drury  Lane.  1827,  but  did  not  establish  his 
reputation  until  1838,  when  he  acted  as  Hamlet, 
Richard  III.,  and  Sir  Giles  Overreach.  In  1842 
he  married  Miss  Ellen  Tree,  a  celebrated  actress. 
From  1850  to  1859  he  was  manager  of  the  Prin- 
cess's theater,  London.  His  last  appearance  was 
as  Louis  XI.  at  Liverpool  in  1867.     Died,  18G8. 

Kean,  Edmund,  English  actor,  was  bom  in  London, 
1787,  son  of  Nance  Carey,  a  strolling  actress. 
A  stage  cupid  and  a  cabin-boy  to  Madeira,  he 
himself  about  sixteen  turned  a  "stroller,"  and 
after  ten  years  in  the  provinces  made  his  first 
appearance  at  Drury  Lane  as  Shylock  in  1814. 
He  at  once  took  rank  as  the  first  actor  of  the  day. 
A  period  of  wonderful  success  followed;  but  by 
his  irregularities  he  gradually  forfeited  public 
approval.  He  was  cordially  received  in  1827 
after  a  twelve-months'  visit  to  America;  but 
both  mind  and  body  gave  way,  and,  breaking 
down  hopelessly  in  1833,  he  died  at  Richmond  in 
May  of  that  year.  His  greatest  successes  were 
as  Shylock,  Hamlet,  lago,  Othello,  and  as  Luke 
in  Riches. 

Kean,  John,  capitalist,  ex-United  States  senator, 
was  born  at  Ursino,  near  Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  1852. 
He  entered  Yale  college  in  the  class  of  1876,  but 
left  to  study  law ;  graduated  at  Columbia  college 
law  school,  1875;  M.  A.,  Yale,  1890.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  New  Jersey  bar,  1877;  was 
elected  to  the  forty-eighth  and  fiftieth  congresses ; 
was  member  of  the  committee  to  revise  the 
judiciary  system  of  the  state.  He  is  president 
of  the  National  state  bank  of  Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  and 
vice-president  of  the  Manhattan  trust  company, 
of  New  York.  In  1899  he  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  senate  to  succeed  James  Smith, 
Jr.,  and  was  reelected  in  1905. 

Keane,  Augustus  Henry,  British  ethnologist  and 
geographer;  was  emeritus  prof  essor  of  Hindustani, 
University  college,  London;  was  bom  at  Cork, 
Ireland,  1833.  He  was  educated  in  Jersey,  Italy, 
Dublin,  and  Hanover,  Germany,  and  traveled 
extensively  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  America. 
LL.  D.,  St.  Andrews  university.  Author  and 
editor:  Stanford's  Asia,  Africa,  Central  and 
South  America;  Ethnology;  Man,  Past  and 
Present;  The  Gold  of  Ophir;  The  Boer  States; 
The  World's  Peoples,  and  other  anthropological 
works;  also  contributions  to  Encyclopedia 
Britannica;  Nature;  Academy;  Edinburgh  Review; 
International  Monthly;  Geographical  Journal; 
Hibbert  Journal;  Harmsworth's  Encyclopcedia; 
Anthropological  Journal,  etc.     Died,  1912. 

Keane,  John  Joseph,  American  scholar  and  edu- 
cator, Roman  Catholic  archbishop  of  Dubuque, 
la.,  since  1900,  was  bom  in  Ballyshannon,  Ireland, 
1839.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1846; 
was  educated  -at  St.  Charles's  college  and  St. 
Mary's  seminary,  Baltimore,  Md.  Ordained 
priest,  1866;  assistant  pastor  of  St.  Patrick's 
church,  Washington,  D.  C,  1866-78;  consecrated 
bishop  of  Richmond,  Va.,  1878.  Was  active 
in  organizing  Roman  Catholic  societies,  and  was 
rector  of  the  Catholic  university  of  America,  at 
Washington,  1886-97,  when  he  resigned  and  went 
to  Rome.  Upon  his  return  to  America  he  was 
installed  as  bishop  of  his  present  see.  Author: 
Onward  and  Upward,  etc. 

Kearny  (fcdr'-ni).  General  Philip,  American  soldier, 
was  bom  in  New  York,  1815.  He  was  attached 
to  the  staff  of  General  Scott,  1841-44,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  Mexican  war.     He  then 


served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  French  army  in  the 
war  against  Austria,  and  was  present  at  the  battle 
of  Magenta  and  Solfcrino;  commanded  the  cavalry 
of  the  army  of  the  Potomac  in  the  peninsular 

•  campaign  during  the  civil  war,  in  which  he  won 
an  enviable  reputation  for  courage  and  gallantry. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  second  battle  of 
Bull  Run  and  also  at  Chantilly,  Va.,  where  he 
was  killed  in  1862  by  a  confederate  soldier  while 
reconnoitering  in  front  of  his  command. 

Keats,  John,  English  poet,  was  bom  in  London, 
1795.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a  surgeon  at 
Edmonton,  near  Lotidon,  and  found  time  to 
cultivate  that  taste  for  poetry  which  he  had 
exhibited  from  his  boyhood;  in  1817  he  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  juvenile  poems,  having 
already  made  several  contributions  to  the  London 
Examiner,  then  under  the  editorship  of  Leigh 
Hunt.  In  1818  appeared  his  Endymion,  a  poetic 
romance  founded  in  part  on  the  model  of  Fletcher's 
Faithful  Shepherdess.  This  work,  though  the 
production  of  a  youth  of  little  more  than  two- 
and-twenty,  was  severely  criticised  in  the 
Quarterly  Review,  and  in  BlackvMod's  Magazine, 
the  wrath  of  the  reviewers  bein^  probably 
inspired  by  their  hatred  of  the  political  party 
with  which  Keats  had  identifiecf  himself,  and 
which  was  represented  by  Keat's  friends,  Hazlitt 
and  Hunt.  He  profited,  however,  by  the  criti- 
cisms of  his  reviewers^  and  in  1820  published 
his  Eve  of  St.  Agnes;  his  odes  to  The  Nightingale 
and  Tfie  Grecian  Urn;  and  the  fragments  of 
Hyperion,  taken,  like  Endymion,  from  mythologi- 
cal sources,  and  written  in  an  airy  strain  of 
classic  imagery,  characterized  by  much  pensive 
qviiet  beauty.  These  works,  and  especially  the 
Hyperion,  were  far  superior  both  in  conception 
and  execution  to  anything  which  Keats  had  yet 
produced,  and  he  was  encouraged  at  this  time  by 
a  more  kindly  review  of  his  earlier  poem,  which 
appeared  in  the  Edinburgh  Review  from  the  pen 
of  Francis  Jeffrey.  But  already  consumption 
had  taken  hold  of  the  poet;  he  went  to  Naples, 
from  there  to  Rome,  where  he  died,  1821. 

Keble  (ke'-b'l\  John,  English  clergyman  and  poet, 
was  bom  in  1792.  His  early  education  was 
directed  by  his  father,  and  at  the  age  of  fifteen 
he  entered  Corpus  Christi  college,  Oxford,  where 
he  won  several  prizes  and  otherwise  distinguished 
himself.  In  1827  he  published  his  volume  of 
sacred  poetry  entitled  the  Christian  Year,  which 
attained  a  very  large  circulation  and  an  influence 
that  can  hardly  be  overestimated.  He  was  one 
of  the  leading  spirits  in  what  was  known  as  the 
"tractarian  movement"  in  the  English  church, 
and  for  several  years  was  actively  engaged  with 
Pusey,  Newman,  and  others  in  issuing  Tracts  for 
the  Times,  which  culminated  with  tract  No.  90, 
which  appeared  in  1841.  He  died  at  Bourne- 
mouth, 1866. 

Keen,  WUllam  Williams,  American  surgeon,  was 
bora  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1837.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  Brown  university,  1859;  M.  D.,  Jefferson 
medical  college,  Philadelphia,  1862;  LL.  D., 
Brown,  1891,  Northwestern  and  Toronto.  1903, 
Yale,  1906 ;  M.  D.,  university  of  Griefswald,  1906. 
He  was  assistant  surgeon  of  6th  Massachusetts 
regiment,  1861 ;  acting  assistant  surgeon  of 
United  States  army,  1862-64 ;  studied  in  Europe, 
1864-66,  and  since  1866  has  been  in  practice  in 
Philadelphia.  He  conducted  the  Philadelphia 
school  of  anatomy,  1866-75,  was  lecturer  on 
pathological  anatomy,  Jefferson  medical  college, 
1866-75;  professor  of  artistic  anatomy  at  Penn- 
sylvania academy  of  fine  arts,  1876-89;  professor 
of  surgery,  Woman's  medical  college,  1884-89; 
professor  of  surgery,  1889-1907,  emeritus  professor, 
1907,  Jefferson  medical  college.  Member  of  many 
medical,  scientific,  educational,  and  other  bodies. 
Author:    Keen's  Clinical  Charts;    History  of  the 


818 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Philadelphia  School  of  Anatomy;  Early^  History 
of  Practical  Anatomy;  Surgical  Complicaiiona 
and  Sequela  of  Typhoid  Fever;  Addresses  and 
Other  Papers.  Editor:  Heath's  Practiced  Anat- 
omy; Diagrams  of  the  Nerves  of  the  Human  Body, 
by  W.  H.  Flower;  American  Health  Primers; 
Holden's  Medical  and  Surgical  Landmarks; 
GTa,y's  Anatomy;  American  Text-Book  of  Surgery; 
Keen's  System  of  Surgery;  and  a  prolific  contribu- 
tor to  medical  journals. 

Keifer  {ke'-fer),  Joseph  Warren,  congressman, 
ex-speaker  of  United  States  congress,  was  born 
in  Clark  county,  Ohio,  1836.  He  was  educated 
at  Antioch  college,  and  since  1858  has  practiced 
law  at  Springfield,  Ohio.  He  served  in  the  Ohio 
volunteers  in  the  field,  1861-65;  four  times 
wounded;  declined  appointment  as  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  26th  United  States  infantry,  1866. 
Was  member  of  the  Ohio  senate,  1868^9;  de- 
partment commander  of  Ohio  G.  A.  R.,  1868-70 ; 
vice-commander-in-chief  G.  A.  R.,  1871-72; 
member  of  congress.  1877-85,  and,  1905-11; 
speaker  of  congress  1881-83;  president  of  La- 
gonda  national  bank,  Springfield,  Ohio,  since  1873. 
He  was  appointed  and  served,  1898-99,  as  major- 
general  of  volunteers  in  the  war  against  Spain. 
Author :  Slavery  and  Four  Years  oflVar. 

Keith  (kith),  George  Kelth-Elphinstone.  Viscount, 
British  admiral,  son  of  the  tenth  Lord  Elphin- 
stone,  was  bom  at  Elphinstone  Tower,  Stirling, 
1746.  He  entered  the  British  navy  in  1761,  saw 
service  in  most  parts  of  the  world,  and  fought  in 
the  American  and  French  wars.  He  commanded 
the  expedition  in  1795-97  which  took  Cape 
Town,  and  the  fleet  which  landed  Abercromby's 
army  in  Aboukir  bay  in  1801.  He  was  maide 
Baron  Keith  in  1797,  and  a  viscount  in  1814. 
Died,  1823. 

Kellar,  Harry,  public  entertainer,  magician,  was 
born  in  Erie,  Pa.,  1849.  He  was  graduated  from 
Painesville,  Ohio,  high  school,  1866.  When  a 
young  man  was  assistant  to  the  "fakir  of  Ava," 
the  magician ;  joined  Davenport  Brothers, 
spirit  mediums,  as  business  manager,  1867; 
with  Fay  toured  South  America  and  Mexico  as 
Fay  and  Kellar,  1871-73;  with  Ling  Look  and 
Yamadura,  under  name  of  Kellar,  Ling  Look  and 
Yamadura,  royal  illusionists,  plaved  through 
South  America,  Africa,  Australia,  India,  China, 
Philippine  islands,  and  Japan.  Ling  Look  and 
Yamadura  died  in  China,  1877.  He  was  then 
with  J.  H.  Cunard,  as  Kellar  and  Cunard ;  traveled 
five  years  through  India,  Burmah,  Siam,  Java, 
Persia,  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  and  Mediterranean 
ports;  since  1884  has  performed  in  leading 
American  cities. 

Keller,  Helen  Adams,  American  author,  was  bom 
at  Tuscumbia,  Ala.,  1880,  daughter  of  Captain 
Arthur  H.  Keller.  She  is  descended  on  her 
father's  side  from  Alexander  Spottswood,  colonial 
governor  of  Virginia,  and  through  her  mother 
related  to  Adams  and  Everett  families  of  New 
England.  She  has  been  deaf  and  blind  since  the 
age  of  nineteen  months  as  result  of  illness.  At 
the  age  of  seven  she  was  placed  under  the  instruc- 
tion of  Miss  Anne  Mansfield  Sullivan,  her  teacher 
from  the  beginning  of  her  education  to  the 
present  time.  She  entered  Radcliffe  college, 
1900,  and  graduated,  A.  B.,  1904.  She  has 
contributed  occasional  papers  to  Century  Maga- 
V'r'%  ^"'"■^^'^  Companion;  Ladies'  Home  Journal; 
McClure's  Magazine,  etc.,  and  is  the  author  of 
The  Story  of  My  Life;  Optimism,  an  essay;  The 
World  I  Live  In,  etc. 

Kellermann  {kU'-er-man),  Francois  Christophe, 
1- ranch  soldier,  was  bora  in  Bavaria,  1735  and 
entered  a  regiment  of  French  hussars  at  the 
early  age  of  seventeen.  When  the  revolution 
broke  out,  he  had  risen  to  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general.     For  his  services  in  Italy,  he  was  made 


duke  of  Valmy  and  marshal  of  the  empire  by 
Napoleon.  The  Bourbons,  whose  party  he 
joined  at  the  restoration,  confirmed  his  title  of 
duke,  and  also  create<i  liim  a  f>eer  of  France.  He 
died  in  1820. 

Kellogg,  Clara  Louise,  American  prima  donna, 
was  bom  at  Sumterville,  S.  C,  1842.  Her 
professional  education  was  acquired  in  New 
York,  except  a  few  lessons  received  in  London, 
England.  She  made  her  dftbut  in  o{>era,  1861-62, 
as  Gilda  in  Rigoletto  at  the  academy  of  music, 
New  York,  and  from  that  time  rose  steadily 
and  securely  in  the  estimation  of  the  public, 
until  she  secured  the  confidence  and  esteem  of 
managers  and  opera-goers  on  both  sides  of  the 
Atlantic.  She  sang  repeatedly  in  London,  and 
once  or  twice  before  Queen  Victoria,  at  Bucking- 
ham palace.  She  toured  the  United  States, 
1868-72;  reappeared  in  London,  1872.  She 
sang  in  Italian  opera  for  several  years  and 
organized  her  own  English  opera  company,  and 
has  appeared  principally  at  concerts  of  late 
years.  She  married,  1887,  Carl  Strakosch, 
nephew  of  the  well-known  impressarioe,  Max  and 
Maurice  Strakosch. 

KelloiCK,  Prank  B.,  American  lawyer,  was  bom  at 
Potsdam,  N.  Y.,  1856.  He  went  to  Minnesota 
with  his  parents  in  1865;  studied  law,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  He  was  city  attorney  in 
Rochester,  Minn.,  three  years;  county  attomey, 
Olmsted  county,  five  years.  He  removed  to 
St.  Paul  in  1887,  formed  a  partnership  with 
Senator  Cushman  Kellogg  Davis  and  Cordenio 
A.  Severance,  as  Davis,  Kellogg  and  Severantie, 
which  firm  name  is  still  retained.  General 
counsel,  Duluth  and  Iron  Range  railroad  com- 
pany, Duluth,  Missabe  and  Northern  railway 
company,  Minnesota  iron  company,  Oliver  iron 
mining  company,  etc. ;  special  counsel  for 
United  States  in  the  case  against  the  paper 
and  Standard  oil  trusts,  and  special  counsel  for 
interstate  commerce  commission  in  the  inves- 
tigation of  the  Harriman  railroads. 

Kelly,  Howard  Atwood,  American  physician,  was 
born  at  Camden,  N.  J.,  1858.  He  was  graduated 
at  the  university  of  Pennsylvania,  1877;  M.  D.. 
1882;  LL.  D.,  Aberdeen,  Washington  and 
Lee,  1906,  university  of  Pennsylvania,  1907; 
F.  R.  C.  S.,  Edinburgh.  He  was  founder  of  the 
Kensington  hospital,  Philadelphia;  was  asso- 
ciate professor  of  obstetrics,  university  of  Penn- 
sylvania, 1888-89;  professor  of  gynecology  and 
obstetrics,  Johns  Hopkins  university,  1889-99; 
now  professor  of  gynecology,  Johns  Hopkins 
university,  and  gynecological  surgeon,  Johns 
Hopkins  hospital.  He  is  a  member  of  many 
medical  and  scientific  societies,  both  foreign  and 
American.  Author:  Operative  Gynecology,  2 
vols.;  Tfie  Vermiform  Appendix  and  Its  Diseases; 
Water  Reed  and  Yellow  Fever;  and  about  300 
articles  in  medical  journals. 

Kelly,  James  Edward,  American  sculptor,  was  bom 
at  New  York,  1855.  He  studied  art  at  the 
National  academy  of  design;  studied  wood 
engraving,  1871;  in  Harper's  art  department, 
*  1874 ;  illustrator  for  Scribner's,  St.  Nicholas,  etc., 
until  1881,  and  since  then  has  devoted  his  time 
exclusively  to  sculpture.  His  first  piece  of 
sculpture  was  "Sheridan's  Ride,"  1878;  forty 
generals,  including  Grant,  Sherman,  Sheridan,  and 
Hancock,  gave  him  sittings  for  a  series  of  bronzes. 
Prominent  works:  "Monmouth  Battle  Monu- 
ment," "Call  to  Arms,"  Troy,  N.  Y. ;  "General 
John  Buford  at  Gettysburg;"  "Battle  of 
Harlem  Heights,"  memorial,  Columbia  college: 
equestrian  figures  of  General  Sherman,  Colonel 
Roosevelt  at  San  Juan  hill;  busts  from  Ufe  of 
Adniirals  Dewey,  Sampson,  and  C.  E.  Clark,  and 
President  Roosevelt  as  colonel  of  the  Rough 
Riders;    pejiela  from  life  of  Dewey's  captains. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


819 


Sampson's  captains,  and  Generals  Joseph 
Wheeler,  Leonard  Wood,  J.  H.  Wilson,  and 
equestrian  statue  of  General  Fitz  John  Porter 
at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.;  Washington  at  Valley 
Forge:  McKinley  memorial  at  Wilmington,  Del., 
etc.  lie  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  art 
students'  league. 

Kelvin,  Ix>M.     See  page  415. 

Kemble,  Charles,  English  tragedian,  was  born  at 
Brecknock,  in  South  Wales,  1775.  He  received 
his  education  at  Douai,  and  on  his  return  to 
England  devoted  himself  to  the  stage.  In  1794 
he  made  his  first  appearance  at  Drury  Lane, 
London,  in  the  character  of  Malcolm  in  Macbeth. 
In  1806  he  married  Miss  De  Camp,  a  lady  who 
had  distinguished  herself  in  high  comedy.  He 
visited  the  United  States  in  1832.  Appointed 
examiner  of  plays  in  1836,  he  performed  the 
duties  of  his  office  by  proxy  until  he  relinquished 
the  stage  in  1840.     Died,  1854. 

Kemble,  Frances  Anne,  English  actress  and 
Shakespearean  reader,  was  bom  in  London,  1809. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  the  celebrated  Charles 
Kemble,  and  was  commonly  known  by  the  name 
of  "Fanny."  She  made  her  d6but  at  Covent 
Garden  in  1829,  and  in  1832  came  to  the  United 
States  with  her  father,  where  she  met  with  great 
success.  In  1834  she  married  Pierce  Butler,  an 
American,  and  retired  from  the  stage:  but,  the 
marriage  being  unhappy,  she  separatea  from  her 
husband  in  1847,  obtained  a  divorce,  and  resumed 
her  maiden  name.  In  1860  she  left  America,  and 
from  that  time  her  residence  was  partly  in  Eng- 
land, partly  in  the  United   States.     Died,  1893. 

KemUe,  John  Philip,  English  tragedian,  was  born 
at  Prescott,  1757.  His  father  intended  him  for 
the  Catholic  priesthood,  and  sent  him  to  a  semi- 
nary at  Sedgley  Park,  Staffordshire,  and  to  the 
English  college  at  Douai.  His  first  appearance 
was  at  Wolverhampton  in  1776.  The  success  of 
his  sister,  Mrs.  Siddons,  gave  him  his  opportunity, 
and  in  1783  he  played  Hamlet  at  Drury  Lane, 
and  aroused  the  keenest  interest.  He  continued 
to  play  leading  tragic  characters  at  Drury  Lane 
for  many  years,  and  in  1788  became  Sheridan's 
manager.  In  1803  he  purchased  a  share  in  Covent 
Garden  theater,  became  manager,  and  made  his 
first  appearance  there  in  the  same  year  as  Hamlet. 
He  retired  in  1817,  and  afterward  settled  at 
Lausanne,  where  he  died,  1823.  Kemble  had  no 
superior  in  his  own  time,  as  a  tragedian.  He  was 
magnificently  handsome;  stately,  if  rather  stiff, 
in  bearing;  and  a  man  of  remarkable  intellectual 
power. 

Kemmerer,  Edwin  Walter,  American  educator  and 
economist,  was  bom  at  Scranton,  Pa.,  1875.  He 
was  graduated  at  Wesleyan  university,  Connecti- 
cut, 1899 ;  was  a  fellow  in  economics  and  finance, 
Cornell,  1899-1901;  Ph.  D.,  1903.  He  was 
assistant  to  expert  on  trusts  and  industrial  com- 
binations. United  States  industrial  commission, 
1901 ;  instructor  of  economics  and  history, 
Purdue  university,  1901-03;  financial  adviser 
to  United  States  Philippine  commission,  with 
special  reference  to  establishment  of  gold  stand- 
ard in  Philippine  islands,  1903;  chief  of  division 
of  currency,  Philippine  islands,  1904-06 ;  special 
commissioner  Philippine  government  to  Egypt, 
1906,  and  assistant  professor,  political  economy, 
1906-09,  professor  since  1909,  economics  and 
finance,  Cornell  university.  Managing  editor 
Economic  Bulletin,  1907-10.  Author:  Report  on 
the  Advisability  of  Establishing  a  Government 
Agricvltural  Bank  in  the  Philippines;  Report  on 
the  Agricidtural  Bank  of  Egypt;  Money  and  Credit 
Instruments  in  Their  Relation  to  General  Prices,  etc. 

Kempis,  Thomas  k,  German  mystic  and  writer, 
so  called  from  Kempen,  a  town  in  the  Prussian 
Rhine  provinces,  where  he  was  bom  about 
1380.     He  was  educated  at   Deventer,   and  in 


1400  entered  the  monastery  of  Mount  St.  Agnes, 
near  ZwoUe.  Here  he  took  the  vows  in  1406. 
He  entered  into  priest's  orders  in  1413,  and 
was  chosen  sub-prior  in  1425,  to  which  office 
he  was  reelected  in  1448.  His  whole  life  appears 
to  have  been  spent  in  the  seclusion  of  this  con- 
vent, where  he  lived  to  an  extreme  old  age.  His 
death  took  place  in  1471,  at  which  time  he  cer- 
tainly had  attained  his  ninetieth  year,  and  most 
probably  his  ninety-second.  The  character  of 
Kempis  for  sanctity  and  ascetic  learning  stood 
very  high  amon^  his  contemporaries,  but  his 
historical  reputation  rests  almost  entirely  on  his 
writings,  which  consist  of  sermons,  ascetical 
treatises,  pious  biographies,  letters,  and  hymns. 
Of  these,  however,  the  only  one  which  deserves 
special  notice  is  the  celebrated  ascetical  treatise. 
Imitation  of  Christ,  a  work  that  in  the  regard  of 
many  ranks  second  to  the  Bible,  and  is  tnought 
likely  to  survive  in  the  literature  of  the  world 
as  long  as  the  Bible  itself.  It  has  been  trans- 
lated into  all  languages  within,  as  well  as  others 
outside,  the  pale  of  Christendom.  The  author- 
ship of  the  work  was  long  disputed  but  the  balance 
of  opinion  credits  it  to  Thomas  h  Kempis. 

Kendal,  Mr.  (William  Hunter  Grimston),  English 
actor  and  manager,  was  bom  in  London,  1843. 
He  commenced  his  career  on  the  stage  in  London, 
1861,  at  Glasgow  in  1862,  where  he  remained  until 
1866,  in  which  year  he  made  his  second  appearance 
in  London  at  the  Haymarket  theater  in  A  Dan- 
gerous Friend.  He  remained  there  five  or  six 
years,  playing  such  parts  as  Charles  Surface, 
Captain  Absolute,  Romeo,  Orlando,  Pygmalion, 
etc. ;  went  to  the  Court  theater  for  a  couple  of 
seasons ;  from  there  to  old  Prince  of  Wales  theater 
in  Diplomacy,  etc.,  back  to  Court  theater  for  a 
season,  and  then  became  lessee  and  manager 
with  John  Hare,  of  St.  James's  theater  1879-88. 
He  produced  there  The  Queen's  Shilling;  The 
Squire;  Impidse;  The  Iron  Master;  A  Scrap  of 
Paper;  Lady  of  Lyons;  As  You  Like  It;  William 
ana  Susan;  Ladies'  Battle,  etc.  He  toured  with 
Mrs.  Kendal  in  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
1889-95,  with  phenomenal  success. 

Kendal,  Mrs.  (Margaret  Brunton  Robertson), 
English  actress,  was  bom  at  Cleethorpes,  Lines, 
1849.  She  married  William  Hunter  Kendal 
(Grimston),  1869.  She  made  her  d<5but  in  London, 
in  July,  1865,  as  Ophelia  to  the  Hamlet  of  Walter 
Montgomery,  and  in  the  following  month  she 
played,  at  the  same  theater,  Desdemoua  to  the 
Othello  of  Ira  Aldrid^e.  In  1867  she  appeared 
at  Drury  Lane  as  Edith  in  the  Great  City.  In 
1868  she  made  her  first  decided  success  in  London 
as  Blanche  Dumont,  in  the  Hero  of  Romance. 
In  the  ensuing  five  years  she  appeared  at  the 
Haymarket  as  Galatea  in  Pygmalion  and 
Galatea,  as  Selene  in  The  Wicked  World,  and  as 
Mrs.  Van  Brugh  in  Charity.  The  creation  of  the 
character  of  Lilian  Vavasour  in  New  Men  and 
Old  Acres  gave  Mrs.  Kendal  a  position  among 
the  leading  comediennes  of  the  day.  In  1875 
she  began  a  short  engagement  at  the  Op^ta 
Comique.  Afterward  she  joined  the  Prince  of 
Wales  theater,  where  she  achieved  her  greatest 
triumph  as  Dora  in  the  adaptation  from  M. 
Sardou  called  Diplomacy.  During  the  period 
1889-95,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Kendal  played  highly 
successful  engagements  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada. 

Kennan  (A:M'-an),  George,  American  author  and 
lecturer,  was  bom  at  Norwalk,  Ohio,  1845.  He 
became  telegraph  operator  and  later  manager  of 
the  Western  Union  office,  Cincinnati,  1863-64; 
went  to  northeast  Siberia  as  explorer  and  tele- 
graphic engineer,  1865;  supyerintendent  of  con- 
struction of  middle  division  of  Russo-American 
telegraph  line,  1866-68;  explored  eastern  Cau- 
casus,   1870-71;     night    manager    of    associated 


820 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


press,  Washingtoiij  1877-85;  investigated  Rus- 
sian exile-  system  m  Siberia,  1885-86,  and  since 
then  has  been  a  lecturer  in  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain.  In  1898  he  went  to  Cuba  on 
the  steamship  State  of  Texas,  with  American 
national  red  cross  society,  and  as  special  com- 
missioner for  The  Outlook;  went  to  Martinique 
for  The  ChiUook  to  study  volcano  Mont  Pel^e, 
1902.  Went  to  Japan,  1904,  to  report  on  Russo- 
Japanese  war  for  TheOtUlook ;  on  staff  of  McClvrc'a 
Magazine,  1907,  and  The  OiUlook  since  1909. 
Aathor:  Tent  Life  in  Siberia;  Siberia  and  the 
Exile  System,  2  vols. ;  Campaigning  in  Cuba; 
Folk  Tales  of  Napoleon;    The  Tragedy  of  PeUe. 

Kent,  Charles  Foster,  American  biblical  scholar, 
Woolsey  professor  of  biblical  literature,  Yale 
university,  since  1901,  was  bom  at  Palmyra,  N.Y., 
1867.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  university, 
1889,  Ph.  D.,  1891;  BerUn  university,  1891-92. 
He  was  instructor  at  the  university  of  Chicago. 
1893-95;  professor  of  biblical  literature  ana 
history.  Brown  university,  1898-1901.  Author: 
Outlines  of  Hebrew  History;  The  Wise  Men  of 
Ancient  Israel  and  Their  Proverbs;  A  History  of 
the  Hebrew  People,  the  United  Kingdom;  A  His- 
tory of  the  Hebrew  People,  the  Divided  Kingdom; 
A  History  of  the  Jewish  People,  the  Babylonian, 
Persian  and  Greek  Periods;  The  Messages  of  the 
Earlier  Prophets;  The  Messages  of  the  Later 
Prophets;  The  Messages  of  Israel's  Lawgivers; 
Narratives  of  the  Beginnings  of  Hebrew  History; 
Israel's  Historical  and  Biographical  Narratives; 
Origin  and  Permanent  Value  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment; Israel's  Laws  and  Traditional  Precedents; 
Work  and  Teachings  of  the  Earlier  Prophets,  etc. 
Editor:  The  Historical  Series  for  Bible  Students; 
The  Message  of  the  Bible;  Library  of  Ancient 
Inscriptions;  Student's  Old  Testament,  etc. 

Kent,  James,  American  lawyer  and  jurist,  was  bom 
in  Philippi,  N.  Y.,  1763.  He  was  graduated  at 
Yale  college,  1781,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  when 
twenty-two  years  old,  and  soon  became  noted 
for  his  legal  learning.  He  was  several  times 
elected  to  the  New  York  legislature,  and  in  1793 
became  professor  of  law  m  Columbia  college. 
Afterward  he  was  chosen  to  many  important 
offices,  becoming  chief-justice  of  New  York  in 
1804,  and  chancellor,  or  judge  of  the  court  of 
chancery,  in  1814.  His  decisions  in  hundreds  of 
law  cases  are  still  often  cited;  but  he  is  best 
known  for  his  Commentaries  on  American  Law, 
which  were  published  from  1826  to  1830,  and 
are  now  used  by  every  American  lawyer,  as  well  as 
by  many  in  other  countries.  He  died  in  New 
York,  1847. 

Kepler,  Johann.     See  page  351. 

Kerens,  Richard  C,  American  capitalist,  railroad 
builder,  and  diplomat,  was  bom  at  Killberry, 
Ireland,  1842.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in 
infancy,  and  was  educated  in  the  public  schools 
of  Jackson  coimty,  la.  He  served  in  the  Union 
army,  1861-65;  lived  in  Arkansas  after  the  war; 
became  contractor  for  the  Southern  Overland 
Mail,  controlling  many  frontier  routes,  residing 
at  San  Diego,  Cal. ;  removed  to  St.  Louis,  1876, 
and  acquired  railroad  interests;  identified  with 
construction  of  Cotton  Belt  system.   West  Vir- 

finia.  Central  and  Pittsburgh  railway  system, 
t  Louis  and  North  Arkansas  railroad,  San 
Pedro,  Los  Angeles  and  Salt  Lake  railway  system. 
Coal  and  Coke  railroad  of  West  Virginia,  and  also 
interested  in  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  F6 
system.  He  has  been  active  in  pohtics,  was  one 
of  three  United  States  commissioners  for  the 
mter-contmental  railway  commission,  1892-1900. 
?? -x  'i*  o"^^^  ^^  appointed  by  President  Taft 
Umted  States  minister  to  Austria-Hungary. 
Kern,  John  Worth,  American  lawyer  and  politician, 
was  bora  in  Howard  county,  Ind.,  1849  He 
was  graduated  from  the  university  of  Michigan 


1869;  wsfl  reporter  of  the  supreme  court  of 
Indiana,  1885-89;  state  senator,  1893-97;  city 
attorney  Indianapolis,  1897-1901;  unsuccessful 
candidate  for  governor  of  Indiana,  1900,  1904: 
received  complimentary  vote  of  party  for  Unitcsd 
States  senator,  1905,  and  was  the  democratic 
candidate  for  vice-president,  1908.  United 
States  senator  from  Indiana,  1911-17. 

Kester,  Paul,  American  dramatist  and  author,  was 
bora  at  Delaware,  Ohio,  1870.  He  was  educated 
in  private  schools  and  by  tutors.  Author: 
Tales  of  the  Real  Gypsy.  Plays:  The  Countess 
Roudine,  with  Minnie  Maddem  Fiske;  Zamar; 
What  Dreams  May  Come;  Eugene  Aram;  Sweet  Nell 
of  Old  Drury;  When  Knighthood  Was  in  Flower; 
Mademoiaelie  Mars;  The  Cavalier,  with  George 
Middleton ;  Dorothy  Vernon;  Friend  Hannah,  etc. 

Key,  Francis  Scott,  American  poet,  author  of 
"The  Star-Spangled  Banner,"  was  bom  in  Mary- 
land, 1780.  He  was  a  lawyer  of  note,  and  broth- 
er-in-law to  Chief-justice  Taney.  Being  detain^ 
bv  the  British  during  the  bombardment  of  Fort 
McHenrv,  September  13,  1814,  liis  feelings  found 
vent  in  the  verses  which  have  become  our  national 
lyric.  They  were  printed  on  his  return  to  Balti- 
more, and  soon  diffused  widely  through  the  coun- 
try.     Dietl,  1843. 

Kldd,  Benjamin,  English  philosopher  and  sociolo- 
gist,  was  bom  in  1858.  He  first  entered  the 
Britisli  civil  service,  and  was  little  known  until 
the  publication  of  Social  Evolution,  in  1894. 
This  work  has  been  translated  into  nearly  every 
modem  language.  He  has  also  published:  The 
Control  of  the  Tropics;  Principles  of  Western 
Civilization,  and  is  the  author  of  articles  on  the 
application  of  the  doctrine  of  evolution  to  socio- 
logical theory  and  sociology,  in  the  supplement 
to  the  9th  edition  of  Encydopcedia  Bntannica. 
He  delivered  the  Herbert  Spencer  lecture  before 
the  university  of  Oxford,  1SND8.  He  traveled  for 
economic  study  in  the  United  States  and  Canada 
in  1898,  and  in  South  Africa  in  1902. 

Kilpatrick,  Hush  Judson,  American  cavalry  officer, 
was  bom  in  New  Jersey,  1836.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1861,  and  was  appointed 
to  the  first  United  States  artillery.  He  wps 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  Big  Bethel,  and  received 
rapid  promotion,  being  a  colonel  of  cavalry  in 
1862,  and  commissioned  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers  the  following  year.  He  was  in  com- 
mand of  a  division  at  Gettysburg,  and  the  fol- 
lowing spring,  1864,  joined  General  Sherman, 
with  whom  he  continued  until  the  close  of  the 
war,  being  severely  wounded  during  the  battle  of 
Resaca.  He  was  commissioned  major-general  in 
1865,  and  resigned  from  the  regular  army  in  that 
year  and  from  the  volunteer  service,  1866.  From 
1865  to  1868,  and  again  in  1881  he  was  United 
States  minister  to  Chili.     Died,  1881. 

King,  Charles,  American  soldier  and  author,  was 
born  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  1844.  He  was  graduated 
at  West  Point,  1866,  and  served  in  artillery  and 
cavalry  until  retired  as  captain,  1879,  for  wounds 
received  in  action.  He  was  inspector  and  instruct- 
or of  Wisconsin  national  guard,  1882-89.  In 
1898  he  was  app>ointed  brigadier-general  of  the 
United  States  volunteers  in  the  war  against 
Spain;  served  in  the  Philippines  under  General 
Lawton,  and  was  commandant  of  Michigan 
military  academy,  1902.  Author:  Famous  and 
Decisive  Battles;  Betrveen  the  Lines;   The  Colond's 

.  Daughter;  Marion's  Faith;  Captain  Blake;  The 
General's  Double;  The  Iron  Brigade;  A  Conquer- 
ing Corps  Badae;  Medal  of  Honor;  and  otnerB, 
over  fifty  in  all. 
King,  Henry  Churchill,  American  educator,  presi- 
dent of  OberUn  college  since  1902,  was  bom  at 
Hillsdale,  Mich.,  1858.  He  was  graduated  from 
Oberlin,  1879;  Oberlin  theological  seminary, 
1882;      post-graduate    at     Harvard,     1882-84; 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


821 


i 


A.  M^1883;  Berlin,  1893-94;  D.  D.,  Oberlin, 
1897,  Western  Reserve,  1901,  Yale,  1904.  He  was 
tutor  in  Latin,  Oberlin  academy,  1879-81 ;  tutor 
of  mathematics  at  Oberlin  college,  1881-82; 
associate  professor  of  mathematics  at  Oberlin 
college,  1884-90;  associate  professor  of  philoso- 
phy. 1890-91;  professor  of  same,  1891-97; 
professor  of  theologv  since  1897,  and  dean  of 
Oberlin  college,  1901-02.  Author:  Outline  of 
ErdTnann's  History  of  Philosophy;  Outline  of  the 
Microcosmus  of  Hermann  Lotze;  The  Avpeal  of 
the  Child;  Reconstruction  in  Theology;  TneUogy 
and  the  Social  Cons^ousness;  Personal  and  Ideal 
Elements  in  EdtuxUion;  Rational  Living;  and 
various  pamphlets  on  philosophy,  etc. 

King,  Rufus,  American  statesman,  was  bom  in 
Scarborough,  Me.,  1755.  He  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  college  in  1777,  immediately  entered 
as  a  student  at  law  in  the  office  of  Theophilus 
Parsons,  at  Newburyport,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar,  1780.  In  1783  he  was  sent  to  repre- 
sent Newburyport  in  the  state  legislature,  and 
in  the  following  year  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the 
old  congress.  In  1787  he  was  appointed  a  delegate 
to  the  general  convention  assembled  at  Philadel- 
phia, and  in  1788  removed  from  Massachusetts  to 
the  city  of  New  York.  In  1796  he  was  appointed 
minister  to  the  court  of  Great  Britain,  and 
remained  there  for  seven  years  with  equal  honor 
to  the  country  and  himself.  In  1813  he  was 
chosen  by  the  legislature  of  New  York  as  United 
States  senator,  and  continued  until  the  expiration 
of  his  second  term  in  1825.  Upon  his  retirement 
from  the  senate,  he  accepted  from  President 
Adams  an  invitation  again  to  represent  the  United 
States  at  the  court  of  Great  Britain.  During 
the  voyage  to  England  his  health  was  seriously 
impaired,  his  illness  induced  him  to  return  in 
about  a  year,  and  he  died  in  1827. 

King,  Thomas  Starr,  American  clergjrman  and 
author,  was  born  in  New  York  city,  1824.  He 
studied  theology  and  became  pastor  of  a  Unita- 
rian church  at  Charlestown,  Mass.,  1846.  He 
removed  to  Boston,  1848,  and  occupied  the 
pastorate  of  the  Hollis  Street  church  until  1860, 
when  he  was  called  to  a  church  in  San  Francisco, 
Cal.  He  gained  wide  popularity  as  a  lecturer, 
and  his  activity  in  the  presidential  campaign  of 
1860  had  an  important  part  in  preserving  Cali- 
fornia to  the  union.  He  wrote:  The  White 
Hills:  Their  Legends,  Landscapes,  and  Poetry; 
Christianity  and  Humanity;  and  several  volumes 
of  lectures.     Died,  1864. 

King,  William  Frederick,  chief  astronomer  of  the 
department  of  the  interior  of  Canada  since  1890, 
was  bom  at  Stowmarket,  England,  1854.  He 
was  graduated  from  the  university  of  Toronto, 
1875;  LL.  D.,  1904.  Was  Dominion  land  and 
topographical  surveyor,  1876;  inspector  of 
surveys,  department  of  the  interior,  1881;  chief 
inspector,  1886;  her  majesty's  commissioner  for 
the  international  boundary  between  Canada  and 
the  United  States  under  treaties  of  1892,  1903, 
1906,  and  19(J8;  and  also  under  agreements 
entered  into  in  1899,  1901,  and  1906;  member  of 
the  international  waterways  commission,  1904-07, 
and  director  of  the  Dominion  astronomical  observ- 
atory from  its  opening  in  1905. 

King,  WiUlam  Bufus,  American  statesman,  was 
bom  in  North  Carolina,  1786.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  North  Carolina  legislature  for  three  years; 
entered  congress  from  North  Carolina  in  1810; 
represented  Alabama  in  the  United  States 
senate,  1819-44.  He  was  then  minister  to  France 
from  1844  to  1846;  and  again  United  States 
senator  from  1848  to  1853,  when,  shortly  before 
his  death,  he  became  vice-president  of  the  United 
States.     He  died  in  Alabama,  1853. 

Klnglake,  Alexander  William,  English  historian, 
was  bom  in  Taunton,  1809.     He  was  educated  at 


Cambridge,  was  called  to  the  bar  In  1837;  went 
to  Algiers  in  1845,  and  in  1854  followed  the 
fortunes  of  the  British  army  in  Crimea  until  the 
siege  of  Sebastopol.  Ho  represented  Bridge- 
water  in  parliament,  1857-68.  His  works  are 
Eothen,  and  The  Invasion  of  the  Crimea.  Died, 
1891. 

Kingsley,  Charles,  English  divine  and  author, 
chaplain-in-ordinary  to  Queen  Victoria,  waa 
born  in  Devonshire,  1819.  He  was  educated  at 
King's  college,  London,  and  at  Cambridge  uni- 
versity, and  in  1842  became  curate  and  shortly 
after  rector  of  Eversley.  In  the  same  year  he 
published  Village  Sermons.  In  1848  appeared 
The  SairU's  Tragedy,  or  The  True  Story  of 
Elizabeth  of  Hungary,  an  admirable  illustration 
of  mediaeval  piety.  His  opinions  on  the  social 
anarchy  of  modern  times  are  to  be  found  in  his 
Alton  Locke,  Tailor  and  Poet,  a  novel  of  extraor- 
dinary power.  This  was  followed,  in  1851,  by 
Yeast,  a  Problem,  in  which  he  handles  the  con- 
dition of  the  English  agricultural  laborer;  and 
in  1853  by  Hypatia,  or  New  Foes  with  an  Old 
Face,  a  most  vigorous  and  brilliant  delineation 
of  Christianity.  Two  years  after  he  published 
Westward  Hoi  probably  the  greatest  of  his  works. 
He  was  appointed  professor  of  modem  history  at 
Cambridge  in  1860,  and  after  resigning  waa  made 
canon  of  Chester,  1869.     Died,  1875. 

Kipling,  Joseph  Budyard,  English  author,  was  bom 
in  Bombay,  India,  1865.  He  was  educated  in 
United  Services  college.  North  Devon,  England, 
and  was  assistant  editor  of  Citnl  and  Military 
Gazette  and  Pioneer  in  India,  1882-89.  LL.  D., 
McGill  university,  1899;  Litt.  D.,  Durham, 
Oxford,  and  Cambridge.  He  was  awarded  the 
Nobel  prize  for  literature  in  1907.  He  has 
traveled  extensively  in  Japan,  China,  Africa,  Aus- 
tralia, and  America.  Author :  Departmental  Dit- 
ties; Plain  Tales  from,  the  HUls;  Soldiers  Three;  In 
Black  and  White;  The  Story  of  the  Gadsbys;  Under 
the  Deodars;  Phantom  'Rickshaw;  Wee  Willie 
Winkie;  Life's  Handicap;  The  Light  that  Failed; 
Barrack-Room,  Ballads;  Many  Inventions;  The 
Jungle  Book;  Second  Jungle  Book;  The  Seven 
Seas;  Captains  Courageous;  The  Day's  Work; 
Stalky  and  Company;  From  Sea  to  Sea;  The 
Brushwood  Boy;  The  Absent-Minded  Beggar; 
Kim;  Jtist  So  Stories;  The  Five  Nations; 
Traffics  and  Discoveries:  Puck  of  Pook'a  Hill, 
Actions  and  Re-actions;  Rewards  and  Fairies,  etc. 

Ktrkland,  James  Hampton,  American  educator, 
chancellor  Vanderbilt  university  since  1893,  was 
born  in  Spartanburg,  S.  C,  1859.  He  was 
graduated  at  Wofford  college,  1877,  Ph.  D., 
Leipzig,  Germany,  1885;  LL.  D.,  university  of 
North  Carolina,  1894;  D.  C.  L.,  university  of  the 
South,  1902 ;  was  professor  of  Greek  and  German. 
Wofford  college,  1881-83;  traveled  and  studied 
abroad,  1883-86;  professor  of  Latin  1886-93, 
Vanderbilt  university.  Editor  of  the  Satires 
and  Epistles  of  Horace,  and  author  of  many 
monographs,  philological  review  articles,  etc. 

Kitchener  (kich'-en-lr),  Horatio  Herbert,  Lord, 
British  general,  his  majesty's  agent  and  consul- 
general  in  Egypt  since  1911;  was  bom  in  Ireland, 
1850.  He  was  educated  at  the  royal  military 
academy  at  Woolwich,  and  entered  the  British 
army  in  1871.  In  1882  he  served  as  major  of 
cavalry  in  the  Egyptian  army,  was  with  the 
Nile  expedition  in  1884,  and  was  made  governor 
of  Suakim  in  1886.  In  the  action  at  Handub, 
in  1888,  he  led  the  Egyptian  troops  against 
Osman  Digna.  For  subsequent  service  in  Sudan 
campaigns  be  was  made  companion  of  the  bath. 
In  1888  he  was  made  adjutant-general  in  the 
Egyptian  army,  and  held  that  position  until  1892. 
In  the  latter  part  of  that  year  he  was  appointed 
Sirdar.  He  commanded  at  the  taking  of 
Dongola  in  1896,  and  was   then  made  K.  C.  B. 


822 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


In  1898  he  was  in  command  of  an  English  and 
Egyptian  army  near  Omdurman,  opposite  the 
site  of  Khartum,  where  he  gained  a  noted 
victory.  For  this  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
and  received  a  grant  of  30,000  pounds.  He  was 
chief  of  staff  of  forces  in  South  Africa,  1899-1900 ; 
commander-in-chief,  1900-02;  was  promoted  to 
lieutenant-general  and  general,  created  viscount, 
received  a  grant  of  60,000  pounds,  and  the 
thanks  of  parliament. 

Kltchin,  George  William,  English  historian,  was 
born  at  Naughton  rectory,  Suffolk,  1827.  He 
was  educated  at  Ipswich,  King's  college,  London, 
and  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  became  dean  of 
Winchester  in  1883.  of  Durham  in  1894.  IHis 
chief  work  is  his  History  of  France.    Died,  1912. 

Kitto  (fctt'-o),  John,  biblical  writer,  was  bom  at 
Plymouth,  England,  1804.  In  1817  he  became 
stone-deaf  through  a  fall,  and  learned  shoe- 
making.  In  1824  he  went  to  Exeter  to  learn 
dentistry;  in  1825  published  Essays  and  Letters; 
and  at  the  Islington  missionary  college  he  learned 
printing.  In  1829-33  he  accompanied  a  patron 
on  a  tour  to  the  East.  The  rest  of  his  life  was 
spent  in  the  service  of  Charles  Knight  and  other 
publishers.  In  1850  he  received  a  pension  of  100 
pounds.  His  works  include  The  Pictorial  Bible; 
T'ictorial  History  of  Palestine;  History  of  Pales- 
tine; The  Lost  Senses  —  Deafness  and  Blindness; 
and  Daily  Bible  Illustrations.  He  also  edited  the 
Journal  of  Sacred  Literature.  In  1844  the  uni- 
versity of  Giessen  made  him  a  D.  D.  He  died  at 
Cannstadt  near  Stuttgart,  1854. 

Klaw,  Marc,  theatrical  manager,  was  bom  at  Pa- 
ducah,  Ky.,  1858.  He  was  educated  in  the 
public  and  high  schools  of  Louisville,  Ky. ; 
studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  Since 
1881  he  has  been  engaged  as  theatrical  manager, 
and  is  now  a  member  of  the  theatrical  firm  of 
Klaw  and  Erlanger  of  NeW  York. 

K16ber  (kla'-bdr'),  Jean  Baptlste,  French  general, 
was  born  at  Strassburg,  1753,  and  in  1776  ob- 
tained a  commission  in  the  Austrian  army. 
Inspector  for  a  time  of  public  buildings  at  Bel- 
fort,  in  1792  he  enhsted  as  a  volunteer  in  the 
French  army,  and  by  1793  had  risen  to  a  general 
of  brigade.  As  such  he  commanded  in  the  Ven- 
dean  war,  but  was  recalled  for  leniency.  In 
1794  he  led  the  left  wing  at  Fleurus,  and  cap- 
tured Maestricht;  in  1796  he  gained  the  victory 
of  Altenkirchen.  He  accompanied  Bonaparte  to 
Egypt,  was  wounded  at  Alexandria,  and  won 
the  battle  of  Mount  Tabor,  1799.  When  Bona- 
parte left  Egypt  he  intrusted  the  chief  com- 
mand to  Kl^ber,  who  concluded  a  treaty  with  Sir 
Sidney  Smith  for  its  evacuation ;  but  on  Admiral 
Keith's  refusal  to  ratify  it  Kl^ber  resolved  to 
reconquer  Egypt,  and  destroyed  the  Turkish 
army  at  Heliopolis.  He  was  assassinated  by  a 
Turkish  fanatic  at  Cairo,  1800. 

Klein  {tdln),  Charles,  playwright,  was  bom  in  Lon- 
don, England,  1867,  and  was  educated  at  North 
London  college.  He  was  formerly  censor  of 
plays  for  Charles  Frohman.  Author:  A  Mile  a 
Mynute;  By  Proxy;  A  Paltry  Million;  The  Dis- 
trust Attorney;  El  Capitan;  Heartsease;  The 
Charlatan;  The  Hon.  John  Grigsby;  Dr.  Bdgraff; 
A.  Royal  Rogue;  The  Cipher  Code;  The  Auc- 
tioneer; Mr.  Pickwick;  Red  Feather;  The  Music 
Master;  The  Lion  and  the  Mouse;  The  Dauahters 
of  Men;  The  StepchUd;  The  Third  Degree. 

Kline,  Virgil  P,,  American  lawyer,  was  bom  in 
r^^-^r^.?^'^^^'  ^hiO'  1844.  He  was  graduated 
from  Williams  college,  1866,  was  admitted  to  the 
umo  bar  1870,  and  has  since  engaged  in  practice 
at  Cleveland.  He  was  twice  the  democratic 
CMididate  for  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of 
Uhio,  and  also  candidate  for  judge  of  the  circuit 
court  and  common  pleas  court.  For  many  years 
be  has  been  a  noted  corporation  lawyer 


Klopsch  (kldpsh),  Louis,  journalist  and  philan- 
thropist, was  bom  in  Germany,  1852.  He  was 
educated  in  the  public  schools  of  New  York  city, 
and  in  1877  became  proprietor  of  the  DaUy 
Reporter  of  New  York.  He  was  proprietor  of 
the  pictorial  associated  press,  1884-90;  pro- 
prietor of  the  Talmage  sermon  sjmdicate  after 
1885,  and  on  his  return  from  Palestine,  1890, 
became  interested  in  The  Christian  Herald,  of 
which  he  became  proprietor  in  1892.  Through 
his  paper  he  raised  and  distributed  over  $3,300,- 
000  in  international  charities,  especially  during 
the  famine  and  distress  in  Russia,  India,  Cuba, 
China,  and  Japan.  He  was  received  in  private 
audience  by  Queen  Alexandra,  King  Christian 
of  Denmark,  king  and  queen  of  Sweden,  and 
the  dowager  empress  of  Russia.  Kin^  Edward 
conferred  on  him  the  gold  Kaiser-I-Hind  medal 
of  the  first-class,  1904.  He  was  the  originator  of 
the  red  letter  testament  and  red  letter  Bible. 
Decorated  order  of  the  rising  sun  bv  emperor  of 
Japan,  1907.     Died,  1910. 

Klopstock  (kl6j/-aht6k),  Priedrich  Gottlieb,  German 
poet,  was  bom  at  Quedlinburg,  1724.  Incited 
by  Virgil's  JEneid  and  Milton's  Paradise  Lost, 
he  resolved  to  write  a  great  epic,  and  as  a  student 
at  Jena,  in  1745,  he  began  The  Messiah.  In  1746 
he  passed  to  Loi[>zig,  where  the  first  three  cantos 
of  The  Messiah  appeared  in  1748.  He  settled  in 
Hamburg  in  1771  with  a  sinecure  appointment, 
and  pensions  from  Frederick  V.  of  Denmark  ana 
the  margrave  of  Baden.  The  last  cantos  of 
The  Messiah  were  published  in  1773.  Regarded 
in  his  own  time  as  a  great  religious  }x>et,  he  helped 
to  inaugurate  the  goUlen  age  of  German  literature. 
Odes,  tragedies,  biblical  dramas,  and  hymns 
make  up  the  rest  of  his  f>oetry.  Of  these  his 
odes  alone  possess  interest  now.  The  Messiah 
was  translated  into  both  English  verse  and  prose. 
Died,  1803. 

Knapp,  Martin  Augustine.  American  lawyer, 
was  born  in  Spafford,  N.  Y.,  1843.  He  was 
graduated  from  Wesleyan  universitv,  Connecti- 
cut, 1868;  LL.  D.,  1892;  hon.  A.  M.,  Syracuse 
university,  1892.  He  was  admitted  to  the  New 
York  bar,  1809;  practiced  at  Syracuse,  N.  Y.; 
corporation  counsel,  1877-83;  appointed  inter- 
state commerce  commissioner  by  President  Har- 
rison in  1891.  He  was  reappointed  by  Cleve- 
land, 1897;  by  Roosevelt,  1902  and  1908;  was 
elected  chairman  of  the  commission,  1898.  In 
1910  he  was  appointed  first  chief  judge  of  the 
court  of  commerce  by  Taft.  For  a  number  of 
years  he  lectured  on  interstate  commerce  law  at 
George  Washington  university. 

Knelsel  (k'nV-zel),  Frans,  German-American  musi- 
cian, director  of  Kneisel  quartette,  was  bom  in 
Rumania,  of  German  parentage,  in  1865.  He 
studied  violin  instruction  under  Griin  and 
Hellmesberger;  was  concertmaster  of  Hofbuig 
theater  orchestra,  Vienna;  later  of  Bilse's 
orchestra,  Berlin,  and  concertmaster  of  the 
Boston  sjTnphonv  orchestra.  He  is  especially 
prominent  as  violin  soloist.  Since  1905  he  has 
been  head  of  violin  department  in  the  institute  of 
musical  art.  New  York. 

Kneller  (ng/'-gr).  Sir  Godfrey,  noted  portrait- 
painter,  was  bom  at  Liibeck,  1646.  He  studied 
at  Amsterdam  and  in  Italy,  went  to  London, 
1675,  and  in  1680  was  appointed  court-painter. 
In  1693  William  III.  knighted  him,  and  in  1715 
George  I.  made  him  a  baronet.  His  best-known 
works  are  the  "Beauties  of  Hampton  Court," 
painted  for  WiUiam  III. ;  his  portraits  of  the 
"Kit-Cat  Club";  and  of  fourteen  sovereigns, 
including  Charles  II.  to  George  I.,  Louis  XIV., 
Peter  the  Great,  and  the  emperor  Charles  VI. 
He  died  at  Twickenham,  1723. 

Knight,  Charles,  English  pubUsher  and  author,  was 
bom  at  Windsor,    1791.     He  early  turned  his 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


attention  to  publishing.  Among  his  first  at- 
tempts in  this  department  was  The  Etonian,  a 
periodical  supported  by  the  Eton  boys.  In  1823 
he  started  Knight's  Qiiarterly  Magazine,  and  con- 
tinued it  for  some  time  in  London.  The  whole 
of  his  noteworthy  career  was  devoted  to  popular 
literature,  of  which  he  was  one  of  the  earliest  and 
most  accomplished  advocates.  Among  the  works 
•which  he  published  or  edited  are  the  Penny 
Magazine,  which  was  started  only  a  month  or 
two  after  Chambers'  Edinburgh  Journal,  and  at 
one  time  enjoyed  a  circulation  of  nearly  200,000 
copies  weekly;  the  British  Almanac,  and  Com- 
panion to  this  Almanac;  Penny  Cyclopcedia; 
Library  of  Entertaining  Knowledge;  History  oj 
England,  etc.     He  died  in  1873. 

Knight,  William  An^us,  Scotch  educator  and  writer, 
professor  of  moral  philosophy,  university  of  St. 
Andrews,  1876-1902,  was  born  in  Scotland,  1836. 
He  was  graduated  from  the  university  of  Edin- 
burgh; Ll.  D.,  Glasgow.  Author:  Studies  in 
Phuosophy  and  Literature;  Essays  in  Philosophy, 
Old  ana  New;  Selections  from  Wordsworth;  The 
Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful;  Aspects  of  Theism; 
The  Christian  Ethic;  The  English  Lake  District, 
as  Interpreted  m  the  Poems  of  Wordsworth; 
Some  Nineteenth  Century  Scotsmen;  Coleridge 
and  Wordsworth  in  the  West  Country,  their 
Friendship  and  Surroundings,  etc. 

Knotty  James  Proctor,  lawyer,  governor,  was 
born  in  Washington  (now  Marion)  county,  Ky., 
1830.  He  was  educated  at  home;  LL.  D., 
Centre  college,  1885.  He  removed  to  Missouri 
in  1850 ;  was  a  member  of  the  Missouri  legisla- 
ture, 1858;  attorney-general  of  Missouri,  1859- 
61.  He  returned  to  Kentucky  in  1862,  and 
engaged  in  the  practice  of  law;  was  a  member 
of  congress,  1867-71  and  1877-83;  governor  of 
Kentucky,  1883-87,  and  delegate  to  Kentucky 
constitutional  convention,  1891.  He  was  profes- 
sor of  civics  and  economics,  Centre  college, 
1892-94;  professor  of  law  and  dean  of  the  law 
faculty  of  same,  1894-1901.     Died,  1911. 

Knowles,  James  Sheridan,  British  dramatist,  was 
born  at  Cork,  1784.  He  was  the  son  of  James 
Knowles,  lexicographer  and  teacher  of  elocution. 
After  serving  in  the  militia  and  studying  medicine, 
he  first  appeared  on  the  stage  at  Bath  and  then 
at  Dublin.  He  never  attained  much  eminence  as 
an  actor,  and  subsequently  conducted  schools  in 
Belfast  and  in  Glasgow.  His  Caius  Gracchus  was 
first  performed  at  Belfast.  Virginius,  his  most 
effective  play,  had  been  a  success  in  Glasgow 
before  Macready  in  1820  produced  it  at  Covent 
Garden.  Besides  William  Tell,  in  which  Mac- 
ready  achieved  one  of  his  greatest  triumphs, 
Knowles'  other  best  plays  are  Love,  The  Hunch- 
hack,  The  Love  Chase,  and  The  Wife.  He  ap- 
peared with  fair  success  in  many  of  his  own 
pieces;  but  about  1844  became  a  Baptist  preacher, 
drew  large  audiences  to  Exeter  hall,  and  published 
two  anti-Roman  Catholic  works.  He  died  at 
Torquay,  1862. 

Knox,  Henry,  American  general,  was  bom  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  1750.  He  had  only  a  common 
school  education,  and  became  a  bookseller  in 
Boston,  his  store  being  a  favorite  resort  of  culti- 
vated people.  He  was  also  an  officer  in  a  mili- 
tary company,  and,  when  the  revolution  broke 
out,  he  escaped  from  the  city  with  his  wife,  who 
hid  his  sword  in  the  folds  of  her  dress.  He  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  soon 
attracted  the  attention  of  Washington  by  his 
skill  in  planning  fortifications  and  his  knowledge 
of  artillery,  and  throughout  the  war  he  com- 
manded the  artillery  in  various  battles.  After 
the  capture  of  Yorktown,  congress  made  him  a 
major-general,  and  from  1785  to  1795  he  was 
Becretary  of  war.  He  afterward  lived  in  Maine, 
and  died  at  Thomaston,  in  that  state,  1806. 


Knox,  John,  Scottish  divine  and  reformer,  was  bom 
at  Giffordgate,  in  Haddingtonshire,  1505.  He 
became  a  priest  and  notary  in  the  diocese  of  St. 
Andrews  before  he  had  attained  the  age  of 
twenty-five.  Having  studied  the  writings  of 
St.  Augustine  and  St.  Jerome,  he  renounced 
Catholicism  about  1543,  and  openly  preached  the 
new  faith.  Engaged  with  other  reformers  in 
defending  St.  Andrews  against  the  French,  he 
was  taken  prisoner,  and  sent  to  the  galleys. 
After  a  detention  of  nineteen  months,  he  re- 
turned to  England,  and  was  appointed  chaplain 
to  Edward  VI. ;  but  he  declined  to  accept 
a  bishopric  at  the  hands  of  that  monarch,  on 
account  of  his  objection  to  the  common  prayer 
and  to  Episcopacy.  In  the  reign  of  Mary,  he 
retired  to  Frankfort,  and  thence  to  Geneva, 
where  he  became  acquainted  with  Calvin.  Hav- 
ing returned  to  his  own  country  in  1569,  he 
denounced  the  priesthood,  and  especially  the 
mass  and  image-worship,  and  declaimed  against 
the  queen  of  Scots,  whom  he  called  Jezebel.  The 
queen  sent  for  him,  and  sought  to  influence  him, 
but  in  vain;  and  his  preaching  was  so  powerful 
that  many  of  the  cathedrals  and  parish  churches 
were  demolished  by  the  excited  populace  as  a 
result  of  his  vigorous  invectives.  With  tireless 
perseverance  and  vehement  eloquence  he  labored 
until  his  death  for  the  establishment  of  Protes- 
tantism in  Scotland.  The  person  of  Knox  was 
diminutive,  and  his  frame  wasted  and  feeble, 
but  his  energy  was  inexhaustible.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  works,  notably  of  a  Historic  oJ 
the  Reformation  of  Religion  in  Scotland.  But  the 
influence  he  exerted  was  by  the  tongue  rather 
than  by  the  pen.  Died,  1572. 
Knox,  Philander  Chase,  American  lawyer  and 
statesman,  was  bom  in  Brownsville,  Pa.,  1853. 
He  was  graduated  at  Mt.  Union  college,  Ohio, 
1872;  LL.  D.,  university  of  Pennsylvania,  1905, 
Yale,  1907.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  1875; 
was  assistant  United  States  district  attorney. 
Western  district  of  Pennsylvania,  1876-77; 
resigned  and  engaged  in  practice  since  1877  with 
James  H.  Reed  under  the  firm  name  of  Knox  and 
Reed,  representing  many  large  corporations, 
including  the  Carnegie  company.  He  was 
attorney-general  of  the  United  States,  1901-04; 
United  States  senator,  1904-09,  and  secretary  of 
state,  1909-13.  Represented  United  States  at 
funeral  of  Emperor  Mutsuhito,  1912. 
Kobb6  (kdb'-d),  Gustav,  American  author  and 
journalist,  was  bom  in  New  York,  1857.  He 
was  graduated  at  Columbia  university,  1877; 
Columbia  law  school,  1879.  He  engaged  in 
newspaper  and  magazine  work,  chiefly  on  musical 
and  dramatic  subjects.  Author:  The  New 
Jersey  Coast  and  Pines;  The  New  Jersey  Central; 
The  Ring  of  the  Nibdung;  Wagner's  Life  and 
Works,  2  vols. ;  New  York  and  Its  Environs; 
Plays  for  Amateurs;  My  Rosary,  and  Other 
Poems;  Miriam;  Opera  Singers;  Signora,  a 
Child  of  the  Opera  House,  a  novel;  Famous 
Actors  and  Actresses  and  Their  Homes;  Wagner's 
Music  Dramas  Analyzed;  Loves  of  the  Great  Com- 
posers; Opera  Singers;  Wagner  and  His  Isolde; 
Famous  American  Songs;  How  to  Appreciate 
Music;  The  Pianolist,  etc. 
Koch  (koK),  Bobert,  German  physician  and  bacteri- 
ologist, was  bom  at  Clausthal,  Prussia,  1843. 
He  studied  medicine  at  Gottingen,  receiving  his 
doctor's  degree  in  1866.  His  first  substantial 
achievement  was  the  result  of  the  penetration, 
skill,  and  thoroughness  of  his  researches  on  the 
contagion  of  splenic  fever  in  cattle.  This  gained 
for  him  a  seat  on  the  imperial  board  of  health 
in  1880.  In  1879  he  had  begun  his  investiga- 
tions into  the  causes  of  consumption,  and  in 
1882  be  announced  the  discovery  of  the  tubercle 
bacillus  before  the  physiological  society  of  Berlin. 


824 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


In  1883  he  waa  made  a  privy-councilor,  and 
placed  in  charge  of  the  German  expedition  sent 
to  Egypt  and  India  to  investigate  the  causes 
of  cholera.  This  journey  resulted  in  the  dis- 
covery of  the  comma  bacillus,  or  cholera  germ, 
in  1884.  He  was  rewarded  with  a  gift  of 
100,000  marks  by  the  government,  and  imperial 
titles  and  honors  were  showered  upon  him. 
In  1885  he  was  appointed  a  professor  in  the 
university  of  Berlin,  the  new  chair  of  hygiene 
being  created  for  him,  and  was  made  director 
of  the  hygienic  institute.  He  subsequently  re- 
turned to  the  investigation  of  tubercular  diseases, 
but  five  years  of  patient  research  were  reauired 
before  he  was  able  to  announce  to  the  world  his 
treatment  for  consumption  and  its  allied  dis- 
eases. In  1905  he  was  awarded  the  Nobel 
prize  for  achievements  in  physiology.  Died, 
1910. 

Kohlsaat  {kol'-s&t),  Hermann  Henry,  capitalist, 
journalist,  was  bom  in  Albion,  111.,  1853.  He 
was  educated  in  the  common  schools,  and  began 
business  life  as  cash  boy  and  later  cashier  in 
dry-goods  store.  He  was  traveling  salesman, 
1875-80,  for  Blake,  Shaw  and  company,  whohv 
sale  bakers;  became  junior  partner,  1880,  and 
had  charge  of  a  bakery  lunch  established  by 
this  firm.  He  bought  that  branch  of  the 
business,  1883,  greatly  enlarged  it,  and  the  firm 
of  H.  H.  Kohlsaat  and  company  now  owns 
several  large  establishments  devoted  to  the 
wholesale  bakery  business.  He  waa  part  owner 
of  the  Chicago  Inter-Ocean,  1891-93:  was  editor 
and  publisher  of  Chicago  Timea-Hercdd,  1894, 
amalgamated  with  Chicago  Record,  becoming 
Record-Herald  in  1901,  also  of  Chicago  Evening 
Post,  1894-1901.  He  retired  from  the  Record- 
Herald,  1902,  but  again  became  editor  in  1910. 
Bought  Chicago  Inter-Ocean,  1912.  He  presented  a 
statue  of  General  Grant  to  the  city  of  Galena, 
111.,  and  has  contributed  largely  to  charities. 

Komura  (ko'-mdd-rd).  Count  Jutaro,  Japanese 
statesman,  minister  for  foreign  affairs,  1908-11; 
was  born  at  Hyuga,  1855.  He  was  educated  at 
the  university  of  Tokyo,  and  at  Harvard  univer- 
sity law  school.  Was  chargS  d'affaires  in  China, 
1893-94;  minister  to  Korea,  1895-96;  vice- 
minister  for  foreign  affairs,  1896-98;  minister 
to  United  States,  Russia,  China,  1898-1901; 
minister  for  foreign  affairs,  1901-06;  senior 
plenipotentiary  to  the  peace  conference,  and 
signed,  with  Takahira,  peace  treaty  at  Ports- 
mouth, N.  H.,  1905;  sent  to  China  as  special 
ambassador,  1905,  and  Japanese  ambassador  to 
Great  Britain,  1906-08.     Died.  1911. 

K5mer  (Mr'-ner),  Karl  Theodor,  German  lyric 
poet,  was  bom  at  Dresden,  1791.  He  studied 
at  Freiberg,  Leipzig,  and  Berlin,  and  in  1811 
settled  at  Vienna.  Here  he  was  dramatist  to  a 
Vienna  theater,  and  wrote  some  light  comedies, 
among  them  Der  GrUne  Domino  and  Der  Nacht- 
wachter,  and  some  tragedies,  of  which  Zriny  was 
the  most  successful.  The  uprising  of  the  German 
nation  against  Napoleon  inspired  him  with 
patriotic  ardor,  and  in  1813,  joining  Liitzow's 
corps,  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  valor  and 
encouraged  his  comrades  by  fiery  patriotic  songs, 
published  in  1814  under  the  title  of  Leier  und 
Schwert.  The  most  famous.  Das  Schwert-Lied, 
was  dashed  off  in  a  pause  of  battle  only  a  few 
hours  before  the  author  fell  at  Gadebusch  near 
Schwerin,  1813. 

Kosciusko  (kds'^-us'-kd),  Thaddeus,  Polish  general 
?'?7cP  w°l'  ^^  ^^^^  ^^  Minsk,  West  Russia, 
174b.  He  became  a  captain  in  the  Polish  army, 
came  to  America  and  served  in  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence, and  returned  to  Poland  in  1786,  with 
the  rank  of  general.  Having  become  commander 
of  the  Polish  army,  Kosciusko  resigned  his  com- 
mand at  the  second  partition  of  Poland,   and 


retired  to  Leipzig,  but  returned  in  1794,  and  put 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  national  movement  in 
Cracow,  and  afterward  in  Warsaw.  With 
20,000  regular  troops  and  40,000  ill-armed 
peasants  he  resisted  for  months  the  united 
Russian  and  Prussian  army  of  150,000  men. 
Overpowered  by  superior  numbers  in  the  battle 
of  Maciejowice,  1794,  he  was  captured  and  kept 
a  prisoner  until  after  the  accession  of  the  emperor 
Paul.  When  Napoleon,  in  1806,  formed  a  plan 
for  the  restoration  of  Poland,  Kosciusko  felt  him- 
self restrained  from  taking  an  active  part  in  it  by 
his  promise  to  the  emperor  Paul.  In  1814  he 
wrote  to  the  emperor  Alexander,  entreating  him 
to  grant  an  amnesty  to  the  Poles  in  foreign 
countries,  and  to  make  himself  constitutional  king 
of  Poland.  He  released  from  servitude,  in  1817, 
the  peasants  on  his  own  estate  in  Poland.  His 
deatn  took  place  in  1817,  in  consequence  of  a 
fall  from  his  norse. 

Kossuth  (kdsh'-dbl),  Francis,  son  of  Louis  Kossuth, 
leader  of  the  independence  party  in  the  Hunga- 
rian parliament,  was  bom  in  1841.  He  suffered 
exile  with  his  father,  was  partly  educated  in 
England,  and  lived  in  France  and  Italy.  After 
his  father's  death  in  1894  he  went  back  to  Hun- 
gary, took  the  oath  of  allegiance  as  a  Hungarian 
subject,  and  soon  became  leader  of  those  aspiring 
to  national  independence.  In  1903  he  resigned 
the  lemlcrship,  but  was  soon  back  at  his  post,  and 
in  1904  he  united  his  opposition  forces  with 
those  of  Count  Apponjn,  and  won  the  elections 
in  1905.  When  the  coalition  came  into  office  in 
1906  he  became  minister  of  commerce  in  the 
Wekdrle  cabinet. 

Kossuth,  Louis,  Hungarian  patriot,  orator  and 
leader,  was  bom  at  Monok,  1802.  In  1832  he 
commenced  his  political  career  as  editor  of  a 
liberal  paper.  In  1847  he  was  sent  by  the  county 
of  Pestn  as  deputy  to  the  Hungarian  diet.  To 
his  speeches  must  in  part  be  ascribed  not  only 
the  Hungarian  revolution,  but  the  insurrection 
in  Vienna  in  1848.  On  the  di.ssolution  of  the 
ministry  in  1848,  he  found  himself  at  the  head  c4 
the  committee  of  national  defense,  and  now 
prosecuted  with  extraordinary  energy  the 
measures  necessary  for  carrying  on  the  war.  To 
put  an  end  to  all  the  hopes  and  schemes  of  the 
moderate  party  he  induced  the  national  assembly 
at  Debreczin,  in  1849,  to  declare  the  independence 
of  Hungary,  and  that  the  Hapsburg  dynasty  had 
forfeited  the  throne.  He  was  then  appointed 
provisional  governor  of  Hungary.  In  1849  he 
was  compelled  to  abandon  his  position,  and  to 
flee  into  Turkey,  where,  however,  he  was  made 
a  prisoner.  In  1851  he  was  liberated,  and  the 
government  of  France  refusing  him  a  passage 
through  their  territory,  he  sailed  in  an  American 
frigate  to  England,  where  he  was  received  with 
every  demonstration  of  public  respect  and  sym- 
pathy. In  December  of  the  same  year  he  landed 
in  the  United  States,  where  he  met  with  a  most 
enthusiastic  reception.  He  returned  in  1852  to 
England,  and  there  he  chiefly  resided  until  the 
Italian  war  broke  out  against  Austria,  when  he 
organized  an  Hungarian  legion  in  Italy.  Later 
he  lived  in  Turin  until  his  death  in  1894. 

Kotzebue  (ko^se-b^),  Augustus  Frederic  Ferdinand 
von,  German  dramatist  and  historic  writer,  was 
born  at  Weimar,  1761,  and  was  educated  at  Jena 
and  Duisburg.  In  his  twentieth  year  he  was 
invited  to  St.  Petersburg  by  the  Prussian  ambas- 
sador, and  was  patronized  by  Catharine,  who 
raised  him  from  post  to  post,  until  he  became 
president  of  the  civil  government  at  Revel,  a 
station  which  he  held  for  ten  years.  From  1795 
until  1800  he  resided,  variously  occupied,  in 
Germany  and  France.  In  the  latter  year  he 
returned  to  Russia,  but  had  no  sooner  set  foot 
on  its  territory  than  he  was  seized  and  banished 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


825 


to  Siberia.  The  capricious  tyrant  Paul  soon, 
however,  recalled  him,  and  took  him  into  favor. 
In  1801  he  again  left  Russia  and  spent  the  remain- 
der of  his  life  in  innumerable  literary  productions, 
and  in  politics.  He  is  said  to  have  written  many 
of  the  Russian  state  papers  and  proclamations. 
The  emperor  Alexander  subsequently  employed 
him  in  various  posts,  and  in  1817  appointed  him 
his  literary  correspondent  in  Germany.  This 
invidious  office  Kotzebue  is  said  to  have  filled  in 
a  manner  hostile  to  the  freedom  of  his  native 
country;  and  for  this  supposed  crime  he  was 
assassinated  in  1819  by  a  youthful  fanatic  named 
Sand.  His  dramas  amount  to  nearly  three 
hundred.  Among  his  other  works  are:  History 
of  the  German  Empire,  History  of  Ancient  Prussia, 
and  various  narratives  and  recollections  of  his 
travels. 

Krauskopf  (krous'-kdpf),  Joseph,  rabbi,  lecturer, 
and  author,  was  bom  in  Ostrowo,  Prussia,  1858. 
He  came  to  America  in  1872,  worked  as  clerk  at 
Fall  River,  Mass.  He  was  graduated  at  the 
university  of  Cincinnati,  1883,  and  as  rabbi  from 
Hebrew  Union  college,  1883;  D.  D.,  1885. 
Soon  after  graduation  he  accepted  a  call  from  a 
Hebrew  congregation  at  Kansas  City;  was  rabbi 
of  the  reform  congregation,  Keneseth  Israel, 
Philadelphia,  1887;  founded  the  Jewish  publica- 
tion society  of  America;  founded,  and  has  been 
president  since  organization  of  the  National  farm 
school,  in  which  Jewish  boys  are  trained  in 
practical  and  scientific  agriculture.  Author: 
The  Jews  and  Moors  in  Spain;  Evoltition  and 
Judaism;  A  Rabbi's  Impressions  of  the  Oberam- 
mergau  Passion  Play;  The  Seven  Ages  of  Man; 
Old  Truths  in  New  Books;  Society  and  its  Morals; 
Some  Isms  of  To-day;  Gleanings  from  Our  Vine- 
yard; The  Service  Manual;  The  Service  Ritual; 
The  Mourner's  Service;  The  School  Service;  Sun- 
day Lectures,  etc. 

Krehbiel  (kra'-bel),  Henry  E.,  musical  critic,  was 
born  at  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  1854;  studied  law  in 
Cincinnati,  1872-74;  musical  critic,  Cincinnati 
Gazette,  1874-80;  musical  critic.  New  York 
Tribune,  since  1880 ;  chevalier  of  legion  of  honor, 
1901.  Author:  Studies  in  Wagnerian  Drama, 
How  to  Listen  to  Music,  etc.  Editor:  Annotated 
Bibliography  of  Fine  Arts. 

Kropotkin  (krd-pdf-ken).  Prince  Peter,  Russian 
socialist,  writer,  was  bom  at  Moscow,  1842.  At 
fifteen  he  entered  the  corps  of  pages  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, where,  after  five  years'  service  and  explo- 
ration in  Siberia,  he  returned  in  1867  to  study 
mathematics  at  the  university,  while  acting  as 
secretary  to  the  geographical  society.  In  1871 
he  explored  the  glacial  deposits  of  Finland  and 
Sweden;  in  1872,  wlaile  on  a  visit  to  Belgium  and 
Switzerland,  he  associated  himself  with  the 
extremest  section  of  the  International.  In  1874, 
after  his  return  to  Russia,  he  was  arrested,  but 
in  1876  effected  his  escape  to  England.  In  France 
at  Lyons  he  was  condemned,  in  1883,  to  five 
years'  imprisonment  for  anarchism,  but  was 
released  in  1886  and  returned  to  England. 
Author:  In  Russian  and  French  Prisons;  The 
State,  its  Part  in  History;  Fields,  Factories,  and 
Workshops;  Mutual  Aid,  a  Factor  of  Evolution; 
Modern  Science  and  Anarchism;  Ideals  and 
Realities  in  Russian  Literature;  The  CoTiquest  of 
Bread;  The  Great  Revolution,  1789-1903;  etc. 

Kruger  (krod'-ger),  Stephanns  Johannes  Paulus, 
Boer  statesman,  was  bom  in  Colesbere  in  Cape 
Colony,  1825.  With  his  family  he  'Nbrekked" 
to  Natal,  the  Orange  river  free  state,  and  the 
Transvaal,  and  won  such  a  reputation  for  clever- 
ness, coolness,  and  courage  that  in  the  war 
against  England,  in  1881,  he  was  appointed  head 
of  the  provisional  government.  In  1883  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  Transvaal  or  South 
African  republic,  and  again  in  1888,   1893,  and 


1898.  "Oom  Paul"  was  the  soul  of  tho  policy 
that  issued  in  the  so-called  Boer  war  of  1899- 
1902,  showed  consummate  resolution  and  energy, 
and,  after  the  tide  had  fairly  turned  against  the 
Boers,  went  to  Europe  to  seek  alliances  against 
Britain.  He  made  his  headquarters  at  Utrecht, 
and  thence  issued  The  Memoirs  of  Paul  Kruger, 
told  by  Himself.     He  died,  1904. 

Krupp  (krddp),  Alfred,  German  ironmaster,  was 
born  at  Essen,  Prussia,  1812.  He  succeeded  his 
father,  Friedrich  Krupp,  who  had  founded  a  small 
iron-forge  there  in  1810.  Krupp  established  the 
first  Bessemer  steel  works  and  the  first  forging- 
hammer  erected  in  Germany.  The  first  steelgun 
manufactured  by  him,  in  1847,  was  a  3-pounder 
muzzle-loader;  in  1880  at  the  Diisseldorf  exhi- 
bition he  showed  the  first  100-ton  steel  gun. 
He  acquired  large  mines  and  collieries,  every 
year  saw  additions  made  to  his  works,  and  they 
are  now  the  chief  American  competitors  in  the 
manufacture  of  armor  for  warships.  They  now 
employ  about  50,000  persons,  and  are  possibly 
the  most  extensive  works  of  the  kind  in  the  world. 
Krupp  died  in  1887. 

Kubelik  (k6l>'-bi-llk),  Jan,  Bohemian  violinist, 
was  bom  in  1880  at  Michle,  near  Prague.  He 
received  his  first  musical  lessons  from  his  father, 
a  market  gardener,  and  at  twelve  entered  the 
Prague  conservatoire,  where  his  natural  talent, 
coupled  with  assiduity,  attracted  attention.  He 
was  very  successful  at  concerts  in  Austria- 
Hungary  prior  to  appearing  in  Berlin  with  the 
Philharmonic  orchestra,  1900.  He  was  then 
invited  to  England  by  Dr.  Richter,  and  made  hia 
d6but  at  St.  James's  hall.  In  1905  he  began  a 
two  years'  tour  round  the  world,  and  met  with 
high  favor  throughout  Europe  and  America. 

Kuenen  {kii'-nen),  Abraham,  Dutch  theologian, 
was  born  at  Haarlem,  1828.  He  studied  at 
Leyden  and  became,  in  1853,  a  professor  there. 
His  first  important  work  was  his  Historico- 
Critical  Inquiry  into  the  Old  Testament,  the  result 
of  which  was  to  reconstruct  the  history  of  Israel, 
the  priestly  code  and  the  historical  portions  con- 
nected with  it  being  made  the  latest  element  in 
the  pentateuch.  This  view  was  developed 
further  in  a  succeeding  volume.  He  also  deliv- 
ered a  series  of  lectures  on  the  Hibbert  founda- 
tion, since  published  under  the  title  National 
Religions  and  Universal  Religions.  He  died  at 
Leyden,  1891. 

Kugler  (kodg'-Ur),  Franz  Theodor,  German  histo- 
rian of  art,  was  born  at  Stettin,  1808,  and  studied 
at  Heidelberg  and  Berlin.  After  the  completion 
of  a  very  diversified  course  of  study  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  the  fine  arts.  In  1833  he 
became  a  professor  at  the  art  academy  in  Berlin. 
His  most  valuable  work  is  the  Manual  of  the 
History  of  Art.  He  is  also  favorably  known 
as  a  poet  and  as  the  author  of  several  dramas. 
Died,  1858. 

Kurokl  (k6b'^o-ke).  General,  Count,  noted  Japanese 
general,  was  bom  at  Satsuma,  1844.  He  was  a 
colonel  on  the  imperialist  side  during  the  Satsuma 
rebellion  of  1877,  distinguished  himself  in  the 
war  with  China  in  1895,  and  was  promoted  a 
general  in  1903.  He  commanded  the  first  army 
in  the  Russo-Japanese  war,  1904-05,  and  was 
victorious  at  Yalu,  Kliu-lien-ling,  Liao-Yang, 
Mukden,  etc.  In  1906  he  became  inspector- 
general  of  the  Japanese  army,  and  subsequently 
made  a  tour  of  the  United  States. 

Kuropatkin  (kdi>'-r5-p&t'-kln\  Alexel  Nicholae- 
vitch,  Russian  general,  was  bom  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Pskov,  1848.  After  receiving  an  excel- 
lent education  in  the  Russian  military  schoob, 
he  entered  the  army  and  distinguish^  himself 
in  the  war  against  the  Bokharans.  He  served 
in  the  Russo-Turkish  war;  was  governor  of 
Transcaspia,   1890-98;    and  in   1904  was  made 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


commander-in-chief  of  the  Russian  army  during 
the  Russo-Japanese  war.  In  1905  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  General  Linevich,  and  was  appointed 
to  command  the  first  Manchurian  army.  He 
wrote  worlcs  on  the  Balkan  campaign,  and  on  the 
central  Asian  wars. 

Kutusoff  (Jcdb-tdb'-zof),  Mikhail,  I.  G^  prince  of 
Smolensk,  Russian  field-marshal,  was  bom  in 
1745.  He  early  entered  the  Russian  army, 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Turkish  wars,  aJid  m 
1787  was  appointed  governor-general  of  Crimea. 
After  various  other  services  he  was  appwinted  in 
1805  to  the  command  of  the  first  corps  d'armie 
against  the  French.  In  that  year  he  was  victo- 
rious over  Marshal  Mortier  at  Diirenstein,  He 
was  second  in  command  of  the  allied  army,  of 
which  Emperor  Alexander  himself  was  com- 
mander-in-chief, at  Austerlitz.  In  1811-12  he 
commanded  the  Russian  army  in  the  war  against 
the  Turks,  and,  notwithstanding  his  advanced 
age,  succeeded  Barclay  de  Tolly  m  1812  as  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  army  against  the  French, 
and  obtained  a  great  victory  over  Davout  and 
Ney  at  Smolensk.  He  carried  on  the  campaign 
to  its  successful  termination,  but  his  strength 
was  exhausted,  and  he  died  in  1813. 

Kuyper  {koi'-pir\  Abraham,  Dutch  theolonaii, 
statesman,  and  writer,  was  bom  at  Maassluis, 
1837.  He  was  graduated  at  the  university  of 
Leyden;  D.  Sc,  Delft;  Ph.  D.,  Hope  college; 
LL.  D.,  Princeton;  D.  D.,  Leyden.  He  was 
pastor  of  the  Reformed  church  at  Beest,  1863; 
Utrecht,  1868;  Amsterdam,  1870;  member  of 
the  states-general  for  Gonda,  1874-77;  for 
Sliedrecht,  1894-1901,  and  prime  minister,  1901- 
05.  He  founded  the  free  university  at  Amster- 
dam, 1880;  became  professor  of  theology  and 
literature  there ;  founded  the  daily  Standard  and 
became  its  chief  editor,  1872 ;  the  Heraui,  1878 ; 
and  founded  the  Reformed  Free  churches,  1886. 
He  lectured  in  America,  England,  and  Belgium, 
and  in  1897  was  president  of  Netherland  press 
association.  He  edited  the  Encyclopaedia  oj 
Sacred  Theology,  and  is  the  author  of  the  following 
works :  The  Work  of  the  Holy  Spirit;  Calvinism; 
From  the  Scriptures;  The  Common  Grace; 
Political  Platform  of  the  Anti-Revolutionary  Party; 
The  Incarnation;  Socialism  and  Christianity; 
The  Evolution;  The  South  African  Crisis; 
Common  Grace,  3  vols.;  Varia  Americana; 
Around  the  Old  World,  etc. 

Lackaye,  Wilton,  actor,  was  bom  in  Virginia,  1864. 
He  studied  law  for  one  year;  began  his  stage 
career  in  Francesca  da  Rimini  in  New  York^  1883. 
His  principal  r61es  have  been  Prince  Saviani  in 
Jocetyn;  ^on  Stepha.no  in  Featherbrain;  Jefferson 
Stockton  in  Aristocracy;  Solomon  Strong  in 
The  Idler;  Svengali  in  Trilby;  Curtis  Jadwin  in 
The  Pit;  Jean  Valjean  in  The  Law  and  the  Man; 
John  Haggleton  in  The  Battle. 

Lacordaire  (Id'-kdr'-ddr'),  Jean  Baptiste  Henri, 
French  divine,  was  bom  at  Recey-sur-Ource, 
1802.  He  went  to  Paris  in  1821  to  continue  his 
legal  studies.  In  1824  he  gave  up  law  for 
theology,  and  after  three  years  at  the  seminary 
of  St.  Sulpice,  he  was  ordained  priest  in  1827, 
and  became  chaplain  to  a  convent  and  to  the 
College  Henri  IV.  He  assisted  Lamennais  and 
Montalembert  to  found  the  Avenir,  and  was  once 
svunmoned  for  opposing  the  government.  A  free 
school  opened  in  Paris  by  him.  and  Montalembert 
was  closed  by  the  pohce;  and  the  Avenir,  con- 
demned by  the  pope,  was  given  up.  In  1834 
Lacordaire  gave  a  series  of  "conferences"  or 
lectures  to  students  which  attracted  great  atten- 
tion, and  led  the  way  to  his  famous  conferences 
m  Notre  Dame,  Paris,  in  1835-36.  His  success 
as  a  preacher  was  at  its  height,  when  he  with- 
drew and  went  to  Rome.     In  1839  he  entered 


the  Dominican  order,  and  in  1840  reappeared  in 
the  pulpit  of  Notre  Dame,  where,  from  1843  to 
1851  he  continued  his  conferences.  In  1848 
Lacordaire  accepted  the  republic,  and  was 
elected  to  the  constituent  assembly,  but  resigned 
in  ten  days.  His  last  conferences,  delivered  at 
Toulouse  in  1854,  are  the  most  eloquent  of  all 
Thenceforward  until  his  death,  iu  1861,  he  wa« 
director  of  the  military  school  of  Sorr^ze.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  academy. 

LacreteUe  {Id'-kri-tll').,  Jean  Charles  Dorainiqus 
de,  French  historian  and  journalist,  was  born  at 
Metz,  1766.  He  was  attracted  to  Paris  on  the 
outbreak  of  the  revolution;  and,  taking  up 
journalism,  helped  to  edit  the  Journal  dea  DSmU 
and  the  Journal  de  Paris.  In  1809  he  was  made 
professor  of  histoiy  at  the  university  of  Paris 
where  he  remained  until  1848.  In  1810  censor 
of  the  press,  and  in  1808-12  published  his  History 
of  France  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  a  work  of 
high  merit.  From  1811  a  member  of  the  French 
academy,  he  became  its  president  in  1816.  He 
died  near  M&con,  1855. 

Lacroix  (ld'-krw&').  General  de,  French  general. 
vice-president  of  the  supreme  council  of  war  ana 
commander-in-chief  of  the  French  army,  was 
born  in  1844.  He  was  educated  at  St.  Cyr, 
which  he  left  to  serve  in  Italy.  In  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war  he  was  taken  prisoner  at  Sedan. 
He  served  in  the  French  expedition  to  Tonquin, 
ajid  in  1902  succeeded  General  Bonnal  at  the 
Ecole  de  Guerre.  In  1903  he  was  appointed 
military  governor  of  Lyons  and  commander  of 
the  fourteenth  army  corps.  He  succeeded  Gen- 
eral Hagron  in  his  present  post  in  1907. 

Lartantlus  (l&k-t&n' -shl-us),  Lucius  Caellus, 
Firmianus,  Christian  ap>ologist,  was  bom  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  third  century.  He  was  brought 
up  in  Africa,  and  settled  as  a  teacher  of  rhetoric 
in  Nicomedia  in  Bithjiiia,  where  he  was  con- 
verted by  witnessing  the  constancy  of  the 
Christian  martyrs  under  the  persecution  of 
Diocletian.  About  313  he  was  invited  to  Gaul 
by  Constantine,  to  act  as  tutor  to  his  son  Crispus, 
and  died  about  325.  His  most  important  work 
is  Divinarum  Institutionum  libri  vit.,  which  is  a 
vindication  of  Christianity,  and  an  exposure  of 
the  paganism  he  had  formerly  professed.  His 
other  writings  include  the  treatises  De  Ira  Dei 
and  De  Mortibua  Persecutorum. 

Ladd,  GeorKC  Trumbull,  American  educator,  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  Yale  university,  1881-1905, 
emeritus  professor,  1905;  was  bom  in  Painesville, 
Ohio,  1842.  He  was  graduated  at  Western 
Reserve  college,  1864,  Andover  theological  semi- 
nary, 1869;  D.  D.,  1879,  LL.  D.,  1895,  Westem 
Reserve;  LL.  D.,  Princeton,  1896.  He  preached 
at  Edinburg,  Ohio,  1869-71 ;  was  pastor  of  Spring 
Street  Congregational  church,  Milwaukee,  Wis., 
1871-79 ;  professor  of  philosophy,  Bowdoin  col- 
lege, 1879-^1 ;  lecturer  on  church  poUty  and  on 
systematic  theology,  Andover  theological  semi- 
nary, 1879-81 ;  several  times  lecturer  and  con- 
ducted graduate  seminary  in  ethics,  1895-96,  Har- 
vard ;  lectured  at  Doshisha  and  in  summer  school 
in  Japan,  1892  and  1899,  on  invitations  from 
imperial  educational  society  and  imperial  univer- 
sity of  Tokvo;  lectured  on  philosophy  before 
umversity  of  Bombay,  India,  1899-1900,  and  on 
philosophy  of  reUgion  at  Calcutta,  Madras, 
Benares,  etc.  Author:  Principles  of  Church 
Polity;  Doctrine  of  Sacred  Scripture,  2  vols.; 
Lotze's  Outlines  of  Philosophy,  translated,  6  vols. ; 
Elements  of  Physiological  Psychology;  What  is 
the  Biblet  Introduction  to  Philosophy;  Outlines 
of  Physiological  Psychology;  Philosophy  of  Mind; 
Primer  of  Psychology;  Psychology,  Descriptive 
and  Explanatory;  Philosophy  of  Knouiedge; 
Outlines  of  Descriptive  Psychology;  Essays  on 
the   Higher    Education;    A    Theory    of   Reality; 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


827 


Lectures  to  Teachers  on  Educational  Psychology, 
in  Japanese  only;  Philosophy  of  Conduct;  and 
articles  in  various  magazines.  Several  of  his 
books  have  been  translated  into  Japanese  and 
into  the  language  of  the  blind. 

La  Farge  {Id  fdrzh'),  John,  American  artist,  was 
born  in  New  York,  1835.  He  studied  archi- 
tectural decoration,  then  painting  with  Couture 
and  WilUam  M.  Hunt.  He  began  painting  with 
religious  subjects  and  decorative  work;  painted 
flowers,  a  few  portraits,  and  many  landscapes: 
for  a  short  time  made  illustrations  for  books  and 
magazines;  then  devoted  himself  to  mural 
painting,  mostly  of  religious  or  ecclesiastical 
character;  afterward  was  for  years  devoted  to 
the  making  of  stained  glass  windows,  for  which 
he  invented  the  new  methods  known  in  Europe 
as  "American,"  changing  and  reforming  entire 
art  of  the  glass-stainer,  from  the  making  of  the 
new  glass  by  new  methods  to  the  painting  of 
same;  much  of  his  work  is  in  churches  and 
residences  in  Boston,  New  York,  Chicago,  Cleve- 
land, Philadelphia,  Washington,  Detroit,  and 
elsewhere.  Author:  Lectures  on  Art,  Letters 
from  Japan,  etc.     Died,  1910. 

Lafayette  (l&'-fa-yW),  Marie  Jean  Paul  Soch 
Yves  Gilbert  Motier,  Marquis  de,  French 
general  and  statesman,  descended  from  an 
ancient  family  of  Auvergne ;  he  was  born  in  the 
castle  of  Chavagnac,  now  in  the  department  of 
upper  Loire,  1757.  He  became  a  «oldier  at  an 
early  age,  and  in  1777  came  to  America  to  take 
part  with  the  colonists  in  the  war  of  independence. 
The  friendship  of  Washington  exercised  a  great 
influence  over  the  development  of  his  mind  and 
the  formation  of  his  opinions.  The  declaration 
of  war  between  France  and  Britain  gave  him  an 
opportunity  of  aiding  the  new  republic  efifectually 
by  returning  to  France,  where  he  was  received 
with  honor  by  the  court,  and  with  enthusiasm 
by  the  people.  He  again  came  to  America  in 
1780,  and  was  intrusted  by  congress  with  the 
defense  of  Virginia,  where  he  rendered  important 
services.  He  had  imbibed  liberal  principles,  and 
on  his  second  return  to  France  eagerly  sought  to 
promote  a  thorough  reform  in  his  native  country. 
He  was  called  to  the  assembly  of  notables  in  1787, 
and  was  one  of  those  who  most  earnestly  urged 
the  summoning  of  the  states-general.  He  took 
part  also  in  the  movements  which  converted  the 
assembly  of  the  states  into  the  national  assembly 
in  1789.  He  took  a  very  active  part  in  the 
proceedings  of  the  assembly,  and,  being  appointed 
to  the  chief  conmiand  of  the  armed  citizens,  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  national  guard,  and  gave 
it  the  tricolor  cockade.  The  extreme  French 
republicans  soon  came  to  dislike  him,  because 
he  advocated  a  constitutional  kingdom;  and  the 
court-party,  especially  the  queen,  did  the  same  — 
in  spite  of  the  services  he  rendered  them  — 
because  of  his  zeal  for  the  new  order  of  things. 
Along  with  Bailly  he  founded  the  club  of  the 
Feuillants.  After  the  adoption  of  the  constitu- 
tion of  1790  he  retired  to  his  estate  of  Lagrange 
until  he  received  the  command  of  the  army  of 
Ardennes,  with  which  he  won  the  first  victories 
at  Philippeville,  Maubeuge,  and  Florennes. 
Nevertheless,  the  calumnies  of  the  Jacobins 
rendered  him  exceedingly  unpopular,  and  he  was 
accused  of  treason,  but  acquitted.  After  several 
vain  efforts  to  maintain  the  cause  of  national 
Uberty,  he  left  Paris  for  Flanders,  but  was  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Austrians,  and  remained  at 
Olmiitz  until  Bonaparte  obtained  his  liberation 
in  1797;  but  he  took  no  part  in  public  affairs 
during  the  ascendancy  of  Bonaparte.  He  sat 
in  the  chamber  of  deputies  from  1818  to  1824, 
and  from  1825  to  1830.  In  1824  he  revisited 
America  by  invitation  of  congress,  which  voted 
him  a  grant  of  $200,000  and  a  township  of  land. 


In  1830  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  revolution, 
and  commanded  the  national  guards.    Died,  1834. 

Laffltte  (JA'-fef),  Jacques,  French  banker  and 
statesman,  was  bom  at  Bayonne,  France,  1767. 
He  acquired  great  wealth  as  a  Paris  banker,  and 
in  1814  became  governor  of  the  bank  of  France. 
After  the  second  restoration  he  joined  the  oppo- 
sition in  the  chamber  of  deputies,  and  was 
elected  by  all  twenty  sections  in  Paris,  1817. 
In  1830  his  house  was  the  headquarters  of  the 
revolution,  and  he  supplied  a  great  part  of  the 
funds  needed.  In  November  he  formed  a  cabinet, 
but  he  held  power  only  until  March.  Meanwhile 
he  had  to  sell  his  property  to  pay  his  debts. 
A  national  subscription  preserved  him  his  house 
in  Paris;  and  from  the  ruins  of  his  fortune  he 
founded  a  discount  bank  in  1837.  As  the  gov- 
ernment became  less  liberal,  Lafiitte  became 
more  active  in  opposition ;  in  1843  he  was  elected 
president  of  the  chamber  of  deputies.  Died, 
1844. 

La  Follette  Qa,  flU'-Ht)^  Robert  Marion,  lawyer, 
statesman,  was  bom  in  Primrose,  Wis.,  1855. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  university  of  Wiscon- 
sin, 1879;  LL.  D.,  1901;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,  1880,  and  became  district  attorney  of  Dane 
county,  1880.  He  was  a  member  of  congress, 
1885-91,  and  as  member  of  the  ways  and  means 
committee  took  a  prominent  part  in  framing  the 
McKinley  bill.  He  was  elected  governor  of 
Wisconsin  in  1901,  1903,  and  1905;  and  led  the 
movement  to  nominate  all  candidates  by  direct 
vote,  adopted  by  his  state,  1904;  to  tax  railway 
property  by  same  system  and  at  same  rate  as 
other  taxable  property,  adopted,  1903;  and  also 
for  the  control  of  railway  rates  within  the  state 
by  state  commission  enacted  into  a  law  by  the 
legislature  of  1905.  He  resigned  the  governor- 
ship on  being  elected  United  States  senator  in 
1905.  He  has  made  important  contributions 
toward  railroad  and  other  public  reforms,  and 
is  regarded  as  one  of  the  ablest  debaters  and 
orators  in  the  United  States  senate,  to  which  he 
was  re-elected,  1911.  He  is  now  editor  and  pro- 
prietor of  a  weekly  periodical  known  as  La  Pol- 
tette's  Magazine. 

Lafontaine  {ld-f6ii'-ttn'),  Jean  de,  French  poet  and 
fabulist,  was  bom  at  Chiteau  Thierry  in  Cham- 
pagne, 1621.  He  early  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  the  old  writers  and  to  verse  writing. 
In  1654  he  published  a  verse  translation  of  the 
Eunuchv^  of  Terence,  and  then  went  to  Paris, 
where  Fouquet  awarded  him  a  pension  of  1,000 
francs  for  a  piece  of  verse  quarterly.  His  Contea 
et  NouveUes  en  Vers  appeared  in  1665,  his  Fables 
Choisies  raises  en  Vers  in  1668,  and  his  Amours 
de  Psych6  et  de  Cupidon  in  1669.  For  nearly  twenty 
years  he  was  maintained  in  the  household  of 
Mme.  de  la  SabUfire.  In  1684  he  read  an  admir- 
able Discourse  en  Vers  on  his  reception  by  the 
academy.  The  subjects  of  the  Contes  are  taken 
from  Boccaccio,  Ariosto,  Machiavelli,  Rabelais, 
the  Heptameron,  Apuleius,  Athenseus,  and  other 
writers ;  and  the  stories  are  retold  with  inimitable 
skill  and  wit.  He  was  a  great  and  brilliant 
writer,  but  not  a  great  poet.     Died,  1695. 

Lagrange  (Id'-grdNzh'),  Joseph  Louis,  Count, 
mathematician,  was  born  in  Turin,  1736,  of 
French  extraction.  He  became  professor  of 
mathematics  in  Turin  at  the  age  of  nineteen.  In 
1766  he  succeeded  Euler  as  director  of  the 
academy  of  BerUn.  Removing  to  Paris  in  1787, 
he  remained  there  during  the  revolution,  was 
afterward  patronized  by  Napoleon,  and  created 
by  him  a  count  and  a  senator.  Of  his  well- 
known  works  the  Micanique  Analytique  is  the 
most  celebrated.     Died,  1813. 

Lalande  {ld'4aNd'),  Joseph  J£r6me  Le  Francals  de, 
French  astronomer,  was  bom  at  Bourg-en- 
Bresse,    1732.     He   devoted   himself  with   such 


828 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


success  to  mathematics  and  astronomy  that  the 
French  academy  sent  him  to  Berlin,  1751,  to 
determine  the  moon's  parallax.  He  became  on  his 
return  an  astronomer-royal,  and  from  1762  pro- 
fessor of  astronomy  in  the  College  de  France,  from 
1795  director  of  the  Paris  observatory.  His  chief 
work  is  Traits  d' Astronomic.     Died,  1807. 

Lally-Tollendai  {Id'-le'  t6'4ai^-ddl'),  Thomas 
Arthur,  Comte  de  Lally  and  Baron  de  ToUendal, 
French  general,  of  Irish  descent,  was  born  at 
Romans  in  Dauphin4,  1702.  His  father,  Sir 
Gerard  Lally,  was  an  Irish  Jacobite  refugee  in 
the  French  service.  Lally  distinguished  himself 
at  Flanders,  accompanied  Prince  Charles  Edward 
to  Scotland  in  1745,  and  in  1750  became  command- 
er-in-chief in  the  French  East  Indies.  He 
commenced  vigorous  hostilities  against  the 
British,  and  besieged  Madras ;  but,  being  defeated, 
retreated  to  Pondicherry,  which  was  attacked  in 
1760  by  a  superior  British  force.  Lally  capitu- 
lated in  1761,  after  ten  months'  siege,  and  was 
conveyed  to  England.  Accused  of  cowardice, 
he  returned  to  France,  and  was  thrown  into 
the  Bastille.  The  parliament  of  Paris  at  last 
condemned  him,  and  he  was  executed  in  1766. 
But  his  son,  supported  by  Voltaire,  procured  a 
royal  decree  in  1778,  declaring  the  condemnation 
unjust,  and  restoring  all  the  forfeited  honors. 

Lamar  {lom&r'),  Joseph  Rucker,  jurist,  was  born  at 
Ruckersville,  Ga.,  in  1857.  He  was  educated  at 
the  university  of  Georgia,  Washington  and  Lee 
university,  and  Bethany  college.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar,  1879,  and  practiced  at  Augusta, 
Georgia,  until  1903.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Georgia  house  of  representatives,  1886-89; 
appointed  commissioner  to  codify  the  laws  of  the 
state,  1895.  In  1901  he  became  associate  judge 
of  the  supreme  court  of  Georgia,  and  in  1910 
was  appointed  by  President  Taft  associate  jus- 
tice of  the  United  States  supreme  court. 

Lamar,  Lucius  Quintus  Cinclnnatus,  American 
lawyer  and  statesman,  was  bom  in  Putnam 
county,  Ga.,  1825.  He  was  educated  at  Emory 
college,  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,  1847.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Georgia  state  legislature,  1853;  removed  to 
Mississippi,  1854,  and  was  a  member  of  congress 
from  that  state,  1857-60;  served  in  the  confed- 
erate army  during  the  civil  war,  and  was  sent  to 
Europe  as  agent  of  the  confederacy.  In  1866 
he  was  made  professor  of  political  economy  at 
the  university  of  Mississippi;  was  a  member  of 
congress,  1872-77,  and  of  the  United  States 
senate,  1877-85.  President  Cleveland  made  him 
secretary  of  the  interior  during  his  first  term,  and 
in  1888  made  him  associate  justice  of  the  United 
States  supreme  court.     Died,  1893. 

Lamarck  (Id'-mark'),  Jean  Baptlste  Pierre 
Antoine  de  Monet  de,  celebrated  French  naturalist 
and  pre-Darwinian  evolutionist,  was  bom  at 
Bazentin,  1744.  At  sixteen  he  joined  the  French 
armv  in  Germany.  Stationed  as  an  officer  at 
Toulon  and  Monaco,  he  became  interested,  in  the 
Mediterranean  flora;  and,  resigning  after  an 
injury,  he  held  a  post  in  a  Paris  bank,  and  mean- 
while pursued  the  study  of  botany.  In  1778  he 
published  a  Flore  Fran^aise.  In  1779  he  became 
a  member  of  the  French  academy  and  keeper  of 
*tie  royal  garden,  afterward  the  nucleus  of 
Jardin  des  Plantes,  and  here  he  lectured  for 
twenty-five  years  on  invertebrate  zoology. 
About  1801  he  had  begun  to  think  about  the 
relations  and  origin  of  species,  expressing  his 
conclusions  in  his  famous  PhUosophie  Zodlogique, 
m  1809.  His  Histoire  des  Animaux  sans  Vertibres 
appeared  in  1815-22.  Hard  work  and  ilhiess 
enfeebled  his  sight  and  left  him  bUnd  and  poor. 
He  broke  with  the  old  notion  of  species,  expressly 
denied  the  unchangeableness  of  species,  sought 
to  explain  their  transformation  and  the  evolution 


of  the  animal  world,  and  prepared  the  way  for 
the  now  accepted  theory  of  descent.     Died,  1829. 

Lamarttne  (Id'-mdr'-ten'),  Alphonse,  French  author 
and  poUtician,  waa  born  at  M&con,  1790.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Jesuit  college  at  Belley, 
traveled  in  Italy,  and,  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon, 
entered  the  army.  He  exercised  a  most  impor- 
tant influence  upon  the  revolution,  restraining 
the  populace  from  many  of  the  excesses  into 
which  they  might  otherwise  have  been  led.  He 
was  afterward  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the 
presidency,  and  after  the  coup  d'itat  of  1851  he 
retired  altogether  into  private  Ufe.  Though 
thus  for  a  short  time  prominent  in  the  affairs  of 
his  country,  the  greater  part  of  his  career  was 
devoted  to  literature,  in  wliich  be  attained  great 
eminence.  His  History  of  the  Girondists,  pub- 
lished in  1847,  undoubtedly  did  much  to  hasten 
the  revolution;  and  his  History  of  the  Revolution 
of  1848,  which  appeared  in  the  following  year,  is 
a  deeply  interesting  account  of  a  movement 
which,  if  it  had  not  been  turned  into  another 
direction  by  the  temporarily  successful  ambition 
of  Louis  Napoleon,  might  have  gained  for  France 
at  once  that  free  government  which  she  gained 
only  after  the  fall  of  the  empire.  Of  Lamartine's 
earlier  works,  one  of  the  best  known  is  his 
Voyage  en  Orient.  His  Works  extend  over  forty 
volumes.     Died,  1869. 

Lamb,  Chartes,  English  essayist  and  poet,  was  bom 
in  London.  1775.  He  was  the  son  of  a  clerk  to 
one  of  the  benchers  at  the  Inner  'i'emple,  and  waa 
educated  at  Christ's  Hospital,  where  he  was  the 
schoolfellow  and  friend  of  Samuel  Taylor  Cole- 
ridge. From  1702  to  1825  he  was  a  clerk  in  the 
accountant's  oflice  of  the  East  India  company, 
retiring  at  last  on  a  pension;  but,  during  most 
of  these  years,  and  indeed  up  to  the  close  of  his 
life,  he  devoted  himself,  in  a  spirit  of  noble  self- 
sacrifice,  to  the  care  of  his  sister  Mary,  who,  like 
himself,  had  inherited  a  taint  of  insanity.  Lamb's 
earliest  literary  efforts  were  in  verse.  In  1807 
he  pubUshed,  in  conjunction  with  his  sister,  a 
series  of  Tales  from  Shakespeare;  and  in  1808 
two  volumes  of  Speeimeru  of  En^ish  Dramatic 
Poets  tctio  lived  about  the  time  of  Shakespeare, 
with  short  but  felicitous  notes.  On  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  London  Magazine  in  1820,  he 
began  that  series  of  essays,  signed  Elia,  which 
are  the  chief  foundation  of  his  fame.  He  died 
in  1834,  his  sister  Blary  surviving  him  until  1847. 

Lambert,  John,  British  general,  was  bom  at  Calton 
near  Settle,  Yorkshire,  1619.  He  studied  at  the 
Inns  of  Court,  but,  on  the  outbreak  of  the  great 
rebellion  in  1642,  he  became  a  captain  under 
Fairfax,  and  at  Marston  Moor  1^  Fairfax's 
cavalry.  Commissary  in  general  of  the  army  in 
the  north  in  1645,  and  major-general  of  the 
northern  counties,  1647,  he  helped  Cromwell  to 
crush  Hamilton  at  Preston,  and  captured  Ponte- 
fract  castle  in  1649.  In  1650  he  went  with 
Cromwell  to  Scotland  as  major-general,  led  the 
van  at  Dunbar,  won  the  victory  of  Inverkeithing, 
followed  Charles  to  Worcester,  and  at  the  battle 
commanded  the  troops  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the 
Severn.    He  helped  to  install  Oliver  Cromwell  as 

Erotector,  but  opposed  the  projxieition  to  declare 
im  king,  and  became  completely  estranged 
from  him.  He  headed  the  cabal  which  over- 
threw Richard  Cromwell;  was  now  looked  uf)on 
as  the  leader  of  the  fifth  monarchy  or  extreme 
republican  party;  suppressed  the  rovalist  insur- 
rection in  Cheshire,  1659 ;  and  virtually  governed 
Great  Britain  with  his  officers  as  the  "committee 
of  safety."  He  was  sent  to  the  Tower,  tried  in 
1662,  and  banished  to  Guernsey.  Died,  1683. 
Landor,  Arnold  Henry  Savage,  English  artist  and 
traveler,  was  bom  at  Florence,  Italy,  1865,  and  was 
educated  there  and  at  Paris.  He  traveled  in  the 
East  several  years;     also  in  America,  Australia, 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


829 


Azores,  and  northern  Africa.  Hewasthe  firstwhite 
man  to  reach  both  sources  of  the  great  Brahma- 
putra river  and  establish  their  exact  position; 
to  settle  the  geographical  problem  that  no 
range  higher  than  the  Himalayas  existed  north 
of  the  Brahmaputra  river;  and  to  explore 
central  Mindanao  island,  where  he  discovered 
the  "white  tribe,"  Mansakas.  He  holds  the 
world's  record  in  mountaineering,  having  reached 
an  altitude  of  23,490  feet  on  Mount  Lumpa, 
Nepal,  1899.  Author:  Alone  with  the  Hairy 
Ainu,  or  3,800  Miles  on  a  Pack-saddle;  Corea,  or 
the  Land  of  the  Morning  Calm;  A  Journey  to  the 
Sacred  Mountain  of  Siao-ou-tai-shan;  In  the 
Forbidden  Land;  China  and  the  Allies;  Across 
Coveted  Lands;  The  Gems  of  the  East;  Tibet  and 
Nepal;  Across  Widest  Africa,  etc. 

Lander,  Walter  Savage,  English  poet  and  prose 
writer,  was  born  at  Ipsley  Court,  Warwickshire, 
1775.  He  studied  at  Oxford  where  he  won  high 
reputation  as  a  scholar;  and  in  1808  raised  a 
body  of  men,  at  his  own  expense,  and  joined  the 
Spanish  patriots  under  Blake.  He  was  made  a 
colonel  in  the  service  of  Spain,  but  resigned  his 
commission  on  the  restoration  of  King  Ferdinand. 
He  first  became  known  as  the  author  of  a  poem 
called  Gebir,  in  1798,  which  was  followed  by 
Count  Julian.  In  1820  appeared  Idyllia  Heroica, 
and  in  1824-29  his  Imaginary  Conversations  of 
Literary  Men  and  Statesmen,  in  5  vols.  He  was  a 
thorough  classical  scholar,  and  his  Greek  and 
Roman  characters  speak  as  we  should  expect 
the  ancient  heroes  to  have  spoken.  He  is 
greater  as  a  prose  writer  than  as  a  poet;  but, 
according  to  Emerson,  who  visited  him  in  1833, 
nature  meant  him  rather  for  action  than  for 
literature.  "He  has,"  says  Emerson,  "an 
English  appetite  for  action  and  heroes."  Died 
in  Florence,  Italy,  1864. 

Landseer,  Sir  £dwin  Henry,  English  painter,  was 
bom  in  London,  1802.  The  first  work  that  brought 
him  prominently  before  the  public  was  "Dogs 
Fighting,"  exhibited  in  1819.  It  was  succeeded  by 
the  "Dogs  of  St.  Gothard,"  the  popularity  of 
which  was  very  great.  The  scene  of  several  of 
his  finest  pictures  is  laid  in  the  highlands  of 
Scotland.  For  upward  of  thirty  years  every 
London  exhibition  witnessed  his  success.  In 
1830  he  was  elected  a  royal  academician,  and  in 
1850  was  knighted.  Among  his  most  celebrated 
achievements  are:  "The  Return  from  Deer- 
stalking"; "The  Illicit  Whiskey-still";  "High 
Life " ;  "Low  Life " ;  "Poachers  Deer-stalking " ; 
"Bolton  Abbey  in  the  Olden  Time";  "The 
Drover's  Departure";  "Return  from  Hawk- 
ing"; "The  Old  Shepherd's  Chief  Mourner"; 
" Dignity  and  Impudence " ;  "Peace";  "War"; 
"Stag  at  Bay";  "The  Drive  —  Shooting  Deer 
on  the  Pass'';  "A  Random  Shot";  "Night"; 
"Morning";  "The  Children  of  the  Mist"; 
"Saved";  "Highland  Nurses";  "Deer-stalk- 
ing"; "Flood  in  the  Highlands";  "Windsor 
Park";  "Squirrels  Cracking  Nuts";  and  "Man 
Proposes,  but  God  Disposes."  He  was  elected 
president  of  tUe  royal  academy  in  1865,  but 
declined  the  honor.  He  was  the  most  superb 
animal-painter  of  his  time.     Died,  1873. 

Lane,  Edward  William,  English  orientalist  and 
Arabic  scholar,  was  bom  at  Hereford.  1801,  the 
son  of  a  prebendary.  He  began  life  as  an 
engraver,  but  the  condition  of  his  health  took 
him  to  Egypt,  and  with  Egypt  the  whole  of  his 
subsequent  work  was  connected.  The  result  of 
his  visits  was  his  Manners  and  Customs  of  the 
Modern  Egyptians,  still  a  standard  authority. 
This  was  followed  by  the  annotated  translation 
ofithe  Thousand  and  One  Nights,  which  was  the 
first  accurate  rendering,  and  by  Selections  from 
the  Koran.  His  later  years  in  Egypt  were  devoted 
to  laborious  preparation  for  the  great  work  of  his 


life,  the  Arabie-Engliah  Lexicon,  completed  by 
his  grand-nephew,  who  also  wrote  his  life.  Died, 
1876. 

Lanc-Poolc,  Stanley,  English  historian  and  archtc- 
ologist,  profes.sor  of  Arabic  at  Trinity  college, 
Dublin,  1898-1904,  was  bora  in  London,  1864. 
He  was  educated  by  private  tutors,  and  at 
Corpus  Christi  college,  Oxford ;  M.  A.,  Oxford 
and  Dublin;  Litt.  D.,  Dublin.  He  was  employed 
in  the  coin  department  of  the  British  museum, 
1874-92;  was  sent  by  the  government  on 
archaeological  missions  to  Egypt,  1883,  and 
Russia,  1886 ;  visited  Australia,  1890 ;  employed 
by  Egyptian  government  on  archoKHogical 
research  at  Cairo,  1895-97 ;  lecturer  at  the  royal 
institution,  1900,  and  examiner  in  Arabic  to  the 
university  of  Wales,  1901-02.  Author:  Cata- 
logue of  the  OrientM  and  Indian  coins  in  the 
British  Museum,  14  vols. :  Saladin;  The  Moors 
in  Spain;  The  Barbary  Corsairs;  The  Moham- 
medan Dynasties;  The  Mogul  Emperors;  Egypt 
in  the  Middle  Ages;  Mediaeval  Iridia;  Story  of 
Cairo;  Islam;  Egypt;  Social  Life  in  Egypt; 
Studies  in  a  Mosque;  The  Art  of  the  Saracens  of 
Egypt;  Speeches  and  Table-talk  of  Mohammed; 
Essays  in  Oriental  Numismatics,  3  vols.,  etc. 
Edited:  Lane's  Arabic-English  Lexicon;  The 
People  of  Turkey,  2  vols. ;  Lane's  Koran;  Arabian 
Society  in  the  Middle  Ages.  etc. 

Lanfranc  (l&n'-frdngk),  prelate  and  scholar,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  was  bom  in  Pavia,  Italy, 
about  1005.  In  1045  he  was  chosen  prior  of  the 
Benedictine  abbey  of  Bee.  William  oi  Normandy 
appointed  him  a  councillor  of  state,  and  in  1066 
abbot  of  a  monastery  in  Caen,  where  he  estab- 
lished a  school.  Afterward  William  caused  hina 
to  be  elected  to  the  see  of  Canterbury,  and  he 
was  consecrated  in  1070.  On  the  accession  of 
William  Rufus  he  was  intrusted  with  the  gov- 
ernment. He  improved  discipline,  established 
schools,  convents,  and  hospitals,  and  built 
churches  and  cathedrals.  His  works  consist  of 
commentaries,  letters,  and  sermons.     Died,  1089. 

Lang  (l&ng),  Andrew,  Scottish  writer  and  critic, 
was  born  at  Selkirk,  Scotland,  1844.  He  was 
educated  at  St.  Andrews  university  and  Balliol 
college,  Oxford.  Litt.  D.,  Oxford;  LL.  D.,  St. 
Andrews.  He  was  elected  a  fellow  of  Merton 
college,  1868,  and  shortly  became  one  of  the 
busiest  and  brightest  writers  in  the  world  of 
London  journalism.  He  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  controversy  with  Max  Miiller  and  his 
school  about  the  interpretation  of  mythology 
and  folk-tales.  He  wrote  Ballads  and  Lyrics  of 
Old  France;  Ballads  in  Blue  China;  Helen  of 
Troy;  Rhymes  h  la  Mode;  Grass  of  Parnassus; 
Ballads  of  Books;  volumes  of  graceful  verse. 
Custom,  and  Myth;  Myth,  Ritiud,  and  Religion; 
Modern  Mythology;  The  Making  of  Religion; 
contributions  to  the  study  of  the  philosophy  and 
religion  of  primitive  man.  Among  his  other 
works  are :  Tfie  Library;  In  the  Wrong  Paradise; 
Books  and  Bookmen;  Letters  to  Dead  Authors; 
Lost  Leaders;  Homer  and  the  Epic;  The  Monk 
of  Fife;  Life  of  Lockhart;  Pickle  the  Spy;  Com- 
panions of  Pickle;  History  of  Scotland,  2  vols.; 
Prince  Charles  Edward;  The  Mystery  of  Mary 
Stuart;  Magic  and  Religion;  Homer  and  hit 
Age,  etc.  He  has  translated  Theocritus  and, 
with  others.  Homer,  besides  editing  Scott,  Burns, 
the  Fairy  Books,  etc.     Died,  1912. 

Langevin  {laiizh'-v6,n'\  Louis  Ptiilip  Adelard, 
Canadian  prelate,  Catholic  archbishop  of  St. 
Boniface,  Manitoba,  since  1895,  was  born  at  St. 
Isidore,  La  Prairie,  province  of  Quebec.  Canada, 
1855.  He  was  educated  at  Montreal  college; 
studied  theology  at  the  Sulpician  grand  seminary. 
Montreal;  completed  his  course  of  theological 
study  at  St.  Mary's  college,  Montreal  entered 
the  order  of  oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate,  1881, 


83d 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


and  was  ordained  priest,  1882.  He  was  preacher 
for  diocesan  missions,  1882-85;  professor  of 
moral  theology  in  the  Catholic  university  of 
Ottawa,  where  he  soon  became  vice-dean  of  the 
theological  faculty,  1885;  D.  D,  1892;  went  to 
Manitoba  as  superior  of  the  oblates  in  the  arch- 
diocese of  St.  Boniface,  and  rector  of  St.  Mary's 
church,  Winnipeg,  1893.  He  visited  England, 
France,  Belgium,  Germany,  in  1890;  Rome  in 
1896,  1898,  and  1904,  and  in  1908  visited 
the  holy  land.  He  also  visited  Austria  in  the 
interest  of  100,000  GaUcians,  Poles,  and  Ruthe- 
nians  coming  from  this  empire;  has  founded 
eighty  parishes,  fifty  educational  convents,  six 
hospitals,  four  orphanages,  six  Indian  boarding 
schools,  and  has  doubled  the  number  of  priests 
and  the  number  of  mis-sionaries  among  the 
Indiana. 

Langland,  William,  one  of  the  great  figures  in 
early  English  literature,  was  bom  about  1330, 
near  Malvern.  He  lived  most  of  his  life  in  Lon- 
don in  poverty,  a  clerk  and  singer  of  masses  for 
the  dead  in  the  churches.  His  allegorical  poem, 
The  Vision  of  Piers  Plowman,  containing  much 
vigorous  satire  on  the  abuses  of  the  church  and 
the  state,  is  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  eloquent 
cries  from  an  oppressed  people.  Excepting 
Chaucer,  Langland  was  the  greatest  English 
poet  of  the  fourteenth  century.  He  died  about 
1400. 

Langton,  Stephen,  English  prelate,  was  bom  about 
1160.  He  studied  in  Paris,  and  became  there 
canon  of  Notre  Dame  and  chancellor  of  the 
university.  He  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1206  by 
his  former  fellow  student  Innocent  III.,  and  in 
1207  was  consecrated  archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
In  1213  he  joined  the  barons  opposed  to  the  mis- 
government  of  John,  and  his  name  stands  first 
among  the  subscribing  witnesses  to  magna  charta. 
For  his  refusal  to  excommunicate  the  barons  at 
the  command  of  Innocent,  he  was  suspended 
from  the  exercise  of  his  archiepiscopal  functions 
until  1216.  He  again  placed  himself  at  the  head 
of  the  barons,  in  1223,  to  demand  from  Henry 
III.  the  confirmation  of  their  liberties.  His 
writings  have  perished;  but  to  him  is  due  the 
division  of  the  Bible  into  chapters.     Died,  1228. 

Lanier  (la-mer'),  Sidney,  American  poet,  was  bom 
in  Macon,  Ga.,  1842.  He  was  graduated  at 
Oglethorpe  college,  Ga.,  1860,  and  served  in  the 
confederate  army  during  the  war.  Toward  its 
termination  he  was  captured  and  held  prisoner 
for  five  months  at  Pomt  Lookout,  Fla.  From 
1865  to  1867  he  was  a  clerk  in  Montgomery,  Ala., 
had  a  school  in  Prattville,  Ala.,  and  from  1868 
to  1872  practiced  law  in  company  with  his  father 
at  Macon.  In  1876  he  prepared  an  ode  for  the 
centennial  exhibition  at  Philadelphia,  and  in 
1877  settled  in  Baltimore,  where  he  delivered 
lectures  on  English  literature.  In  1879  he  was 
appointed  lecturer  on  English  literature  at  Johns 
Hopkins  university.  In  the  summer  of  1880, 
enfeebled  by  the  progress  of  consumption,  he 
sought  reUef  in  the  mountains  of  North  Carolina, 
where  he  died.  His  two  notable  books  are  his 
Science  of  English  Verse,  and  his  Poems.  The 
former  is  an  ingenious,  well  worked  out  theory, 
treated  somewhat  in  accordance  with  the  musical 
system  of  Marx.  Little  of  his  poetry  has 
become  particularly  noted;  but  it  contains 
elevated  passages  that  mark  the  tmly  endowed 
poet.     Died,  1881. 

Lankester  (l&ng'-kis-ter).  Sir  Edwin  Ray,  English 
zoologist,  was  bom  in  London,  1847.  He  was 
educated  at  Downing  college,  Cambridge,  and  at 
Christ  Church,  Oxford;  D.  Sc,  Oxford  and 
Leeds;  LL.  D.,  Cambridge.  He  was  fellow  and 
tutor  of  Exeter  college,  and  was  professor  of 
zoology,  University  college,  London,  1874-90 ; 
regius  professor  of  natural  history,  Edinburgh, 


1882 ;  Linacre  professor  of  comparative  anatomy, 
Oxford,  1891-98,  and  director  of  the  natural 
history  departments  of  the  British  museum, 
1898-1907.  He  is  a  member  of  many  scientific 
and  learned  societies,  and  has  been  ed.itor  of  the 
Quarterly  Journal  of  Microscopical  Science  since 
1869.  Author:  A  Mono^aph  of  the  Cephalaspid- 
ian  Fishes;  Comparative  Longevity;  Devdop- 
mental  Hilary  of  the  MoUusca;  Degeneration; 
The  Advancement  of  Science.  Editor  of  A  Trea- 
tise on  Zoology;  Extinct  Animals;  The  Kingdom 
of  Man,  etc. 

Lanman,  Charles  Rockwell,  American  orientalist, 
professor  of  Sanskrit,  Harvard,  since  1880,  waa 
Dom  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  1830.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  Yale,  1871;  Ph.  D.,  1873,  LL.  D.,  1902, 
Yale;  LL.  D.,  Aberdeen,  1906.  He  studied 
Sanskrit  under  Weber,  Berlin,  and  Roth,  Tubin- 
gen, and  comparative  grammar  under  Curtius 
and  Leskien  of  Leipzig,  1873-76.  Called  to 
Johns  Hopkins  the  year  of  its  opening,  1876; 
thence  to  Harvard,  1880.  He  was  lecturer  at 
Lowell  institute,  Boston.  1898;  traveled  in  India, 
1889,  and  accjuired  valuable  books  and  about 
500  manuscripts  for  Harvard.  He  is  the  author 
of  numerous  works  on  the  Sanskrit  language  and 
literature. 

Lannes  (Idn),  Jean,  duke  of  Montebello,  French 
marshal,  was  bom  at  Lectoure,  1769.  He  entered 
the  armv  in  1792,  and  by  his  conspicuous  bravery 
in  the  Italian  campaign  fought  his  way  up  to 
the  rank  of  briga<lier-general,  1797.  He  rendered 
Napoleon  imixjrtant  service,  and  on  the  9th  of 
June,  1800,  won  the  battle  of  Montebello,  and 
had  a  distinguished  share  at  Marengo,  Austerlitz, 
Jena,  Eylau,  and  Friedland,  and  took  Saragossa. 
In  1809  he  commanded  the  center  at  Aspem, 
where  he  was  mortally  wounded,  and  died  in  that 
year. 

Lansdowne  (l&nz'-dimn),  lienry  Charles  Keith 
Petty>Fltsmaurice.  fifth  Marquis  ot,  English 
statesman,  was  bom  in  1845.  He  was  educated 
at  Eton  and  Balliol  college,  Oxford;  D.  C.  L., 
Oxford.  He  succeeded  to  the  marquisate  in 
1866,  from  1869  held  minor  offices  in  the  liberal 
administration,  and  in  1872-74  was  under- 
secretary of  war.  In  1880  he  became  under- 
secretary for  India,  but  resigned  owing  to  a 
difference  with  Gladstone  over  the  compen- 
sation for  disturbance  bill.  He  was  governor- 
general  of  Canada,  1883-88,  of  India,  1888-93, 
war  secretary  in  1895-1900,  and  in  1900^5 
foreign  secretary',  promoting  the  entente  with 
the  United  States  and  France  and  the  treaties 
with  Japan. 

Laotse  {la-o-tsd'),  Chinese  sage,  founder  of  Taoism, 
was  bom  in  the  province  of  Ho-nan  about  604 
B.  C.  He  was  a  contemporary  of  Confucius, 
and  wrote  the  celebrated  Tao-teh-King  canon, 
that  is,  of  the  Tao,  or  divine  reason,  and  of 
virtue,  one  —  and  deservedly  so  on  account  of 
its  high  ethics  —  of  the  sacred  books  of  China. 
He  was  the  founder  of  one  of  the  principal 
religions  of  China,  Confucianism  and  Buddhism 
being  the  other  two,  although  his  followers,  the 
Tao-sze,  as  they  are  called,  are  now  degenerated 
into  a  set  of  jugglers. 

Laplace  {Id'-jias'),  Pierre  Simon,  Marquis  de, 
eminent  French  mathematician  and  astronomer, 
was  bom  at  Beaumont-en-Auge,  in  Normandy, 
1749.  He  was  for  some  time  a  teacher  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  military  school  there,  and  after- 
ward went  to  Paris,  where  he  attracted  the  notice 
of  D'Alembert,  and  was,  through  his  influence, 
appointed  professor  in  the  military  school,  and 
admitted  to  the  academy  of  sciences.  He  waa 
gifted  with  wonderful  scientific  sagacity  and 
solved  several  problems  which  had  for  many 
years  defied  the  attempts  of  geometers.  He  waa 
the    author    of    the    nebular    hypothesis,     and 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


831 


together  with  Lagrange  did  much  to  verify  New- 
ton's theory.  His  TraiU  de  la  Micanique 
Cilesie,  and  supplements  to  it,  are,  next  to 
Newton's  Principia,  the  greatest  of  astronomical 
works.  His  Exposition  du  Systdme  du  Monde  is 
intended  for  those  who  can  not  follow  the  difficult 
demonstrations  and  calculations  in  his  great 
work.  Most  of  his  important  investigations 
were  made  for  the  purpose  of  testing  the  gener- 
ality of  the  law  of  gravitation  and  the  cause  of 
sundry  irregularities  in  the  motions  of  the 
planets.     Died  at  Paris,  1827. 

Lardner  (lard'-ner),  Dionysius,  British  clergyman 
and  scientific  writer,  was  bom  in  Dublin,  Ireland, 
1793.  He  was  graduated  at  Trinity  college, 
Dublin,  1817,  and  in  1827  became  professor  of 
natural  philosophy  in  the  university  of  London. 
He  subsequently  visited  the  United  States,  and 
in  1845  established  himself  in  Paris.  He  pub- 
lished the  Cabinet  Encyclopaedia,  1830-44,  and 
numerous  works  and  papers  on  natural  science 
and  railway  economics.  He  died  at  Naples, 
1859. 

Lardner,  Nathaniel,  English  divine,  was  bom  in 
Hawkhurst,  Kent,  England,  1684.  He  studied 
at  Utrecht  and  Leyden ;  became  a  minister  in  his 
twenty-fifth  year;  and,  after  having  been 
chaplain  and  tutor  in  the  family  of  Lady  Treby, 
acquired  equal  reputation  as  a  preacher  and 
writer.  His  most  celebrated  work  is  The  Credi- 
bility of  the  Gospel  History.  He  was  also  the 
author  of  a  Collection  of  Jewish  and  Heathen 
Testimonies.  These  two  works  —  the  value  of 
which  in  Christian  apologetics  can  hardly  be 
over-estimated  —  occupied  him  for  the  greater 
part  of  forty-three  years.     Died,  1768. 

Lamed,  Josephus  Nelson,  author  and  journalist, 
was  born  in  Chatham,  Ont.,  1836.  He  was 
e4ucated  in  the  public  schools  of  Buffalo;  was 
on  editorial  staff  of  Buffalo  Express,  1859-72; 
superintendent  of  education,  Buffalo,  1872-73; 
and  superintendent  of  Buffalo  library,  1877-97. 
Author:  Talks  About  Labor;  History  for  Ready 
Reference;  Talk  About  Books;  History  of  England 
for  Schools;  A  Multitude  of  Councilors;  Primer 
of  Right  and  Wrong;  History  of  the  United 
States  for  Secondary  Schools;  Seventy  Centuries  — 
a  Survey.  Editor:  Tfie  Literature  of  American 
History. 

La  Bochefoucauld  (Id  rosh'-fdd'-ko'),  Francois, 
Due  de,  French  moralist,  was  bom  at  Paris,  1613. 
At  an  early  age  he  joined  the  army,  placed  him- 
self in  opposition  to  Richelieu,  and  became 
entangled  in  a  series  of  love  adventures  and 
political  intrigues,  the  result  being  that  he  was 
forced  to  live  in  exile  from  1639  to  1642.  He 
then  joined  the  Frondeurs  and  was  wounded  at 
the  siege  of  Paris.  In  1652,  wounded  again,  he 
retired  to  the  country.  On  Mazarin's  death  in 
1661  he  repaired  to  the  court  of  Louis  XIV. 
A  surreptitious  edition  of  his  Mimoires,  written 
in  retirement,  was  published  in  1662;  as  it  gave 
wide  offense  he  disavowed  its  authorship.  His 
Reflexions,  on  Sentences  et  Maximes  Morales 
appeared  in  1665.  His  last  years  were  brightened 
by  his  friendship  with  Mme.  de  La  Fayette, 
which  lasted  until  he  died.  For  brevity,  clear- 
ness, and  finish  of  style  the  Maximes  could 
hardly  be  excelled.     Died,  1680. 

Larrey  (Zd'-rd'),  Dominique  Jean,  Baron,  noted 
French  surgeon,  was  bom  at  Baud^an  in  1766. 
He  went  to  Paris,  and  entered  the  navy  as  sur- 
geon, and  afterward  became  a  surgeon  in  the 
army.  He  invented  the  ambulance  volante,  or 
flying  hospital,  an  easy  wagon  for  carrying  the 
wounded,  and  for  this  was  made  surgeon-in- 
chief.  He  served  under  Napoleon  in  the  wars  of 
Egypt,  Germany,  and  Spain,  and  was  much 
loved  by  the  soldiers  because  of  his  bravery  and 
skill  as  a  surgeon.     Once  he  killed  his  own  horses 


to  make  soup  for  the  wounded  men  under  his 
care.  Napoleon  said  of  him:  " If  the  army  ever 
erect  a  monument  of  gratitude,  it  should  be  to 
Larrey;"  and  in  his  will  said:  "I  leave  100,000 
francs  to  the  surgeon-in-chief  Larrey,  the  most 
virtuous  man  I  know."  There  is  a  bronze  statue 
of  Larrey  in  Paris,  in  which  he  is  shown  standing, 
and  holding  Napoleon's  will  in  his  hand,  open  at 
these  words.     He  died  in  Lyons,  1842. 

La  Salle  (Id  sdl'),  Ben6  Robert  Caveller,  Sleur  de, 
noted  French  navigator,  was  bom  in  Rouen, 
1643.  He  came  to  America  in  1660,  and  became 
a  trader  in  furs,  and  the  owner  of  a  great  tract  of 
land  in  Canada.  After  a  voyage  of  exploration 
from  Lake  Erie  to  Lake  Superior  and  down  the 
Mississippi,  he  took  possession  of  the  land  around 
the  gulf  of  Mexico,  called  it  Louisiana,  after  the 
French  king,  and  went  to  France  to  get  men  and 
means  to  colonize  it.  He  succeeded  in  bringing 
oyer  four  vessels.  But  quarrels  arose  between 
him  and  the  commander  of  the  fleet,  which  ended 
in  the  return  of  the  ships,  with  fifty  of  the  people, 
to  France.  With  the  others  La  Salle  kept  on 
his  way,  but  failed  to  find  the  Mississippi  a«ain, 
and  wandered  from  place  to  place,  until  hia 
followers  were  nearly  all  dead.  At  last,  giving 
up  hope  of  reaching  the  land  he  was  looking  for, 
he  started  for  Canada  with  sixteen  men  in  1687. 
On  the  way  two  of  the  men,  who  hated  La  Salle, 
agreed  to  kill  him ;  and  having  first  murdered  hia 
nephew,  they  shot  him  in  1687.  He  was  the  first 
European  to  travel  from  the  headwaters  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi. 

Lassalle  (Id'-sdl'),  Ferdinand,  founder  of  socialism 
in  Germany,  was  bom  in  Breslau,  1825,  of  Jewish 
parents.  He  attended  the  universities  of  Breslau 
and  Berlin,  became  a  disciple  of  Hegel,  took  part 
in  the  revolution  of  1848,  and  was  sent  to  pnson 
for  six  months.  In  1861  his  System  of  Acquired 
Rights  startefl  an  agitation  of  labor  against 
capital,  and  he  was  again  thrown  into  prison. 
On  his  release  he  founded  an  association  to  secure 
universal  suffrage  and  other  reforms.  Returning 
to  Switzerland,  he  conceived  a  passionate  affec- 
tion for  a  lady  betrothed  to  a  noble  whom  she 
was  compelled  to  marry,  and  whom  he  challenged, 
but  by  whom  he  was  mortally  wounded  in  a  duel 
in  1864. 

Latimer,  Hugh,  EnglisU  bishop  and  martyr,  was 
bom  at  Thurcaston,  in  Leicestershire,  about 
1485,  the  son  of  a  yeoman.  He  was  educated  at 
Christ's  college,  Cambridge.  In  early  life  he  was 
a  zealous  Catholic,  but.  being  converted,  he 
^|(  became  an  equally  zealous  champion  of  the 
reformation.     After   having   encountered    many 

Eerils,  he  was  made  bishop  of  Worcester,  1535, 
y  Henry  VIII.  The  bishopric,  however,  he 
resigned,  on  the  passing  of  the  act  of  the  six 
articles;  and  was  punished  by  being  imprisoned 
during  the  remainder  of  Henry's  reipi.  The 
accession  of  Edward  VI.  set  Latimer  at  liberty, 
and  he  resumed  his  preaching,  but  refused  to 
resume  the  mitre.  On  MarjPs  ascending  the 
throne,  he  was  again  incarcerated ;  and,  in  1555, 
was  brought  to  the  stake,  where  he  suffered  with 
unshaken  courage.  Ridley  was  his  fellow  martyr. 
Latour  d'Auvergne  (Id'-UXir'  dd'-vSrn'-y')t  Th6- 
ophile  Malo  Corret  de,  noted  French  soldier,  was 
bom  at  Carhaix,  Brittany,  1743.  He  entered 
the  French  army  when  twenty-four  years  old. 
He  was  a  man  of  extraordinary  bravery,  became 
distinguished  in  the  wars  of  1792-1800,  and  was 
commander  of  the  troop  called  the  "infernal 
column."  He  refused  the  rank  of  g;eneral. 
Napoleon  sent  him  a  sword,  with  an  inscription 
saying  that  he  was  the  first  grenadier  of  France; 
but  he  sent  the  sword  back,  saying,  "Among  us 
soldiers  there  is  neither  first  nor  last."  Wnen 
peace  came,  Latour  went  to  his  home  and  lived 
quietly  until  the  war  again  broke  out;    then  he 


832 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


joined  the  army  again  in  place  of  the  only  son  of  a 
friend.  After  his  death  hie  name  was  called  at 
roll  for  many  years,  and  the  oldest  sergeant  used 
always  to  answer  for  him,  "Died  on  the  field  of 
honor."     Killed  at  Oberhausen,  Bavaria,  1800. 

Latrobe  {la-trob'),  Benjamin  Henry,  American  archi- 
tect and  engineer,  was  bom  in  Yorkshire,  Eng- 
land, 1764  In  1785  he  entered  the  Prussian  army 
in  a  regiment  of  hussars,  and  was  twice  wounded 
in  battle.  Returning  to  England,  he  studied 
architecture,  and  in  1789  was  made  surveyor  of 
the  public  offices  of  London.  In  1796  he  came  to 
the  United  States,  when  he  was  made  engineer  of 
the  James  river  and  Appomattox  canal,  and 
superintended  the  building  of  the  penitentiary 
in  Richmond.  In  1798  he  settled  in  Philadelphia, 
where  he  designed  the  bank  of  Permsylvania, 
the  old  academy  of  art,  and  the  bank  of  the 
United  States.  In  1811  he  completed  the 
capitol  at  Washington,  and  after  its  destruction 
by  the  British  in  1814,  superintended  its  recon- 
struction.    Died  at  New  Orleans.  1820. 

LAud  {I6d),  William,  English  prelate,  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  was  bom  at  Reading,  1673.  son 
of  a  clothier.  He  studied  at  St.  John's  college, 
Oxford,  and  became  a  fellow;  was  ordained  in 
1601,  and  early  gave  evidence  of  his  high-church 
proclivities  and  his  hostility  to  the  Puritans, 
whom  for  their  disdain  of  forms  he  regarded  aa 
the  subverters  of  the  church.  He  rose  by  a 
succession  of  preferments  to  the  primacy,  out 
declined  the  offer  of  a  cardinal's  hat  at  the  hands 
of  the  pope,  and  became  along  with  Strafford  a 
chief  adviser  of  the  unfortunate  Charles  I.  His 
advice  did  not  help  the  king  out  of  his  troubles, 
and  his  course  of  action  bt'ought  his  own  head  to 
the  block  in  1645. 

Laughlln  (Id/'-lin),  James  Laurence,  American 
educator,  economist,  head  professor  of  poUtical 
economy,  university  of  Chicago,  since  1892,  was 
bom  at  Deerfield,  Ohio,  1850.  He  was  graduated 
at  Harvard,  1873;  Ph.  D.,  1876.  He  taught  in 
Hopkinson's  classical  school,  Boston,  1873-78; 
was  instructor,  1878-83,  assistant  professor, 
1883-87,  of  political  economy  at  Harvard ;  presi- 
dent of  Manufacturers'  mutual  fire  insurance 
company,  Philadelphia,  1887-90;  and  professor 
of  political  economy,  Cornell,  1890^-92.  In 
1894-95  he  prepared  for  the  government  of  San 
Domingo  a  scheme  of  monetary  reform,  which 
was  afterward  adopted.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  monetary  commission  created  by  the  Indian- 
apoUs  monetary  conference,  1897.  Author: 
Anglo-Saxon  Legal  Procedure  in  Anglo-Saxon 
Laws;  Study  of  Political  Economy;  History  of 
Bimetallism  in  United  Stutes;  Elements  of  Politi- 
cal Economy;  Gold  OTid  Prices  Since  1873;  Facta 
About  Money;  Principles  of  Money;  Reciprocity; 
Industrial  America,  etc.  He  is  editor  of  Journal 
of  Political  Economy;  was  lecturer  |in  Berlin  on 
invitation  of  Prussian  cultus  ministeriim:!,  1906. 

Laurens  {l6'-^ens),  Henry,  American  statesman, 
was  bom  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  1724.  He  was 
educated  for  a  merchant,  was  very  successful, 
and  accumulated  a  large  fortune.  When  the 
war  of  the  revolution  broke  out,  he  showed  him- 
self to  be  a  true  patriot.  In  1776  he  became  a 
member  of  the  continental  congress  from  South 
Carolina,  and  in  the  following  year  was  elected 
its  president.  In  1779  he  was  sent  on  important 
state  business  to  Holland,  but  was  captured  on 
the  way  by  a  British  ship-of-war,  and  taken  to 
London,  where  he  was  kept  prisoner  in  the 
Tower  for  fifteen  months.  When  the  war  ended, 
he  was  freed  and  became  one  of  the  ministers 
to  Paris,  1782,  to  conclude  the  terms  of  peace. 
He  died  in  Charleston,  1792. 
Laurie  (lou'-re),  Simon  Somerville,  Scotch  educator, 
was  bom  at  Edinburgh,  1829.  He  was  educated 
at  the  university  of  Edinburgh;    LL.  D.,  Edin- 


burgh,  Aberdeen,  and  St.  Andrews.  He  was 
secretary  to  the  endowed  schools  of  Scotland 
commission,  1872;  hon.  secretary  to  association 
for  promoting  secondary  education  in  Scotland, 
founded  in  1876;  and  at  one  time  president  of 
the  teachers'  guild.  He  was  Gifforcf  lecturer  at 
Edinburgh,  1905-06,  and  professor  emeritus  of 
the  institutes  and  history  of  education.  Author: 
Philosophy  of  Ethics;  Primary  Instruction  in 
Relation  to  Education;  Notes  on  British  Theories 
of  Morals;  Life  and  Educational  Writings  of 
John  Amos  Comenius;  MeduBval  Education  and 
Rise  and  Constitution  of  Universities;  Institutes 
of  Education;  Historical  Survey  of  pre-Christian 
Education;  The  Training  of  Teachers  and  Methods 
of  Instruction;  Sttidies  in  the  History  of  Educa- 
tional Opinion  from  the  Renaissance;  and  many 
philosopnical  and  educational  articles.  Died,  1909. 

Laurier  (fo'-rl-d').  Sir  Wilfrid,  Canadian  statesman, 
first  French-Canadian  premier  of  the  Dominion, 
was  bom  in  St.  Lin,  1841;  educated  for  the  bar 
at  L'Assomption  college,  and  at  McGill  uni- 
versity; B.  C.  L.,  McGill,  1864;  D.  C.  L,  LL. 
D.,  etc.  He  rose  rapidly  in  his  profession,  and 
in  1871  was  elected  as  a  liberal  to  the  Quebec 
provincial  assembly.  In  1874  he  was  elected 
to  the  federal  assembly,  and  his  high  personal 
character,  his  undoubted  loyalty  and  attach- 
ment to  the  connection  of  the  colony  with 
Great  Britain,  together  with  his  great  oratorical 
powers,  which  have  earned  for  him  the  title 
•'silver-tongued  Laurier,"  soon  gave  him  high 
rank  in  the  liberal  party.  On  the  retirement 
of  Blake  in  1891  he  was  chosen  leader  of  the 
liberal  party,  and  at  the  general  election  of  1896 
he  led  his  followers  to  a  notable  victory.  His 
tariff  legislation  during  1897,  giving  Great 
Britain  the  benefit  of  preferential  trade  with 
Canada,  aroused  much  enthusiasm  both  in  the 
colony  and  at  home,  and  he  was  warmly  wel- 
comed when  he  went  to  London  to  attend  the 
jubilee  festivities.  He  was  then  appointed  a 
member  of  the  privy  council  and  made  a 
G.  C.  M.  G.  In  1900  he  again  secured  the  approval 
both  of  the  Dominion  and  of  the  empire  by  the 
prompt  despatch  of  Canadian  troops  to  aid  the 
mother  country  in  South  Africa,  and  led  his 
party  to  another  victory  at  the  f>olls  in  Novem- 
ber. He  attended  the  colonial  conference  and 
the  coronation  in  England  in  1902.  He  was 
again  returned  to  power  in  1904  and  1908,  and  in 
1907  attended  the  imperial  conference  in  London. 
The  liberal  ministry  under  the  leadership  of 
Laurier  for  fifteen  years  was  defeated  in  1911, 
and  Robert  Borden  as  head  of  the  conservative 
party  became  premier. 

Lauterbach  (lou'-tir-baK),  Edward,  American  law- 
yer, was  bom  in  New  York,  1844.  He  was 
educated  at  the  college  of  the  city  of  New  York, 
A.  B..  1864,  A.  M.,  1867;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,  1866,  and  is  now  a  member  of  the  law  firm 
of  Hoadly,  Lauterbach  and  Johnson.  He  was 
chairman  of  the  republican  county  committee, 
1895-97;  is  vice-president  and  director  of  the 
Maurice  Grau  opera  company,  and  also  director 
in  several  New  York  street  railway  companies. 
He  has  been  prominent  in  important  railway, 
telegraph,  and  maritime  cases ;  is  vice-president 
and  counsel  to  the  Pacific  Mail  steamship  com- 
pany; director  of  numerous  charitable  institu- 
tions; chairman  of  board  of  trustees,  college 
of  city  of  New  York. 

Laveleye  {IdiZ-lS'),  £;mile  Louls'Vlctor  de,  Belgian 
poUtical  economist,  was  bom  at  Bruges,  1822. 
He  studied  at  Ghent,  and  in  1864  became  pro- 
fessor of  poUtical  economy  at  Li^e.  His  works 
include :  De  la  ProprUti;  Lettres  d'ltalie;  Le 
Socialisme  CorUemporain;  Elements  d'Economie 
Politique;  La  P&nxnsule  des  Balkans;  and  works 
on  rural  economy  in  the  Netherlands,  and  on 


SIR  \<^ILFR1D   LAURIER 

From  a  photograph  by  Pittaway,  Ottawa 


.,-t   v»' 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


836 


current  topics  of  the  day.  His  contributions  to 
the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  Athenoeum,  etc.,  were 
collected  and  pubHshed  in  his  Essais  et  Etudes. 
He  was  made  a  baron  a  few  weelts  before  hia 
death.     Died,  1892. 

Lavelle,  Michael  J^  American  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  was  bom  in  New  York,  1856.  He  was 
graduated  at  Manhattan  college,  1873,  St. 
Joseph's  seminary,  Troy,  N.  Y.,  1874,  and  was 
ordained  to  the  priesthood,  1879.  He  was 
assistant,  1879-86.  and  rector  since  1886,  St. 
Patrick's  cathedral;  was  appointed  vicar  general, 
New  York,  1902,  and  domestic  prelate  to  Pope 
Pius  X.,  1903.  He  has  been  prominent  in  edu- 
cational and  philanthropic  movements. 

Lavoisier  (Id'-viod'-zyd'),  Antolne  Laurent.  See 
page  380. 

Lawrence,  Abbott,  American  merchant  and  philan- 
thropist, was  bom  at  Groton,  Mass.,  1792.  In 
partnership  with  his  brother  Amos,  he  acquired 
a  large  fortune,  a  part  of  which  was  invested  in 
the  cotton  factories  of  Lowell,  which  city  owes 
its  prosperity  in  great  part  to  them.  He  was 
elected  to  congress  in  1839,  and  in  1842  was  one 
of  the  commissioners  to  settle  the  northeast 
boundary  question  with  Great  Britain.  He 
founded  the  Lawrence  scientific  school  at  Harvard 
university,  and  made  a  bequest  for  model 
lodging  houses.     Died  at  Boston,  Mass.,  1855. 

Lawrence,  Amos,  American  philanthropist,  and 
brother  of  Abbott,  was  bom  at  Groton,  Mass., 
1786.  Having  acquired  an  immense  fortune  in 
trade,  he?  devoted  $639,000  of  it  to  charities 
and  donations,  among  other  institutions  to  Ken- 
yon  and  Williams  colleges,  and  the  theological 
seminary  at  Bangor,  Me.  He  died  at  Boston, 
Mass.,  1852,  and  his  son  published  his  Life  and 
Correspondence  in  1855. 

Lawrence,  James,  American  naval  officer,  was  born 
at  Burlington,  N.  J.,  1781.  In  the  war  of  1812 
he  served  under  Commodore  Decatur,  and  by 
brave  conduct  rose  successively  to  the  command 
of  the  Argus,  the  Vixen,  the  Wasp,  and  the 
Hornet.  In  1813,  after  a  short  engagement,  he 
captured  the  British  ship  Peacock,  and  soon 
after  was  made  commander  of  the  frigate  Chesa^ 
peake.  After  he  had  been  in  command  of  its 
undisciplined  crew  for  only  a  few  days,  in  June, 
1813,  he  met  the  British  frigate  Shannon  just  out 
of  Boston,  and  after  a  hard  fight  he  was  mortally 
wounded  and  his  ship  was  captured.  It  was 
here  that  he  uttered  the  words,  "Don't  give  up 
the  ship!" 

Lawrence,  Sir  Thomas,  English  portrait  painter, 
was  born  in  Bristol,  1769;  succeeded  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds  in  1792  as  first  painter  to  King  George 
III.  In  1820  he  became  president  of  the  royal 
academy.  He  painted  nearly  all  the  monarchs 
and  notabilities  of  Europe;  his  pictures  are 
distinguished  by  fidelity  of  touch,  and  by  a 
peculiar  softness  and  grace  of  fini.sh.    Died,  1830. 

Lawrence,  William,  American  prelate,  Protestant 
Episcopal  bishop  of  Massachusetts  since  1893, 
was  born  in  Boston,  1850.  He  was  graduated  at 
Harvard,  1871;  S.  T.  D.,  1893;  S.  T.  D.,  Hobart, 
1890;  LL.  D.,  Princeton,  1904;  and  S.  T.  B., 
Episcopal  theological  school,  Cambridge,  Mass., 
1875.  He  was  rector  of  Grace  church,  Lawrence, 
Mass.,  1876-84;  professor  of  homiletics  and 
pastoral  theology,  Episcopal  tlieological  school, 
Cambridge,  1884-93;  dean  of  same,  1888-93. 
Author:  Life  of  Amos  A.  Laterence;  Propor- 
tional Representation  in  the  House  of  Clerical 
and  Lay  Delegates;  Visions  and  Service;  Life  of 
Roger  Wolcott,  Governor  of  Massachusetts;  Study 
of  Phillips  Brooks,  etc. 

Lawson,  Thomas  William,  American  banker, 
yachtsman,  and  author,  was  born  in  Charlestown, 
Mass.,  1857.  He  was  educated  at  the  public 
schools  of  Cambridge,  has  been  in  business  as 


banker  and  broker  since  1870,  and  was  formerly 
senior  member  of  the  firm  of  Lawson,  Arnold, 
and  Company,  members  of  Boston  and  New  York 
stock  exchanges.  He  is  prominent  as  yachtsman 
and  as  a  contributor  to  magazines,  reviews,  and 
newspapers.  Author:  The  Krank;  History  of 
the  Republican  Party;  Secrets  of  Success;  ejec- 
tion of  Poems  and  &iicrrt  Stories  from  Magazines; 
Lawson  History  of  the  America's  Cup;  Frenzied 
Finance;  Friday  the  Thirteenth,  etc. 
Layard  (la'-ard).  Sir  Austen  Henry,  English 
archajological  diplomat,  was  bom  in  Paris,  1817. 
He  passed  his  boyhood  in  Italy.  Traveling  along 
the  Tigris  on  his  way  to  Ceylon  in  1840,  he  was 
struck  with  the  ruins  of  Nimrud,  the  supposed 
site  of  Nineveh;  and  in  1845-47  carried  on 
excavations  there,  finding  the  remains  of  four 

Ealaces.  The  walls  of  the  northwest  palace, 
uilt  by  Sardanapalus,  were  lined  with  large 
slabs  covered  with  basreliefs  and  cuneiform 
inscriptions.  Many  of  these,  together  with 
gigantic  winged  human-headed  bulls  and  lions, 
were  sent  by  Layard  to  the  British  museum, 
London.  He  published  Nineveh  and  its  Remains. 
Monuments  of  Nineveh,  etc.  He  was  presented 
with  the  freedom  of  the  city  of  London,  was 
made  D.  C.  L.  by  Oxford,  and  was  lord  rector  of 
Aberdeen  university,  1855-56.  He  was  member 
of  parliament  for  Aylesbury,  1852-57,  for 
Southwark,  1860-69,  foreign  under-secretary, 
1861-66,  chief  commissioner  of  works,  1868-69, 
and  in  1869  went  as  British  ambassador  to  Spain, 
from  1877  to  1880  to  Constantinople,  being  made 
G.  C.  B.  in  1878.     Died,  1894. 

Lea  (le),  Henry  Charles,  American  author  and 
historian,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  1825.  He 
received  a  private  education;  LL.  D.,  university 
of  Pennsylvania,  Harvard,  and  Princeton,  and 
was  made  a  member  of  many  learned  societies  in 
Europe  and  the  United  States.  He  was  in  the 
publishing  business,  1843-80;  then  retired,  and 
devoted  himself  to  literary  and  historical  research. 
Author:  Superstition  and  Force;  An  Historical 
Sketch  of  Sacerdotal  Celibacy  in  the  Christian 
Church;  Studies  in  Church  History;  A  History 
of  the  Inquisition  of  the  Middle  Ages;  Chapters 
from  the  Religious  History  of  Spain;  Formulary 
of  the  Papal  Penitentiary  in  the  Thirteenth 
Century;  A  History  of  Auricular  Confession  and 
Indulgences  in  the  Latin  Church;  The  Moriscos  of 
Spain:  Their  Conversion  and  Expulsion;  History 
of  the  Inquisition  of  Spain;  and  also  many 
articles  in  periodicals.     Died,  1909. 

Le  Brun  {U  briiN'),  Charles,  French  historical 
painter,  was  bom  in  Paris,  1619.  He  studied 
four  years  in  Rome,  and  for  nearly  forty  years, 
1647-83,  exercised  a  despotic  influence  over 
French  art  and  artists,  being  usually  considered 
the  founder  of  the  French  school  of  painting.  He 
was  the  first  director  of  the  Gobelins  tapestry 
works,  in  1662,  and  from  1668  to  1683  was 
employed  by  Louis  XIV.  in  the  decoration  of 
the  palace  of  Versailles;  but,  being  superseded, 
he  became  ill  and  died,  1690.  He  wrote  Treatise 
on  the  Passions  and  Phy.tiognomy. 

Le  Brun,  Marie  Anne  Elisabeth  Vlg£e,  French 
painter,  was  born  in  Paris,  1755,  daughter  of  one 
Vig6e,  a  painter.  In  1776  she  marned  J.  B.  P. 
Le  Brun,  picture  dealer  and  grand-nephew  of 
Charles  Le  Brun.  Her  great  beauty  and  the  charm 
of  her  painting  speedily  made  her  the  fashion. 
Her  portrait  of  Marie  Antoinette,  in  1779,  led  to 
a  lasting  friendship  with  the  queen.  She  painted 
numerous  portraits  of  the  royal  family,  but  leit 
Paris  for  Italy  at  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution, 
and  after  a  tour  of  triumphal  progress  through 
Europe,  arrived  in  London  in  1802.  There  she 
painted  portraits  of  the  prince  of  Wales,  Lord 
Byron,  and  others.  In  1805  she  returned  to 
Paris.     Died,  1842. 


836 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Lecky  (lik'-l),  WUllam  Edward  Hartpole,  British 
historian  and  philosopher,  was  born  near  Dublin, 
Ireland,  1838.  He  was  graduated  in  1859  at 
Trinity  college,  Dublin.  In  1861  he  published 
anonymously  The  Leaders  of  Public  Opinion  in 
Ireland,  four  brilliant  essays  on  Swift,  Flood, 
Grattan,  and  O'Connell.  His  later  works  were 
Rationalism  in  Europe;  History  of  European 
Morals;  History  of  England  in  the  I8th  Century; 
and  Democracy  and  Liberty,  with  a  volume  of 
poems  in  1891.  A  decided  unionist,  he  became 
minister  plenipotentiary  for  Dublin  university 
in  1895,  a  privy  councilor  in  1897,  and  a  member 
of  the  order  of  merit  in  1902.  He  was  elected  to 
parliament  for  Dublin  university  in  1895  and 
again  in  1900.     Died,  1903. 

Le  Conte  (le  kdnt'),  Joseph,  American  naturalist 
and  physici.st,  was  born  in  Liberty  county,  Ga., 
1823.  "He  was  graduated  at  Franklin  college, 
university  of  Georgia,  in  1841,  and  the  New  York 
college  of  physicians  and  surgeons  in  1845,  and 
practiced  his  profession  at  Macon,  Ga.  In  1850 
he  went  to  Cambridge,  Mass.,  where  he  studied 
under  Agassiz.  He  subsequently  held  several 
professorships,  and  in  1869  became  professor  of 
geology  and  natural  history  in  the  university  of 
California.  He  published  several  essays  on 
education  and  the  fine  arts :  The  Mutual  Relations 
of  Religion  and  Science;  Elements  of  Geology; 
Sight;  A  Compend  of  Geology;  Evolution,  etc. 
He  died  in  the  Yosemite  valley,  California, 
1901. 

Lee,  Fitzhugh,  American  soldier,  nephew  of  Robert 
E.  Lee,  was  born  in  Fairfax  county,  Va.,  1835. 
He  was  graduated  at  West  Point  military 
academy,  1856,  and  became  a  lieutenant  in  the 
second  United  States  cavalry.  At  the  opening 
of  the  civil  war  he  resigned  and  entered  the 
confederate  service,  advancing  to  the  rank  of 
major-general.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  was 
in  command  of  the  cavalry  corps  of  the  army  of 
northern  Virginia.  In  1885  he  was  elected 
governor  of  Virginia,  serving  until  1890.  He 
was  appointed  consul-general  to  Havana  by 
President  Cleveland,   and  was  retained  at  that 

Eost  by  President  McKinley.  He  administered 
is  office  with  signal  ability  during  the  investiga- 
tion of  the  explosion  of  the  battleship  Maine, 
and  throughout  the  trying  times  preceding  the 
Spanish-American  war.  In  that  war  he  served 
as  major-general  of  volunteers  and  after  peace 
was  declared  he  was  made  governor  of  the 
province  of  Havana.  He  was  later  appointed 
brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army,  retiring  in 
1901.  Died.  1905. 
Lee,  Henry,  distinguished  American  general,  was 
born  in  Virginia,  1756.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
daring,  vigilant,  and  successful  cavalry  officers  on 
the  side  of  the  colonists.  "Lee's  legion"  was 
probably  the  most  effective  and  courageous  body 
of  troops  raised  in  America.  In  the  famous 
retreat  of  Greene  before  Lord  Comwallis  it 
formed  the  rear-guard,  the  post  of  honor,  and 
covered  itself  with  glory.  At  the  battles  of  Guil- 
ford Court  House  and  Eutaw  Springs,  at  the  sieges 
of  Forts  Watson  and  Motte,  at  Granby  and 
Augusta,  and  at  the  storming  of  Fort  Grierson, 
Lee  particularly  signalized  himself.  After  the 
war  he  was  sent  to  congress  as  a  delegate  from 
Virginia,  advocated  the  adoption  of  a  federal 
constitution,  and  in  1792  was  chosen  governor 
of  Virginia.  When  Washington  died,  Lee  was 
chosen  by  congress  to  write  a  eulogy  of  him ;  in  it 
occurs  the  famous  words,  "First  in  war,  first  in 
peace,  and  first  in  the  hearts  of  his  countrymen.?' 
Died,  1818.  "^ 

Lee,  Bichard  Henry,  eminent  American  patriot, 
and  signer  of  the  declaration  of  independence 
was  bom  m  Virginia,  1732,  and  received  his 
education    in    England.     He    returned    to    hb 


native  country  in  1752,  and  at  the  age  of 
twenty-five  was  chosen  a  delegate  to  the 
house  of  burgesses,  where  he  soon  distinguished 
himself  by  his  powers  in  debate.  In  1764  he 
was  appointed  to  draft  an  address  to  the  king, 
and  a  memorial  to  the  house  of  lords,  which  are 
among  the  best  state  papers  of  the  period.  His 
efforts  in  resisting  the  various  encroachments  of 
the  British  government  were  indefatigable,  and 
in  1774  he  attended  the  first  continental  congress 
at  Philadelphia,  as  a  delegate  from  Virginia. 
The  memorial  of  congress  to  the  people  of  British 
America,  and  the  second  address  ot  congress  to 
the  people  of  Great  Britain,  were  both  from  his 
pen.  In  June,  1776,  he  introtiuced  the  measure 
that  declared  the  colonies  free  and  independent 
states,  and  supported  it  by  a  speech  of  the  most 
brilliant  eloquence.  He  continued  to  hold  a  seat 
in  congress  until  1780,  when  be  declined  a 
reelection  until  1784.  In  that  year  he  was  chosen 
president  of  congress,  but  retired  at  its  close,  and 
in  1786  was  again  chosen  a  member  of  the  Vir- 
ginia assembly.  He  was  a  member  of  the  con- 
vention which  adopted  the  present  constitution 
of  the  United  States,  and  one  of  the  first  senators 
under  it.  In  1792  he  again  retired  from  public 
life,  and  died  in  1794. 
Lee,  Robert  Edward,  American  general,  was  bom 
in  Westmoreland  county,  Va.,  1807.  At  eighteen 
he  entered  West  Point,  was  graduated  second  in 
his  class  in  1829.  and  received  a  commission  in 
the  corps  of  engineers.  In  the  Mexican  war  he 
was  chief-engiiiM-r  of  the  central  army  in  Mexico, 
and  at  the  storming  of  Chapultepec  was  severely 
wounded.  In  1852-65  he  was  superintendent 
of  the  United  States  military  academy,  and 
greatly  improved  its  efficiency.  His  next  service 
was  as  cavalry  officer  on  the  Texan  border, 
1855-59.  At  the  John  Brown  raid  he  was 
ordered  to  Harper's  Ferry  to  capture  the  insur- 
gents. He  was  in  command  in  Texas  in  1860, 
But  was  recalled  to  Washington  in  March,  1861, 
when  seven  states  had  formed  the  southern  con- 
federacy. Virginia  seceded  on  April  17th,  and 
Colonel  Lee,  believing  that  his  alh'giance  was  due 
to  his  state,  sent  in  his  resignation.  Within  two 
days  he  was  made  commander-in-chief  of  the 
forces  of  Virginia.  At  Richmond  he  superin- 
tended the  defenses  of  the  city  until  the  autumn, 
when  he  was  sent  to  oppose  General  Rosecrans 
in  West  Virginia.  Ift  the  spring  of  1862  he  was 
working  at  the  coast  defenses  of  Georgia  and 
South  Carolina,  but  on  McClellan's  advance  was 
summoned  to  Richmond.  Greneral  J.  E.  Johnston, 
chief  in  command,  was  wounded  at  Seven  Pines 
in  May,  and  Lee  was  put  in  command  of  the  army 
around  Richmond.  His  masterly  strategy  in  the 
seven  days'  battles  around  Richmond  defeated 
McClellan's  purpose;  his  battles  and  strategy  in 
oppK>sing  General  Pop>e,  his  invasion  of  Maryland 
and  Pennsylvania,  and  other  achievements  are 
cardinal  to  the  history  of  the  war.  The  increasing 
resources  of  the  North  and  the  decreasing 
resources  of  the  South  could  only  result  in  the 
final  success  of  the  former.  On  April  9,  1865,  Lee 
surrendered  his  army  to  General  Grant  at  Appo- 
mattox Court  House,  Virginia,  and  the  war  was 
practically  ended.  After  the  close  of  the  war  he 
frankly  accepted  the  result,  and,  although 
deprived  of  his  former  property  at  Arlington  on 
the  Potomac,  and  the  White  House  on  the 
Pamunky,  he  declined  proffered  offers  of  pecu- 
niary aid,  and  accepted  the  presidency  of  what 
came  to  be  called  the  Washington  and  Lee  univer- 
sity, at  Lexington,  Va.,  at  whose  head  he  re- 
mained until  his  death  in  1870.  Numerous 
military  critics  regard  Lee  as  the  greatest  mili- 
tary leader  produced  by  the  civil  war,  and  one 
of  the  very  first  produced  by  the  nineteenth 
century. 


ROBERT   EDWARD  LEE 

From  a  photograph 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


839 


Le  GalUenne  (IS  gdi'-i-in'),  Richard,  journalist, 
was  born  in  Liverpool.  Eneland,  1866.  He  was 
educated  at  Liverpool  college,  and  engaged  in 
business  seven  years,  but  abandoned  it  for  litera- 
ture. For  a  few  montlis  he  was  private  secretary 
to  Wilson  Barrett,  then  became  literary  critic 
for  several  papers,  and  settled  in  London.  For 
some  years  his  journalistic  and  literary  work  has 
been  confined  to  the  United  States.  Editor: 
Isaak  Walton's  The  Com-pleat  Angler;  Hazlitt's 
Liher  Amoris;  Hallam  s  Remains.  Author: 
My  Ladies'  Sonnets;  Volumes  in  Folio;  George 
Meredith;  The  Book-Bills  of  Narcissus;  English 
Poems;  The  Religion  of  a  Literary  Man;  Prose 
Fancies;  Robert  Louis  Stevenson  and  Other 
Poems;  Retrospective  Reviews;  Prose  Fancies; 
The  Quest  of  the  Golden  Girl;  If  I  were  God; 
Omar  Khayrjam,  a  Paraphrase;  The  Romance  of 
Zion  Chapel;  Young  Lives;  Worshiper  of  the 
Image;  Travels  in  England;  The  Beautiful  Lie  of 
Rome;  Rudyard  Kipling,  a  Criticism;  The  Life 
Romantic;  Sleeping  Beauty;  Mr.  Sun  and  Mrs. 
Moon;  Perseus  and  Andromeda;  An  Old  Country 
House;  Odes  from  the  Divan  of  Hafiz;  Painted 
Shadows;  Little  Dinners  with  the  Sphinx,  etc. 

Legar6  (Jie-gre'),  Hugh  Swlnton,  American  states- 
man, was  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  1797.  He 
studied  law,  traveled  in  Europe,  and  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  South  Carolina  legislature,  1820-22 
and  1824-30.  In  1830  he  was  elected  attorney- 
general.  During  the  nullification  excitement  he 
ardently  supported  the  cause  of  the  Union  in 
public  speeches.  He  was  charg6  d'affaires  at 
Brvissels,  1832-36,  and  took  his  seat  as  a  member 
of  congress  during  the  session  of  1837.  He  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  debates,  but  his  opposi- 
tion to  the  sub-treasury  project  led  to  his  defeat 
at  the  next  election.  After  the  accession  of 
President  Tyler  in  1841,  Legar6  was  appointed 
attorney-general  of  the  United  States,  and  in  the 
spring  of  1843  he  succeeded  Webster  as  secretary 
of  state.  He  was  distinguished  as  a  scholar,  and 
contributed  largely  to  periodicals.     Died,   1843. 

Leibnitz  {Up'-nUs),  Gottfried  Wilhelm  von.  See 
page  298. 

Leighton  (la'-tun),  Frederick,  Lord,  English  painter, 
was  bom  at  Scarborough,  England,  1830.  His 
early  years  were  spent  in  the  study  of  art,  under 
the  best  masters  in  Rome,  Florence,  Frankfort, 
Paris,  and  Brussels.  His  famous  picture, 
"Cimabue's  Madonna  carried  in  Procession 
through  the  Streets  of  Florence,"  was  his  first 
appearance  in  the  royal  academy  in  1855,  and 
was  at  once  purchased  by  the  queen.  Among 
his  other  paintings  are  "Ariadne,"  "Hercules 
Wrestling  with  Death,"  "Captive  Andromache," 
"The  Harvest  Moon,"  "Helen  of  Troy,"  "Romeo 
and  Juliet,"  "Wedded,"  etc.  He  was  also  known 
as  a  sculptor.  In  1878  he  became  president  of 
the  royal  academy,  was  made  a  baronet  in  1886, 
and  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1896.  In  his  life- 
time he  received  almost  every  honor  possible  to 
an  artist.     Died,  1896. 

Lemlenx,  Bodolpbe,  French  statesman,  postmaster- 
general,  and  mipister  of  labor  of  Canada  since 
1906,  was  bom  at  Montreal,  1866.  He  was 
educated  at  the  seminary  of  Nicolet,  and  at  Laval 
university,  Montreal;  barrister,  1891;  professor 
of  law  at  Laval  university,  1897;  Q.  C,  Quebec, 
1898,  and  K.  C,  Ottawa,  1904.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  parliament  for  Gasp6,  1896;  reelected, 
1900  and  1904;  represented  Canada  before  the 
privy  council  in  England,  1904;  appointed 
substitute  to  the  attorney-general  for  the  district 
of  Montreal;  solicitor-general  of  Canada,  1904— 
06;  fellow  of  the  royal  society,  Canada,  1908. 
He  is  the  author  of  several  works  on  law  and  a 
number  of  addresses. 

Lenbach  (iSn'-ba'K),  Franz  von,  noted  German 
portrait  painter,  was  bom  at   Schrobenhausen, 


Bavaria,  1836.  He  studied  at  the  Munich 
academy  under  Grafle,  and  Piloty,  and  in  1858 
went  to  Rome.  In  1860  he  became  professor  of 
art  at  Weimar,  but  resigned  in  1862  and  went  to 
Italy  and  Spain.  On  his  return  to  Munich  ho 
devoted  himself  exclusively  to  portraiture,  but 
after  1872  spent  much  time  in  travel  and  work 
in  Vienna,  Morocco,  and  Egypt.  His  portraits 
of  Bismarck  are  specially  famous.     Died,  1904. 

Leo  I„  the  Great,  pope  of  Rome  440-461,  was  bom 
about  390.  He  succeeded  Sixtus  III.  in  440; 
zealously  opposed  the  Manicha^ans  and  Pelagians, 
and  secured  the  condemnation  of  the  Eutychian 
heresy  at  the  general  council  of  Chalcedon; 
extended  the  Roman  see.  and  induced  Attila  to 
spare  Rome.  He  publisned  several  volumes  of 
letters  and  sermons.     Died  at  Rome,  461. 

Leo  X.,  Pope  (Cardinal  Giovanni  de'  Medici),  son  of 
Lorenzo  the  Magnificent,  was  born  in  Florence, 
Italy,  1475.  He  was  banished  with  his  family 
in  1494;  traveled  in  Germany  and  Flanders,  and 
formed  a  friendship  with  Erasmus.  On  his 
return  to  Italy  he  became  legate  to  Julius  II.: 
was  taken  prisoner  at  Ravenna  in  1512,  escapea 
and  became  pope  in  1513.  In  his  efforts  to 
extend  the  papal  dominions  he  allied  himself 
at  one  time  with  France,  at  another  with  the 
empire.  In  1515  he  signed  the  famous  concordat 
with  Francis  I.  His  pontificate  is  one  of  the 
most  brilliant  periods  m  the  history  of  art  and 
literature,  and  is  also  memorable  as  the  time 
when  the  reformation  began.     Died,  1521. 

Leo  XIIL,  Pope  (Gioacchino  Pecci),  son  of  Count 
Ludovico  Pecci,  was  bom  in  Carpineto,  in  the 
papal  states,  1810.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Collegio  Romano  and  the  academy  of  Noble 
Ecclesiastics;  appointed  by  Gregory  XVI.  a 
domestic  prelate  in  1837,  received  the  title  of 
prothonotary  apostolic,  and  was  a  vigorous 
apostolic  delegate  at  Benevento,  Perugia,  and 
Spoleto.  He  was  made  archbishop  of  Damietta 
in  partibus  and  sent  to  Belgium  as  nuncio  in 
1843,  nominated  archbishop  of  Perugia  in  1846, 
and  in  1853  created  a  cardinal  by  Pius  IX. 
Upon  the  death  of  Pius  IX.  in  1878  he  was  elected 
to  the  papacy  under  title  of  Leo  XIIL  He 
restored  the  hierarchy  in  Scotland  and  com- 
posed the  diflSculty  with  Germany.  In  1888 
he  denounced  the  Irish  plan  of  campaign.  He 
manifested  enlightened  views,  but  on  questions 
affecting  the  church  and  his  own  status  held 
firmly  to  his  rights.  He  regarded  himself  as  the 
despoiled  sovereign  of  Rome,  and  as  a  prisoner 
at  the  Vatican;  and  persistently  declined  to 
recognize  the  law  of  guarantees.  He  protested 
against  heresy  and  "godless"  schools,  and  in  his 
encyclicals  affirmed  that  the  only  solution  to  the 
socialistic  problem  is  the  influence  of  the  papacy. 
In  1894  he  constrained  the  French  clergy  and 
the  monarchists  to  accept  the  republic.  In  1883 
he  opened  the  archives  of  the  Vatican  for  histori- 
cal investigations,  and  made  himself  known  as  a 
poet,  chiefly  in  the  Latin  tongue.  The  jubilee 
of  his  episcopate  in  1893  was  marked  by  pilgrim- 
ages, addresses,  and  gifts,  as  was  thiat  of  his 
priesthood  in  1887.  In  1896  he  issued  an  ency- 
clical pronoimcing  Anglican  orders  null  and  void. 
Died,  1903.  To  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  one 
of  the  foremost  figures  of  modern  times,  and  a 
potent  force  in  religion,  education,  and  morals. 

Leonardo  da  Vlncl  (id'-d-nar'-dd  da  ven'-che).     S 
page  124. 

Leonidas  I.  Qe-Hn'-Kr^as),  king  of  Sparta,  succeeded 
his  half  brother,  Cleomenes  I.,  491  B.  C.  When 
the  Persian  monarch,  Xerxes,  approached  with  an 
immense  army,  Leonidas  oppoised  him  at  the 
narrow  pass  of  Thermopylae,  480  B.  C,  with  a 
force  of  300  Spartans  and  more  than  6,000  aux- 
iliaries. The  treachery  of  one  Ephialtes  having 
made  it  impossible  to  bar  any  longer  the  progress 


See 


840 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


of  the  foe,  Leonidaa  and  his  little  band  threw 
themselves  on  the  swarming  myriads,  and  found 
a  heroic  death. 
Lepsius  (ISp'se-dds),  Karl  Richard,  noted  German 
Egyptologist,  was  bom  at  Naumburg,  1810. 
His  first  work  on  palaeography  as  an  instrument 
of    philosophy,  in    1834,    obtained    the    Volney 

Erize  of  the  French  institute.  In  1836  at  Rome 
e  studied  Egyptology,  Nubian,  Etruscan,  and 
Oscan,  writing  numerous  treatises.  In  1842—45 
he  was  at  the  head  of  an  antiquarian  expedition 
sent  to  Egypt  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  in 
1846  was  appointed  professor  in  Berlin.  His 
Denkmaler  aus  Aegypten  und  Aethiopien  remains 
a  masterpiece.  His  Chronologic  der  Aegypter  laid 
the  foundation  for  a  scientific  treatment  of  early 
Egyptian  history.  His  other  works  consist  of 
letters  from  Egypt,  Ethiopia, '  and  Sinai,  1852; 
A  Standard  Alphabet,  in  which  he  expounds  a 
modified  Roman  alphabet  for  hitherto  unwritten 
languages;  the  Kdnigabuch,  and  the  Todlenbttch, 
or  the  Egyptian  "  Book  of  the  Dead."  He  wrote 
on  Chinese,  Arabic,  and  Assyrian  philology ;  and 
was  a  member  of  the  royal  academy,  director  of 
the  Egyptian  section  of  the  royal  museum,  and 
director  of  the  royal  library  at  Berlin.  Died, 
1884. 
Lesage  (le  sazh'),  Alain  Ren£,  French  novelist  and 
dramatist,  was  bom  in  Sarzeau,  in  Brittany, 
1668,  and  studied  at  the  Jesuits'  college  at 
Vannes.  After  having  held  a  situation  under 
the  farmers-general  in  his  native  province,  he 
went  to  Paris  in  1092,  tried  the  bar  for  a  short 
time,  and  then  adopted  the  profession  of  an 
author.  For  some  years  he  continued  to  be  little 
known  as  a  writer;  but  in  1707  he  rose  at  once 
into  popularity  by  his  comedy  of  Crispin  the 
Rival  of  his  Master,  and  his  romance  of  Le  Diable 
Boiteux.  The  comedy  of  Turcaret,  in  1709, 
added  to  his  fame,  which  subseauently  was 
rendered  imperishable  by  his  admirable  Gu  Bias. 
He  was  endowed  with  great  literary  fertility. 
Among  his  other  novels  are:  The  AaverUvurea  of 
Guzman  d'Alfarache;  The  Adventures  of  the 
Chevalier  Beau^hesne;  The  History  of  Estivanille 
Gonzales;  and  The  Bachelor  of  Salamanca.  He 
composed  twenty-four  dramatic  pieces,  and  had 
a  share  in  the  composition  of  seventy-six  others. 
He  died  in  Paris,  1747. 
Leslie,  Mrs.  Frank  (Miriam  Florence  Folline),  was 
born  in  New  Orleans,  La.,  1851,  of  noble  French 
Huguenot  family,  from  whom,  now  that  she  has 
retired  from  the  publishing  business,  she  takes 
her  title  of  the  Baroness  de  Bazus.  She  married 
Frank  Leslie,  publisher,  who  died  in  1880;  suc- 
ceeded to  his  business,  then  badly  involved; 
personally  managed  it  and  put  it  on  a  payine 
basis.  Leased  her  business  to  a  syndicate  and 
made  extended  European  tour.  On  her  return, 
the  syndicate  having  been  unsuccessful,  the  busi- 
ness was  put  into  a  company,  she  being  president 
and  editor  of  the  Popular  Monthly,  which 
increased  200,000  copies  in  four  months  under 
her  management.  She  severed  her  connection 
with  the  publishing  company,  and  now  devotes 
her  time  to  writing  books  and  contributing  to 
European  magazines  exclusively. 
Lesseps  {W-s^ps')^  Ferdinand,  Viscount  de,  French 
engmeer  and  diplomat,  was  bora  at  Versailles, 
1805.  He  held  various  consular  offices;  in  1854 
proposed  to  the  viceroy  of  Egypt  the  cutting  of 
the  Suez  canal,  and  completed  the  work  in  1869. 
After  its  accomplishment  he  entertained  other 
great  projects,  such  as  a  central  Asian  railroad 
and  the  conversion  of  the  Sahara  into  an  inland 
sea,  and  entered  practically  upon  the  construc- 
tion of  the  canal  across  the  isthmus  of  Panama, 
since  taken  over  by  the  United  States.  The 
sentence  of  imprisonment  pronounced  upon  him 
by  the  French  government  in  1893,  as  one  of  the 


officers  of  the  French  Panama  canal  company, 
was  never  enforced.  Until  extreme  old  age  be 
manifested  unabated  vigor.     Died,  1894. 

Lesslng  (i^-iny),  Gottbold  Ephralnu  See  page 
71. 

Leutze  {loit^-sl\  Emanuel,  Germ  an- American 
painter,  was  bom  at  Gmiind  in  Wiirttemberp, 
1816.  He  was  brought  up  in  America,  studied  m 
Europe,  1841-59,  then  settled  in  New  York. 
Among  his  works  are:  "Washington  crossing  the 
Delaware";  "Washington  at  Monmouth": 
"Landing  of  the  Norsemen":  "Cromwell  and 
his  Daughter,"  etc  Died  at  Wafihington,  D.  C, 
1868. 

Lever  (U^-vir\  Cbaries  James,  Irish  novelist,  was 
bom  at  Dublin,  1806.  He  was  graduated  at 
Trinity  college  in  that  city,  1827;  studied  medi- 
cine at  Gottmgen,  and  then  returned  to  Dublin. 
His  most  popular  work.  Charles  O'MaUey,  is  a 
reflex  of  his  own  college  life  at  Dublin,  and  many 
of  the  incidents  in  this  novel  are  no  doubt  drawn 
from  his  own  experience  in  the  world.  His  other 
notable  novels  mclude:  Harry  Lorremusr;  Con 
Cregan;  Roland  Caahel;  Lord  Kilgobbin;  Tom 
Burke  of  Ours.     He  died  at  Trieste   Italv,  1872. 

Lewea  (/u'-b),  George  Heniy,  English  philosopher 
and  critic,  was  bom  in  London,  1817.  He  was 
educated  partly  at  Greenwich  under  Dr.  Bumey. 
and  partly  in  Jersey  and  Brittany;  left  school 
early  to  enter  first  a  notary's  office,  and  then  the 
house  of  a  Russian  mercbiant.  In  1838  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Germany,  and  remained  there  nearly 
two  years,  studying  the  life,  language,  and  litera- 
ture of  the  country.  On  his  return  to  London 
be  became  a  miscellaneous  writer,  and  contributor 
afterward  to  a  dozen  journals,  reviews,  and  maga- 
zines. He  was  editor  of  the  Leader,  1849-54,  and 
of  the  Fortnightly,  which  he  himself  founded. 
1865-66.  He  was  married  unhappily  and  hau 
children  when  his  connection  with  George  Eliot 
began  in  1854 ;  it  ended  only  with  his  death  at 
their  house  in  Regent's  Park,  1878.  Lewes  was 
one  of  the  best  of  critics  and  biographers;  as 
a  popularizer  of  philoeopbjr  he  was  inferior  to 
none,  as  a  popularizer  of  science  he  was  inferior 
to  few.  His  works,  besides  a  tragedy  and  two 
novek,  include :  Biographical  History  of  Philoso- 
phy; The  Spanish  Drama;  Life  of  Robesvierre; 
Comte's  Phuosoj^y  of  the  Sciences;  Life  and 
Works  of  Goeihe;  Seaside  Studies;  Physiology  of 
Common  Life;  Studies  in  Animal  Life;  Aristotle; 
On  Actors  and  the  Art  of  Acting;  Problems  of 
Life  and  Mind. 

Lewis,  Meriwether,  American  explorer,  was  bom 
near  Charlottesville,  Va.,  1774.  He  was  a 
volunteer  at  the  time  of  the  whisky  insurrection 
of  1794,  an  ensign  in  the  regular  army  in  1795, 
and  a  captain  in  1800.  Shortly  afterward  he 
became  Jefferson's  private  secretary.  In  1803— 
06  he  was  engaged  with  Captain  WiUiam 
Clarke  in  an  expedition  to  the  Pacific  ocean,  the 
results  of  which  were  important  to  geograpnical 
science;  and  in  1807  he  was  made  governor  of 
the  territory  of  Louisiana.  He  was  subject  to 
periods  of  mental  depression,  in  one  of  which 
ne  is  said  to  have  taken  his  own  life  near  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.,  1809.  His  memoir  by  Jefferson  was 
published,  together  with  Biddle  and  Allen's 
Narrative  of  the  Lewis  and  Clarke  Expedition,  in 
1814. 

Lewis,  William  Draper,  American  educator  and 
law  writer,  dean  of  the  law  department,  univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania,  since  1896,  was  bom  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1867.  He  was  graduated  at 
Haverford,  1888;  university  of  Pennsylvania, 
LL.  B.,  Ph.  D.,  1891.  He  was  instmctor  in  le^ 
historical  institutions,  Wharton  school,  university 
of  Pennsylvania,  1891 ;  lecturer  on  economics, 
Haverford  college,  1890-96.  Author:  Federal 
Power  Over  Commerce  and  Its   Effect    on   State 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


841 


Action;  Our  Sheep  and  the  Tariff;  RestraiTit  of 
Infringement  of  Incorporeal  RiglUs;  and  numerous 
articles  on  legal,  economic,  and  historical  topics 
for  periodicals.  Editor:  Lewis's  Greenleaf's 
Evidence,  3  vols. ;  Wharton's  Criminal  Law; 
Lewis's  Blackstone's  Commentaries,  4  vols. ;  Digest 
of  Decisions  of  United  States  Supreme  Court  and 
Circuit  Court  of  Appeals;  Pepper  and  Lewis's 
Digest  of  Statutes  of  Pennsylvania,  3  vols. ;  Digest 
of  Decisions  and  Encyclopedia  of  Pennsylvania 
Laws,  etc. 

L'Hdpltal  (l6'-pe'-tdl'\  Michel  de,  French  states- 
man, was  bom  about  1507.  He  was  president  of 
the  court  of  accounts,  1554-60,  ana  afterward 
chancellor  of  France  until  1568.  He  promoted 
the  edict  of  Romorantin,  which  excluded  the 
inquisition  from  France;  the  ordinance  of 
Orleans,  an  administrative,  judicial,  and  religious 
code;  the  edict  of  pacification,  for  the  free  exer- 
cise of  Protestant  worship ;  and  the  ordinance  of 
Moulins,  to  reform  the  administration  of  justice. 
As  his  wife  and  family  had  all  become  Protes- 
tants, a  troop  was  sent  to  protect  him  at  the  time 
of  the  St.  Bartholomew  massacre.  He  died  in 
1573. 

Llddon  (lld'-un),  Henry  Parry,  English  clergyman, 
was  born  at  North  Stoneham,  Hampshire,  1829. 
He  was  graduated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
1850;  was  ordained  in  1852  as  senior  student  of 
Christ  Church;  from  1854  to  1859  was  vice- 
principal  of  Cuddesdon  theological  college,  and 
in  1864  became  a  prebendary  of  Salisbury,  in 
1870  a  canon  of  St.  Paul's,  and  Ireland  professor 
of  exegesis  at  Oxford,  until  1882.  In  1866  he 
delivered  his  Bampton  lectures  on  the  Divinity 
of  Our  Lord.  He  strongly  opposed  the  church 
discipline  act  of  1874,  and  as  warmly  supported 
Gladstone's  crusade  against  the  Bulgarian 
atrocities  in  1876.  In  1886  he  declined  the 
bishopric  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1887  visited  the 
holy  land.  Canon  Liddon  was  a  most  able 
and  eloquent  exponent  of  liberal  high  church 
principles.  He  published  several  series  of 
sermons  and  other  works.  He  died  suddenly  at 
Weston-super-Mare,  1890. 

Lieber  (Ze'-feer),  Francis,  German-American  pub- 
licist, was  born  in  Berlin,  1800.  After  suffering 
imprisonment  for  his  political  opinions,  he  came 
to  America  in  1827,  and  w^as  made  professor  of 
history  in  South  Carolina  college,  1835-56,  of 
political  economy  in  Columbia  college,  1857-60, 
and  of  political  science  in  Columbia  law  school, 
1860-72.  He  edited  the  Encydopcedia  Americana, 
and  wrote  Political  Ethics;  Civil  Liberty  and  Self- 
Government;  Guerilla  Parties,  etc.     Died,  1872. 

lilebig  (le'-blK),  Justus,  Baron  von,  German  chemist, 
was  bom  in  Darmstadt,  1803.  He  studied  at 
Bonn  and  Erlangen;  then  went  to  Paris,  and 
attracted  the  attention  of  Humboldt  by  a  paper 
on  the  fulminates.  He  was  appointed  professor 
at  Giessen  in  1824,  where  he  established  a  labora- 
tory celebrated  for  researches  in  organic  chemistry 
and  the  application  of  chemistry  to  agriculture, 
food,  etc.  Among  his  chief  works  are:  Organic 
Chemistry  in  its  Application  to  Agrictdture; 
Animal  Chemistry,  or  Chemistry  in  its  Application 
to  Physiology  and  Pathology;  Familiar  Letters 
on  Chemistry;  Dictionary  of  Chemistry,  etc.  He 
died  at  Munich,  1873. 

lil  Hung  Chang  (le'  hddng'-chdng'),  Chinese  states- 
man, was  born  in  1823,  and  studied  at  Hanlin 
college.  In  1853,  in  the  Taiping  rebellion,  he 
joined  the  imperial  army  as  secretary,  was 
app)ointed  a  provincial  judge,  and  in  1861  gov- 
ernor of  Kiangsu,  out  of  which,  in  conjunction 
with  "Chinese"  Gordon,  he  drove  the  rebels  in 
1863.  In  1864  he  was  appointed  governor- 
general  of  the  Kiang  provinces,  and  in  1872  of 
Chi-H,  and  senior  grand  secretary.  He  founded 
the  Chinese  navy  and  promoted  a  native  mercan- 


tile marine.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with 
Japan  in  1894,  Li,  in  supreme  command  of  the 
military  and  naval  forces  in  Corea,  was  thwarted 
by  the  incompetence,  dishonesty,  and  cowardice 
of  inferior  officers.  The  Chinese  forces  were 
swept  out  of  Corea,  and  Li,  whose  policy  was  that 
of  peace,  was  deprived  of  his  honors  and  sum- 
moned to  Peking.  With  this  last  command  he 
refused  to  comply,  and  the  disastrous  course  of 
events  soon  compelled  the  emperor  to  restore  him 
to  honor.  Through  his  efforts  the  war  was 
brought  to  a  termmation  in  1895,  China  ceding 
Formosa  and  paying  a  war  indemnity  of  $175,- 
000,000.  Professedly  friendly  to  foreigners,  and 
well  aware  of  the  value  of  western  culture  and 
industry,  he  visited  Russia,  Germany,  France, 
England,  and  America  in  1896.  Intriguing 
with  Russia,  he  fell  from  power  in  1898,  but  was 
later  appointed  by  the  government  with  full 
power  to  settle  tne  Boxer  troubles  with  the 
European  governments.     He  died  in  1901. 

Lincoln,  Abraham.     See  page  500. 

Lincoln,  Robert  Todd,  American  lawyer,  was  bom 
at  Springfield,  111.,  1843,  eldest  son  of  Abraham 
Lincoln.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard,  1864; 
entered  Harvard  law  school,  but  left  to  enter  the 
army,  serving  until  end  of  war  as  captain  on 
staff  of  General  Grant.  He  then  finished  his 
law  studies,  was  admitted  to  the  Illinois  bar, 
1867,  and  practiced  at  Chicago.  He  was  presi- 
dential elector,  1880;  secretary  of  war,  1881-85, 
and  United  States  minister  to  Great  Britain, 
1889-93.  He  was  special  counsel  for  and,  after 
the  death  of  George  M.  Pullman,  became  president 
of  the  Pullman  company;  resigned,  1911,  and 
became  chairman  of  board  of  directors.  He  is 
also  vice-president  of  the  Commonwealth  Edison 
company ;  director  of  Chicago  telephone  company. 
Continental  and  Commercial  national  bank, 
Pullman  trust  and  savings  bank,  etc. 

Llnd,  Jenny  (Madame  Otto  Goldschmidt),  the 
Swedish  singer,  was  born  in  Stockholm,  Sweden, 
1820.  At  three  years  of  age  she  could  sing  cor- 
rectly any  piece  she  had  once  heard,  and  at  nine 
was  placed  under  Croelius,  a  famous  teacher  of 
music.  Later  she  studied  in  Paris  and  in  1844 
went  to  Dresden,  and  afterward  to  Frankfort, 
Cologne,  Vienna,  and  London.  She  visited  New 
York  in  1850,  under  the  auspices  of  P.  T.  Bamum, 
and  was  enthusiastically  received,  but  dissolved 
the  engagement  prematurely  in  1851,  was  married 
to  M.  Otto  Goldschmidt,  a  skillful  pianist  and 
conductor,  and  retired  from  the  stage.  She  re- 
appeared in  1855,  in  1861,  in  1863,  and  in  1880 
for  a  limited  period.  She  was  professor  of 
singing  at  the  royal  college  of  music,  London, 
1883-86.  She  died  in  Wynd's  Point,  Malvern, 
England,  in  1887. 

Llndsey,  Benjamin  Barr,  jurist,  reformer,  was  bom 
in  Jackson,  Tenn.,  1869.  He  was  educated  in  the 
public  schools,  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar.  Judge  of  the  county  court  and  juvenile 
court  of  Denver,  Colo.,  since  1901.  He  is  the 
originator  of  the  juvenile  court  system,  and  has 
an  international  reputation  as  an  authority  on 
juvenile  delinquency.  In  1906  he  was  a  candi- 
date for  governor  of  Colorado.  Author:  The 
Beast  and  the  Jungle. 

Llnevicb  (ll-ii£v'-lch),  Nlcolay  Petrovlch,  Russian 
general,  was  bom  in  the  government  of  Tchemi- 
goff  in  1838.  He  served  in  the  Russo-Turkish 
war,  and  in  1900  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the 
Siberian  troops  in  Manchuria.  In  1905  he  com- 
manded the  Russian  left  at  the  battle  of  Mukden, 
in  the  Russo-Japanese  war,  and  succeeded 
General  Kuropatkm  in  the  same  year,  as  com- 
mander-in-chief in  the  far  East.      Died,  1908. 

Llngard,  John,  noted  English  historian,  was  bom 
in  Winchester,  1771.     He  studied  for  the  Roman 


842 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Catholic  priesthood,  and  took  orders  when 
twenty-four  years  old.  For  some  years  he  was 
vice-president  of  the  Roman  Catholic  college  at 
Crookhall,  near  Durham,  but  retired  to  Hornby 
in  1811.  His  greatest  work  is  the  History  oj 
England  in  10  vols.  It  has  been  translated  into 
several  languages,  and  ranks  among  the  best 
histories.  He  also  wrote  Anfiquities  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Church,  etc.  After  his  History  oJ 
England  was  published  Lingard  was  offered  a 
cardinal's  hat,  which  he  refused.  He  died  at 
Hornby,  near  Lancaster,  1851. 

Linnaeus  {ll-ne'-us),  Carolus  (Carl  von  Linn6). 
See  page  367. 

Lipton,  Sir  Thomas  Johnstone,  British  sportsman 
and  merchant,  was  bom  in  -  Glasgow,  of  Irish 
parentage,  1850.  He  started  life  as  a  retail 
merchant,  acquired  extensive  tea,  coffee,  and 
•  cocoa  estates  in  Ceylon,  and  accumulated  a 
large  fortune.  He  is  chairman  of  Lipton,  ltd., 
and  is  also  largely  interested  in  business  enter- 
prises in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  He 
is  the  owner  of  the  yachts  Erin  and  Shamrock, 
and  challenged  for  the  American  cup  1899,  1901, 
1903  and  1913.  He  founded  the  Alexandria 
trust  for  providing  the  poor  with  cheap  whole- 
some meals;  is  a  member  of  many  cluDs;  was 
knighted  in  1898,  and  created  a  baronet  in 
1902. 

Lister,  Joseph,  Lord,  English  surgeon,  was  bom  in 
Upton,  England,  1827.  He  was  graduated  at 
London  university  in  1847,  and  in  medicine,  1852. 
He  was  successively  lecturer  on  surgery.  Edin- 
burgh; regius  professor  of  surgery,  Glasgow; 
professor  of  clinical  surgery,  Edinburgh ;  pro- 
fessor of  clinical  surgery.  King's  college  hospital, 
London,  and  surgeon-extraordinary  to  Queen 
Victoria.  In  addition  to  important  observations 
on  the  coagulation  of  the  blood,  inflammation, 
etc.,  his  great  work  was  the  introduction  of  the 
antiseptic  system,  which  has  revolutionized 
modem  surgery.  He  was  president  of  the  British 
association  in  1896;  received  many  foreign 
honors,  and  was  made  a  baronet  in  1883  and  a 
peer  in  1897.     Died,  1912. 

Liszt  (list),  Franz,  noted  Hungarian  pianist  and 
composer,  was  bom  at  Raiding,  1811.  He  made 
his  first  appearance  at  a  concert  in  his  ninth 
year;  studied  under  Czemy  and  Salieri  at  Vienna, 
and  from  1839  to  1847  traveled  throughout 
Europe  as  a  virtuoso.  In  1849  he  became  con- 
ductor of  the  court  theater  at  Weimar;  in  1861 
was  made  commander  of  the  legion  of  honor,  and 
in  1865  took  orders  and  received  the  tonsure.  In 
1871  his  native  country  granted  him  a  pension  of 
600  pounds  a  year,  and  in  1875  he  was  named 
director  of  the  Hungarian  academy  of  music. 
One  of  his  two  daughters  married  Richard 
Wagner,  his  lifelong  friend.  Though  Liszt's 
fame  as  a  pianist  overshadows  his  name  as  a  com- 
poser, yet  he  was  the  creator  of  the  symphonic 
poem,  and  his  Hungarian  Rhapsodies  for  the 
piano  are  unrivaled.  He  ^ed  at  Bayreuth, 
Bavaria,  1886. 

Little,  Richard  Henry,  war  correspondent,  journal- 
ist, was  born  at  Le  Roy,  111.,  1869.  He  graduated 
at  the  Illinois  Wesleyan  college  of  law ;  practiced 
law  at  Bloomington,  111.,  one  year  and  began 
newspaper  work  on  the  Bloomington  Bulletin. 
He  was  reporter  on  the  Chicago  Tribune,  1895; 
war  correspondent  of  Chicago  Tribune  during  the 
Spanish-American  war,  in  Cuba,  and  Philippine 
islands;  was  with  Major  Marsh's  column  in 
pursuit  of  Aguinaldo  and  with  General  Bates's 
expedition  in  Sulu;  traveled  in  China  afterward, 
writing  to  the  Tribune;  went  to  Manchuria  for 
the  Lhicago  Daily  News  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Russo-Japanese  war;  in  charge  of  dispatch 
boat  i^awon  when  captured  by  Russians;  joined 
Russian  army  as  correspondent  and  was  present 


at  the  battles  of  Ping  Yang,  Liao  Yang,  Sha  ho, 
Grippenberg's  advance  on  Mukden,  etc.  Was 
captured  by  the  Japanese  after  the  battle  of 
Mukden  and  taken  to  Shidzuoka  and  interned 
in  Russian  officers'  prison  six  weeks.  On  his 
return  he  lectured  and  wrote  for  periodicals  on 
the  war.  He  was  special  writer  on  the  Chicago 
Record-Herald  several  years,  and  is  now  on 
Chicago  Tribune, 

Llttlefleld,  Charles  Edgar,  American  lawver, 
ex-congressman,  was  bom  in  Lebanon,  York 
county,  Me.,  1851.  He  received  an  academic 
education,  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  1876,  and 
rapidly  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  legal  and 
forensic  ability.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Maine 
legislature,  1885-89,  speaker,  1887-89;  attorney- 
general  of  Maine.  1889-93;  elected  to  56th  con- 
gress, 1899,  to  fill  vacancy  caused  by  the  death 
of  Nelson  W.  Dingley,  and  was  reelected  to  the 
57th,  58th,  59th,  and  60th  congresses  from 
second  Maine  district.  In  1908  be  retired  from 
conKress  and  took  up  the  practice  of  law  in  New 
YorK  city. 

Littleton,  Martin  W^  American  la^t^yer,  was  bom 
in  Roane  county,  Tenn.,  1872.  He  was  practi- 
cally self-educated  and  began  practicing  law  in 
1891.  He  was  assistant  prosecuting  attorney, 
Dallas,  Texas;  later  removed  to  Brooklyn;  was 
assistant-district  attorney  of  Kings  county  four 
years;  president  of  BrookljTi  borough,  1904-05: 
delegate  from  New  York  to  democratic  national 
convention,  1904,  presenting  name  of  Alton  B. 
Parker  for  presidential  noBunation  on  behalf  of 
state  of  New  York;  has  appeared  in  many 
famous  legal  trials.      Elected  to  congress,  1910. 

Littleton,  Sir  Thomas,  EngUsh  jurist,  was  bom  in 
Worcestershire,  England,  1402.  He  was  recorder 
of  Coventrj'  in  1450,  king's  sergeant  in  1455,  in 
1466  judge  of  common  pleas,  and  in  1475  a 
knight  of  the  bath.  His  reputation  rests  on  his 
treatise  on  Tenures,  written  in  law  French,  and 
turned  into  EngUsh  about  1500.  It  was  the  text 
that  Coke  commented  on  in  his  Coke  upon  Lit- 
tleton.    Died,  1481. 

Littr«  (U'-ir&'),  MaxlmUien  Paul  £mlle,  French 
philosopher  and  philologist,  was  born  in  Paris, 
1801.  He  studied  at  the  Lyc6e  Louis-le-Grand, 
then  graduated  in  medicine,  and  finally  turned 
to  philolo^.  His  translation  of  Hippocrates 
procured  his  election  in  1839  to  the  academy  of 
inscriptions.  He  fought  on  the  barricades  in 
1830,  was  one  of  the  principal  editors  of  the 
National  down  to  1851,  and  became  an  enthusi- 
astic follower  of  Comte.  His  La  Poisie  Homer- 
ique  et  I'Ancienne  Poisie  Franfaise  was  an 
attempt  to  render  the  first  book  of  the  Iliad  in 
the  style  of  the  Trouvferes.  In  1854  he  became 
editor  of  the  Journal  des  Savants.  His  splendid 
Dictionnaire  de  la  Langue  Franfaise  did  not 
prevent  the  academy  in  1863  from  rejecting  its 
author,  whom  Bishop  Dupanloup  denounced  as 
holding  impious  doctrines.  In  1871  Gambetta 
appointedhim  professor  of  history  and  geography 
at  the  Ecole  Polytechnique ;  he  was  chosen 
representative  of  the  Seine  department  in  the 
national  assembly;  and  in  1871  the  academy  at 
last  admitted  him.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
linguists  and  scientists  of  his  century.  Died, 
1881. 

Livingston,  Edward,  American  jurist  and  states- 
man, was  bom  at  Clermont,  N.  Y.,  1764.  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  congress  in  1794,  and 
became  federal  attorney  and  mayor  of  New  York 
in  1801.  He  joined  the  New  Orleans  bar  in  1804, 
and  speedily  acquired  a  commanding  position. 
In  the  dispute  with  England  in  1814-15  he 
became  aide-de-camp  and  secretary  to  General 
Jackson.  In  1821  he  was  appointed  to  draw  up 
a  code  of  civil  procedure  for  Louisiana.  It  was 
the  simplest  known  up  to  that  time,  and  received 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


848 


the  wannest  approval  from  Bentham  and  other 
jurists.  He  was  thereafter  United  States  senator 
for  Louisiana,  1829-31:  secretary  of  state, 
1831-33;  minister  to  France,  1833-35,  and 
supported  the  demand  of  $5,000,000  made  by 
the  United  States  government  for  indemnity  on 
account  of  French  spoUations,  and  succeeded  in 
securing  its  payment.  Died  at  his  own  estate  on 
the  Hudson,  1836. 

Livingstone,  David,  African  explorer  and  mis- 
sionary, was  bom  at  Blantyre,  in  Lanarkshire, 
Scotland,  1813.  He  worked  during  childhood 
and  youth  in  a  cotton  mill ;  was  sent  to  southern 
Africa  by  the  London  missionary  society  in  1840 ; 
resided  for  several  years  at  various  stations  near 
the  Limpopo,  discovering  Lake  Ngami  in  1849, 
and  penetrating  to  the  Makololo  country  in  1851 ; 
in  1853-54  crossed  Africa  from  the  Zambezi  to 
the  Congo,  and  in  1854—56  made  his  way  from 
Loanda  to  Quilimane,  following  the  course  of  the 
Zambezi,  and  discovering  the  Victoria  falls.  He 
returned  to  England  in  1856,  and  published 
Missionary  Travels,  1857;  returned  to  Africa  as 
consul  at  QuiUmane  in  1858;  explored  the 
country  north  of  the  Zambezi,  1858-64,  dis- 
covering Lakes  Shirwa  and  Nyassa,  and  in  1865 
published  a  narrative  of  the  journey.  He  under- 
took his  third  expedition  in  1866,  and  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life  endeavoring  to  ascertain 
whether  the  Nile  flowed  from  the  water-system 
west  of  Lake  Tanganyika.  In  1871  he  was 
found  bv  Stanlev  at  Ujiji.  He  died  in  central 
Africa,  1873. 

LIvy,  or  Titus  Livius,  Roman  historian,  was  born 
at  Patavium  (Padua),  in  the  north  of  Italy,  59 
B.  C.  He  was  the  most  eminent  of  the  Roman 
historians,  distinguished  for  the  animation  of  his 
narrative  and  for  the  purity  of  his  style,  though 
not  for  the  reliability  of  his  historical  statements. 
His  history  of  Rome  was  written  partly  at  Rome 
and  partly  at  Naples,  under  the  patronage  of  the 
emperor  Augustus.  It  consisted  originally  of 
142  books;  but  of  these  only  thirty-five  have 
come  down  to  us  and  some  of  these  in  a  very 
imperfect  state.  Of  all  but  two,  however,  we 
possess  fragments,  with  short  epitomes  from 
another  hand.  The  history,  or  as  it  was  called 
by  its  author,  Tfie  Annals  of  the  Roman  People, 
begins  with  the  foundation  of  the  city,  and  ends 
with  the  death  of  Drusus,  the  younger  brother  of 
the  emperor  Tiberius,  9  B.  C.     Died,  17  A.  D. 

Lloyd-George,  David,  English  statesman,  chancel- 
lor of  the  exchequer  since  1908,  was  born  in  Man- 
chester in  1863.  He  was  educated  at  Llan- 
ystymdwy  church  school  and  privately.  He 
became  solicitor  in  1884.  Member  of  parliament 
since  1890.  From  1905  to  1908  he  was  president 
of  the  board  of  trade.  In  1906  his  settlement  of 
the  railway  dispute  was  generally  applauded.  He 
was  the  author  of  the  old  age  pension  law  of  1908 
and  the  insurance  act  of  1912  insuring  working 
people  against  illness  or  disability;  he  strongly 
supported  the  minimum  wage  law  of  1912  which 
settled  by  intervention  of  the  government  the 
great  coal  strike  involving  a  million  miners. 

Locke,  George  Herbert,  Canadian  educator,  pro- 
fessor of  education  and  dean  of  training  school 
for  teachers,  Macdonald  college,  McGill  univer- 
sity, Montreal,  Canada,  1907-08,  was  bom  in 
Ontario,  Canada,  1870.  He  was  educated  at 
Victoria  college,  university  of  Toronto,  and 
university  of  Chicago;  was  lecturer  in  Greek  and 
ancient  history,  Victoria  college,  university  of 
Toronto,  1893-94;  fellow  in  education,  university 
of  Chicago,  1895-96;  instructor  in  history  and 
art  of  teaching.  Harvard  university  and  Rad- 
cliffe  college,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1897-99;  asso- 
ciate professor  of  education,  university  of 
Chicago,  1899-1905 ;  dean  of  college  of  education. 


1903-06;  editor  of  The  Scfiool  Review,  1900-06; 
in  editorial  department  of  Ginn  and  Company, 
Boston,  1906-07:  associate  editor  of  The  Quar- 
terly Journal  of  Pedagogy,  1907.  He  is  the 
author  of  many  contributions  to  educational 
periodicals,  notably  The  School  Review  during 
the  six  years  as  editor. 

Locke,  Jolm.     See  page  295. 

Lockbart,  John  Gibson,  Scottish  biographer,  waa 
bom  in  Scotland,  1794.  He  was  graduated  at 
Oxford,  studied  law  at  Edinburgli,  and  waa 
admitted  to  the  Scottish  bar  in  1816.  He  early, 
•however,  adopted  the  profession  of  letters.  He 
and  John  Wilson  were  long  the  chief  supporters 
of  Blackwood's  Magazine.  It  was  this  connection 
which  led  to  his  acquaintance  with  Sir  Walter 
Scott.  In  1820  he  married  Sophia  Scott,  eldest 
daughter  of  Sir  Walter.  After  the  publication 
of  other  works,  and  from  1836-38.  appeared  his 
Life  of  Scott,  a  production  of  undouDted  merit, 
which  has  given  rise  to  much  bitter  contro- 
versy. In  1837  his  wife  died,  having  been  pre- 
deceased by  their  eldest  son  Hugh.  His  second 
son  died  at  a  later  period.  In  1843  Lockhart  was 
appointed  auditor  of  the  duchy  of  Cornwall.  He 
died  in  1854. 

Loclcwood,  Belva  Ann  Bennett,  American  lawyer, 
was  born  in  Royalton,  N.  Y.,  1830,  daughter  of 
Lewis  Johnson  Bennett.  She  waa  graduated  at 
Genesee  college,  Lima,  N.  Y.,  1857.  She 
then  studied  law  in  Washington  and  graduated 
at  the  National  university  law  school,  1873; 
was  admitted  to  District  of  Columbia  bar; 
secured  passage  of  a  bill  admitting  women  to 
United  States  supreme  court,  1879,  and  was 
herself  admitted  under  it  the  same  year.  She 
has  been  engaged  in  many  important  law  cases, 
several  before  the  United  States  supreme  court. 
She  has  also  been  prominent  in  temperance, 
peace,  and  woman  suffrage  movements;  waa 
nominated,  1884  and  1888,  ty  equal  rights  party 
for  president  of  the  United  States ;  commissioned 
by  state  -department  to  represent  United  States 
at  congress  of  charities  ana  corrections,  Geneva. 
Switzerland,  1896;  one  of  committee  appointed 
by  federation  of  women's  clubs  which  secured 
law  giving  equal  property  rights  for  women  and 
equal  guardianship  of  their  children  in  District 
of  Columbia.  She  has  been  a  prolific  writer  on 
peace  and  arbitration  and  on  political  and  social 
subjects. 

Lockyer  (Idk'-ySr),  Sir  Joseph  Norman,  English 
astronomer,  director  of  Solar  physics  observatory, 
South  Kensington,  was  bom  at  Rugby,  1836.  He 
became  a  clerk  in  the  war  office,  1857;  in  1869 
was  made  a  fellow  of  the  royal  society;  in  1870 
lecturer  on  astronomy  at  the  normal  school  of 
science  at  South  Kensington;  in  1894  a  C.  B., 
and  in  1897  a  K.  C.  B.  President  of  British 
Association  for  advancement  of  science,  1903-04. 
He  headed  eclipse  expeditions  to  Sicily,  India, 
Egj^pt,  and  the  West  Indies.  He  has  written 
Elementary  Lessons  in  Astronomy;  Contributions 
to  Solar  Physics;  The  Spectroscope;  Star-Gazing; 
The  Chemistry  of  the  Sun;  The  Dawn  of  Astrortr- 
omy,  etc.,  and  is  editor  of  Nature. 

Lodge,  Henry  Calxtt,  American  author,  statesman, 
was  bom  in  Boston,  Mass.,  1850.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  Harvard  college,  1871;  from  Harvard 
law  school  in  1874, was  admitted  to  the  Suffolk  bar 
in  1876,  and  received  the  degree  of  Ph.  D.  from 
Harvard  university  for  his  thesis  on  The  Land 
Law  of  the  Anglo-Saxons;  LL.  D.,  Williams,  1893, 
Clark  university,  Yale,  1902,  Harvard,  1904.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  legislature, 
1880  and  1881;  placed  Thomas  B.  Reed  in  nomi- 
nation for  presidency,  1896 ;  was  member  of  Alas- 
kan boundary  commission ;  editor  North  American 
Review,  1873-76 ;  university  lecturer  on  American 
history,  Harvard,   1876-79,  and  lecturer  before 


844 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Lowell  institute,  Boston,  1880.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  congress,  6th  Massachusetts  district, 
1887-93,  and  United  States  senator  since  1893; 
present  term  expires  1917.  Editor:  Ballads  and 
Lyrics;  Complete  Works  of  Alexander  Hamilton, 
9  vols.  Author:  Life  and  Letters  of  George 
Cabot;  Short  History  of  the  English  Colonies  in 
America;  Idfe  of  Daniel  Webster;  Studies  in 
History;  Life  of  Washington,  2  vols. ;  History  of 
Boston,  in  Historic  Towns  series;  Historical  arid. 
Political  Essays;  Speeches;  Hero  Tales  from 
American  History,  with  Theodore  Roosevelt; 
Certain  Accepted  Heroes  and  Other  Essays  in 
Literature  and  Politics;  Story  of  the  Revolution, 
2  vols. ;  Story  of  the  Spanish  War;  A  Fighting 
Frigate  and  Other  Essays;  A  Frontier  Tovm  and 
Other  Essays,  etc. 
Lodge,   Sir  Oliver  Joseph,    British   educator  and 

Ehysicist,  principal  of  the  university  of  Birming- 
am  since  1900,  was  born  at  PenkhuU,  Stafford- 
shire, 1851.  He  was  graduated  at  Universitv 
college,  London;  D.  Sc,  London,  Oxfora, 
Victoria,  and  Liverpool;  LL.  D.,  St.  Andrews, 
Glasgow,  and  Aberdeen.  Was  professor  of 
physics,  University  college,  Liverpool,  1881- 
1900;  Rumford  medallist  of  the  royal  society, 
1898 ;  Romanes  lecturer  at  Oxford,  1903.  Author : 
Elementary  Mechanics;  Modern  Views  of  Elec- 
tricity; Pioneers  of  Science;  Signalling  Without 
Wires;  Lightning  Conductors  and  Lightning 
Guards;  School  Teaching  and  Sc?ux>l  Reform; 
Easy  Mathematics  for  Parents  and  Teachers; 
Life  and  Matter;  Electrons;  The  Substance  of 
Faith;  Ministers  and  Stewards;  Man  and  the 
Universe,  etc. 

Loeb  (lob),  Jacques,  German-American  phjyBioIo- 
gist,  head  department  of  experimental  biology, 
Rockefeller  institute  for  meaical  research,  since 
1910,  was  born  in  Germany,  1859.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Berlin,  Munich,  and  Strassburg; 
M.  D.,  Strassburg,  1884;  was  state  examiner, 
Strassburg,  1885;  assistant  in  physiology,  uni- 
versity of  Wiirzburg,  1886-88 ;  same,  university 
of  Strassburg,  1888-90 ;  biological  station,  Naples, 
1889-91;  associate  in  biology,  Bryn  Mawr,  1891- 
92 ;  assistant  professor  of  physiology  and  experi- 
mental biology,  1892-95,  associate  professor, 
1895-1900,  professor,  1900-02,  university  of 
Chicago;  professor  of  physiology,  university  of 
California,  1902-10.  Author:  The  Heliotropism 
of  Animals  and  Its  Identity  vnth  the  Helio- 
tropism of  Plants;  Physiological  Morphology; 
Comparative  Physiology  of  the  Brain  and  Com- 
parative Psychology;  Studies  in  General  Physi- 
ology, etc. 

Logan,  John  Alexander,  American  soldier,  was  bom 
in  Illinois,  1826.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1852,  and  was  elected 
to  congress  as  a  democrat  in  1858.  He  raised  an 
Illinois  regiment  in  the  civil  war,  and  retired  at 
its  close  as  major-general.  He  returned  to  con- 
gress as  a  republican  in  1866,  was  United  States 
senator  from  Illinois,  1871-77  and  1879-86.  He 
was  nominated  for  the  vice-presidency  in  1884, 
but  was  defeated  with  the  rest  of  the  Blaine  ticket. 
Died,  1886. 

Lombroso  (lom-bro'-zo),  Cesare,  famous  Italian 
ahenist  and  criminologist,  was  bom  at  Verona, 
t}^'  ^^^6.  He  was  educated  at  the  university 
of  Turin,  became  professor  of  mental  diseases  at 
the  university  of  Pavia,  1862,  and  finally  pro- 
^or  of  forensic  medicine  and  psychiatry  at 
lurm.  Lombroso  was  the  author  of  many 
books  on  his  special  subject,  particularly  the 
pathology  of  genius,  and  his  investigations-  of 
msanity  and  criminology  led  the  way  to  great 
reforms  m  the  treatment  of  these  classes  in 
i^urope  and  elsewhere.  He  was  also  a  noted 
hnguist  and  a  keen  student  of  the  occult.  He 
visited  England  m  1908,  and  died  in  1909 


London,  Bishop  of.     See  Ingram,  A.  F.  W. 

London,  Jack,  American  author  and  socialistic 
lecturer,  was  bom  in  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  1876. 
He  was  educated  at  Oakland  high  school  and  the 
university  of  California.  He  left  college  to  go  to 
the  Klondike  and  never  completed  has  course; 
went  to  sea  before  the  mast,  1892;  went  to 
Japan  and  seal  hunting  in  Bering  sea,  1893: 
tramped  throughout  the  United  States  ana 
Canada  for  sociological  and  economic  study, 
1894,  and  has  traveled  widely  at  various  times. 
Author:  The  Son  of  the  Wolf;  The  God  of  Hia 
Fathers;  A  Daxwhter  of  the  Snows;  The  Children 
of  the  Frost;  The  Cruise  of  the  Dazzler;  The 
People  of  the  Abyss;  Kempton-Wace  Letters; 
The  CaU  of  the  WUd;  The  Faith  of  Men;  The 
Sea  Wclf;  The  Game;  Wax  of  the  Classes;  Tales 
of  the  Fish  Patrol;  White  Fang;  Before  Adam; 
Love  of  Life;  The  Iron  Heel;  The  Road;  Martin 
Eden,  etc.  He  is  also  a  frequent  contributor  to 
magazines. 

Long,  GeoFKe,  English  scholar,  was  bom  at  Poulton, 
Lancashire,  England,  1800.  He  was  graduated 
at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  1822,  and  in  1823 
was  made  fellow  over  Macaulay's  head.  In 
1824  he  became  professor  of  ancient  languages  at 
the  university  of  Virginia,  Charlottesville,  Va., 
and  in  1828  of  Greek  in  London  university.  Sub- 
sequently he  was  professor  of  Latin  at  University 
coliege,  London,  1842—40,  reader  in  jurisprudence 
to  the  Middle  Temple,  184(>-49,  and  classical 
lecturer  at  Brighton  college,  1849-71.  His  great 
work  was  the  editing  of  the  Penny  Cyclopcedia. 
He  died  at  Portfield,  Chichester,  1879. 

Long,  John  Davis,  American  lawyer  and  publicist, 
was  bom  at  Buckfield,  Me.,  1838.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard,  1857;  LL.  D.,  Harvard, 
1880;  studied  law  in  Harvard  law  school  and 
private  law  offices,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
1861.  He  practiced  at  Buckfield,  Me.,  1861-62, 
and  since  then  at  Boston,  Mass. ;  was  a  member 
of  the  Massachusetts  legislature,  1875-78; 
speaker,  1876-78;  lieutenant-governor  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, 1879;  governor,  1880-82;  member 
of  congress,  2d  Massachusetts  district,  1883-89, 
declined  renomination,  1888;  was  for  several 
years  on  statehouse  construction  commission  of 
Massachusetts,  and  secretary  of  the  United  States 
navy,  1897-lflk)2.  Is  now  senior  member  of  the 
law  firm  of  Long  and  Hemenway,  Boston,  and 
president  of  the  board  of  overseers  of  Har- 
vard college.  Author:  After-Dinner  and  Other 
Speeches;  The  Rejmblican  Party  —  Its  History, 
Principles  and  Policies;  The  New  American  Navy, 
2  vols. ;   and  also  a  translation  of  Virgil's  ^neid. 

Long,  John  Luther,  lawyer,  author,  was  bom  in 
Pennsvlvania,  1861.  He  studied  law.  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Pennsylvania  bar,  traveled  exten- 
sively, and  about  1898  turned  to  dramatic  writing. 
Author:  Madam.  Butterfly;  Miss  Cherry-Blossom 
of  Tdkyd;  The  Fox-Woman;  The  Prince  of 
Illusion;  Naughty  Nan;  Heimweh,  and  Other 
Stories;  Billy  Boy;   The  Way  of  the  Gods,  etc. 

Longfellow,  Henry  Wadsworth,  distinguished 
American  poet,  was  bom  in  Portland,  Me.,  1807, 
at  which  period  Maine  formed  part  of  the  com- 
monwealth of  Massachusetts.  He  was  graduated 
in  1825  from  Bowdoin  college,  when  but  eighteen 
years  old,  and  began  his  poetical  career  while  he 
was  in  college.  When  nineteen  he  was  made 
professor  of  modem  languages  and  literature  in 
Bowdoin  college,  and  passed  the  next  three  years 
in  Europe,  preparing  himself  for  his  professional 
duties.  That  time  was  spent  in  Germany,  France, 
Spain,  and  Italy.  He  then  held  the  chair  to 
which  he  had  been  appointed  from  1830  until 
1835.  During  this  period  he  wrote  for  the  North 
American  Review,  and  translated  the  Coplas  de 
Manrique,  a  most  perfect  production.  His  suc- 
cess with  the  Coplas  de  Manrique  placed  him,  at 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


846 


the  age  of  twenty-six,  in  the  front  rank  of  great 
living  poets.  Outre-Mer:  A  Pilgrimage  beyond 
the  Sea,  came  out  two  years  later,  and  after  its 
publication  he  was  appointed  to  the  professor- 
ship of  modem  languages  and  belles-letters  in 
Harvard  college,  succeeding  George  Ticknor. 
He  again  visited  Europe,  where  he  remained  a 
year,  traveling  in  Germany,  Switzerland,  Holland, 
Belgium,  Sweden,  and  Denmark.  He  began  his 
official  duties  at  Cambridge  in  1836,  and  held  the 
professorship  until  1854,  when  he  resigned. 
Meantime  his  career  as  an  author  went  steadily 
on.  Hyperion  was  published  in  1839,  and  became 
immediately  popular;  in  the  same  year  appeared 
Voices  of  the  Night.  Ballads  and  Other  Poems 
dates  from  1841.  The  Spanish  Student  was  pub- 
lished in  1843,  and  in  1845  he  prepared  Poets  and 
Poetry  of  Europe,  a  critical  compilation.  Then 
came  The  Belfry  of  Bruges,  and  other  Poems,  in 
1846,  and  Evangeline  in  1847,  which  is  commonly 
held  to  be  his  greatest  production.  His  novel, 
Kavanagh,  appeared  in  1849,  and  The  Seaside 
and  tfie  Fireside,  in  1850.  The  Golden  Legend 
has  the  date  of  1851.  Four  years  passed,  and  in 
1855  he  published  l^he  Song  of  Hiawatha,  said  to 
have  had  the  largest  sale  of  any  of  his  poems. 
Three  years  later,  in  1858,  The  Courtship  of 
Miles  Standish  met  with  the  applause  it  deserved. 
Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn  appeared  in  1863,  Flower- 
de-Luce  in  1867,  and  New  England  Tragedies  in 
1868.  The  publication  of  his  translation  of 
Dante's  Divine  Comedy  took  place  in  1867-70, 
and  filled  three  superb  and  massive  volumes. 
His  Three  Books  of  Song  appeared  in  1872,  The 
Hanging  of  the  Crane  in  1874,  and  Morituri 
Salidamus  in  1875.  In  1869  he  received  the 
degree  of  D.  C.  L.  from  Oxford  university,  and  in 
1874  a  large  complimentary  vote  for  the  lord  rec- 
torship of  the  university  of  Edinburgh.  Died,  1882. 

Longford,  Joseph  Henry,  British  scholar,  professor 
of  Japanese,  King's  college,  London,  since  1903, 
was  bom  in  1849,  in  County  Dublin,  Ireland. 
He  was  graduated  at  Queen's  college,  Belfast, 
Ireland,  entered  the  British  consular  service  in 
Japan  as  student  interpreter,  1869,  and  was 
subsequently  called  to  the  British  bar.  He 
served  for  thirty-three  years,  traveling  during 
this  period  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Japanese 
empire,  from  the  Kurile  islands  in  the  extreme 
north  to  Formosa  in  the  extreme  south,  and  was 
successively  consul  and  judge  of  consular  courts 
at  Tokyo,  Hiogo,  Hakodate,  Tainan,  Tamsui,  and 
Nagasaki.  He  retired  on  a  pension  in  1902. 
Author:  Penal  Code  of  Japan;  many  contribu- 
tions to  the  transactions  of  the  Asiatic  society  of 
Japan,  and  on  Japanese  subjects  to  the  Quarterly 
and  National  reviews,  the  Nineteenth  Century,  and 
other  journals. 

Longlnus  (I6n-fl'-nus),  Dionysius  Casslus,  one  of 
the  greatest  of  Greek  critics  and  philosophers, 
flourished  during  the  third  century.  After 
founding  a  celebrated  school  of  rhetoric  and 
Platonic  philosophy  at  Athens,  he  resorted  to  the 
court  of  Zenobia,  the  famous  queen  of  Palmyra, 
where  he  acted  as  her  chief  adviser  during  the 
war  carried  on  'against  Aurelian.  After  the 
latter  had  triumphed,  he  put  Longinus  to  death, 
273  A.  D.  The  only  work  of  this  eminent 
writer  which  has  been  preserved  is  the  celebrated 
treatise  On  the  Sublime. 

Longstreet,  James,  American  general,  was  bom  in 
South  Carolina,  1821.  He  was  graduated  at 
West  Point,  1842,  and  was  on  duty  on  the 
Mexican  frontier  until  1846;  took  part  in  the 
Mexican  war,  1846-48,  where  he  was  wounded; 
attained  the  rank  of  captain  and  a  major's 
brevet;  served  subsequently  in  Texas  and  as 
paymaster  in  the  United  States  army,  being 
promoted  major  on  the  staflf  in  1858.  He 
resigned  his  commission  to  take  part  with  the 


South  in  the  civil  war,  1861;  commanded  the 
fourth  brigade  of  Beauregard's  first  corps,  near 
Centerville,  and  was  present  at  the  isattle  of  Bull 
Run,  1861.  In  1862  he  was  made  major-general, 
and  after  the  battle  of  Fredericksburg,  1862, 
Longstreet  was  promoted  to  the  command  of  a 
corns,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  battle  of  Gettysburg, 
July  lst-3d,  in  the  campaign  of  the  Wilderness, 
May  lst-6th,  and  was  severely  wounded,  but 
recovered  in  time  to  take  command  of  his  corps 
during  the  siege  of  Petersburg.  He  surrendered 
with  General  Lee  in  April,  1865.  After  the  war 
General  Longstreet  acted  zealously  for  the 
restoration  of  harmony  between  the  two  sections. 
He  made  New  Orleans  his  residence,  and,  having 
been  amnestied  by  President  Johnson,  he  was 
so  cordial  toward  the  administration  that 
President  Grant  appointed  him  surveyor  of  the 
port  of  New  Orleans.  In  1875  he  took  up  his 
residence  in  Georgia,  and  in  1880  was  sent  as 
minister  to  Turkey,  where  he  remained  until 
1881.  He  was  United  States  marshal  for  the 
northern  district  of  Georgia,  1881-84;  and 
United  States  railroad  commissioner  from  1898 
until  his  death  in  1904. 

Liongworth,  Nicholas,  congressman,  capitalist,  was 
born  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1869.  He  was  graduated 
at  Harvard,  1891,  student  Harvard  law  school, 
1893,  LL.  B.,  Cincinnati  law  school,  1894,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  the  same  year.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  board  of  education,  Cin- 
cinnati, 1898;  Ohio  house  of  representatives, 
1899-1901,  Ohio  senate,  1901-03,  and  member 
of  congress,  1st  Ohio  district,  1903-13.  In  1906 
he  married  Miss  Alice  Roosevelt,  daughter  of 
ex-President  Roosevelt,  at  the  White  House, 
Washington.  He  inherited  a  large  estate  from 
his  father.  Judge  Nicholas  Longworth. 

Loomis,  EUas,  American  mathematician  and 
physicist,  was  born  in  Connecticut,  1811,  and 
was  graduated  from  Yale  college  in  1830.  He 
was  tutor  there  from  1833  to  1836;  was  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy 
in  Western  Reserve  college,  Ohio,  1837—44- 
professor  in  New  York  university,  1844-60;  and 
in  1860  was  appointed  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  and  astronomy  in  Yale  college.  He 
published  a  series  of  text  books  embracing  the 
whole  range  of  mathematics,  natural  philosophy, 
astronomy  and  meteorology.  These  books 
attained  an  aggregate  circulation  of  over  half  a 
million  copies.  His  Treatise  on  Analytical 
Geometry  and  Calculus  has  been  translated  into 
the  Chinese  language,  and  his  Treatise  on  Meteor- 
ology into  Arabic.  His  scientific  papers  embrace 
the  various  departments  of  meteorology,  the 
phenomena  of  auroral  exhibitions  and  atmos- 
pheric electricity,  territorial  magnetism,  astro- 
nomical observations,  shooting-stars,  solar-spots, 
etc.  He  was  a  member  of  the  principal  scientific 
societies  of  the  United  States  and  also  of  several 
scientific  academies  of  Europe.     Died,  1889. 

Lope  de  Vega  (Id'-pd  da  vd'-gd),  Felix.     See  Vega. 

Lorenz  (lO'-rSnts),  Adolf,  Austrian  surgeon,  surgeon- 
in-chief  of  the  orthopedic  department  in  the 
imperial  royal  general  hospital,  Vienna,  was  born 
in  Silesia,  1854.  He  was  graduated  at  Vienna 
university,  M.  D.,  1880;  was  docent  of  general 
surgery,  1885;  professor  of  general  surgery  in 
Vienna  university  since  1889.  He  is  especially 
famous  for  his  bloodless  methods  in  orthopedic 
surgery,  and  has  taught  the  cure  of  hij)-deformi- 
ties  and  all  forms  of  club  foot  in  a  rapid  bloodless 
way,  without  bone  resections.  In  the  same  way 
he  taught  the  cure  of  congenital  dislocation  of  the 
hip  joints  by  reducing  the  dislocated  head  of  the 
femur  without  opening  the  joint  and  without 
deepening  the  socket.  In  1895  he  published  a 
treatise   on   Didocation  of  the  Hip  which   has 


846 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


received  wide  scientific  approval.  He  visited  the 
United  States  in  1902. 

Lorenzo  de'  Medici.     See  Medici. 

Lorimer  (Idr'-i-mer),  George  Horace,  American 
journalist  and  writer,  editor-in-chief  of  the 
Saturday  Evening  Post  since  1899,  was  bom  in 
Louisville,  Ky.,  1868.  He  pursued  a  college 
course  at  Colby  and  Yale,  and  immediately 
entered  upon  a  journalistic  career.  Author: 
Letters  from  a  Self-Made  Merchant  to  His  Son; 
Old  Gorgon  Graham;  The  False  Gods;  Jack 
Spurlock  —  Prodigal,  etc. 

Lorimer,  Wiiiiam,  United  States  senator  from 
Illinois,  contractor,  was  bom  in  Manchester, 
England,  1861.  When  five  years  old  he  carne 
with  his  parents  to  the  United  States,  and  in 
1870  settfcd  in  Chicago.  At  ten  he  became  a 
sign-painter's  apprentice;  later  worked  in  pack- 
ing houses  and  for  a  street  railroad  company; 
entered  real  estate  business,  1886,  and  later 
became  a  member  of  the  firm  of  Murphy  and 
Lorimer  in  building  and  brick  manufacturing 
business.  He  is  now  a  member  of  the  firm  of 
Lorimer  and  Gallagher,  contractors.  He  was 
superintendent  of  water-main  extensions  and 
later  superintendent  of  water  department  for  the 
city  of  Chicago;  defeated  for  clerk  of  superior 
court,  1892;  member  of  congress,  1895-1901, 
2d  Illinois  district,  and  1903-09,  6th  district; 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  senate,  1909. 
Expelled  from  the  senate,  1912. 

Lossing  {I5s'-ln^),  Benson  John,  watchmaker; 
wood-carver,  journalist,  editor,  and  historian, 
was  born  in  Dutchess  county,  N.  Y.,  1813.  He 
edited  some  magazines  and  prepared  several 
illustrated  works,  among  which  are  an  Ottdine 
History  of  the  Fine  Arts,  Lives  of  the  Signers  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and  Pictorial 
Field-Book  of  the  Revolution.  The  last  is  the 
result  of  journeys  to  every  place  of  note  in  con- 
nection with  the  American  war  for  independence. 
Its  popularity  caused  the  author  afterward  to 
prepare  along  similar  lines  the  Pictorial  Field- 
Book  of  the  War  of  1812.  He  also  published  a 
History  of  the  United  States,  The  Civil  War  in 
America,  several  biographies  of  distinguished 
Americans,  and  a  Cyclopedia  of  United  States 
History.     Died,  1891. 

Lotze  (lof-se),  Budolf  Hermann,  German  philoso- 
pher, was  born  in  Bautzen,  Saxony,  1817.  He 
was  educated  at  Leipzig,  where  he  studied 
medicine  and  philosophy,  and  was  appointed  to 
a  professorship  there  in  1842.  From  1844  to 
1881  he  occupied  the  chair  of  philosophy  at 
Gottingen,  and  in  the  latter  year  was  transferred 
to  the  university  of  Berlin.  He  ranks  among 
the  first  metaphysicians,  and  gave  a  strong 
impulse  to  the  development  of  physiologic^ 
psychology.  Among  his  works  are:  Meta- 
physics; Universal  Pathology;  Logic;  Chi  the 
Idea  of  Beauty;  Medical  Psychology;  Micro- 
cosmus;  Ideas  for  a  History  of  Nature;  Humanity, 
and  System  of  Philosophy.     Died  in  Berlin,  1881. 

Loubet  (loo'-b&'),  Emlle,  French  statesman,  ex-presi- 
dent of  France,  was  born  at  Marsanne,  in  the 
department  of  the  Dr6me,  1838.  He  became 
a  barrister,  practicing  at  Mont^limar,  and 
steadily  rose  step  by  step  from  the  municipal 
council  of  Mont61imar  to  the  presidency.  He 
was  mayor  of  Mont^limar,  1870;  member  of  the 
house  of  deputies,  1876;  senator  of  France,  1885; 
minister  for  public  works,  1887;  prime  minister, 
1892;  and  elected  president  of  the  senate,  1895. 
It  was  the  Panama  affair  which  caused  the  fall  of 
his  ministry,  but  he  was  in  no  way  implicated. 
As  president  of  the  senate  he  was  kept  more  or 
less  outside  of  parties,  though  he  was  known  to  be 
a  moderate  with  radical  tendencies.  On  the 
sudden  death  of  President  Faure,  in  1899,  he  was 
elected  by  a  large  majority  to  succeed  him,  and 


held  office  until  1906.  His  uprightness,  patriot- 
ism, and  simplicity  of  demeanor  made  him  the 
most  popular  president  France  has  ever  had. 
He  was  visited  at  Paris  by  the  king  of  Sweden, 
the  queen-dowager  and  queen  of  Holland,  the 
king  of  Belgium,  the  king  of  Greece,  the  czar  and 
czarina,  the  king  of  Portugal,  the  king  and  queen 
of  Italy,  the  king  of  Spain,  and  King  Edward 
VII.;  he  himself  paid  visits  to  the  czar  at  St. 
Petersburg,  to  King  Edward  V'll.  at  Windsor, 
and  to  the  kings  of  Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal. 

Louis  IX.  (Fr.,  Isb'-e'),  or  Saint  Louis,  of  France, 
was  born  in  Poissy,  1215,  and  succeeded  his 
father,  Louis  VIII.,  in  1226.  When  he  attained 
his  majority  he  became  involved  in  a  war 
with  Henry  III.  of  England,  and  defeated 
the  English  at  Taillebourg,  at  Saintes,  and  at 
Blaye,  1242.  During  a  dangerous  illness  he 
made  a  vow  that  if  he  recovered  he  would  go  in 
person  as  a  crusader,  and  accordingly,  having 
appointed  his  mother  regent,  he  sailed  in  1248 
with  40.000  men  to  Cyprus  whence,  in  the  fol- 
lowing spring,  he  proceeded  to  Egypt,  thinking 
by  the  conquest  of  that  country  to  open  the  way 
to  Palestine.  He  took  Damietta,  but  was  after- 
ward defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  the  Moham- 
medans. A  ransom  of  100,000  marks  of  silver 
procured  his  release  in  1250,  with  the  relics  of  his 
army.  He  proceeded  by  sea  to  Acre,  and 
remained  in  Palestine  until  the  death  of  his 
motlker,  in  1252,  compelled  his  return  to  France. 
A  co<le  of  laws  was  brought  into  use,  known  as  the 
EtabliasemerUs  de  St.  Louis.  He  embarked  on  a 
new  crusade,  1270,  and  proceeded  to  Tunis;  but 
&  pestilence  breaking  out  in  the  French  camp 
carried  off  the  greater  part  of  the  armv  and  the 
king  himself.     Died,  1270. 

Louis  Xn.  of  France,  son  of  Charles,  duke  of 
Orleans,  was  bom  in  1462.  and  succeeded  Charles 
VIII.  in  1498.  He  laid  claim  to  the  kingdom  of 
Naples  and  the  duchy  of  Milan.  In  1499  he 
invaded  Italy,  and  gained  possj'ssion  of  Milan. 
With  the  assistance  of  Ferdinand  of  Aragon,  he 
conquered  Naples  in  1500,  but,  having  quarreled 
with  his  ally,  was  expelled  in  1503.  In  1508  he 
united  with  Ferdinand,  Pope  Julius  II.,  and  the 
emperor  in  the  league  of  Cambrai  against  the 
Venetians.  In  1511  Ferdinand  joined  Julius 
in  the  holy  league  against  the  French,  who  were 
finally  driven  out  of  Italy  by  means  of  the  Swiss 
in  1513.  In  the  same  j-ear  Henry  VIII.  invaded 
France,  and  was  successful  at  Guinegate.  In 
1499  Louis  married  Anne,  duchess  of  Brittany, 
widow  of  Charles  VIII.  By  his  good  government 
he  earned  the  title  of  "father  of  his  people." 
Died,  1515. 

Louis  XIIIm  king  of  France,  was  bom  at  Fontaine- 
bleau,  1601.  When  his  father,  Henry  IV.,  was 
assassinated  in  1610,  he  succeeded  to  the  throne, 
but  his  mother,  Marie  de'  Medici,  was  regent 
during  his  youth.  The  Huguenots  rose  against 
her  alliances  with  the  pope  and  Spain,  but  con- 
cluded a  peace  in  1614.  When  the  king  was 
declared  of  age,  he  confirmed  the  edict  of  Nantes, 
and  summoned  the  states-general  for  the  last 
time  until  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI.  By  some 
concessions  to  the  Catholics,  a  religious  war  was 
provoked,  which  ended  in  1622.  Under  the 
guidance  of  his  great  minister,  Richelieu,  the  king 
gradually  increased  the  power  of  the  monarchy, 
at  the  expense  of  the  Protestant  nobles,  ending 
in  the  overthrow  of  the  Huguenots  bv  the  cap- 
ture of  La  Rochelle  in  1628.  In  the  thirty 
years'  war  Louis  sided  with  Gustavus  Adolphus 
against  Spain  and  Austria.  His  possession  of 
Alsace  and  Roussillon  was  confirmed  in  the  next 
reign.     Died,  1643. 

Louis  XIV.,  king  of  France,  1643-1715,  was  born 
in  1638.  He  was  the  son  and  successor  of  Louis 
XIII.,  the  first  years  of  his  reign  being  under  the 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


847 


regency  of  his  mother,  who  was  guided  in  all 
matters  of  state  by  her  favorite,  Cardinal  Mazarin. 
He  inherited  from  his  father  the  war  with  Spain, 
and  this  was  followed  by  the  civil  war  of  the 
Fronde,  which  lasted  from  1648  to  1653.  During 
the  life  of  Mazarin,  Louis  interfered  little  in 
public  affairs;  but,  after  the  death  of  that 
minister,  in  1661,  he  resolved  to  become  his  own 
minister.  He  changed  the  feudal  monarchy  of 
France  into  an  absolute  one,  and  his  favorite 
motto,  L'Hat  c'est  mot,  "I  am  the  state,"  was  at 
once  the  expression  of  the  ruling  principles  of  his 
life,  and  a  description  of  his  policy.  He  had 
several  disputes  with  the  court  of  Rome,  in  which 
he  treated  the  pope  with  great  asperity ;  though, 
in  the  later  years  of  his  life,  he  became  very 
superstitious  and  professedly  devout.  On  the 
death  of  Philip  IV.,  the  father  of  his  queen,  he 
laid  claim  to  Holland,  which  he  invaded;  but 
this  led  to  the  alliance  against  him  of  England, 
Sweden,  and  Holland,  usually  called  "the  triple 
alliance,"  and  Louis  was  speedily  compelled  to 
make  peace.  In  1672  he  made  an  attack  upon 
Holland,  having  engaged  on  his  side  the  venal 
and  unprincipled  Charles  II.  of  England;  but  at 
this  junction  William  of  Orange,  who  had  been 
raised  to  the  stadtholdership,  revived  the  droop- 
ing spirits  of  his  countrymen,  and  Holland  was 
evacuated  as  fast  as  it  had  been  overrun.  Several 
other  wars  followed,  notably  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  succession,  in  which  Louis  sought  to 
secure  the  Spanish  monarchy  for  his  grandson, 
the  duke  of  Anjou.  This  began  in  1701,  con- 
vulsed Europe  for  thirteen  years,  and  was  termi- 
nated by  the  peaCe  of  Utrecht  in  1713.  Two 
years  afterward,  1715,  Louis  died  at  Versailles, 
in  his  seventy-seventh  year.  He  left  several 
children.  Many  of  the  most  famous  names  in 
French  literature  belong  to  this  reign. 

Louis  XV.,  surnamed  "the  well-beloved,"  king 
of  France,  1715-74,  was  born  at  Versailles, 
1710.  He  was  the  son  of  the  duke  of  Burgundy, 
and  the  successor  of  his  great-grandfather, 
Louis  XIV.  The  beginning  of  his  reign  was 
troubled  by  the  failure  of  the  famous  Mississippi 
scheme  of  John  Law.  In  1723  he  was  declared 
of  age,  and  two  years  later  married  Maria 
Lesczynski,  daughter  of  Stanislaus,  nominal 
king  of  Poland.  On  the  death  of  Augustus, 
king  of  Poland,  1733,  Louis  supported  the  preten- 
sions of  his  father-in-law  to  the  vacant  throne, 
and  was  opposed  by  the  emperor  of  Germany, 
who  upheld  the  claims  of  the  elector  of  Saxony. 
On  the  death  of  the  emperor  Charles  VI.,  1740, 
new  dissensions  arose,  and  Louis,  who  had 
guaranteed  the  pragmatic  sanction,  and  the 
succession  of  Maria  Theresa,  dishonorably  united 
with  Prussia  and  Poland  to  place  the  duke  of 
Bavaria,  Charles  Albert,  on  the  throne.  This 
led  to  the  war  of  the  Austrian  succession,  which 
was  terminated  by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
in  1748.  Afterward,  in  1755,  a  new  war  was 
kindled  between  England  and  France,  about 
their  possessions  in  Canada ;  and  this  war  was  not 
terminated  until  1763,  when,  by  the  treaty 
signed  in  Paris  in  that  year,  France  formally 
ceded  to  England  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  and  its 
other  North  American  colonies,  besides  Granada, 
Dominica,  and  Tobago,  in  the  West  Indies. 
During  his  later  years,  Louis  suffered  himself  to 
be  governed  wholly  by  favorites,  among  whom 
were  the  Marchioness  de  Pompadour  and  Madame 
Du  Barry.     He  died  at  Versailles,  1774. 

Louis  XVL,  king  of  France,  1774-93,  was  bom  at 
Versailles,  1754.  He  was  the  grandson  of  l/ouis 
XV.,  whom  he  succeeded,  having  already,  in 
1770,  married  Marie  Antoinette  of  Austria, 
daughter  of  Maria  Theresa,  and  sister  of  the 
emperor  Joseph.  The  first  acts  of  Louis,  after 
his  accession,  endeared  him  to  his  people,  for  he 


gave  them  immunities  to  which  they  had  been 
hitherto  unaccustomed,  and  effected  many 
reforms  in  the  administration-  but  he  soon 
became  embarrassed  by  financial  difficulties,  and 
was  not  fortunate  in  his  choice  of  ministers. 
Turgot  and  Necker  were  in  turn  dismissed,  and 
succeeded  by  the  incapable  Calonne,  and  Lom6nie 
de  Brienne.  Necker  was  then  recalled,  and 
advised  thel  summoning  of  the  states-general, 
which  had  always  been  formidable  to  monarchical 
authority  but  had  not  been  summoned  since  1614. 
It  was  convoked  in  May,  1789,  and  in  June  was 
superseded  by  the  national  assembly,  which  as- 
sumed the  "whole  legislative  authority.  The 
dismissal  of  Necker  was  followed  by  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Bastille,  July  14,  the  declaration  of 
the  rights  of  man,  and  an  attack  of  an  armed 
mob,  chiefly  women,  on  the  palace  at  Versailles 
in  October.  The  king  and  the  queen  were  forcibly 
removed  by  Lafayette  to  Paris.  The  revolution 
then  begun  culminated,  as  far  as  the  king  was 
concerned,  in  the  insurrection  of  1792,  the  storm 
of  the  Tuileries,  the  abolition  of  monarchy,  the 
declaration  of  the  republic,  and  the  execution  of 
the  king  on  the  scaffold  in  January,  1793. 

Louis  XVIII.,  king  of  France,  a  younger  brother  of 
Louis  XVI.,  was  bom  at  Versailles,  1755.  He 
fled  from  Paris  on  the  same  night  as  the  king, 
Louis  XVI.,  and  reached  the  Belgian  frontier  in 
safety.  From  his  retreat  he  issued  from  time 
to  time  declarations  against  the  revolutionists 
which  damaged  the  king.  After  the  execution 
of  his  brother,  he  proclaimed  the  dauphin  king, 
under  the  title  of  Louis  XVII.,  and  in  1795  took 
the  title  of  king  himself.  The  fall  of  Napoleon 
opened  the  way  for  him  to  the  French  throne  and 
in  1814  he  landed  at  Calais  after  twenty-three 
years  of  exile.  He  ruled  by  "the  divine  right  of 
kings."  The  revolution  had  taught  him  nothing, 
and  his  treatment  of  the  Protestants,  republicans, 
and  the  followers  of  Napoleon,  opened  the  way 
for  Napoleon's  return  from  Elba,  wnen  he  fled  into 
exile  until  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  He  was 
restored  to  the  throne  by  the  allied  powers  in 
1815,  and  ruled  until  his  death  at  Paris,  1824. 

Louis  Philippe  Q^b'-i'  fe'-lep'),  king  of  France,  was 
born  at  Paris,  1773,  eldest  son  of  Louis  Philippe 
Joseph,  duke  of  Orleans.  He  sought,  during  the 
revolution,  in  Switzerland  a  place  of  security 
for  his  sister  Adelaide,  wandered  about  for  four 
months,  and  accepted  a  situation  as  teacher  of 
geography  and  mathematics  in  a  school  at 
Reicheneau,  near  Chur,  assuming  the  name  of 
Chabaud-Latour.  He  afterward  wandered  for 
some  time  in  the  north  of  Europe,  and  then  came 
to  the  United  States.  In  1800  he  took  up  his 
abode  at  Twickenham,  near  London,  with  his 
two  younger  brothers,  both  of  whom  soon  after 
died.  On  the  fall  of  Napoleon  he  hastened  to 
Paris,  where  he  was  received  with  distrust  by 
Louis  XVIII.  After  the  second  restoration,  when 
he  came  to  the  throne,  he  recovered  his  great 
estates.  He  was  very  popular  in  Paris.  He 
kept  aloof,  however,  from  political  intrigues; 
and  the  three  bloody  days  of  the  revolution  of 
1830  were  nearly  over  before  he  was  brought 
forward,  the  banker  Laflitte  proposing,  in  the 
provisional  committee,  his  appointment  as 
lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom,  from  which  he 
proceeded  to  the  acceptance  of  a  constitutional 
throne,  August  9,  1830.  The  countiy  prospered 
under  his  government,  but  a  demand  for  reform 
in  the  electoral  system  became  loud  and  general, 
and  was  unwisely  opposed  by  the  king  and  the 
Guizot  ministry.  The  French  nation  became 
much  excited;  reform  banquets  began  to  be 
held;  the  government  attempted  to  prevent 
them  by  force;  insurrectionary  movements 
ensued  in  the  streets  of  Paris  in  February,  1848; 
and   the   "citizen   king"   saw  with  alarm  thai 


848 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


the  national  guard  could  not  be  expected  to 
support  him.  On  February  24th  Louis  Philippe, 
deserted  by  his  courtiers,  fled  to  the  coast  of 
Normandy  with  his  queen,  concealed  himself 
for  some  days,  and  at  length  found  oppor- 
tunity of  escaping  in  a  British  steamboat  to 
Newhaven  under  the  name  of  Mr.  Smith.  He 
died  at  Claremont,  1850. 
Louise,  queen  of  Prussia,  was  bom  in  1776,  at 
Hanover,  where  her  father,  Duke  Karl  of  Meck- 
lenburg-Strelitz,  was  conunandant.  She  waa 
married  to  the  crown  prince  of  Prussia,  after- 
ward Frederick  William  III.,  in  1793,  and  was 
the  mother  of  Frederick  William  IV.  and  WilUam 
III.,  aTterward  emperor.  She  endeared  herself 
to  her  people  by  her  spirit  and  energy  during  the 

Eeriod  of  national  calamity  that  followed  the 
attle  of  .Jena,  and  especially  by  her  patriotic 
and  self-denying  efforts  to  obtain  concessions  at 
Tilsit  from  Napoleon,  though  he  had  shame- 
lessly slandered  her.     Died,  1810. 

Lounsbury  (lounzf-bir-l),  Thomas  Raynesford, 
American  educator  and  scholar,  was  born  at 
Ovid,  N.  Y.,  1838.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale, 
1859;  LL.  D.,  Yale,  1892,  Harvard,  1893,  Aber- 
deen, 1906;  L.  H.  D.,  Lafayette,  1895;  Litt.  D., 
Princeton,  1896.  He  was  engaged  on  the  Amer- 
ican Cydopwdia,  1860-62;  was  first  lieutenant 
126th  New  York  volunteers,  1862-65;  instructor 
of  English,  1870-71,  professor  English  language 
and  literature  since  1871,  librarian  Sheffield 
scientific  school,  1873-1906,  emeritus  professor, 
1906,  Yale.  He  edited  Chaucer's  Parliament  of 
Foides,  and  is  the  author  of :  History  of  the  Eng- 
lish Language;  Life  of  James  Fenimore  Cooper; 
Studies  in  Chaucer;  Shakespeare  aa  a  Dramatic 
Artist;  Shakespeare  and  Voltaire;  The  Text  of 
Shakespeare,  etc. 

Lovett,  Robert  Scott,  lawyer,  president  of  Union 
Pacific  railroad,  was  born  in  San  Jacinto,  Texas, 
1860.  He  was  educated  in  the  public  schoob; 
studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1882; 
attorney  for  Houston  East  and  West  Texas 
railroad,  1884-89;  assistant  general  attorney, 
1889-91,  and  general  attorney,  1891-92,  Texas 
and  Pacific  railroad;  general  attorney  and 
counsel  for  all  Southern  Pacific  lines  in  Texas, 
1904-09;  general  counsel  for  Harriman  rail- 
roads, 1904-09;  succeeded  Edward  H.  Harriman 
as  president  and  chairman  of  board  of  directors, 
Umon  Pacific  railroad,  1909. 

Liow,  A.  Maurice,  journalist,  author,  was  bom  in 
London,  England,  1860;  educated  at  King's 
college,  London,  and  in  Austria.  Since  1886  he 
has  been  Washington  correspondent  of  The  Bos- 
ton Globe;  chief  American  correspondent  of  the 
London  Morning  Post,  and  since  1896  has  written 
every  month  for  The  National  Review  of  London 
an  article  on  American  affairs.  Author:  The 
Supreme  Surrender;  Protection  in  the  United  States; 
American  Life  in  Tovm  and  Country;  A  Short  His- 
tory of  Labor  Legislation  inGreat  Britain,  etc. 

Low,  Seth,  American  educator  and  publicist,  mayor 
of  Greater  New  York,  1902-03,  was  born  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1850.  He  was  graduated  at 
Columbia,  1870;  LL.  D.,  Amherst,  1889,  univer- 
sity state  of  New  York,  Harvard,  university  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  Trinity,  1890,  Princeton, 
1896,  Yale,  1901.  He  was  clerk,  and  later  partner 
m  his  father's  tea-importing  house.  Mayor  of 
Brooklyn,  1881-85,  elected  on  independent 
ticket;  unsuccessful  candidate  for  mayor  of 
Greater  New  York,  1897,  and  president  of 
Columbia  university,  1890-1901.  In  1895  .he 
erected  for  that  institution  a  university  library 
at  a  cost  of  $1,175,000.  In  honor  of  President 
Low's  generosity  and  in  accord  with  his  desire, 
the  tmstees  of  Columbia  founded  twelve  scholar- 
ships in  the  university  for  Brooklyn  boys  and  the 
same  number  in  Barnard  college  for  Brooklyn 


girls,  and  also  agreed  to  found  eight  annual 
scholarships.  In  1899  he  was  appointed  by 
President  McKinlev  a  member  of  the  delegation 
to  represent  the  Cnited  States  at  the  interna- 
tional peace  conference  at  The  Hague.  He  is  a 
trustee  of  the  Carnegie  institution,  Washington. 

Lowell,  Abbott  Lawrence,  American  educator  and 
writer,  president  of  Harvard  university  since 
1909,  was  bom  in  Boston,  Mass.,  1856.  He  waa 
graduated  at  Harvard,  1877;  Harvard  law 
school,  1880;  practiced  law  in  Boston,  1880-97. 
He  was  lecturer  at  Harvard,  1897-99;  profes- 
sor of  science  of  government,  1900-03,  Eaton 
profes.sor,  1903-09,  Harvard;  trustee  of  the 
Lowell  institute  of  Boston  since  1900,  and  waa 
elected  president  of  Har\'ard  to  succeed  Dr. 
Charles  W.  Eliot,  who  resigned  in  1909.  He  is 
an  accepted  authoritv  in  the  field  of  government 
and  comparative  politics.  Author:  Easaya  on 
Government;  Govemmenta  and  Partiea  in  Conti- 
nental Europe;  Colonial  Civil  Service,  with  Pro- 
fessor H.  Morse  Stephens ;  Transfer  of  Stock  in 
Corporationa;  The  Infltience  of  Party  Upon 
Legislation  in  England  and  America,  etc. 

Lowell,  James  Bussell,  American  ix>et  and  diplomat, 
was  bom  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1819.  He  waa 
educated  at  Harvard  university,  spent  several 
years  abroad  studying  languages,  and,  in  1855, 
succeeded  Longfellow  as  professor  at  Harvard. 
LL.  D.,  Harvard,  and  Cambridge,  England; 
D.  C.  L.^  Oxford.  His  Legend  of  Brittany 
appeared  m  1844,  and  in  1S45  he  published  a 
prose  work  entitled  Conversations  on  Some  of  the 
Old  PoeU.  From  1857  to  1862  he  was  editor  of 
the  Atlantic  Monthly,  from  1863  to  1872,  of  the 
North  American  Review;  waa  United  States 
minister  to  Spain,  1877-80,  and  ambassador  to 
Great  Britain,  1880-85.  In  1869  he  published 
Under  the  Willows,  and  Other  Poema,  and  The 
Cathedral,  an  epic;  in  1870,  a  collection  of  essays; 
in  1871,  My  Study  Windowa;  in  1887.  Democracy; 
in  1888,  Political  Eaaaya,  Heartaeaae  and  Rue, 
etc.  Among  his  poems  the  best  known  are  The 
Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,  The  First  Snowfall,  and  the 
Commemoration  Ode.     Died,  1891. 

Lowell,  Perclval,  author,  ai^tronomer,  was  bom  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  1855.  He  was  graduated  at 
Harvard,  1876;  LL.  D.,  Amherst,  1907.  He 
went  to  Japan  in  1883,  and  lived  there  from  time 
to  time  until  1893;  was  counsellor  and  foreign 
secretary  to  Korean  special  mission  to  the  United 
States;  established  the  Lowell  observatorj-, 
1894,  and  undertook  an  eclipse  expedition  to 
Tripoli,  1900.  He  received  the  Janssen  medal 
of  the  French  astronomical  society,  1904,  for 
researches  on  Mars,  and  has  made  discoveries  on 
the  planets,  especially  Mars;  apix)inted  non- 
resident professor  of  astronomy,  Massachusetts 
institute  of  technologj',  1902.  Author:  Chosdn; 
The  Soxd  of  the  Far  East;  Noto;  Occult  Japan; 
Mars;  Annala  of  the  Lowell  Observatory;  The 
Solar  System;  Mars  and  its  Canals,  etc. 

Lowther  (lou'-Tiilr),  James  1^'llliani,  British 
statesman,  speaker  of  the  house  of  commons 
since  1905,  was  born  in  1855.  He  was  graduated 
at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  and  called  to  the 
bar,  1879.  In  1883  he  was  elected  to  parliament 
for  Rutland;  contested  Mid-Cumberland,  1885; 
was  under-secretary  for  foreign  affairs.  1891 ; 
represented  Great  Britain  at  international  con- 
ference at  Venice,  1892;  chairman  of  committee 
on  ways  and  means  and  deputy  speaker,  1895- 
1905. 

Loyola  (lo-yo'-la),  Ignatius  de.     See  page  237. 

Lubbock  (lub'-uk).  Sir  John,  Lord  Avebury,  English 
naturalist  and  politician,  was  bom  in  London, 
1834.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  college,  then 
entered  his  father's  banking  house,  and  in  1858 
became  a  member  of  parhament,  where  he  served 
at  intervals  until  elevated  to  the  peerage,  in 


QUEEN   LOUISE  OF   PRUSSIA 

From  a  painting  by  G.  Richtcr 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


851 


1900,  as  Lord  Avebury.  In  parliament  he 
accomplished  several  economic  reforms,  but  was 
chiefly  noted  for  his  achievements  in  science. 
He  is  the  author  of  Prehistoric  Times;  The 
Origin  of  Civilization  and  the  Primitive  Condi- 
tion of  Man;  Fifty  Years  of  Science;  Pleasures  of 
Life,  etc.     Died,  1913. 

Lucretius  {lU-kre'-shi-us),  or  Titus  Lucretius  Cams, 
Roman  poet  of  the  first  rank,  was  born  about  95 
B.  C.  His  principal  work,  De  Rerum  Natura,  is 
a  philosophical  didactic  poem  in  six  books, 
which  appeared  56  B.  C.  He  was  a  follower  of 
Epicurus,  and  his  poem  is,  to  a  large  extent,  an 
exposition  of  the  tenets,  physical  and  moral,  of 
that  philosopher.  Regarded  merely  as  a  literary 
composition,  this  work  stands  unrivaled  among 
didactic  poems,  and,  however  objectionable  its 
subject  matter,  takes  a  high  position  as  a  work 
of  art.     Died  about  55  B.  C. 

Lucullus  (la-kiil'-us),  Lucius  Licinius,  celebrated 
Roman  general,  was  born  about  110  B.  C.  He 
commanded  the  fleet  in  the  first  Mithridatic 
war,  as  consul  in  74  B.  C.  defeated  Mithridates, 
and  introduced  admirable  reforms  into  Asia 
Minor.  He  twice  defeated  Tigranes  of  Armenia; 
but  his  legions  became  mutinous,  and  he  was 
superseded  by  Pompey  in  66  B.  C.  He  attempted 
to  check  Pompey's  power,  and  was  one  of  the 
first  triumvirate,  but  soon  withdrew  from  poli- 
tics. He  had  acquired  prodigious  wealth;  and 
spent  the  rest  of  his  life  surrounded  by  artists, 
poets,  and  philosophers,  exhibiting  a  luxury 
which  became  proverbial.  He  died  about  57 
B.C. 

Lulnl  (Idd-e'-ni),  or  Luvlno,  Bernardino,  painter  of 
the  Lombard  school,  was  born  at  Luino,  about 
1475.  His  skill  was  developed  in  the  school  of 
Leonardo  da  Vinci;  indeed,  many  of  his  works 
were  at  one  time  attributed  to  that  great  artist. 
Luini's  principal  charm  is  a  certain  poetic  grace 
and  beauty ;  he  is  one  of  the  five  great  painters 
whose  "supremacy"  Ruskin  affirmed.  Died 
about  1533. 

Lummis  (lUm'-ls)^  Charles  Fletcher,  American 
author,  explorer,  was  born  at  Lynn,  Mass.,  1859. 
He  was  educated  at  Harvard,  class  of  1881 ; 
Litt.  D.,  Santa  Clara  college.  Edited  newspaper 
in  Ohio,  1882-84;  in  1884  walked  from  Cincin- 
nati to  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  by  roundabout  route, 
purely  for  pleasure,  3,507  miles  in  143  days.  He 
was  city  editor  Los  Angeles  Daily  Times,  1885— 
87 ;  lived  five  years  in  Indian  pueblo  of  Isleta, 
New  Mexico,  learning  Indian  languages  and  cus- 
toms ;  traveled  all  over  the  Southwest  on  horse- 
back; also  in  Mexico  and  South  America;  has 
explored  entire  continent  from  Canada  to  Chile. 
Editor:  Out  West  Magazine;  hbrarian  Los 
Angeles  public  library,  1905-10.  Author:  A 
New  Mexico  David;  A  Tramp  Across  the  Con- 
tinent; Some  Strange  Corners  of  our  Country; 
The  Land  of  Poco  Tiempo;  The  Spanish 
Pioneers;  The  King  of  the  Broncos;  The 
Enchanted  Burro;  The  Awakening  of  a  Nati-on: 
Mexico  To-Day;  and  many  articles,  historical 
and  critical,  reviews  in  The  Nation,  etc. 

Lurton,  Horace  Harmon,  American  jurist,  was 
bom  at  Newport,  Ky.,  1844.  He  was  graduated 
at  Cumberland  university,  Tennessee,  1867; 
D.  C.  L.,  university  of  the  South,  1899.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar,  1867;  was  chancellor  of 
6th  division,  Tennessee,  1875-78 ;  justice  supreme 
court  of  Tennessee,  1886-93;  chief-justice, 
January  to  April,  1893,  and  judge  of  the  United 
States  circuit  court,  6th  judicial  circuit,  1893- 
1910,  and  became  associate  justice  of  the  United 
States  supreme  court  in  1910.  He  was  for 
a  number  of  years  professor  of  constitutional 
law  and  dean  of  the  law  department,  Vanderbilt 
universitv. 

Luther  {l6i>' -thtr)^  Martin.     See  page  230. 


Luxembourg  {lilk'-sfivs'-ba^'),  Francois  Henri  de 
Montmorency-Bouteville,  Duke  of,  marshal  of 
France,  was  born  in  Paris,  1628.  He  was  trained 
by  his  aunt,  mother  of  the  great  Cond6,  and 
adhered  to  Cond6  through  the  wars  of  the  Fronde. 
After  1659  he  was  pardoned  by  Louis  XIV.,  who 
created  him  Duke  of  Luxembourg  in  1661.  In 
1667  he  served  under  Cond6  in  Franche-Comt^ ; 
in  1672  he  himself  successfully  invaded  the 
Netherlands,  and,  driven  back  in  1673,  con- 
ducted a  masterly  retreat.  During  the  war  he 
stormed  Valenciennes  and  twice  defeated  the 
prince  of  Orange.  Made  a  marshal  in  1675,  soon 
after  the  peace  of  1678  he  quarreled  with 
Louvois,  and  was  not  employed  for  twelve  years. 
In  1690  he  commanded  in  Flanders,  and  defeated 
the  allies  'at  Fleurus,  and  in  1691  twice  more 
routed  his  old  opponent,  now  William  III.,  at 
Steenkerke  and  Neerwinden.     Died,  1695. 

Lyall  Ql'-al),  Edna,  pen-name  of  Ada  Ellen  Bayly, 
English  novelist,  daughter  of  a  London  barrister 
and  bencher  of  Gray's  Inn.  She  was  bom  at 
Brighton,  Sussex,  and  at  an  early  age  took  to 
writing  as  a  profession.  Her  first  story,  Won  by 
Waiting,  was  published  in  1879,  and  was  followed 
by  Donovan;  We  Two;  In  the  Golden  Days; 
Knight  Errant;  and  A  Hardy  Norseman.  In 
1899  she  published  Derrick  Vaughan,  Novelist; 
this  was  followed  by  Max  Hereford's  Dream;  To 
Right  the  Wrong;  Doreen,  the  Story  of  a  Singer; 
How  the  Children  raised  the  Wind;  Wayfaring 
Men;  Hope,  The  Hermit;  In  Spite  of  All;  The 
Hinderers,  etc.  Her  books  have  attained  a 
wide-spread  popularity.     Died,  1903. 

Lycurgus  {Iv-kHr-gus),  lawgiver  of  Sparta,  flour- 
ished in  the  ninth  century  B.  C.  He  was  uncle 
of  the  young  king  Charilaus,  and  governed  wisely 
during  his  nephew's  infancy,  then  traveled  in 
Crete,  Ionia,  and  Egypt.  On  his  return,  findins 
Sparta  in  anarchy,  he  redivided  property,  and 
remodeled  the  constitution,  military  and  civil. 
Lycurgus  was  afterward  honored  as  a  god  at 
Sparta.  His  laws  remained  in  force  for  about 
seven  hundred  years. 

Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  British  geologist,  was  bom  in 
Scotland,  1797.  He  was  graduated  at  Oxford, 
and  studied  law,  but  left  his  practice  and  gave 
himself  to  the  study  of  geologv,  to  which  he  had 
been  attracted  by  William  fiuckland's  lectures 
when  he  was  at  Oxford.  He  made  geological 
tours  in  1824,  and  again  in  1828-30,  over  various 
parts  of  Europe,  and  published  the  results  of  his 
investigations  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Geologi- 
cal Society  and  elsewhere.  The  first  volume  of 
his  great  work.  The  Principles  of  Geology,  ap- 
peared in  1830,  the  secona  in  1832,  and  the 
third  in  1833.  He  also  published  A  First  and 
Second  Visit  to  North  America,  Canada,  Nova 
Scotia,  etc.,  ivith Geological  Observations,  in  4  vols.; 
besides  a  number  of  irnportant  geological  papers 
in  the  Proceedings  and  Transactions  of  the  GeMogi- 
cal  Society,  the  Reports  of  the  British  Association, 
etc.  In  i863  appeared  The  Antiquity  of  Alan,  in 
which  he  gave  his  assent  to  the  Darwinian 
theory.     Died,  1875. 

Lyon,  Mary,  American  educator,  founder  of  Mount 
Holyoke  college,  was  bom  at  Buckland,  Mass., 
1797.  By  great  effort  and  perseverance  she 
gained  a  good  education,  and  for  several  years 
taught  in  the  public  schools  of  the  state.  In 
1837  she  founded  the  famous  seminary,  now 
Mount  Holyoke  college,  at  South  Hadley,  Mass., 
upon  the  plan  of  uniting  domestic  service  with 
intellectual  culture.  Her  success  as  president 
of  this  institution  caused  many  similar  institu- 
tions to  be  established  throughout  the  country, 
and  the  name  of  Mar>'  Lyon  has  become  a  house- 
hold word  among  all  friends  of  the  education  and 
elevation  of  women.  She  died  at  South  Hadley, 
Mass.,  1849. 


852 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVI^ENT 


Lysander  {llsHn'-dir),  Spartan  soldier,  son  of 
Aristoclitus.  In 407  B.  C.  he  became  coininander  of 
the  Spartan  fleet  in  the  ^gean,  and  defeated  the 
Athenian  fleet  off  No''um.  His  term  of  service 
having  expired,  he  was  succeeded  in  406  by 
Callicratidas,  who  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  the 
Arginusae.  As  the  Lacedaemonian  law  did  not 
allow  the  office  to  be  held  twice  by  the  same 
person,  he  was  now  named  vice  admiral,  nomi- 
nally subordinate  to  Aracus.  He  captured,  at 
iEgospotami  in  the  Hellespont,  the  entire  navy 
of  Athensj  except  eight  or  nine  galleys,  which 
escaped  with  Conon  to  Cyprus,  and  in  404  ended 
the  Peloponnesian  war  by  the  capture  of  Athens. 
In  395  he  was  placed  in  command  of  a  military 
force  to  cooperate  with  the  army  of  Pausanias, 
entered  Boeotia,  and  laid  siege  to  Haliartus,  but 
was  surprised  by  the  Thebans  under  the  walls  of 
that  city,  and  slain,  395  B.  C. 

Lysias  {IW-l-as),  Greek  orator,  was  bom  about  450 
B.  C,  son  of  a  rich  Syracusan,  who  settled  in 
Athens  about  440.  He  was  educated  at  Thurii 
in  Italy.  The  thirty  tyrants  in  404  stripped* 
him  and  his  brother  Polemarchus  of  their  wealth, 
and  killed  the  latter.  The  first  use  to  which 
Lysias  put  his  eloquence  was,  on  the  fall  of  the 
Thirty  in  403,  to  prosecute  Eratosthenes,  the 
tyrant  chiefly  to  blame  for  his  brother's  murder. 
He  then  practiced  with  success  as  a  writer  of 
speeches  for  litigants.  His  thirty-four  surviving 
speeches  show  Lysias  delightfully  lucid  in 
thought  and  expression,  and  strong  in  character 
drawing.     Died,  380  H.  C. 

Lysbnachus  {li-slm'-d-kus),  Greek  general,  king  of 
Thrace,  was  born  about  360  B.  C.  On  the 
division  of  the  provinces,  after  the  death  of 
Alexander  in  323  B.  C,  Thrace  and  the  region 
bordering  on  the  Danube  were  allotted  to  him. 
In  315  he  joined  the  coalition  formed  agaiii.st 
Antigonus  by  Ptolemy,  Seleucus,  and  Cassander. 
In  306  he  assumed  the  title  of  king.  In  302  he 
invaded  Asia  Minor,  and  in  301  he  and  his  allies 
vanquish^  Antigonus  in  the  battle  of  Ipaus  and 
shared  his  dominions.  Lysimachus  so  improved 
and  enlarged  New  ilium  and  the  Mysian  Alexan- 
dria that  he  came  to  be  regarded  as  their  founder 
In  292  he  undertook  an  expedition  against  the 
Gctse,  and  was  compelled  by  famine  to  surrender 
with  his  whole  army,  but  was  soon  set  at  liberty. 
In  288  he  formed  a  confederacy  with  Ptolemy, 
Seleucus,  and  Pyrrhus  against  Demetrius  Polior- 
cetes,  and  acquired  Macedonia.  Having  con- 
sented to  the  death  of  his  son  Agathocles  at  the 
instigation  of  his  new  wife  Arsinoe,  daughter  of 
Ptolemy,  his  Asian  subjects  rebelled,  and  with 
the  aid  of  Seleucus  defeated  and  slew  Lysimachus 
at  Corns  in  Phrygia,  281  B.  C. 

Lytton,  Edward  George  Earle  Lytton  Bulwer,  Lord, 
eminent  English  novelist,  was  bom  in  London, 
of  an  ancient  family,  1803.  In  1826  he  was 
graduated  at  Cambridge,  and  published  in  1827 
his  first  novel,  Falkland.  In  the  year  following 
Pelham  appeared  —  a  work  which  placed  him 
at  once  in  the  first  rank  of  contemporary  writers 
of  fiction.  Thenceforward  his  hterary  career 
was  one  of  meteoric  brilliancy ;  novel  after  novel, 
drama  after  drama,  flowed  from  his  pen  almost 
without  intermission.  For  a  quarter  of  a  century 
he  reigned  the  great  master  of  English  fiction  -^ 
the  successor  to  Scott,  the  predecessor  of  Dickens. 
In  1866  he  was  created  a  peer  of  the  realm. 
Among  his  principal  novels  are:  The  Disovmed; 
Devereux;  Paul  Clifford;  Eugene  Aram;  The 
PUgnma  of  the  Rhine;  The  Last  Days  of  Pompeii; 
.fften«,  the  Last  of  the  Roman  Tribunes;  Ernest 
Maltravera,  and  its  sequel,  Alice,  or  the  Myster- 
tes;  Night  and  Morning;  Zanoni;  The  Last  of 
the  Barons;  Lucretia,  or  the  Children  of  the  Night; 
Harold  the  Last  of  the  Saxon  Kings;  The  Cox- 
tons;  My  Novel;   A  Strar^e  Story;  What  WiU  He 


Do  With  Itf  The  Coming  Race;  Kenelm  Chillingly, 
etc.     He  is  also  author  of  the  plays,  The  Lady  of 
Lyons,  Richelieu,  and  Monei/,  and  of  the  poema. 
The  New  Timon,  and  King  Arthur.     Died,  1873. 
Lytton,  Edward  Robert,  Earl  ol,  "Owen  Meredith," 

Ct,  diplomat,  and  statesman,  was  bom  at 
idon,  1831.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow 
and  at  Bonn.  In  1849  he  came  to  Washington 
as  an  attach<^  and  private  secretary  to  his  uncle 
Sir  Henry  Bulwer,  and  subsequently  was  sent  in 
a  diplomatic  capacity  to  Florence,  1852,  to  The 
Hague,  1856,  to  St.  Petersburg  and  Constanti- 
nople, 1858,  Vienna,  1859,  Belgrade,  1860, 
Copenhagen,  1863,  AthenB,  1864,  Lisbon, 
1865,  Madrid,  1868,  Vienna  again,  18('>9,  and 
Paris,  1873.  In  the  last  named  year  he  suc- 
ceedeid  his  father  aa  second  Lord  Lytton,  and 
in  1876  became  viceroy  of  India.  In  1880, 
on  the  fall  of  the  Beaconsfield  government,  he 
resigned,  and,  returning  to  England,  was  made 
earl  of  Lytton.  In  1887  he  was  appointed 
English  ambassador  to  France.  His  uterary 
workit,  of  wliich  perhaps  the  most  popular  is 
Lucile,  have  been  published  under  his  pseudonym. 
He  also  wrote  Clytemneatra;  The  Wanderer;  The 
Ring  of  Amasia;  and  Fablea  in  Song.  He  died  at 
Paris,  1891. 

Maartens  (mOr'-tftu),  Slaarten,  pen  name  of  J.  M. 
W.  van  der  Poorten-Schwartz,  Dutch  author,  waa 
bom  at  Amsterdam,  1858.  He  attended  school 
in  Germany,  and  studied  law  at  Utrecht  univer- 
sity. He  IS  the  author  of  a  series  of  powerful 
novels,  including  The  Sin  of  Jooat  Avelingh;  A 
Question  of  TatU;  God' »  Fool;  The  Or  eater' Glory; 
My  Lady  Nobody;  Her  Memory;  Some  Women 
I  Have  Known;  My  Poor  Relationa;  Dorothea; 
T^Jailbird,  a  one-act  play :  The  Healers;  The 
W^puin'f  Victory;   The  New  Religion,  etc. 

Slable,  Hamlltow  Wright,  American  journalist  and 
writer,  aosociate  editor  of  The  Outlook,  was  bom 
at  Cold  Spring,  N.  Y.,  1846.  He  was  graduated 
at  Williams  college  and  Columbia  law  school; 
L.  H.  D.,  Williams;  LL.  D.,  Union  college  and 
Western  Reserv'e  university.  Author:  Norae 
Stories  Retold  from  the  Eddas;  Nature  in  New 
England;  My  Study  Fire;  Short  Studies  in 
Literature;  Under  the  Treee  and  Elsewhere; 
Essays  in  Literary  Interpretation;  Nature  and 
Culture;  Books  and  Culture;  Work  and  Culture; 
The  Life  of  the  Spirit;  William  Shakespeare  — 
Poet,  Dramatist,  and  Man;  Works  and  Days; 
Parables  of  lAfe;  Backgrounds  of  Literature; 
Myths  Every  Child  Should  Know;  Fairy  Tales 
Every  Child  Should  Know;  The  Great  Word; 
Heroes  Every  Child  Shotdd  Know;  Legends  Every 
Child  Shmdd  Kruno,  etc. 

MablUon  (wid'-W-y<)N'),  Jean,  French  scholar  and 
historian,  was  blom  at  St.  Pierremont  in  Cham- 
pagne, 1632.  In  1653  he  entered  the  Benedictine 
order,  io  1663  became  keeper  of  the  monuments 
at  St.  Denis,  and  from  1664  worked  in  the  abbey 
of  St.  Germain-des-Pr^  at  Paris.  He  edited  St. 
Bernard's  works,  and  wrote  a  history  of  his  order; 
also  De  Re  DiplomaticA;  Vetera  Analecta; 
Muscntfn  Italicum,  etc.     Died,  1707. 

Hacaulay  (nui-kd'-ll),  Thomas  Babington,  Lord, 
British  historian  and  statesman,  waa  bom  at 
Rothlev  Temple,  Leicestershire,  1800.  He  en- 
tered Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  at  the  age  of 
eighteen,  where  he  acquired  a  brilliant  reputation 
both  as  a  scholar  and  debater.  The  periodical 
to  which  he  first  contributed  was  Knights 
Quarterly  Magazine;  for  this  he  wrote  several  of 
his  ballads;  e.  g.,  The  Spanish  Armada,  Moncon- 
tour,  and  T?ie  Battle  of  Ivry,  besides  essays  and 
critiques.  In  1825  he  contributed  to  the  Edin- 
burgh Review  his  famous  essay  on  Milton,  the 
learning,  eloquence,  penetration,  brilliancy  of 
fancy,  and  generous  enthusiasm  of  which  quite 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


853 


I 


fascinated  the  educated  portion  of  the  public. 
He  was  elected  to  parliament  in  1830,  where  he 
made  a  brilliant  reputation;  and  in  1834  went 
to  India  as  legal  adviser  of  the  supreme  council. 
Here  he  remained  until  1838.  His  chief  labor 
was  the  preparation  of  a  new  Indian  penal  code. 
In  1839  he  was  appointed  war  secretary.  While 
holding  this  office  he  composed  the  Lays  of 
Ancient  Rome,  which  appeared  in  1842.  In  the 
following  year  he  published  a  collected  series  of 
his  Essays,  in  three  volumes.  In  1846  he  was 
made  paymaster-general.  In  1848  appeared  the 
first  two  volumes  of  his  History  of  England  from 
the  Accession  of  James  II.     The  following  year 

,  he  was  chosen  lord  rector  of  the  university  of 
Glasgow.  The  third  and  fourth  volumes  of  his 
History  were  published  in  1855.  He  died  in 
1859,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  abbey. 

McAdoo  {tn&k-d-d^Jd'),  William  Gibbs,  lawyer,  rail- 
way official,  was  born  near  Marietta,  Ga.,  1863, 
and  was  educated  at  the  university  of  Tennessee. 
He  was  deputy  clerk  of  United  States  circuit 
court  of  Tennessee,  1882;  studied  law,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar,  1885;  practiced  at  Chatta- 
nooga. He  removed  to  New  York  to  practice  UJ 
1892.  In  1902  he  was  elected  president  of -the 
Hudson  and  Manhattan  railroad,  which  o^n- 
pleted  in  1909  the  fourth  tunnel  under  the  Hudson 
river.    Appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury,  1913. 

MacArthuT,  Arthur,  American  soldier,  was  born  in 
Springfield,  Mass.,  1845.  He  was  educated  in 
the  public  schools  of  Milwaukee  and  by  private 
tutors.  He  entered  the  union  army  in  1862  as 
first  lieutenant,  served  throughout  the  civil  war, 
and  entered  the  United  States  army,  1866.  He 
was  brevetted  lieutenant-colonel  of  volunteers, 
1865,  for  battles  of  Perryville,  Ky.,  Stone  river. 
Missionary  Ridge,  and  Dandridge,  Tenn.,  and 
colonel  for  battle  of  Franklin,  Tenn.,  and  Atlanta 
campaign-  awarded  medal  of  honor,  1890,  for 
seizing  colors  of  regiment  at  critical  moment  and 
planting  them  on  captured  works  on  the  crest  of 
Missionary  Ridge,  1863.  Participated  in  battles 
of  Perryville,  Stone  river,  Dandridge,  Missionary 
Ridge,  Resaca,  Adairsville,  New  Hope  church, 
Kenesaw  mountain,  Peach  Tree  creek,  Jonesboro, 
Lovejoy's  station,  Atlanta,  and  Franklin,  and 
was  twice  wounded.  He  conunanded  the  third 
expedition  to  Manila,  and  took  part  in  the  battle 
of  Manila,  August.  1898.  He  was  subsequently 
commander  of  the  division  of  the  Philippines 
and  military  governor,  1900-01,  and  was  created 
lieutenant-general  of  the  United  St^es  army, 
1906.     Retired,  1909.     Died,  1912. 

MacArthur,  Robert  Stuart,  American  clergyman, 
was  born  at  Dalesville,  Quebec,  Canada,  1841. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  university  of  Rochester, 
1867;  Rochester  theological  seminary,  1870; 
LL.  D.,  Columbian  (now  George  Washington), 
1896.  He  was  for  years  correspondent  of  the 
Chicago  Standard;  long  editorially  connected  with 
Christian  Inquirer,  and  Baptist  Review,  and  is  also 
a  well-known  lecturer  on  foreign  travel.  He  has 
been  pastor  of  Calvary  Baptist  church,  New  York, 
since  1870.  Author:  Calvary  Pulpit;  Divine 
Balustrades;  The  Attractive  Christ  and  pther  Ser- 
mons; Quick  Truths  in  Quaint  Texts;  Current 
Questions  for  Thinking  Men;  On  Bible  Difficulties; 
Lectures  on  the  Land  and  the  Book;  Celestial  Lamp; 
Old  Book  and  Old  Faith;  Sunday  Niqht  Lectures; 
Around  the  World;  Palestine;  Old  Testament 
Difficidtie^;  The  Preeminence  of  Christ,  and  Other 
Sermons;  Advent,  Christmas,  Easter,  and  Other 
Sermons,  etc. 

McBumey,  Charles,  American  sui^eon,  was  bom 
in  Roxbury,  Mass.,  1845.  He  was  graduated  at 
Harvard,  1866,  and  from  the  college  of  physicians 
and  surgeons.  New  York,  1870.  He  has  been  in 
practice  as  surgeon  in  New  York  since  1870; 
professor  of   clinical  surgery,  college  of  physi- 


cians and  surgeons,  1892-1907;  was  oonault- 
ing  surgeon  to  President  McKinley  after  he 
was  shot  by  an  assassin  in  1901. 

McCall,  Samuel  Walker,  American  congressman, 
lawyer,  was  bom  in  East  Providence,  Pa.,  1851. 
He  was  graduated  at  Dartmouth  college,  1874, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  1876.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Massachusetts  house  of  representa- 
tives, 1888,  1889,  and  1892;  member  of  congress, 
eighth  Massachusetts  district,  1893-1913.  Author : 
Life  of  Thaddeus  Stevens,  etc. 

McCarthy,  Justin,  British  novelist  and  historian, 
was  born  at  Cork,  Ireland,  1830.  He  was  edu- 
cated privately  at  Cork,  and  engaged  in  journal- 
ism there,  1848-52;  in  Liverpool,  1852-60;  and 
London,  1880.  He  was  editor  of  the  Morning 
Star,  1864-68;  editorial  writer  for  Daily  News 
from  1870;  member  of  parliament  for  Longford 
county,  1879;  Derry  city,  1886-92 ;  North  Long- 
ford, 1892-1900;  was  chairman  of  Irish  parlia- 
mentary party,  1890-96.  Author  of  many 
novels,  including :  Miss  Misanthrope;  Dear  Lady 
Disdain;  Donna  Quixote;  Maid  of  Athens;  Red 
Diamonds;  Mononia,  etc.;  histories:  A  History 
of  Our  Own  Times ;  A  History  oj  the  Four  Georges 
and  William  IV.;  Epoch  of  Reform;  Life  of  Sir 
Robert  Peel;  Life  of  Pope  Leo  XIII.;  The  Story 
of  Mr.  Gladstone's  Life;  Modem  England; 
Reminiscences;  The  Reign  of  Queen  Anne;  Por- 
traits of  the  Sixties;  The  Story  of  an  Irishman; 
and  other  works.      Died,  1912. 

McClellan,  George  Brinton,  American  general,  was 
bom  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1826.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  West  Point,  1846 ;  distinguished  himself 
in  the  Mexican  war,  and  drew  up  a  report  on  the 
organization  of  European  armies  after  a  visit  to 
the  Crimea.  In  1861  he  was  commissioned 
major-general  of  the  United  States  army,  and 
appointed  in  command  of  the  department  of  the 
Ohio.  He  subsequently  commanded  the  army 
of  the  Potomac,  but  after  indecisive  engagements, 
was  superseded  by  General  Bumside,  1862.  In 
1864,  as  a  democrat,  he  was  the  unsuccessful 
opponent  of  Lincoln  for  the  presidency.  In  1877 
he  was  elected  governor  of  New  Jersey.  Died, 
1885. 

McClellan,  George  Brinton,  lawyer,  public  official, 
was  bom  at  Dresden,  Saxony,  1865,  during  the 
residence  of  his  parents.  General  George  Bnntoa 
and  Ellen  M.  McClellan,  in  that  city.  He  was 
graduated  at  Princeton,  1886,  LL.  D.,  1905; 
LL.  D.,  Fordham  university,  1905,  Union  college, 
1906.  He  worked  as  reporter  and  in  editorial 
positions  on  New  York  dailies;  was  treasurer  of 
New  York  and  Brooklyn  bridge,  1889-92; 
admitted  to  the  bar,  1892 ;  president  of  board  of 
aldermen.  New  York,  1893  and  1894 ;  member  of 
congress,  1895-1903,  and  mayor  of  New  York, 
1903-10.  Stafford  Little  lecturer  pubhc  affairs, 
1908-10,  university  lecturer  public  affairs  since 
1911,  Princeton  university. 

McCloskey,  John,  American  prelate,  first  cardinal 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  in  America,  was 
bom  at  Brooklvn,  N.  Y.,  1810.  After  pursuing 
a  collegiate  and  theological  course  at  Mount  St 
Mary's  college,  Emmitsburg,  Maryland,  he  was 
ordained  a  priest  at  St.  Patrick's  cathearal.  New 
York,  1834.  He  was  the  first  president  of  St. 
John's  college  (now  Fordham  universitv).  Ford- 
ham,  N.  Y.,  1841-42;  was  consecrated  bishop  of 
Albany  in  1847 ;  archbishop  of  New  York  in  1864, 
and  in  1875  was  created  cardinal.  He  built  the 
cathedral  at  Albany,  the  theological  seminary  at 
Troy,  was  an  effective  preacher,  and  otherwise 
noted  as  an  able  executive  and  administratot. 
He  died  at  New  York.  1885. 

McCormlck,  Robert  Sanderson,  American  diplomat, 
was  bom  in  Rockbridge  county,  Va.,  1849.  He 
was  educated  at  the  university  of  Virginia;  weis 
secretary    of    legation    in    London,     1889-92; 


854 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


official    representative    of    World's    C!oIumbian 
exposition  in  London,  1892-93;    envoy  extraor- 
dinary   and    minister    plenipotentiary,    1901-02, 
and  first  ambassador,  1902,  to  Austria-Hungary ; 
United  States  ambassador  to  Russia,    1902-05, 
to  France,  1905-07. 
McCosb,  James,  Scottish-American  educator  and 
philosopher,  was  born  in  1811,  in  Ayrshire,  Scot- 
land.    He  was  educated  at  the  universities  of 
Glasgow    and     Edinburgh;     was    ordained     at 
Arbroath  a  minister  of  the  church  of  Scotland  in 
1835,  biit  joined  in  the  free-church  movement  in 
1843.     He  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  logic 
and  metaphvsics  in  Queen's  college,  Belfast,  1851, 
and   remained   there   until    1868,   when   he  was 
elected  president  of  the  college  of   New  Jersey, 
at   Princeton.     He  was  president   at   Princeton 
until   1888,   and  wrote  many   imr>ortant   philo- 
sophical works,    among    them:    The   Method  of 
Divine  Government,  Physical  and  Moral;  Typical 
Forma  and  Special  Ends  in  Creation;    Intuitions 
of  the  Mind  Inductively  Investigated;    An  Exami- 
nation of  Mill's  Philosophy;    Laws  of  Discursive 
Thought;     Logic;     Christianity    and    Positivism; 
The  Scottish  Philosophy;    besides  papers  on  ed- 
ucation and  the   relation  of  science  to  religion. 
In   1888  he  resigned   his  office  as  president,  to 
give  his  attention  more  closely  to  philosophical 
writing,   and  published   First  and  Fundamental 
Truths,  and  Religious  Aspects  of  Evolution.     Died 
at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  1894. 
MacCracken,  Henry  Mitchell,  American  educator, 
chancellor  of  New  York  university,  1891-1910, 
emeritus   chancellor   since    1910;    was    born    at 
Oxford,  Ohio,  1840.     He  was  graduated  at  Miami 
university,  1857;    D.  D.,  Wittenberg^  1878,   LL. 
D.,  Miami,  1887;   studied  at  United  Presbyterian 
theological    seminary,   Xenia,    Ohio,     Princeton 
theological  seminary,  Tubingen  and  Berlin  uni- 
versities;   teacher  of  classics  and  school  superin- 
tendent, 1857-61 ;    pastor  of  Westminster  church, 
Columbus,    Ohio,    1863-67,    First    Presbvterian 
church,    Toledo,    Ohio,    1868-81;    chancellor   of 
Western  university,    Pittsburgh,    Pa.,    1881-84; 
professor   of   philosophy.  New  York  university, 
since  1884,  vice-chancellor,  1885-91 ;  delegate  to 
general  assembly.  Free  church  of  Scotland,  1867, 
and  to  Irish  Presbyterian  general  assembly,  1884. 
Author:     Tercentenary  of  Presbyterianisrn;  Kant 
and  Lotze;  A  Metropolitan  University;  The  Scotch^ 
Irish  in  America;  John  Calvin;  The  Three  Essen- 
tials;   The  Hall  of  Fame;    Leaders  of  the  Church 
Universal,  3  vols.,  etc. 
McCrea,  James,  American  railway  president,  was 
born    in    Philadelphia,    1848.     He    entered    the 
railway  service  in  1865.  as  rodman  and  assistant 
engineer  of  Connellsville  and  Southern  Pennsyl- 
vania railroad  until  1867;    rodman  on  construc- 
tion, Wilmington  and  Reading  railroad,  1867-68; 
assistant    engineer,    AUeghenv    Valley    railroad, 
1868-71;    with  Pennsylvania' railroad,   1871-82, 
consecutively  as  assistant  engineer  and  division 
superintendent;    manager,  general  manager,  and 
fourth  vice-president,  Pennsylvania  lines  west  of 
Pittsburgh,      1882-90;      second     vice-president, 
1890-91,    first    vice-president,     1891-1907,    and 
president    of    Pennsj'lvania    railroad  company, 
1907-13.      He   was  also  president    of  numerous 
other  railway  companies.     Died,  1913. 
McCumber,  Porter  James,   lawyer.   United  States 
senator  from  North  Dakota,  was  born  in  Illinois, 
1858.     He   removed   to    Rochester,    Minn.,    the 
same  year;   was  brought  up  on  a  farm  and  edu- 
cated in  the  district  schools,  afterward  in  the 
city  schools;    taught  school  for  a  few  vears,  and 
took  a  law  course  in  the  universitv  of'Michigan, 
graduating  in  1880.     He  removed"  to  Wahpeton, 
North  Dakota,  1881,  where  he  has  since  practiced 
his  profession.     He  was  a  member  of  the  terri- 
torial legislature,   1885-89;    was  elected  to  the 


United  States  senate,  1899,  and  reelected  in  1905 
and  1911. 

HcCutcheon,  George  Barr,  journalist,  author,  was 
born  on  a  farm  in  Tippecanoe  county,  Indiana, 
1866.  He  was  educated  at  Purdue  university, 
and  was  city  editor  of  the  Lafayette  Courier,  1893. 
Author:  Graustark;  Beverly  of  Graustark; 
Brewster's  Millions;  Nedra;  Castle  Craney- 
erow;  Jane  Cable;  The  Husbands  of  Edith;  Man 
from  Brodney's;  Purple  Parasol;  Cowardice 
Court;  The  Flyers;  The  Daughter  of  Anderson 
Crow;  Truxton  King;  The  Butterfly  Man;  The 
Rose  in  the  Ring;  Mary  MuUhorne,  etc.,  and 
numerous  short  stories  in  various  magazines. 

Macdonald,  George,  Scottish  poet  and  novelist, 
was  bom  at  Iluntly.  1824;  was  educated  at 
Alwrdeen  and  the  Independent  college  at  High- 
bury, and  became  pastor  at  Arundel  and  at 
Manchester,  but  ill-health  drove  him  to  literature. 
His  first  book  was  one  of  verse,  and  a  long  series 
of  novels  followed,  including  David  Elginbrod; 
The  Portent;  Alec  Forbes;  Annals  of  a  Quiet 
Neighbor  flood;  Guild  Court;  The  Sealtoard  Parish; 
Robert  Falconer;  Wilfred  Cumhcrmede;  Malcolm; 
8i.  George  and  St.  Michael;  The  Marquis  of 
Lossie;  Sir  Gibbie;  What's  Mine's  Mine;  Lilith; 
Salted  urith  Fire,  etc.  These  novels  reveal  deep 
spiritual  instincts  of  their  author  in  reaction 
•gainst  Calvinism.  He  also  published  the  fol- 
lowing books  for  the  young:  Dealings  with  the 
Fairies;  Ranald  Bannerman's  Boyhood;  At  the 
Back  of  the  North  Wind;  The  Princess  and  the 
Goblin;  besides  Unspoken  Sermons;  The  Miradea 
of  Our  Lord;  and  Poetical  Works.  In  1872-73  he 
made  a  lecturing  tour  in  the  United  States;  in 
1877  received  a  pension  of  100  pounds.   Died,  1905. 

Macdonald,  8lr  Jubn  Alexander,  distinguished 
Canadian  statenman,  was  bom  in  Glasgow,  1815. 
His  parents  settled  in  Canada  during  his  child- 
hood, and  he  was  educated  at  Kingston  grammar 
school,  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
Canadian  bar  in  1836.  He  entered  the  Canadian 
parliament  in  1844;  became  receiver-general  of 
Canada,  1847;  commissioner  of  crown  lands, 
1847-48;  attorney-general,  1854-62  and  1864-67; 
prime  minister,  1857;  government  leader  in  the 
assembly,  1864-67;  and  minister  of  militia 
affairs,  1862-65-67.  He  was  chairman  of  the 
London  colonial  conference  of  1866-67,  and  more 
than  any  other  person  was  responsible  for  Cana- 
dian federation.  After  its  establishment,  he  was 
head  of  the  new  Dominion  government,  as 
minister  of  justice  and  attornev-general,  1807-73, 
when  he  resigned  from  the  cabinet.  From  1878 
until  his  death  he  was  premier  of  the  Dominion. 
He  died  at  Eamscliffe  Hall,  near  Ottawa,  1891. 

Macdonald,  J.  A^  Canadian  journalist,  managing 
editor  of  The  Globe,  Toronto,  since  1902,  was  bom 
in  Middlesex,  county  of  Ontario,  Canada,  1862. 
He  was  graduated  at  Knox  college,  Toronto, 
1887 ;  edited  The  Knox  College  Monthly  during  his 
college  course  and  until  1891 ;  was  ordained  to 
ministry  of  the  Presbyterian  church,  and  inducted 
pastor  of  Knox  church,  St.  Thomas,  Ontario, 
1891 ;  resigned  pastoral  charge,  1896,  and 
removed  to  Toronto  to  become  first  editor  of 
The  Westminster,  a  religious  monthly  magazine; 
subsequently  acquired  the  Canadian  Presbyterian, 
The  Presbyter,  The  Presbyterian  Review,  and  The 
Western  Presbyterian,  which  were  consolidated 
under  his  editorship  and  issued  as  The  Presbyte- 
rian, a  weekly  devoted  to  Presbyterian  church 
interests.  He  was  principal  of  the  Presbyterian 
ladies'  college,  1896-1901 ;  he  was  appointed  by 
Ontario  government  to  serve  for  six  years  on 
first  board  of  governors  of  the  university  of 
Toronto,  1906.  Author:  From  Far  Formosa,  a 
volume  on  life-work  of  Dr.  G.  L.  MacKay,  and 
many  fugitive  articles  on  literary,  social,  political, 
and  religious  subjects. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


855 


HcEnery,  Samuel  Douglas,  United  States  senator, 
was  born  at  Monroe,  La.,  1837.  He  was  educated 
at  Spring  Mill  college,  near  Mobile,  Ala.,  the 
United  States  naval  academy,  and  the  university 
of  Virginia.  He  served  in  the  confederate  army, 
studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar;  was 
elected  lieutenant-governor  of  Louisiana,  1879, 
and  on  the  death  of  Governor  Wiltz,  1881,  suc- 
ceeded him  in  the  executive  office.  He  was  then 
nominated  for  governor  and  elected  in  1884; 
was  associate  justice  of  the  Louisiana  supreme 
court,  1888-97 ;  was  elected  United  States  senator 
for  the  terms  1897-1915.     Died,  1910. 

McGee,  Anita  Newcomb,  American  physician,  was 
bom  at  Washington,  D.  C,  1864,  daughter  of 
Professor  Simon  Newcomb.  She  was  educated 
in  private  schools,  Washington,  followed  by 
special  courses  at  Newnham  college,  Cambridge, 
England,  university  of  Geneva,  etc.,  and  gradu- 
ated at  Columbian  university,  M.  D.,  1892; 
took  special  post-graduate  course  in  gynecology, 
Johns  Hopkins  hospital,  and  was  in  practice  in 
Washington,  1892-96.  In  1888  she  married  W. 
J.  McGee,  the  anthropologist.  She  was  appointed, 
in  1898,  acting  assistant  surgeon  of  United  States 
army,  being  the  only  woman  to  hold  such  a  posi- 
tion, and  was  assigned  to  duty  in  the  surgeon- 
general's  office,  in  charge  of  the  army  nurse 
corps,  which  she  organized.  When  United 
States  congress  approved  this  work  by  making 
the  nurse  corps  of  trained  women  a  permanent 
part  of  the  army,  the  pioneer  stage  was  passed, 
and  she  resigned  in  1900.  In  1904,  acting  as 
president  of  the  society  of  Spanish-American 
war  nurses  and  as  representative  of  Philadelphia 
red  cross  society,  and  by  agreement  with  Japanese 
government,  she  took  a  party  of  trained  nurses, 
formerly  in  the  United  States  army,  to  serve  in 
the  Japanese  army  for  six  months  gratuitously. 
Was  appointed  by  minister  of  war  as  siipervisor 
of  nurses,  which  placed  her  in  the  same  rank  with 
officers  of  the  Japanese  army,  and  inspected  and 
reported  on  relative  nursing  conditions.  She 
has  lectured  throughout  the  United  States  and 
written  for  various  magazines. 

HcGiffert,  Arthur  Cushmaa,  American  theological 
writer  and  critic,  professor  of  church  history. 
Union  theological  seminary.  New  York,  since 
1893,  was  born  at  Sauquoit,  N.  Y.,  1861.  He 
was  graduated  at  Western  Reserve  college,  1882 ; 
Union  theological  seminary,  1885;  university  of 
Marburg,  Germany,  Ph.  D.,  1888;  studied  in 
Germany,  1885—87,  and  in  France  and  Italy, 
1887-88.  He  was  instructor  in  church  history. 
Lane  theological  seminary,  Cincinnati,  1888-90; 
professor  in  the  same,  1890-93.  Author:  Dio- 
togric  Between  a  Christian  and  a  Jew;  translation 
of  Eusebius'  Church  History;  A  History  of 
Christianity  in  the  Apostolic  Age;  The  Apostles' 
Creed;  and  joint  author  of  The  Christian  Point 
of  View,  etc. 

McGrath,  Harold,  journalist,  author,  was  bom  in 
Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  1871,  and  has  been  engaged  in 
journalism  since  1890.  Author:  Arms  and  the 
Woman;  The  Man  on  the  Box;  Hearts  and  Masks; 
Half  a  Rogue;  The  Best  Man;  The  Dure  of  the 
Mask;  The  Puppet  Crown;  The  Grey  Cloak;  The 
Princess  Elopes;  Enchantment;  The  Watteau 
Shepherdess,  an  operetta;  The  Goose  Girl;  and 
numerous  magazine  stories. 

HachlavelU  {maf -kya-vU' -le),  Niccolo  dl  Bernardo 
del,  Italian  statesman  and  author,  was  bom  in 
Florence,  Italy,  1469,  son  of  a  jurist  of  good 
family.  He  was  secretary  of  state  at  Florence 
from  1498  to  1512,  went  on  several  important 
missions,  but  was  deprived  of  office  and  exiled 
in  the  latter  year  by  the  Medici.  Subsequently 
released,  he  retired  to  a  country  estate  near  San 
Casciano,  and  devoted  himself  to  literary  pur- 
suits.    His  chief  works  were  II  Principe;   Istorie 


Fiorentine;  Arte  deila  Guerra;  some  comediee 
and  poems;  and  Discorsi  anile  Deche  di  Tito 
Livio.  In  1521  he  again  took  part  in  affairs  for 
a  short  time,  but  died  in  poverty,  1527. 

Mack,  Norman  Edward,  American  journalist  and 
politician,  editor  and  publisher  of  the  Buffalo 
Times,  was  bom  in  Canada,  1858.  He  was 
educated  in  the  public  schools;  went  West  and 
engaged  in  business  pursuits;  established  the 
Sunday  Times  in  Buffalo,  1879 ;  the  Daily  Timet, 
1883;  and  the  National  Monthly,  1909.  He  was 
a  delegate  to  the  democratic  national  conventions 
of  1892,  1896,  1900,  1904,  and  1908 ;  has  been  a 
member  of  the  democratic  national  committee 
and  member  executive  committee  of  the  same, 
since  1900,    and  chairman  since  1908. 

McKenna,  Joseph,  American  lawyer  and  jurist,  was 
born  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1843.  At  the  age  of 
twelve  he  removed  to  California  with  his  parents. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Benicia  collegiate  insti- 
tute, at  which  he  studied  law,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1865.  He  was  soon  after 
elected  county  attorney  of  Solano  county,  and 
in  1875  was  sent-  to  the  state  legislature. 
Although  twice  defeated  for  congress,  he  ran 
again  in  1884  and  was  elected,  serving  four  con- 
secutive terms.  During  his  career  in  congress  he 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  William  McKinley  and 
assisted  in  the  framing  of  the  McKinley  tariff  of 
1890.  He  was  appointed  to  the  United  States 
circuit  bench  of  the  Pacific  slope  in  1892;  was 
attorney-general  of  the  United  States,  1897-98, 
and  associate  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the 
United  States,  since  1898. 

Mackenzie,  Alexander,  Canadian  statesman,  was 
bom  near  Dunkeld,  Scotland,  1822.  He  moved  to 
Canada  in  1842,  and  engaged  in  business  as  a  con- 
tractor and  journalist  until  1861.  He  was  elected 
to  the  assembly  of  Canada,  1861-67,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  Dominion  parliament  representing 
the  same  constituency  for  twenty-five  years.  He 
was  offered  a  seat  in  the  Canadian  cabinet  in 
1865,  but  declined  it.  Upon  the  resignation  of 
Sir  John  Macdonald  he  became  premier  of  the 
Dominion  and  minister  of  public  works.  Upon 
the  election  of  a  conservative  majority  to  parlia- 
ment in  1878,  he,  with  his  cabinet,  resigned. 
He  possessed  great  ability  as  an  administrator, 
was  a  gifted  orator,  and  his  influence  throughout 
the  Dominion  was  salutary.    Died,  1892. 

McKenzle,  Alexander,  Congregational  clergyman, 
was  born  at  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  1830.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard,  1859,  Andover  theological 
seminary,  1861 ;  D.  D.,  Amherst,  1879,  S.  T.  D., 
Harvard,  1901 ;  was  pastor  of  South  church, 
Augusta,  Me.,  1861-67,  First  church,  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  1867-1910,  pastor  emeritus  since  1910. 
He  is  a  trustee  of  Phillips  academy,  Andover,  and 
Hampton  institute,  Virginia;  lecturer  at  .Andover 
theological  seminary,  1881-82  and  1894-97; 
emeritus  president  of  trustees  of  Wellesley  college. 
Author:  Two  Boys;  Lectures  on  the  History  of  the 
First  Church  in  Cambridge;  Cambridge  Sermons; 
Some  Things  Abroad;  Christ  Himself;  The  Divine 
Force  in  the  Life  of  the  World;  A  Door  Opened; 
Now;  Getting  One's  Bearings,  etc. 

McKim,  Charles  FoUen,  American  architect,  was 
born  in  Chester  county,  Pa.,  1847.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Lawrence  scientific  school,  Harvard, 
1866-67;  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris,  1867-70; 
hon.  A.  M.,  Harvard,  1890,  Bowdoin,  1894.  He 
began  practice,  1872,  joined  in  partnership  by 
William  R.  Mead,  1877,  and  by  late  Stanford 
White  in  1879  as  McKim,  Mead  and  White. 
Among  the  notable  buildings  erected  by  the  firm 
are:  Columbia  university;  state  capitol,  Rhode 
Island;  Brookljrn  institute  of  arts  and  sciences; 
Walker  art  gallery,  Bowdoin  college ;  department 
of  architecture,  Harvard;  music  hall,  public 
library,    Boston;     Newport   casino;     university, 


856 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Harvard,  Century  clubs,  New  York,  etc.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  congressional  commission 
for  the  improvement  of  Washington  park  system ; 
member  of  New  York  art  commission;  member 
Accademia  di  San  Lucca,  Rome,  1899;  American 
academy  in  Rome.  He  was  awarded  the  royal 
gold  medal  by  King  Edward  for  promotion  of 
architecture,  1903.  Died,  1909. 
McKinley,  William,  American  statesman,  twenty- 
fifth  president  of  the  United  States,  was  born  m 
Niles,  Ohio,  1843.  He  was  educated  in  the  pub- 
lic schools,  at  the  Poland,  Ohio,  academy,  and 
entered  Allegheny  college,  though  he  never  fin- 
ished the  course.  In  1861  he  volunteered  in  the 
Union  army,  and  entered  the  23d  Ohio  infantry 
as  a  private.  He  served  four  years,  rising  b^ 
merit  and  faithfulness  to  the  captaincy  of  his 
company,  and  to  the  rank  of  major  when  mus- 
tered out  in  1865.  He  then  at  once  began  the 
study  of  law;  in  1867  he  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,  and  commenced  practice  at  Canton,  Ohio, 
where  he  afterward  had  his  residence.  In  1869 
he  was  elected  prosecuting  attorney  for  Stark 
county,  where  his  success  attracted  local  atten- 
tion. Entering  politics,  he  was  elected  to  con- 
gress in  1876,  and  was  reelected  for  six  successive 
terms.  In  1882  his  election  was  contested,  and 
he  was  unseated,  but  triumphantly  returned  at 
the  next  election.  His  reputation  in  congress 
rests  chiefly  on  the  tariff  bill  that  bears  his  name. 
It  was  drawn  by  him  as  chairman  of  the  ways 
and  means  committee,  and  passed  by  the  fifty- 
first  congress.  This  bill  and  his  able  advocacy 
of  it  before  the  house  distinguished  him  as  the 
leader  of  the  republican  party,  on  the  tariff  ques- 
tion. The  republican  party  went  before  the 
country  in  1892  almost  solely  on  the  issue  raised 
by  the  McKinley  tariff,  but  a  reaction  against  it 
had  set  in,  and  Cleveland  was  elected.  Mean- 
while McKinley  failed  of  reelection  in  his  dis- 
trict, though  largely  reducing  the  adverse  plural- 
ity created  by  a  redistricting  that  changed  the 
limits  of  the  district.  In  1891  he  was  elected 
governor  of  Ohio  by  a  large  plurality  over  former 
Governor  James  E.  Campbell,  a  very  popular 
democrat,  and  reelected  in  1893  in  the  reactionary 
tidal  wave  of  politics  following  a  contrary  tariff 
policy,  that  carried  the  republican  party  back 
to  power  in  congress.  By  this  time  his  name  was 
frequently  mentioned  as  a  future  candidate  for 
the  presiaency.  In  1895  a  systematic  canvass  in 
McKinley's  behalf  was  instituted  by  his  sup- 
porters, which  was  continued  until  the  election 
of  1896.  He  was  nominated  and  elected  by  an 
electoral  majority  of  ninety-five,  after  a  cam- 
paign of  more  intense  interest  than  was  displayed 
in  any  election  since  the  civil  war.  President 
McKinley's  first  term  is  memorable  chiefly  for 
the  occurrence  of  the  Spanish-American  war  and 
its  unexpected  results.  That  his  policy  during 
1896-1900  was  acceptable  was  shown  by  his 
unanimous  renomination  and  reelection  in  1900 
by  an  electoral  majority  of  137.  His  second 
term  began  most  auspiciously  and  ended  tragic- 
ally. On  September  5,  1901,  he  visited  the  Pan- 
American  exposition  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  that  day 
having  been  set  apart  in  his  honor  and  called  the 
''President's  day."  On  the  afternoon  of  the 
following  day,  while  holding  a  public  reception 
in  the  temple  of  music,  he  was  shot  twice  by 
Leon  F.  Czolgosz,  an  anarchist,  who  was  at  once 
arrested.  The  wounded  president  was  first  taken 
to  the  emergency  hospital  on  the  exposition 
grounds,  for  immediate  treatment,  and  then 
removed  to  the  residence  of  John  G.  Milbum, 
president  of  the  exposition.  Hopes  of  his  recov- 
ery were  entertained  for  several  days,  but  on 
September  13th  he  began  to  sink  rapidlv  and 
died  at  2.15  A.  M.,  September  14th.  His  remains 
were  removed  to  Washington  on  September  16th, 


laid  in  state  in  the  capitol  on  the  17th,  and  taken 
to  his  home  city,  Canton,  Ohio,  where  they  were 
interred  on  the  18th,  amid  universal  mourning. 
Mackintosh,  Sir  James,  Scotch  philosopher  and 
politician,  was  born  in  Inverness-shire,  1765.  He 
first  took  his  degree  in  medicine,  but  went  to 
London  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's 
Inn,  1795.     He  was  recorder  at  Bombay,  1803; 

i'udge  of  admiralty,  Bombay,  1806;  returned  to 
Cngland,  1811,  and  entered  parliament,  1813. 
He  wrote  Virufinioe  GaUicae  in  reply  to  Burke's 
philippic;  defended  Peltier,  Bonaparte's  enemy, 
in  a  magnificent  style;  contributed  a  masterly 
preliminary  Dissertation  on  Ethics  to  the  Ency- 
clopaedia Briiannica;  wrote  the  History  of  the 
Revolution  in  England  in  1688,  etc.  Died  at 
London,  1832. 

Maclaren,  Ian,  pseudonym  of  John  Watson,  Scotch 
preacher  and  writer,  waa  born  at  Manningtree, 
Essex,  1850,  of  Scottish  parents.  He  waa 
educated  at  Edinburgh  university,  and  at  Tubin- 
gen; ordained  a  minister  of  the  Free  church  of 
Scotland,  and  had  liis  first  important  charge  at 
Free  St.  Matthew's,  Glasgow.  He  waa  after- 
ward transferred  to  the  Sefton  Park  Presbyterian 
church,  Liverpool.  In  1893  he  acquired  great 
distinction  ana  a  wide  fame  by  a  series  of  Scottish 
prose  idyjls,  written  for  the  British  Weekly,  and 
afterward  published  under  the  title  of  Beside 
the  Bonnie  Brier  Bush.  This  work  won  deserved 
praiae  for  the  fidelity  with  which  he  {>ortrayed 
numble  and  reverent  Scottish  life  and  scenes. 
The  volume  was  followed  by  The  Days  of  Auld 
Lang  Syne;  Kate  Carnegie;  A  Doctor  of  the  Old 
School;  Rabbi  Saunderson;  Afterwards;  and 
other  stories.  Hia  religioua  writings  embrace 
The  Upper  Room;  The  Mind  of  the  Master; 
The  Potter's  Wheel;  and  Companions  of  the  Sor- 
rowful Way.  In  1896,  and  again  in  1907,  he 
visited  the  United  States  on  lecture  tours,  and 
delivered  the  Lyman  Beecher  lectures  at  Yale 
university  on  practical  theology,  published  under 
the  title.  The  Cure  of  SouU.     Died,  1907. 

McLaughlin  {niAk-l6kr-lln\  Andrew  Cunningham, 
American  historian  ana  educator,  was  born  at 
Beardstown,  111.,  1861.  He  was  graduated  at 
the  university  of  Michigan,  1882,  law  depart- 
ment, 1885,  A.  M.,  189o.  He  was  instructor  in 
Latin,  1886-87,  instructor  in  history,  1887-88, 
assistant  professor,  1888-91^  professor  of  Ameri- 
can history,  1891-1906,  university  of  Michigan, 
and  professor  of  history,  university  of  Chicago, 
since  1906.  He  was  director  of  the  bureau  of 
historical  research,  Carnegie  institution,  Wash- 
ington, 1903-05.  Author:  Lewis  Cass,  in  Ameri- 
can Statesmen  series;  History  of  Higher  Educa- 
tion in  Michigan;  Civil  Government  in  Michigan; 
A  History  of  the  American  Nation;  The  Confed- 
eration and  the  Constitution,  etc.  Editor: 
Cooley's  Principles  of  Constitutional  Law;  The 
Study  of  History  in  Schools;  has  been  associate 
editor  since  1898,  and  managing  editor,  1901-05, 
of  the  Atnerican  Historical  Review. 

SIcLaiuin    (m&k-ld'-rin),    Anselm  Joseph,    lawyer. 
United  States  senator,   was   born  at   Brandon, 
Mi.ss.,    1848.     He  joined  the  confederate  army 
and  served  as  a  private;    after  the  war  attended 
Summerville  institute,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,    1868.     He  was   elected   district   attorney 
1871 ;     representative    in   the    legislature,    1879 
presidential  elector  for  the  state  at  large,  1888 
delegate  to  the  constitutional  convention,  1890 
United  States  senator,  1894;    governor  of  Mis- 
sissippi,   1895,    and    served    four   years;     again 
elected  to  the  United  States  senate,   1900,  and 
reelected  for  the  term  1907-13.     Died,  1909. 

McLean,  Emily  Nelson  Ritchie  (Mrs.  Donald 
McLean),  president  general  of  national  society  of 
Daughters  of  the  American  Revolution,  1905-09, 
was  bom  at  Prospect  hall,  Frederick,  Md.,  1859, 


WILLIAM    McKlNLEY 

From  a  photograph  by  CUnedinst 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


859 


daushter  of  Judge  John  Ritchie.  She  was 
graduated  at  Fredericlc  seminary,  now  Woman's 
college,  1873,  and  pursued  post-graduate  courses 
in  language,  history,  and  mathematics.  She 
married  Donald  McLean,  1883.  She  is  a  charter 
member  of  the  Daughters  of  the  American 
Revolution;  regent  of  New  York  city  chapter 
ten  years,  and  a  scholarship  bearing  her  name  was 
established  in  1898  in  Barnard  college  by  the 
New  York  chapter  of  the  Daughters  of  the 
American  Revolution.  She  was  commissioner 
from  New  York  to  Cotton  States  and  Interna- 
tional exposition,  1895-96,  to  South  Carolina 
exposition,  1901-02,  to  Jamestown  exposition, 
1907,  and  is  well  known  by  her  public  addresses 
throughout  the  country  on  patriotic  and  educa- 
tional themes. 

MacLean,  George  Edwin,  American  educator,  was 
born  at  Rockville,  Conn.,  1850.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  William^s  college,  1871 ;  Yale  theological 
seminary,  1874;  university  of  Leipzig,  Ph.  D., 
1883;  studied  at  university  of  Berlin;  LL.  D., 
Williams  college,  1895.  He  was  minister  of  the 
Memorial  Presbyterian  church,  Troy,  N.  Y., 
1877-81 ;  professor  of  English  language  and 
literature,  university  of  Minnesota,  1883-95 ; 
chancellor  university  of  Nebraska,  1895—99; 
president  of  the  university  of  Iowa,  1899-1911. 
Author :  A  Chart  of  English  Literature;  Old  and 
Middle  English  Reader;  A  Decade  of  Develop- 
ment in  American  State  Universities;  and  periooi- 
cal  articles  and  reviews. 

MacMahon  {mdk'-md'-Sui'),  Marie  Edme  Patrice 
Maurice  de,  French  general  and  statesman,  was 
born  at  Sully  near  Autun,  1808.  He  was 
descended  from  an  Irish  Jacobite  family.  Enter- 
ing the  army,  he  served  in  Algeria,  distinguished 
himself  at  Constantine,  1837,  commanded  at  the 
Malakoff,  1855,  was  again  conspicuous  in  Algeria, 
1857-58,  and  for  his  services  in  the  Italian 
campaign  of  1859  was  made  marshal  and  duke 
of  Magenta.  He  became  governor-general  of 
Algeria  in  1864.  In  the  Franco-Prussian  war, 
1870-71,  he  commanded  the  first  army  corps,  but 
was  defeated  at  Worth,  and  captured  at  Sedan. 
After  the  war,  as  commander  of  the  army  of 
Versailles,  he  suppressed  the  commune.  In 
1873  he  was  elected  president  of  France  for  seven 
years,  and  was  suspected,  perhaps  not  unjustly, 
of  reactionary  and  monarchical  leanings.  He 
resigned  in  1879,  and  died  at  Chateau  la  Foret, 
1893. 

McMaster,  Jolin  Bach,  American  historian,  pro- 
fessor of  American  history  in  the  university  of 
Pennsylvania  since  1883,  was  bom  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  1852.  He  was  graduated  at  the  college  of 
the  city  of  New  York,  1872;  Ph.  D.,  Litt.  D. 
LL.  D. ;  was  a  civil  engineer,  1873-77,  and 
instructor  in  civil  engineering  at  Princeton, 
1877-83.  Author:  A  History  of  the  People  of  the 
United  States,  8  vols.;  Benjamin  Franklin  as  a 
Man  of  Letters;  With  the  Fathers,  Studies  in 
American  History;  Origin,  Meaning,  and  Appli- 
cation  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine;  A  School  History 
of  the  United  States;  A  Primary  School  History 
of  the  United  'States;  Daniel  Webster;  Brief 
History  of  the  United  States;  The  Struggle  for  the 
Social,  Political,  and  Industrial  Rights  of  Man, 
etc. 

MacMonnies  (mdk-miin'-lz),  Frederick  William, 
American  sculptor,  was  bom  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
1863.  He  studied  under  Augustus  Saint  Gaudens, 
at  the  academy  of  design,  and  art  students'  league ; 
he  completed  his  art  education  at^^  Munich, 
in  the  atelier  of  Falguiere  in  Ecole  des 
Beaux  Arts,  and  in  the  private  studio  of  Antonin 
Mercie.  He  received  the  first  prize  of  the 
national  academy  of  design,  1884;  the  prix 
d' atelier,  highest  prize  open  to  foreigners,  1886, 
and  established  his  own  studio  in  Paris,  1887. 


He  has  received  many  prizes  and  decorations, 
and  executed  the  following  works:  three  life- 
size  bronze  angels,  St.  Paul's  church,  New  York; 
Nathan  Hale,  City  Hall  park.  New  York;  James 
Samuel  Thomas  Stranahan,  Prospect  park, 
Brooklvn;  "Pan  of  Rohallion";  ''Faun  with 
Heron  ' ;  Sir  Henry  Vane,  Boston  public  library, 
1893;  colossal  fountain.  Worlds  Columbian 
exposition,  Chicago;  "Bacchante  with  Infant 
Faun,"  Metropolitan  museum  of  art.  New  York, 
and  Luxembourg  gallery,  Paris;  two  pediments, 
Bowery  bank,  5few  York;  four  spandrels, 
Washineton  arch.  New  York;  "Venus  and 
Adonis'';  "Cupid";  figure  of  Victory  for  battle 
monument.  West  Point;  central  bronze  doors 
and  statue  of  Shakespeare,  Congressional  library ; 
army  and  navy  groups  for  soldiers'  and  sailors' 
arch.  Prospect  park,  Brooklyn;  two  groups  of 
horses.  Prospect  park,  Brooklyn;  equestrian 
statue  of  General  Slocum,  Brooklyn;  equestrian 
statuette  of  Theodore  Roosevelt;  eauestrian 
statue  of  General  G.  B.  McClellan,  Washington; 
two  fountains,  Knickerbocker  hotel,  New  York, 
etc. 

Macready,  William  Charles,  English  actor,  was 
born  in  London,  1793.  He  was  educated  at 
Rugby,  made  his  first  appearance  at  Birmingham 
in  1810,  and  was  engaged  at  Covent  Garden, 
London,  in  1816.  He  played  Richard  III.  in 
1819,  removed  to  Drury  Lane  in  1823,  and  after 
a  tour  of  the  United  States,  appeared  as  Macbeth 
in  1827.  He  subsequently  visited  Paris,  and 
held  the  management  of  Covent  Garden  and 
Drury  Lane.  In  1849  he  nearly  lost  his  life  in  a 
riot  promoted  by  the  friends  of  Forrest  at  the 
Astor  opera  house.  New  York.  He  made  his  last 
appearance  at  Drury  Lane  in  1851.     Died,  1873. 

MacVeagh,  Franklin,  merchant,  secretary  of  the 
treasury,  1909-13;  was  bom  in  Chester  county. 
Pa.  He  was  graduated  from  Yale,  1862, 
Columbia  law  school.  New  York,  1864 ;  abandoned 
the  practice  of  law  because  of  ill  health  and  went 
to  Chicago,  where  he  engaged  in  the  wholesale 
grocery  business.  He  became  president  of  the 
citizens'  association  in  1874,  which  inaugurated 
many  important  municipal  reforms ;  was  nomi- 
nated by  the  democrats  of  Illinois,  in  1894,  for 
United  States  senator  and  made  a  canvass  of 
the  state,  but  was  defeated  in  the  legislature. 
He  was  president  of  the  bureau  of  charities  and 
municipal  art  league;  member  of  the  executive 
committee,  national  civic  federation,  and  vice- 
president  of  the  American  civic  association,  1905. 

MacVeagh,  Wayne,  American  lawyer,  was  bom 
near  Phoenixville,  Chester  county,  Pa.,  1833. 
He  was  graduated  from  Yale,  1853,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar,  1856.  He  was  district 
attorney  for  Chester  county.  Pa.,  1859-64; 
captain  of  infantry,  1862.  and  of  cavalry,  1863, 
when  invasions  of  Pennsylvania  were  threatened ; 
chairman  republican  state  committee  of  Penn- 
sylvania, 1863;  United  States  minister  to 
"Turkey,  1870-71;  member  of  Pennsylvania  con- 
stitutional convention,  1872-74;  head  of  "Mac- 
Veagh commission"  sent  to  Louisiana,  1877,  by 
President  Hayes  to  amicably  adjust  disputes  of 
contending  parties  there ;  United  States  attorney- 
general  in  cabinet  of  President  Garfield,  1881, 
but  resigned  on  accession  of  President  Arthur, 
resuming  law  practice  at  Philadelphia.  He  sup- 
ported Cleveland  for  president,  1892;  was 
ambassador  to  Italy,  1893-97,  and  chief  counsel 
of  the  United  States  in  the  Venezuelan  arbitra- 
tion before  The  Hague  tribunal,  1903.  Contribu- 
tor of  several  articles  to  North  American  review 
in  advocacy  of  international  peace  and  other 
subjects. 

Madison,  James,  fourth  president  of  the  United 
States,  was  bom  in  King  George  county,  Va., 
1751.     He  was  graduated  at  Princeton,  N.  J., 


860 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


1771,  and  studied  law.  In  1776  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Virginia  convention,  and,  though  too 
modest  for  an  orator,  he  became  one  of  the  most 
eminent,  accomplished,  and  respected  of  Ameri- 
can statesmen.  He  was  sent  to  the  federal  con- 
gress, 1780;  in  1784,  to  the  legislature  of  Vir- 
finia,  in  which  he  supported  the  measures  of 
efferson  in  the  revision  of  the  laws,  and  placing 
all  religious  denominations  on  an  equality  of 
freedom  without  state  support.  As  a  member 
of  the  convention  of  1787,  which  framed  the 
federal  constitution,  Madison  acted  with  Jay  and 
Hamilton,  and  with  them  wrote  the  Federalist. 
He  supported  the  adoption  of  the  constitution, 
but  opposed  the  financial  policy  of  Hamilton, 
and  became  a  leader  of  the  republican  or  Jeffer- 
sonian  party.  He  declined  the  mission  to 
France,  and  the  office  of  secretary  of  state,  but 
in  1792  became  the  leader  of  the  republican  party 
in  congress,  and  wrote  the  Kentucky  resolutions 
of  1798,  which  contain  the  basis  of  the  state- 
rights  doctrines.  In  1801,  Jefferson  having  been 
elected  president,  Madison  was  made  secretary 
of  state,  which  post  he  held  during  the  eight 
years  of  Jefferson's  administration.  In  1809  he 
became  >  president  of  the  United  States.  The 
European  wars  of  that  period,  with  their  block- 
ades and  orders  in  council,  were  destructive  of 
American  commerce.  The  claim  of  the  English 
government  to  impress  seamen  from  American 
vessels  was  violently  resisted.  Madison  vainly 
endeavored  to  avoid  a  war  with  England,  which, 
nevertheless,  was  declared  in  1812,  and  continued 
for  two  years,  at  a  cost  of  30,000  lives  and  $100,- 
000,000.  He  was  one  of  the  nine  presidents 
elected  for  a  second  term,  during  which  he 
approved  the  establishment  of  a  national  bank 
as  a  financial  necessity  —  a  measure  he  had 
opposed  and  vetoed.  In  1817  he  retired  to  his 
seat  at  Montpelier,  Va.,  where  he  serv^ed  as  a 
rector  of  the  luiiversity  of  Virginia,  and  a  pro- 
moter of  agriculture  and  public  improvements. 
Without  being  a  brilliant  man,  he  was  a  states- 
man of  eminent  ability  and  purity  of  character. 
Died  at  Montpelier,  1836. 

Maecenas  {me-se'-nds),  Galus  CUnius«  Roman 
statesman,  was  born  about  70  B.  C.  He  was 
the  friend  of  Virgil  and  Horace,  and  was  cele- 
brated for  his  patronage  of  letters.  He  had  a 
talent  for  private  diplomacy,  and  was  employed 
mainly  in  that  capacity.  In  36  B.  C.  he  was  in 
Sicily,  helping  Octavian.  Five  years  later,  when 
the  latter  was  fighting  the  great  sea  battle  of 
Actium  with  his  rival  Antony  and  the  Egvptian 
Cleopatra,  Maecenas  proved  himself  an  able  and 
vigilant  governor  of  Rome  by  crushing  a  con- 
spiracy of  the  younger  Lepidus,  and  thereby 
preventing  a  second  civil  war.     Died,  8  B.  C. 

Maeterlinck  {md,' -Ur4lngk),  Maurice,  Belgian  au- 
thor, was  bom  at  Ghent,  1862.  He  was  greatly 
influenced  in  his  thought  by  Novalis  and  Emer- 
son, and  his  first  writings  were  poetical.  The 
following  is  a  list  of  his  chief  works,  some  of 
which  have  been  translated  into  English  and 
have  attracted  considerable  attention:  La 
Princesse  Maleine;  Pellias  et  Mdisande;  AUadine 
et  Palomides;  Aglavaine  et  SUysette;  Douze 
Chansons;  Le  Trisor  des  Humbles;  La  Mart  de 
TtntagUes;  L'Intruse;  and  La  Sagesse  et  la 
Deshnie.  He  is  also  the  author  of  the  dramas 
Anane  et  Barbebleue;  Saeur  Beatrice;  Monna 
Vanna,  and  JoyzeUe.  Received  Nobel  prize  for 
hterature,  1911. 

MageUan,  Ferdinand,  Portuguese  navigator,  was 
bom  about  1470.  He  served  his  country  first  in 
•?u  t5?  Indies  and  Morocco,  but,  dissatisfied 
y}^.  ]^^  Manuel's  treatment,  he  offered  him- 
self to  Spam.  Under  Charies  V.'s  patronage  he 
and  Ruy  Falero  set  out  to  reach  the  Moluccas  by 
the  west  m  1519,  reached  the  Philippines,  and 


died  in  battle  in  Mactan.  On  this  voyage  he  dis- 
covered the  Magellan  strait,  375  miles  long  and 
fifteen  miles  wide,  between  the  South  American 
mainland  and  Tierra  del  Fuego.  He  also  gave 
name  to  the  Pacific  ocean  from  the  exceptional 
calm  he  experienced  on  entering  it.  Died. 
1521. 

Magoon,  Charles  E„  lawyer,  administrator,  was 
bom  in  Minnesota,  1861.  He  studied  at  the 
university  of  Nebraska,  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1882,  and  engaged  in  general  practice.  He 
was  Judge-advocate  of  the  Nebraska  national 
guard;  law  officer  of  the  bureau  of  insular  affairs, 
war  department.  Washington,  1899-1904;  gen- 
eral counsel,  isthmian  canal  commission,  1904- 
05;  governor  of  canal  rone,  1905-06;  American 
minister  to  Panama,  1905-06 ;  provisional  governor 
of  Cuba,  1906-09.  Author:  The  Law  of  Civil 
Government  Under  Military  Occupation. 

Mahaffy,  John  Pentland,  Irish  euucator,  writer, 
was  born  in  Switzerland,  1839.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  Germany  and  at  Trinity  college,  Dublin, 
where  he  was  graduated  in  1859;  LL.  D.,  St. 
Andrews;  D.  C.  L.,  Oxford.  He  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  ancient  history  at  Dublin  university, 
1871,  and  was  Donnellan  lecturer,  1873-74.  He 
is  noted  for  a  wide  range  of  scholarship,  has  been 
a  freauent  contributor  to  periodicals,  and  haa 
publisaed  books  on  many  subjects.  Among 
these  are:  Lectures  on  Primitive  Civilization; 
Prolegomena  to  Ancient  History;  Greek  Social 
Life  from  Homer  to  Menander;  Rambles  and 
Studies  in  Greece;  History  of  Classical  Greek 
Literature;  Empire  of  the  Ptolemies;  The  Silver 
Age  of  the  Greek  World,  etc. 

Hahan  {ma-hAn'),  Alfred  Thayer,  American  naval 
officer  and  writer,  was  bom  at  West  Point,  N.  Y., 
1840.  He  was  graduated  at  the  United  States 
naval  academy,  1869;  served  in  the  civil  war; 
was  president  of  the  naval  war  college,  Newport, 
1886-89  and  1892-93;  visited  Europe  in  com- 
mand of  the  Chicago,  1893,  receiving  many 
honors,  among  them  degrees  from  both  Oxford 
and  Cambridge.  He  was  retired  at  his  own 
request  in  1896.  During  the  war  with  Spain  he 
was  a  member  of  the  naval  board  of  strategy; 
and  in  1899  was  appointed  by  President  McKinley 
one  of  the  American  deWates  to  the  universal 
peace  conference  at  The  Hague.  Author:  The 
Gulf  and  Inland  Waters;  Influence  of  Sea  Power 
Upon  History;  Influence  of  Sea  Power  Upon 
French  Revolution  and  Empire;  Life  of  Admiral 
Farragut;  Life  of  Nelson,  2  vols. ;  The  Interest 
of  the  United  States  in  Sea  Power;  Lessons  of 
Spanish  War;  The  Problem  of  Asia;  The  South 
African  War;  Types  of  Naval  Officers;  Retrospect 
and  Prospect;  Sea  Pouter  in  Its  Relations  to  the 
War  of  1812;  From  Sail  to  Steam;  Some  Neglected 
Aspects  of  War,  etc. 

Mahomet  {ma-hdm'-it).  See  Mohammed,  page 
218. 

Maine,  Sir  Henry  James  Sumner,  celebrated  English 
lawj'er  and  writer,  was  born  in  1822.  He  waa 
educated  at  Cambridge  university,  where,  in 
1847,  he  became  regius  professor  of  civil  law. 
In  1862  he  went  to  India  as  law  member  of  the 
council  in  India,  an  office  held  by  Lord  Macaulay. 
Before  going  to  India,  he  had  laeen  reader  at  the 
Temple,  London,  and  in  1870  he  became  Corpus 
professor  of  comparative  iurisprudence  at  Oxford. 
In  1887  he  was  elected  Whewell  professor  of 
international  law  at  Cambridge.  He  introduced 
wise  reforms  into  Indian  law,  but  his  work  on  the 
origin  and  growth  of  legal  and  social  institutions 
is  the  work  on  which  his  fame  mostly  rests.  His 
publications  include :  Ancient  Law;  Villaqe  Com- 
munities; Early  History  of  Institutions;  Popular 
Government;  International  Law;  and  Disserta- 
tions on  Early  Law  and  Custom.  He  died  at 
Cannes,  France,  1888. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


861 


Major.  Charles,  American  lawyer,  author,  was  bom 
in  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  1856.  lie  was  educated 
in  the  common  schools  at  Shelbyville  and  Indian- 
apolis; studied  law  and  engaged  in  practice  at 
Shelbj'ville.  Author:  When  Kniglithood  was  in 
Flower;  Bears  of  Blue  River;  Dorothy  Vernon  of 
Haddon  Hall;  A  Forest  Hearth;  YoLanda,  Maui 
of  Burgundy,  etc.     Died,  1913. 

Ualebrancho  (wdZ'-ferflxs/t')*  Nicolas,  French  phi- 
losopher, was  born  at  Paris,  1G.38.  He  was 
deformed  and  sickly,  and  from  his  childhood 
fond  of  solitude.  At  the  age  of  twenty-two  he 
entered  into  the  congregation  of  the  Oratory, 
and  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  Bible  history 
and  of  the  fathers  of  the  church.  He  subse- 
quently devoted  much  attention  to  Descartes's 
Traits  de  I'Homme,  which  led  him  to  the  study 
of  philosophy,  and  called  forth  his  famous  work, 
De  la  Recherche  de  la  Viriti.  This  work  displays 
great  depth  and  originality  of  thought  combined 
with  perspicuity  and  elegance  of  style.  He  wrote 
several  other  works  of  merit.     Died  at  Paris,  1715. 

Malherbe  (nuil'-erb'),  Francois  de,  French  poet, 
was  born  at  Caen,  1555.  He  studied  at  Paris, 
Basel,  and  Heidelberg,  and  published  his  first 
volume  of  poems  in  1587.  In  1605  he  became 
court  poet,  and  is  called  the  founder  of  classic 
poetry  in  France.  He  was  a  favorite  with  Louis 
XIII.,  and  also  with  Richelieu.  Died  in  Paris, 
1628. 

Malibran  (m&l'-l-br&n),  Maria  Fellclta,  celebrated 
mezzo-soprano  singer,  was  born  at  Paris,  1808, 
daughter  of  Manuel  Garcia,  Spanish  singer  and 
teacher  of  singing.  She  very  early  showed  extra- 
ordinary talent,  and  made  her  d^but  in  Italian 
opera,  1825,  in  London.  Shortly  afterward  her 
father  attempted  to  establish  Italian  opera  in 
New  York,  but  without  success.  There  she 
married  M.  MaUbran,  a  French  banker.  After 
her  husband's  failure  in  business  she  returned  to 
the  stage,  and  was  received  with  great  enthu- 
siasm in  France,  England,  Germany,  and  Italy. 
She  divorced  M.  Malibran,  and  in  1836  married 
M.  Beriot,  a  famous  violinist,  but  in  September 
of  that  year  she  died  at  Manchester,  England, 
in  consequence  of  a  fall  while  riding.  She  was 
one  of  the  most  popular  and  successful  prima 
donnas  of  modem  times. 

Slallet  (m&l'St),  John  William,  American  chemist 
and  educator,  emeritus  professor  of  chemistry, 
university  of  Virginia,  1908-12,  was  born  in  Dub- 
lin, Ireland,  1832.  He  was  graduated  at  Trinity 
college,  Dublin;  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  came 
to  the  United  States  in  1853,  but  was  always 
a  British  subject.  He  was  chemist  to  the  geologi- 
cal survey  of  Alabama ;  professor  of  chemistry  in 
the  university  of  Alabama;  officer  on  the  staff 
of  General  Rodes  in  confederate  army  of  northern 
Virginia;  transferred  to  artillery  corps,  and 
placed  in  general  charge  of  ordnance  laborato- 
ries of  confederate  states;  paroled  as  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  artillery,  1865 ;  professor  of  chemistry, 
medical  department  of  the  university  of  Louisi- 
ana, New  Orleans,  1865-68;  at  Virginia,  1868-83: 
at  university  of  Texas,  1883-84;  Jefferson  medical 
college,  1884-85;  and  again  at  university  of 
Virginia  1885-1908;  is  ex-president  of  the  Amer- 
ican chemical  society.  He  was  a  member  of  many 
scientific  societies.  He  was  joint  author  with  his 
father  of  British  Association  Catalogue  of  Earth- 
quakes; sundry  reports  on  water  analysis,  etc. 
Died,  1912. 

Malplghl  {mal-pe'-ge),  Marcello,  Italian  anatomist, 
was  born  near  Bologna,  Italy,  1628.  He  lectured 
in  Bologna,  Pisa,  and  other  places,  and  wrote 
works  on  the  anatomy  of  plants,  the  physiology 
of  the  silkworm,  and  medical  subjects.  His 
name  was  given  to  the  Malpighian  genus.  He  is 
well  known  for  his  discoveries  in  capillary  circu- 
lation, and  in  connection  with  the  anatomy  of 


the  kidneys.  In  1691  ho  became  physician  to 
Pope  Innocent  XII.,  but  died  in  1694. 

Malthus  {mdl'-thus),  Thomas  Robert,  English 
political  economist,  was  bom  near  Guildford, 
England,  1766.  He  was  graduated  at  Cam- 
bridge, 1788:  v/as  for  some  time  fellow  of  Jesus 
college,  Cambridge;  published  in  1798  his  Essay 
on  Population  in  whicn  he  maintained  that  popu- 
lation tends  to  increase  out  of  proportion  to  the 
increase  of  means  of  subsistence.  He  afterward 
took  orders,  and  held  from  1805  the  professor- 
ship of  history  and  political  economy  in  the  East 
India  company's  college,  Haileybury.  Others  of 
his  works  are  The  Nature  and  Progress  of  Rent 
and  Political  Economy.  He  died  at  St.  Catha- 
rine's, near  Bath,  1834. 

Mann,  Horace,  American  statesman  and  educator, 
was  born  at  Franklin,  Mass.,  1796.  He  wa« 
graduated  at  Brown  university,  1819,  studied 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  1823.  He  waa 
a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  legislature. 
1827-37;  secretary  of  the  Massachusetts  board 
of  education,  1837-48;  member  of  congress, 
1848-53;  and  from  1853  to  1859  president  of 
Antioch  college,  Ohio.  He  wrote:  Lectures  on 
Education;  Report  of  an  Educational  Tour  of 
Germany,  Great  Britain,  and  Ireland;  and  was 
untiring  in  his  efforts  in  the  cause  of  educational 
extension  and  reform,  in  the  suppression  of 
slavery,  and  in  the  promotion  of  temperance. 
It  was  through  his  efforts  that  the  first  normal 
school  in  the  United  States  was  established. 
Died,  1859. 

Mannering,  Mary,  actress,  was  bom  in  London, 
England,  1876,  daughter  of  Richard  and  Florence 
Friend.  She  was  educated  in  private  schools; 
studied  for  the  stage  under  Herman  Vezin;  went 
on  the  stage  at  the  age  of  fifteen;  appeared  in 
Hero  and  Leander  at  Shaftesbury  theater,  Lon- 
don ;  toured  English  provinces  two  years,  playing 
Shakespearean  roles;  then  leading  parts  in 
Sowing  the  Wind;  The  Late  Mr.  Costello;  Called 
Back,  etc.  She  came  to  the  United  States  under 
management  of  Daniel  Frohman;  made  her 
American  d6but  at  Parsons'  theater,  Hartford, 
Conn.,  1896,  in  The  Courtship  of  Leoni;  New 
York  d^but,  Lyceum  theater,  four  days  later. 
She  has  since  appeared  in  leading  r61es  in  modem 
drama.     In  1897  she  married  J.  K.  Hackett. 

Manning,  Henry  Edward,  English  prelate,  was  bom 
in  Hertfordshire,  England,  1808.  He  waa 
graduated  at  Oxford  in  1830,  studied  theology, 
and  was  appointed  rector  of  Lavington  ana 
Graffham,  Sussex,  1834.  He  became  arch- 
deacon of  Chichester,  1840;  in  1851  resigned  his 
preferments  in  the  church  of  England,  and 
joined  the  Roman  Catholic  church ;  was  ordained 
a  priest  in  1857 ;  nominated  archbishop  of  West- 
minster, 1865,  and  created  cardinal,  1875.  He 
founded  the  Roman  Catholic  university  of 
Kensington,  1874,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
Vatican  council,  defending  the  infaUibility 
dogma.  His  controversial  writings  are  very 
voluminous,  and  include:  Unity  of  the  Church; 
The  Temporal  Mission  of  the  Holy  Ghost;  Tem- 
poral Power  of  the  Pope;  England  and  Christen- 
dom, etc.     Died,  1892. 

Mansel,  Henry  LonguevlUe,  English  philosopher 
and  theologian,  was  born  at  Cosgrove,  England, 
1820.  He  was  graduated  at  Oxford  where  he 
was  successively  Wajniflete  professor  of  moral 

?ihilosophy  and  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history, 
n  1858  he  delivered  the  Bampton  lectures  on 
The  Limits  of  Religious  Thought.  He  had  pre- 
viously published  Prolegomena  Logica,  and  several 
works  on  metaphysics.  His  appointment  to  the 
deanery  of  St.  Paul's,  in  1868,  was  strongly 
opposed.  Died,  1871. 
Mansfleld,  Richard,  American  actor,  was  bom  in 
Heligoland,     Germany,     1857.     He    studied    in 


862 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


England  for  the  East  Indian  civil  service ;  came 
to  Boston  and  opened  a  studio,  and  later  entered 
theatrical  profession.  He  played  small  parts  in 
comic  opera ;  made  his  first  American  appearance 
at  the  Standard  theater,  New  York,  as  Dromez  in 
Lea  Manteaux  Noirs.  Was  ven^  successful  in  a 
wide  repertoire  from  Koko  in  Mikado  to  Richard 
III.  Was  head  of  his  own  company,  and  created 
such  parts  as  Beau  Brummel,  Baron  Chevrial, 
and  the  titular  r61es  in  Dr.  Jekyll  and  Mr.  Hyde. 
Appeared  as  Cyrano  de  Bergerac  in  1898,  and 
played  Shylock,  Henry  V.,  Beaucaire,  and  Brutus 
in  Julius  CoBsar.  Married  Beatrice  Cameron,  his 
leading  woman.  Author:  Blown  Atvay;  Mon- 
sieur; Ten  Thousand  a  Year,  and  Don  Juan. 
Died,  1907. 

Mante^a  (man-tdn'-ya),  Andrea,  Italian  painter, 
was  bom  in  or  near  Padua,  1431.  He  was  the 
favorite  pupil  and  adopted  son  of  Squarcione, 
the  tailor-painter.  A  precocious  genius,  he  set 
up  a  studio  of  his  own  when  only  seventeen 
years  old.  Havine  married  a  sister  of  the 
Bellinis  and  quarreled  with  Squarcione,  he  was 
in  1460  induced  by  Lodovico  Uonzaga,  duke  of 
Mantua,  to  settle  in  his  city.  There  he  remained, 
with  the  exception  of  a  visit  to  Rome,  1488-90, 
to  paint  a  series  of  frescoes  for  Pope  Innocent 
VIII.,  until  his  death  in  1506.  His  greatest 
works  at  Mantua  were  nine  tempera  pictures 
representing  the  "Triumph  of  Ca;.sar,"  now  at 
Hampton  court,  England.  Mantegna  was  also 
engraver,  architect,  sculptor,  and  poet.  He  did 
not  aim  at  grace  and  beauty  in  his  pictures,  but 
his  technical  excellences  greatly  influenced 
Italian  art. 

Mantell  (mdn'-tSl),  Robert  Bruce,  actor,  was  bom  in 
Irvine,  Ayrshire,  Scotland,  1854.  He  made  his 
professional  d6but  at  Rochdale,  England,  as  the 
Sergeant  in  Arrah-na-Pogue,  1876;  came  to  the 
United  States  and  played  juvenile  r61es  with 
Mme.  Modjeska,  1878;  returned  to  England, 
and  for  three  years  supported  Miss  Wallis  as 
leading  man.  Later  appeared  in  New  York  as 
Loris  Ippanhoff  in  Fedora  with  Fanny  Daven- 

Eort;  afterward  became  a  star,  and  has  since 
een  at  the  head  of  his  own  company  in  classic 
and  romantic  plays,  including  Hamlet;  Othello; 
Richard  III.;  Macbeth;  Romeo  and  Juliet; 
Richelieu;  Lady  of  Lyons;  Corsican  Brothers; 
Monbars;  Dagger  and  Cross,  etc. 

Manzonl  {man-dzo'-ne),  Alessandro,  Italian  novelist 
and  poet,  was  born  at  Milan,  1785.  He  published 
his  first  poems  in  1806,  married  happily  in  1808, 
and  spent  the  next  few  years  in  writing  sacred 
lyrics  and  a  treatise  on  the  religious  oasis  of 
morality.  His  first  tragedy,  II  Conte  di  Carmag- 
nola,  was  a  trumpet-blast  of  romanticism;  but 
the  work  which  gave  him  European  fame  is  his 
historical  novel,  /  Promessi  Sposi,  a  Milanese 
story  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  probably 
the  greatest  novel  in  all  Italian  literature.  His 
noble  ode,  II  Cinque  Maggio,  was  inspired  by  the 
death  of  Napoleon.  In  spite  of  his  Catholic 
devoutness,  he  was  a  strong  advocate  of  a  imited 
Italy.  His  last  years  were  darkened  by  the 
frequent  shadow  of  death  in  his  household.  He 
himself  died  at  Milan,  1873,  leaving  the  memory 
of  a  great  writer  and  singularly  noble  man. 

March,  Francis  Andrew.  American  philologist, 
professor  of  English  language  and  comparative 
philology,  Lafayette  college,  1856-1906,  was  bom 
at  Millbury,  Mass.,  1825.  He  was  graduated  at 
Amherst,  1845;  LL.  D.,  Princeton,  1870;  Am- 
heret,  1871;  L.  H.  D.,  Columbia,  1887;  D.  C.  L- 
Oxford,  England,  1896;  Litt.  D.,  Cambridge 
England,  and  Princeton,  1896.  He  was  admitted 
to  the  New  York  bar  in  1850;  was  president  of 
100C  "^^"''"^  philological  association,  1873-74 
tSni  no'  ^7*^®  modern  language  association' 
a»yi-yi.      was   a    member    of    many    learned 


societies.  Author:  Method  of  Philological 
Study  of  the  English  Language;  Comparative 
Grammar  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Language;  Anglo- 
Saxon  Reader;  many  addresses  and  articles 
in  encyclopsedias,  periodicals,  and  the  trans- 
actions of  learned  societies  on  philosophical  and 
£hilological  subjects,  and  on  literature.  Editor: 
alin  Hymns,  with  English  Notes;  Eusebiua; 
TertuUian;  Athenagoras;  A  Thesaurus-Dic- 
tionary of  the  English  Language,  with  his  son, 
F.  A.  March,  Jr.,  etc.     Died,  1911. 

Marconi  {mar-k6'-ni),  Guglielmo,  electrical  engineer 
and  pioneer  of  wireless  telegraphy,  was  bom  in 
GrifTone,  near  Bologna,  1874.  His  father  was 
an  Italian,  his  mother  an  Irish  woman.  He  was 
educated  at  Leghorn  and  Bologna  universities: 
LL.  D..  Glasgow,  Aberdeen,  and  university  of 
Pennsylvania:  D.  Sc,  Oxford.  He  began  in 
1890,  on  his  father's  estate,  experiments  to  test 
the  theory  that  the  electric  current  is  capable  of 
passing  through  any  substance,  and,  if  started  in 
any  given  direction,  of  following  an  undeviating 
course  without  need  for  a  wire  or  other  conductor. 
He  invente<l  an  apparatus  for  wireless  telegraphy 
which  attracted  the  attention  of  Sir  William 
Henry  Preece,  engineer  and  electrician-in-chief 
English  postal  telegraph,  who  tested  the  appa- 
ratus, with  success,  in  England;  soon  afterward 
he  succeeded  in  sending  messages  from  Spezia  to 
a  Bteamer  fifteen  kilometers  aistant;  also  sent 
messages  from  Queen  Victoria  ashore  to  the 
prince  of  Wales  on  royal  yacht,  1897;  came  to 
the  United  States,  1899;  used  his  method  in 
reporting  election,  1900;  succeeded  in  estab- 
lishing wireless  telegraphic  communication  across 
the  Atlantic  ocean,  1902;  daily  ocean  news 
service  by  wireless  telegraphy  inaugurated  by 
him  on  trans-Atlantic  uners,  1904.  Invented 
directive  method  of  wireless  telegraphy,  1905, 
continuous-wave  system,  1906,  and  in  1907 
began  a  public  service  of  wireless  telegraphy 
across  the  Atlantic.     Awarded  Nobel  prize,  1909. 

Marcus  Aurellus  Antoninus,  son  of  Annius  Verus 
and  Domitia  Cavilla,  was  bom  at  Rome,  121 
A.  D.  His  original  name  was  Marcus  Annius 
Verus.  On  the  death  of  his  father  he  was 
adopted  by  his  grandfather,  who  spared  no  pains 
to  render  him  preeminent  in  every  art  and 
science.  His  qualities  attracted  the  notice  of 
the  emperor,  Hadrian,  who  used  to  term  him  not 
Verua,  but  Verissimus,  and  who  conferred  high 
honors  on  Mm,  even  while  a  child.  When  only 
seventeen  years  of  age  he  was  adopted,  with 
Lucius  C.  Commodus,  by  Antoninus  Pius,  the 
successor  of  Hadrian;  and  Faustina,  daughter 
of  Pius,  was  selected  for  his  wife.  He  was  made 
consul  in  140  A.  D.,  and  from  this  period  to  the 
death  of  Pius,  161  A.  D.,  he  continued  to  dis- 
charge the  duties  of  his  various  offices  with  the 
greatest  promptitude  and  fidelity.  On  his  acces- 
sion to  the  throne  he  illustrated  the  magnanimity 
of  his  character  by  sharing  the  government,  which 
Pius  had  left  him  in  his  last  moments,  and  the 
senate  offered  to  him  alone,  with  young  Commo- 
dus, who  henceforth  bore  the  name  of  Lucius 
Aurelius  Verus,  and  to  whom  he  gave  his  daughter 
Lucilla  in  marriage.  He  died  at  Vienna,  or  at 
Sirmium,  180  A.  D.,  after  a  reign  of  twenty  years. 
He  was  the  flower  of  the  stoical  philosophy.  He 
studied  oratory  under  Herodes  Atticus  and  Cor- 
nelius Fronto,  and  his  love  of  learning  was 
insatiable.  Even  after  he  had  attained  to  the 
highest  dignity  of  the  state  he  did  not  disdain 
to  attend  the  school  of  Sextus  of  Chseronea. 
Men  of  letters  were  his  most  intimate  friends,  and 
he  received  the  highest  honors  both  when  alive 
and  dead.  His  range  of  studies  was  extensive, 
embracing  morals,  metaphysics,  mathematics, 
jurisprudence,  music,  poetry,  and  painting. 
Though  gentle  and  tolerant  by  nature  and  creed. 


QUEEN   MARIA  THERESA 
From  a  fainting  by  W.  Camphausen 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


865 


he  was  actively  hostile  to  Christianity.  His 
death  was  felt  to  be  a  national  calamity ;  lie  was 
deified,  and  for  more  than  a  hundred  years  his 
image  was  found  among  the  househola  gods  of 
the  Romans. 

Margaret  of  Angoul£me  (&N'-ggd'4Atn'),  queen  of 
Navarre,  and  daughter  of  Charles  of  Orleans, 
was  bom  in  1492.  Out  of  love  for  her  brother, 
Francis  I.,  she  went  to  Madrid  to  attend  him 
in  his  sickness,  during  his  imprisonment  there. 
In  1527  she  was  married  to  Henri  d'Albret,  king 
of  Navarre,  to  whom  she  bore  a  son,  who  died 
in  infancy,  and  a  daughter,  Jeanne  d'Albret, 
mother  of  the  great  French  monarch,  Henry  IV. 
She  encouraged  agriculture,  the  arts,  and  learn- 
ing, and  to  a  certain  extent  embraced  the  cause 
of  the  reformation,  and  she  never  ceased  to  act 
with  a  courageous  generosity  toward  the  re- 
formers, who  always  found  an  asylum  and  wel- 
come in  Navarre.  She  was  author  of  L'Heptam- 
Sron  and  other  notable  works.  She  died  at 
Odos,  1549. 

Margaret  of  Anjou  {&!■!' -zh6d'),  daughter  of  Ren6  of 
Anjou,  was  bom  in  1430.  In  1445  she  was 
married  to  Henry  VI.  of  England.  Owin^  to 
his  weak  intellect  she  was  the  virtual  sovereign; 
and  the  war  of  1449,  in  which  Normandy  was 
lost,  was  laid  by  the  English  to  her  charge.  In 
the  wars  of  the  Roses,  Margaret,  after  a  brave 
struggle  of  nearly  twenty  years,  was  finally 
defeated  at  Tewkesbury,  in  1471,  and  was  kept 
in  the  Tower  four  years,  until  ransomed  by 
Louis  XI.  She  then  retired  to  France,  and  died 
at  the  castle  of  Dampierre  near  Saumur,  1482. 

Margaret  of  Austria,  daughter  of  the  emperor 
Maximilian  and  Mary  of  Burgundy,  was  bom  at 
Brussels,  Belgium,  1480.  She  married  first  John 
of  Castile,  and  second  Philibert  of  Savoy;  was 
made  governor  of  the  Netherlands  in  1507,  and 
negotiated  both  the  league  of  Cambrai,  in  1508, 
and  the  "paix  des  dames,"  in  1529.  She  died 
at  Mechlin,  Belgium,  1530. 

Margaret  of  Denmark,  daughter  of  Waldemar  IV. 
of  Denmark,  was  bom  in  1353.  She  succeeded 
her  father,  became  queen  also  of  Norway  on  the 
death  of  her  husband,  Hakon  VI.,  but  was 
soon  expelled.  She  recovered  Norway  in  1387, 
and,  having  defeated  Albert  of  Mecklenburg  in 
1389,  united  the  three  Scandinavian  kingdoms 
by  the  union  of  Calmar  in  1397.     Died,  1412. 

Maria  Christina,  ex-queen-dowager  of  Spain,  was 
bom  at  Naples,  1806,  daughter  of  Francis  I., 
king  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  In  1829  she  became  the 
fourth  wife  of  Ferdinand  VII.  of  Spain.  In  1854 
a  revolution  expelled  her  from  the  country,  and 
she  took  refuge  in  France,  but  returned  to  Spain 
in  1864,  only  to  retire  again  in  1868.     Died,  1878. 

Maria  Theresa  (md-rl'-d  tS-re'-sd),  daughter  of  the 
emperor  Charles  VI.  of  Germany,  was  bom  at 
Vienna,  1717.  By  the  "pragmatic  sanction," 
for  which  the  principal  European  powers  became 
sureties,  her  father  appointed  her  heir  to  his 
hereditary  thrones.  In  1736  she  married  Francis 
of  Lorraine,  afterward  grand-duke  of  Tuscany; 
and  at  her  father's  death,  in  1740,  she  becarae 
queen  of  Hungary  and  of  Bohemia,  and  arch- 
duchess of  Austria.  At  her  accession  the  mon- 
archy was  exhausted,  the  people  discontented, 
and  the  army  weak;  while  Prussia,  Bavaria, 
Saxony,  and  Sardinia,  abetted  by  France,  put 
forward  claims  to  her  dominions.  Frederick  II. 
of  Prussia  claimed  Silesia,  and  poured  his  armies 
into  it;  Spain  demanded  the  Austrian  dominions 
in  Italy^  and  the  Bavarians,  assisted  by  the 
French,  mvEided  Bohemia,  the  elector  of  Bavaria 
being  crowned  emperor  as  Charles  VII.,  in  1742. 
The  young  queen  was  saved  by  the  chivalrous 
fidelity  of  the  Hungarians,  supported  by  Great 
Britain.  The  war  of  the  Austrian  succession, 
1740-48,  was  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Aix-la- 


Chapelle.  The  empress-queen  lost  Silesia  to 
Prussia,  Parma  and  Piaceiiza  to  Spain,  and  some 
Milanese  districts  to  Sardinia,  but  lier  rights  were 
admitted  and  her  husband  was  recognized  as 
emperor.  Maria  Theresa  instituted  financial 
reforms,  fostered  agriculture,  manufactures,  and 
commerce,  and  nearly  doubled  the  national  reve- 
nues, while  decreasing  taxation.  Marshal  Daun 
reorganized  her  armies;  Kaunitz  took  charge  of 
foreign  affairs.  But  the  loss  of  Silesia  rankled 
in  her  mind;  and,  with  France  as  an  ally,  she 
renewed  the  contest  with  the  Prussian  king. 
But  the  issue  of  the  seven  years'  war,  1756-63, 
was  to  confirm  Frederick  in  the  possession  of 
Silesia.  After  the  peace  the  empress  renewed 
her  efforts  to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  the 
peasantry,  mitigating  the  penal  code^  founding 
schools,  and  organizing  charitable  societies;  her 
son  Joseph,  after  the  death  of  her  husband,  in 
1765,  being  associated  with  her  in  the  govern- 
ment. She  joined  with  Russia  and  Prussia  in 
the  first  partition  of  Poland,  1772,  securing 
Galicia  and  Lodomeria;  while  from  the  porta 
she  obtained  Bukowina,  1777,  and  from  Bavaria 
several  districts.  She  died  in  1780.  A  woman 
of  majestic  figure  and  an  undaunted  spirit,  she 
combined  feminine  tact  with  masculine  energy; 
and  not  merely  won  the  affection  and  even 
enthusiastic  admiration  of  her  subjects,  but.raised 
Austria  from  a  wretched  condition  to  a  position 
of  assured  power.  Of  her  ten  surviving  children, 
the  eldest  son,  Joseph  II.,  succeeded  her. 

Mariana  (ma'-re-a'-nd),  Juan,  Spanish  historian, 
was  born  in  1536.  He  was  a  Jesuit,  taught 
theology  in  Rome,  Sicily,  and  Paris,  and  finally 
lived  in  retirement  in  Toledo.  His  arrangement 
of  the  Index  Expurgatoritis,  and  still  more  his 
work  De  Rege  et  Regis  Institutione,  in  which  he 
intimates  that  unrighteous  kings  and  usurpers 
may  be  put  to  death,  displeased  his  ecclesiastical 
superiors.  The  latter  aroused  a  violent  contro- 
versy, was  ordered  to  be  burned  in  Paris,  and 
brought  great  odium  upon  his  order.  In  1609 
he  published  at  Cologne  Seven  Theological  and 
Historical  Treatises,  two  of  which  were  censured 
by  the  inquisition,  and  the  author  was  subjected 
to  imprisonment  and  penance.  His  chief  work 
is  his  History  of  Spam,  which  extends  to  the 
accession  of  Charles  V.  with  a  summary  of  later 
events  down  to  1621.     He  died  in  1623. 

Marie  Antoinette  {md'-re'  An'-tivd'-nW),  Jusiphe 
Jeanne,  wife  of  Louis  XVI.  of  France,  youngest 
daughter  of  Francis  I.,  emperor  of  Germany,  was 
bom  at  Vienna,  1755.  Her  mother  was  the 
famous  Maria  Theresa.  At  the  age  of  fourteen 
she  was  betrothed  to  the  dauphin,  and  in  the 
same  year  was  married  at  Versailles.  Soon  after 
the  accession  of  Louis  XVI.  libels  were  circu- 
lated by  her  enemies,  accusing  her  of  constant 
intrigues,  not  one  of  which  has  ever  been  proved. 
From  the  first  hour  of  the  revolution  she  was  an 
object  of  fanatical  hatred  to  the  mob  of  Paris. 
Her  life  was  attempted  at  Versailles  by  a  band 
of  assassins  in  1789,  and  she  narrowly  escaped. 
After  this  she  made  some  spasmodic  efforts  to 
gain  the  good  will  of  the  populace  by  visiting  the 
great  manufactories  of  the  capital,  such  as  the 
Gobelins,  and  by  seeming  to  take  an  interest  in 
the  labors  of  the  workmen,  but  the  time  was  gone 
by  for  such  transparent  shamming  to  succeed. 
The  relentless  populace  only  hated  her  the  more. 
At  last  she  resolved  on  flight.  Her  husband  long 
refused  to  abandon  his  country,  and  she  would 
not  go  without  him.  A  dim  sense  of  kingly  duty 
and  honor  was  not  wanting  in  Louis,  but  after 
the  mob  stopped  his  coach  in  1791,  and  would  not 
let  him  go  to  St.  Cloud,  he  consented.  The  flight 
took  place  on  the  night  of  the  20th  of  June. 
Unfortunately  the  royal  fugitives  were  recognized 
and  captured  at  Varennes.     From  this  time  her 


886 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


South  American  republics,  and  the  promulgation 
of  what  has  since  been  called  the  "Monroe 
doctrine."  In  1825  he  retired  to  his  seat  at  Oak 
Hill,  Loudoun  county,  Va.,  but  he  still  con- 
tinued in  the  public  service.  After  being  twice 
president,  he  was  justice  of  the  peace,  a  visitor 
of  the  university  of  Virginia,  and  member  of  a 
state  convention;  but  a  profuse  generositv  and 
hospitality  caused  him  to  be  overwhelmed  with 
debt,  and  he  found  refuge  with  his  relatives  in 
New  York,  where  he  died  in  1831  —  like  his 
predecessors,  Adams  and  Jefferson  —  on  the 
4th  of  July. 

Montagu,  Lady  Mary  Wortley,  English  beauty, 
wit,  and  writer,  was  born  at  Thoresby,  in  Not- 
tinghamshire, about  1689,  eldest  daughter  of 
Evelyn  Pierrepont,  duke  of  Kingston.  She 
was  carefully  educated,  and  manifested  pre- 
cocious talents.  In  1712  she  married  Edward 
Wortley  Montagu,  and  in  1716  accompanied 
him  on  his  embassy  to  Constantinople.  To  this 
journey  we  are  indebted  for  her  admirable 
Letters.  After  her  return  to  England  in  1718,  she 
shone  conspicuously  in  the  circles  of  talent  and 
fashion.  Pope  was  among  her  friends,  but  he  at 
length  quarreled  with  and  libeled  her.  In  1739 
her  declining  health  induced  her  to  settle  on  the 
continent,  whence,  however,  she  returned  in 
1761.  She  died  in  the  following  year.  Her 
collected  works  have  been  published  in  six 
volumes,  and  her  Letters  place  her  at  the 
head  of  feminine  epistolary  writers  in  Great 
Britain,  and  leave  her  few  rivals  in  other  coun- 
tries. 

Montaigne  {mdn-tan';  Fr.  mdN^-idn'-y'),  Michel 
Eyquem  de.     See  page  39. 

Montalembert  {m6N'-td'4ayi'-bdr'),  Charles  Forbes, 
Comte  de,  French  historian,  orator,  and  publi- 
cist, was  born  in  London,  1810.  He  became  a 
peer  of  France  on  the  death  of  his  father,  his 
mother  being  a  Scotchwoman.  Several  times 
during  his  career  he  came  into  conflict  with  the 
authorities  for  his  bold  defense  of  what  he 
deemed  to  be  the  rights  of  his  church  against  the 
encroachments  of  the  civil  power;  but  his  name 
came  most  prominently  before  Europe  through 
his  uncompromising  opposition  to  Louis  Napo- 
leon, after  the  coup  d'itat  of  1851.  In  1858  he 
published  a  pamphlet  entitled,  Un  Dibat  sur 
I'Inde,  eulogizing  English  institutions,  and 
depreciating  those  then  existing  in  France. 
For  this  pamphlet  he  was  summoned  before  the 
bar  of  the  correctional  police,  and  was  sentenced 
to  imprisonment  for  six  months,  and  to  pay  a 
fine  of  3,000  francs;  and,  though  this  penalty  was 
immediately  remitted  by  the  emperor,  Mon- 
talembert appealed  against  the  decision  of  the 
court,  was  again  condemned,  and  once  more 
pardoned,  very  much  to  his  own  disgust.  Among 
his  other  writings  are:  History  of  Saint  Elizabeth 
of  Hungary;  Life  and  Times  of  St.  Anselm;  The 
Fohtwal  Future  of  England;  and  a  pamphlet 
entitled  Pxus  IX.  and  France  in  1849  and  1859. 
He  died  at  Paris,  1870. 

Montcalm  {mdnt-kam'),  Louis  Joseph  St.  Vfiran, 
Marquis  de,  commander-in-chief  of  the  French 
troops  m  Canada,  1756-59,  was  born  near  Nlmes 
France,  1712.  He  captured  Fort  Ontario  at 
Oswego  1756;  Fort  William  Henry  in  1757- 
repulsed  the  British  under  Abercrombie  at 
o\^^^^^^%\l''  ^^^1'  ^^P^ll^d  Wolfe's  attack  on 
SnnnH '^  ^^^iu  ^""^  ^,^  defeated  and  mortally 

Montesquieu  (mdn'-tes-'kH';  Fr.  mSif^s'-ke'-'a'), 
Mn^^w  ^'?''  ^"""T^^^  ?*™"  de.  See  page  61.  ^' 
wU  iJ^rnT^*^*'  ^""^l'^^  e^'^^^^l  and  stftesman, 
J^r.^  Tj^  ^'^^'^''^  ^^°"t  1208,  son  of  a  French 
count  He  went  to  England  iA  1230,  where  he 
inhented  from  his  grandmother  the  earidom  of 


Leicester.  He  here  attached  himself  to  Henry 
III.,  married  the  king's  sister,  and  was  sent  to 
govern  Gascony  in  1248.  He  returned  in  1253, 
and  passed  over  to  the  side  of  the  barons,  whom 
he  ultimately  led  in  the  struggle  against  the 
king.  After  repeated  unsucces.sful  attempts  to 
make  Henry  observe  the  provisions  of  Oxford, 
Simon  took  arms  against  him  in  1263.  The  war 
was  indecisive,  and,  appeal  being  made  to  the  arbi- 
tration of  Louis  the  Good,  Simon,  dissatisfied 
with  his  award,  renewed  hostilities,  defeated  the 
king  at  Lewes,  and,  taking  him  and  his  son 
prisoner,  governed  England  for  a  year  during 
1264-65.  He  sketched  a  constitution  for  the 
country,  and  summoned  the  most  representative 
parliament  that  had  yet  met,  but  as  ne  aimed  at 
the  welfare  not  of  the  barons  only,  but  of  the 
common  people  as  well,  the  barons  began  to  dis- 
trust him.     He  was  slain  at  Evesham,  1265. 

Montgolfler  (mdN'-gOl'-fyd'),  Jacques  £tlenne  and 
Joseph  MlcbeU  two  brothers,  distinguished  as 
the  inventors  of  balloons,  were  the  sons  of  a  cele- 
brated paper  manufacturer  at  Annonay,  France. 
The  former  was  bom  in  1745,  and  the  latter  in 
1740.  Etienne,  after  a  few  successful  experi- 
ments with  the  balloon,  went  to  Paris;  out, 
though  his  discovery  created  a  great  sensation, 
and  was  followed  out  in  practice  by  many  eminent 
men,  he  obtained  little  pecuniary  aid  in  carrying 
on  his  experiments,  and  at  length  retired  to  his 
native  town,  where  he  resumed  the  manufacture 
of  paper,  and  died  at  Serviftres  in  1799.  Joseph, 
the  sharer  of  his  labors  and  his  (^\oTy,  was  a  man 
of  much  genius  and  little  education;  but  the  two 
brothers  were  fitted  to  supplement  each  other's 
deficiencies,  and  together  tney  made  many  dis- 
coveries, and  were  both  received  as  members  of 
the  French  academy.  Joseph  invented  the 
hydraulic  screw^  the  calorimeter,  etc.,  and  in  the 
latter  part  of  his  life  filled  a  post  in  the  depart- 
ment of  arts  and  manufactures.  He  died  at 
Paris  in  1810. 

Montgomery,  James,  British  poet,  was  bom  in 
Scotland,  1771.  He  was  intended  for  a  Moravian 
preacher,  but,  showing  little  aptitude,  became  a 
shop  boy.  In  1790  he  went  to  London,  where  a 
booK-seller  refused  a  volume  of  poems  written 
by  him,  but  employed  him.  In  1792  he  entered 
the  service  of  Joseph  Gales  in  Sheffield,  and  in 
1794  started  the  Sheffield  Iris,  a  weekly  advocate 
of  peace  and  reform,  which  he  edited  until  1825. 
He  was  fined  and  imprisoned  in  1795  and  1796 
for  seditious  publications.  In  1797  he  published 
a  small  volume  of  poems.  Prison  Amusements, 
followed  by  The  Wanderer  of  Switzerland;  The 
West  Indies;  The  World  before  the  Flood;  and 
Greenland.  He  was  a  liberal  whig,  and  an  ardent 
abolitionist.  He  also  published  The  Pelican 
Island,  and  other  Poems;  Original  Hymns,  and 
Lectures  on  Poetry  and  General  Literature.  Died, 
1854. 

Montgomery,  Richard,  American  general,  was  bom 
in  Ireland,  1736.  In  1772  he  resigned  his  com- 
mission in  the  British  service,  and  settled  in 
Dutchess  county,  N.  Y.,  representing  it  in  the 
continental  congress,  1775.  As  brigadier  in  the 
colonial  army  he  took  Montreal,  and  was  killed 
in  the  assault  on  Quebec,  December,  1775. 

Moody,  Dwight  Lyman,  American  preacher  and 
revivaUst,  was  bom  in  Massachusetts,  1837.  He 
renounced  Unitarianism,  became  a  Congrega- 
tionalist,  served  during  the  civil  war  on  the 
Christian  commission,  and  from  1856  entirely 
abandoned  business  and  devoted  himself  to 
rehgious  work  in  Chicago  and  ebewhere.  His 
church  and  schoolhouse  at  Chicago  having  burned 
down  in  1871,  he  went  to  England  to  raise  funds 
for  rebxiilding  them,  and  was  successful  in  his 
object.  For  many  years  he  associated  Ira  D. 
Sankey    with    him    in    his    revival    work.     He 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


887 


I 


established  a  school  for  Christian  workers  at 
Northfield,  Mass.,  and  a  Bible  institute  at 
Chicago.     Died,  1899. 

Moody,  WilUam  Henry,  American  lawyer,  jurist, 
former  associate  justice  of  United  States  supreme 
court,  was  born  in  Newbury,  Mass.,  1853.  He  was 
graduated  from  Harvard  university,  1876,  was 
admitted  to  the  Massachusetts  bar  in  1878,  and 
began  practice  at  Haverhill,  Mass.  He  was  dis- 
trict attorney  for  the  eastern  district  of  Massa- 
chusetts, 1890-95;  member  of  54th  congress 
from  6th  Massachusetts  district  to  fill  vacancy; 
also  member  of  55th,  56th,  and  57th  congresses: 
secretary  of  the  navy,  1902-04;  attorney-general 
of  the  United  States,  1904-06,  and  in  1906  asso- 
ciate justice  of  the  United  States  supreme  court, 
from  which  he  retired,  1910. 

Moore,  George  Foot,  American  scholar  and  educator, 
preacher,  1900-03,  professor  theology,  1902-04, 
Frothingham  professor,  history  of  religion,  since 
1904,  Harvard;  was  bom  at  West  Chester,  Pa., 
1851.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  college,  1872, 
D.D.,1897;  graduated  Union  theological  seminary, 
1877;  LL.  D.,  Western  Reserve,  1903,  Harvard, 
1906.  Ordained  to  the  Presbyterian  ministry, 
1878.  He  was  minister  of  the  Putnam  Presby- 
terian church,  Zanesville,  Ohio,  1878-83;  profes- 
sor of  Hebrew,  Andover  theological  seminary, 
1883-1902.  Author:  The  Book  of  Judges  in 
Hebrew;  Index  to  the  Journal  of  the  American 
Oriental  Society;  and  many  articles  on  biblical 
and  oriental  subjects  in  Andover  Review,  Journal 
of  Biblical  Literature,  Journal  of  American  Ori- 
ental Society,  etc.  He  was  appointed  Roosevelt 
lecturer  at  Berlin  university,  1909. 

Moore,  Sir  John,  British  general,  was  bom  in  Glas- 
gow, Scotland,  1761.  He  served  in  the  British 
army  during  the  American  war;  became  a  mem- 
ber of  parliament  in  1784;  served  in  Corsica, 
1793-94;  in  the  attack  on  St.  Lucia,  of  which 
he  became  governor;  and  subsequently  in  Ire- 
land, Holland,  Egypt,  and  Sicily.  In  1798  he 
was  made  major-general.  On  his  return  from 
an  expedition  in  aid  of  Sweden,  he  was  sent  to 
Portugal  to  command  an  army  to  cooperate 
with  the  Spaniards,  1808.  He  was  obliged  to 
retreat  from  Salamanca  to  the  sea,  won  the 
victory  of  Corunna  in  1809,  but  fell  in  the  battle 
and  died. 

Moore,  John  Bassett,  American  publicist,  was  bom 
in  Smyrna,  Del.,  1860.  He  was  graduated  at 
the  university  of  Virginia,  1880;  LL.  D.,  Yale, 
1901.  He  studied  law  at  Wilmington,  Del., 
passed  the  United  States  civil  service  examina- 
tion, 1885,  and  was  appointed  law  clerk  in  the 
state  department  at  $1,200  a  year.  In  1886  he 
became  third  assistant  secretary  of  state.  Al- 
though a  democrat,  he  was  retained  in  that 
position  by  Blaine;  resigned,  1891,  to  become 
professor  of  international  law  and  diplomacy  at 
Columbia  university;  was  appointed  in  April, 
1898,  assistant  secretary  of  state,  resigning  in 
September  to  become  secretary  and  counsel  to 
the  peace  commission  at  Paris.  He  is  an  author- 
ity on  international  law.  Author:  Report  on 
Extraterritorial  Crime;  Report  on  Extradition; 
Extradition  and  Interstate  Rendition;  American 
Notes  on  the  Conflict  of  Laws;  History  and  Digest 
of  International  Arbitrations  (6  vols.);  American 
LHplomacy,  Its  Spirit  and  Achievements,  etc.  He 
is  also  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Political  Science 
Quarterly,  and  of  the  Journal  de  Droit  Inter- 
national Privie. 

Moore,  Thomas,  Irish  poet,  was  bom  in  1779.  He 
was  graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  1798, 
and  in  1799  went  to  London  to  study  law,  taking 
with  him  a  translation  of  the  odes  of  Anacreon, 
which  he  published  in  1800.  In  1801  he  pub- 
lished The  Poetical  Works  of  the  Late  Thorruu 
Little,    Esq.,    a    pseudonym    suggested    by    his 


diminutive  stature.  In  1803  he  was  appointed 
registrar  to  the  admiralty  in  Bermuda,  but  soon 
returned  to  England,  having  first  made  a  rapid 
tour  through  a  portion  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  In  1813  he  settled  at  Mayfield  cottage, 
near  Ashbourne  in  Derbyshire.  Here  were 
written  many  of  the  songs  known  as  Irish 
Melodies,  which  were  extended  to  ten  series. 
These  songs  have  enjoyed  a  popularity  surpassing 
that  of  any  similar  poems  in  the  language.  Ho 
also  published  two  series  of  Sacred  Melodies,  six 
series  of  National  Airs,  Legendary  Ballads,  and 
many  miscellaneous  pieces.  In  1817  he  com- 
pleted Lalla  Rookh,  the  most  elaborate  of  his 
works,  followed  by  The  Fudge  Family  in  Paris; 
Tom  Crib's  Memorial  to  Congress;  Rhymes  on  the 
Road;  Fables  for  the  Holy  Alliance;  Loves  of  the 
Angels;  Life  of  Sheridan;  and  The  Epicurean,  a 
prose  fiction.  His  most  important  prose  work 
was  his  Notices  of  the  Life  of  Lord  Byron.  His 
remaining  works  comprise :  The  Summer  Fete,  a 
poem ;  Memoirs  of  Lord  Fitzgerald;  Travels  of  an 
Irish  Gentleman  in  Search  of  a  Religion;  and  the 
History  of  Ireland,  written  for  Lardner's  Cabinet 
Cyclopaedia.     Died,  1852. 

Moot,  Adelbert,  American  lawyer,  was  bom  in 
Allen,  Allegany  county,  N.  Y.,  1854.  He  was 
educated  in  the  high  and  state  normal  schools, 
and  at  Albany  law  school,  1875-76.  He  has 
practiced  law  at  Nunda,  N.  Y.,  and  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.,  since  1876.  He  is  president  of  the  Uni- 
tarian conference  for  the  middle  states  and 
Canada;  he  was  a  member  of  the  board  of  com- 
missioners of  statutory  consolidation  that  consol- 
idated all  general  statutes  of  New  York  from  1777 
to  1909.  Elected  member  New  York  state  board 
of  Regents,  1913. 

Moran,  Thomas,  American  artist,  was  bom  at 
Bolton,  in  Lancashire,  England,  1837.  His  early 
life  was  spent  at  Philadelphia,  where  he  learned 
engraving.  He  then  studied  painting  in  England, 
France,  and  Italy.  His  large  paintings,  the 
"Grand  Canon  of  the  Yellowstone,"  and  the 
"Chasm  of  the  Colorado,"  were  bought  by  con- 
gress for  $20,000.  These  were  the  first  land- 
scapes ever  purchased  by  the  government.  His 
other  works  are  mostly  of  the  same  class:  "Bal- 
boa Discovering  the  Pacific,"  "Hiawatha  and  the 
Serpents,"  "The  Wilds  of  Lake  Superior,"  etc. 

More,  Hannah,  English  writer,  daughter  of  the 
village  schoolmaster  of  Stapleton,  near  Bristol, 
was  bom  in  1745.  She  wrote  verses  at  an  early 
age,  and  in  1762  published  The  Search  After 
Happiness,  a  pastoral  drama.  In  1774  she  was 
introduced  to  the  Garricks,  Johnson,  Burke, 
Reynolds,  and  the  best  literary  society  of  London. 
During  this  period  she  wrote  two  tales  in  verse, 
and  two  tragedies,  Percy  and  The  Fatal  False- 
hood, both  of  which  were  acted.  Led  by  her 
religious  views  to  withdraw  from  society,  she 
retired,  on  the  publication  of  her  Sacred  Dramas. 
to  Cowslip  Green  near  Bristol,  where  she  did 
much  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  poor,  and 
still  helped  by  her  writings  to  raise  the  tone  of 
English  society.  Her  essays  on  The  Manners  of 
the  Great  and  The  Religion  of  the  Fashionable 
World,  her  novel  Calebs  in  Search  of  a  Wife, 
and  a  tract  called  The  Shepherd  of  Salisbury 
Plain  were  her  most  popular  works.  In  1828 
she  settled  at  Clifton,  where  she  died  in  1833. 

More,  Sir  Thomas,  English  statesman,  was  bom  at 
London,  1478.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
and  at  Lincoln's  Inn;  rose  to  eminence  as  a 
lawyer,  was  apfKjinted  under-sheriff  and  judge 
of  the  sheriff's  court  for  London  and  Middlesex, 
and  was  elected  a  burgess  of  the  parliament 
under  Henry  VII.,  where  he  was  often  successful 
in  resisting  claims  of  the  crown.  In  1514  and 
1515  he  was  sent  on  commercial  embassies  to  the 
Netherlands,    and    after    hia    retiim    became    a 


JOHN   MARSHALL 

From  a  painting 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


finally  in  Cincinnati;  attended  public  schools 
until  her  twelfth  year,  then  joined  juvenile  opera 
company,  which  gave  Pinafore,  Chimes  of 
Normandy,  and  other  light  operas.  She  was 
christened  Sarah  Frances  Frost,  but  in  the 
juvenile  companv  was  called  Frances  Brough, 
the  latter  a  family  name;  later  played  a  child's 
part  in  Rip  Van  WinJde,  and  tne  next  season 
played  small  parts  in  a  company  which  gave 
classic  dramas  in  the  West.  She  then  retired 
from  the  stage  and  studied  three  years  in  New 
York;  made  her  metropolitan  ddbut  as  Par- 
thenia  in  Ingomar,  and  since  1888  has  starred  in 
Shakespearean  and  other  tragfc  and  romantic 
r61es  throughout  the  United  States  and  Europe. 
She  married  Robert  Taber,  who  had  been  leading 
man  in  her  company,  but  afterward  secured 
legal  separation.     Married  E.  H.  Sothern,  1911. 

Marmontel  {vidr'-md'S'f'-W,'),  Jean  Francois,  French 
writer,  was  born  at  Bort,  1723.  He  was  an 
instructor  in  philosophy  for  some  time  at  Tou- 
louse, and  about  1745  settled  in  Paris  and 
devoted  himself  to  literature.  He  wrote  Les 
Incas,  Bilesaire,  and  Contes  Moraux,  and  made 
his  way  into  Parisian  society  by  gentleness,  wit, 
and  a  dainty  and  candid  literary  power.  "He 
became  one  of  the  humblest  yet  most  honest, 
and  placid  scholars  at  the  court  of  Louis  XV.," 
according  to  Carlyle,  "and  wrote  pretty,  yet  wise, 
sentimental  stories  in  finished  French,  the 
sayings  and  thoughts  in  them,  in  their  fine 
tremulous  way,  perfect  like  the  blossoming 
heads  of  grass  in  May."  He  was  elected  to  the 
French  academy  in  1763,  and  was  a  literary 
disciple  of  Voltaire.     Died,  1799. 

Marot  (md'-ro'),  Clement,  noted  French  poet,  was 
bom  at  Cahors  about  1495.  He  entered  the 
service  of  Princess  Margaret,  afterward  queen  of 
Navarre.  He  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of 
Pavia  in  1525,  and  soon  after  imprisoned  on  a 
charge  of  heresy,  but  liberated  next  spring.  He 
made  many  enemies  by  his  witty  satires,  and  in 
1534  fled  first  to  the  court  of  the  queen  of  Navarre, 
and  later  to  that  of  the  duchess  of  Ferrara.  He 
returned  to  Lyons  in  1536,  and  in  1538  began 
to  translate  the  psalms,  which,  in  their  French 
dress  and  sung  to  secular  airs,  helped  to  make  the 
new  views  fashionable;  but,  the  part  published 
in  1541  having  been  condemned  by  the  Sorbonne, 
he  had  again  to  flee  in  1543.  He  made  his  way 
to  Geneva,  but,  finding  Calvin's  company  uncon- 
genial, went  on  to  Turin,  where  he  died  in  1544. 
His  poems  consist  of  elegies,  epistles,  rondeaus, 
ballads,  sonnets,  madrigals,  epigrams,  nonsense 
verses,  and  longer  pieces;  his  special  gift  lay  in 
badinage  and  graceful  satire. 

Marquette  (mar'-kSt'),  Jacques,  French  Jesuit 
missionary  and  American  explorer,  was  born  at 
Laon,  France,  1637.  He  founded  Sault  Ste. 
Marie  and  Kaskaskia  missions;  accompanied 
Joliet  in  his  exploration  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
died  while  attempting  to  establish  a  mission 
among  the  Illinois  Indians,  1675. 

Blairyat  (mdr'-i-&t),  Frederick,  English  author,  was 
bom  in  Westminster,  1792.  He  served  in  the 
navy  for  many  y^ars,  becoming  a  post  captain, 
and  wrote  many  novels,  including :  Frank  Mild- 
may;  The  King's  Oxtm;  The  Pacha  of  Many 
Tales;  Midshipman  Easy;  Japhet  in  Search  of  a 
Fattier;  Peter  Simple;  Snarleyyow;  Jacob  Faith- 
ful; The  Phantom  Ship;  Mastertnan  Ready;  The 
Settlers  in  Canada;  The  Privateer sman;  Valerie, 
etc.  He  also  published  a  Code  of  Signals  for 
Vessels  Employed  in  the  Merchani  Service,  adopted 
in  England  and  other  countries,  and  Diary  in 
America,  in  6  vols.     Died,  1848. 

Marsh,  George  Perkins,  American  diplomat  and 
philologist,  was  born  at  Woodstock,  Vt.,  1801. 
He  studied  law,  was  elected  to  congress  in  1842, 
was  United  States  minister  to  Turkey,  1849-53, 


and  to  Italy,  1861-82.  He  was  made  LL.  D.  of 
Harvard  in  1859.  Author:  Lectures  on  th» 
English  Language;  The  Origin  and  History  of  the 
English  Language;  Man  and  Nature,  and  a 
number  of  les.ser  philological  works.     Died,  1882. 

Marshall,  Alfred,  English  economist,  was  born  in 
London  1842.  He  was  educated  at  Merchant 
Taylors  and  St.  John's,  Cambridge-  D.  Sc, 
O.xford  and  Cambridge ;  hon.  LL.  D.,  Edinburgh; 
hon.  Dr.  Jur.,  Cracow  university;  fellow  of  St. 
John's  college,  Cambridge,  1865:  principal  of 
University  college,  Bristol,  1877 ;  lecturer  at  and 
fellow  of  Balliol  college,  Oxford,  1883-84 ;  pro- 
fessor of  political  economy,  Cambridge  university, 
1885—1908;  member  of  royal  commission  on 
labor,  1891:  vice-president  of  the  royal  economic 
society;  fellow  of  the  British  academy,  1902,  and 
membre  correspondant  de  I'lnstitut  de  France, 
1908.  Author:  Economics  of  Industry,  in  con- 
junction with  his  wife;  Principles  of  kconomxcs; 
Eleynents  of  Economics;  The  New  Cambridge 
Cxirriculum  in  Economics,  etc. 

Marshall,  Henry  Rutgers,  American  architect  and 
author,  was  born  in  New  York,  1852.  He  waa 
graduated  at  Columbia  in  1873;  L.  H.  D., 
Rutgers,  1903 ;  in  practice  as  architect  since  1878. 
Lecturer  on  sesthetics,  Columbia  university, 
1894-95.  Fellow  of  American  institute  of  archi- 
tects; member  of  American  association  for  the 
advancement  of  science,  and  American  pliilo- 
sophical  society;  member  of  art  commission  of 
city  of  New  York,  1902-05.  Author:  Pain, 
Pleasure,  and  Esthetics;  Esthetic  Principles; 
Instinct  and  Reason,  etc.  He  is  a  contributor 
to  art,  psychological  and  philosophical  journals 
and  literary  magazines  ana   reviews. 

Marshall,  John,  American  jurist,  chief-justice  of 
the  United  States,  was  bom  in  Fauquier  county, 
Va.,  1755.  In  1781  he  began  to  practice  law  in 
Fauquier  county,  Va.,  and  soon  rose  to  the  head  of 
the  Virginia  bar.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia 
house  of  burgesses,  the  state  legislature,  and  the 
state  convention  that  adopted  the  constitution. 
He  was  sent  to  France  with  Pinckney  and  Gerry 
as  an  envoy  in  1797.  In  1799  he  was  elected  to 
congress,  and  in  1800  became  secretary  of  state. 
He  was  made  chief-justice  of  the  United  States 
in  1801  by  President  John  Adams,  and  held  this 
position  until  his  death,  which  occurred  at  Phil- 
adelphia, Pa.,  1835.  His  great  legal  learning  and 
judicial  poise  dominated  the  supreme  court  for 
thirty-four  years,  during  which  his  decisions  on 
constitutional  questions  established  precedents  in 
the  interpretation  of  the  constitution  that  have 
been  accepted  ever  since.  He  has  perhaps  never 
been  excelled  in  power  of  analysis,  lucidity  of 
statement,  and  in  ability  to  hold  a  legal  proposi- 
tion before  the  eyes  of  others  from  so  many  dif- 
ferent points  of  view. 

Marshall,  Thomas  R.,  was  born  in  Manchester, 
Indiana,  in  1854.  He  was  educated  in  the  com- 
mon schools,  and  at  Wabash  college,  A.  B.,  1873, 
A.  M.,  1876,  L.L.  D.,  1909.  On  his  twenty-first 
birthday  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Columbia 
city,  Indiana.  He  was  a  member  of  the  firm  of 
Marshall  and  McNagny,  1876-92;  Marshall, 
McNagny  and  Clugston,  1892-1909.  Governor 
of  Indiana,  1909-13.  Elected  vice-president  of 
the  United  States  in  1912. 

Martel,  Charles.     See  Charles  Martel. 

Martens  {mar'-Vtm),  Frederic  de,  Russian  diplomat 
and  international  lawyer,  professor  of  inter- 
national law,  university  of  St.  Petersburg,  1871- 
1907;  was  bom  at  Pemau,  in  the  Russian  Baltic 
provinces,  1845.  He  was  graduated  at  the  uni- 
versity of  St.  Petersburg,  1867;  doctor  of  inter- 
national law,  1873;  LL.  D.,  Edinburgh,  Cam- 
bridge, and  Yale  universities;  D.  C.  L.,  Oxford. 
He  was  Russian  delegate  at  the  second  Russian 
plenipotentiary  at  the  peace  conference  at  The 


870 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Hague,  1899,  and  president  of  the  second  com- 
mission; member  of  the  permanent  international 
court  of  arbitration  at  The  Hague;  Russian 
delegate  at  the  peace  negotiations  between 
Russia  and  Japan  in  Washington,  1905;  pleni- 
potentiary of  Russia  at  the  Geneva  conference 
of  1906  for  the  revision  of  the  Geneva  convention 
of  1867.  Author:  La  Paix  et  la  Guerre;  On 
Consular  Jurisdiction  in  the  East;  The  Inter- 
national Law  of  the  Civilized  Nations;  Russia  and 
England  in  Central  Asia;  Le  con  flit  entre  la 
Russie  et  la  Chine,  etc.     Died,  1909. 

Martin  (jndr'-t&N'\  Bon  Louis  Henri,  French  histo- 
rian, was  born  in  1810,  at  Saint  Quentin.  He 
studied  law,  but  later  abandoned  it,  and,  after 
publishing  a  series  of  historical  novels,  gained 
celebrity  by  his  Histoire  de  France,  in  16  vols.,  of 
which  he  prepared  a  revised  edition  in  19  vols., 
and  a  third  and  more  elaborate  one,  embracing 
the  most  recent  discoveries,  1855-€0.  His 
illustrated  Histoire  de  France  populaire,  begun  in 
1867  and  interrupted  in  1870,  was  resumed  in 
1871.  In  1870  he  became  mayor  of  Paris,  and 
in  1871,  a  member  of  the  national  assembly.  In 
1876  he  was  elected  a  senator,  and  in  1878  a 
member  of  the  French  academy.  His  works  also 
include  Etudes  archiologiques  celtimics,  and  manv 
other  historical  and  archaK)logicaI  works.  Died, 
1883. 

Martin  (m&r'-tln),  Thomas  Staples,  lawyer.  United 
States  senator,  was  born  in  Scotteville,  Albemarle 
county,  Va.,  1847.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Virginia  military  institute,  and  at  the  university 
of  Virginia;  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1869,  since  which  time  he  has  devoted 
himself  closely  to  that  profession.  Until  elected 
to  the  United  States  senate  he  had  never  held  nor 
been  a  candidate  for  any  political  office,  state  or 
national.  He  was  elected  United  States  senator 
from  Virginia,  1893;  reelected  in  1899,  1905,  and 
1911. 

Martin,  William  Alexander  Parsons,  American 
missionary  and  Chinese  scholar,  was  bom  at 
Livonia,  Ind.,  1827.  He  was  graduated  at  the 
Indiana  university;  studied  theology  at  Presby- 
terian seminary,  New  Albany,  Ind.;  D.  D., 
Lafayette,  1860;  LL.  D.,  university  city  of  New 
York,  1870.  He  was  missionary  to  Ning-po, 
China,  1850-60 ;  acted  as  interpreter  for  William 
B.  Reed,  United  States  minister,  in  negotiating 
treaty  with  China,  1858.  Went  to  Peking, 
China,  and  Yeddo,  Japan,  with  John  E.  Ward, 
United  States  minister,  1859.  Missionary  at 
Peking,  1863-68;  president,  and  professor  of 
international  law,  1868-94,  Tung  Wen  college; 
first  president,  1898-1900,  Imperial  university  of 
China;  was  in  siege  of  legation  at  Peking;  presi- 
dent university  of  Wuchang,  1902-05.  Adviser  of 
Chinese  authorities  on  matters  of  international  law 
in  several  international  disputes  with  European 
powers ;  was  made  a  mandarin  of  the  third  class, 
1885,  and  of  the  second  class,  1898.  Author: 
Lore  of  Cathay,  Siege  in  Peking;  A  Cycle  of 
Cathay;  Chinese  Legends;  Awakening  of  China; 
and  also  works  in  Chinese  on  evidences  of  Chris- 
tianity, natural  philosophy,  international  law,  etc. 
He  edited,  in  Chinese,  The  Peking  Scientific 
Magazine,  1875-78,  and  Science  MontfUv, 
1897-98.  ^ 

M^neau  (mar'-tl-nd),  Harriet,  English  writer  ot 
Huguenot  descent,  was  bom  at  Norwich,  in  1802. 
She  visited  the  United  States  in  1834,  and  the 
East  m  1846,  publishing  descriptive  works  on  her 
return.  She  wrote  Deerbrook,  The  Hour  and  the 
J^an,  and  other  novels,  and  many  tales  for 
children.  She  was  also  author  of  a  condensation 
of  Comte,  and  History  of  England  During  the 
Thvrty  Years'  Peace.     Died,  1876. 

Martineau,  James,  English  theologian,  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  bom  at  Norwich,  1805.     He 


was  graduated  at  Manchester  college,  1827,  and 
became  a  Unitarian  minister  at  Dublin  and 
LiverpKJol.  In  1841  he  was  app>ointed  professor 
of  mental  and  moral  philosophy  at  Manchester 
new  college.  He  removed  to  London  when  that 
institution  was  transferred  there  in  1857,  becom- 
ing also  a  pastor  in  Little  Portland  street  chapel. 
He  was  principal  of  the  college,  1868-85.  As 
one  of  the  profoundest  thinkers  and  most 
effective  writers  of  his  day,  he  received  degrees 
from  Harvard,  Levden,  and  Edinburgh.  His 
works  include:  fhe  Rationale  of  Religious 
Inquiry;  Hymn*  for  tht  Christian  Church  and 
Home;  Endeavors  after  the  Christian  Life; 
Miscellanies;  Studies  of  Christianity;  Hymns  of 
Praise  and  Prayer;  Hours  of  Thought  on  Sacred 
Things;  A  Study  of  Spinoza;  Types  of  Ethical 
Theory;  A  Study  of  Religion;  The  Seat  of  Author- 
ity in  Religion;  and  Studies,  Reviews,  and 
Addresses.     He  died  in  1900. 

Marx,  Heinricli  Karl,  German  socialist,  was  bom  in 
Treves,  1818.  son  of  a  lawyer.  He  was  educated 
at  Bonn  ana  Berlin,  took  an  active  part  in  the 
liberal  movement  of  1840,  and,  after  the  suprea- 
sion  of  the  Rhenish  Gazette,  ^ited  by  him,  he 
went  to  Paris.  Subsequently  he  was  compelled 
to  leave  Paris  and  go  to  Brussels  on  the  demand 
of  the  Prussian  government.  Having  been 
expelled  from  Belgium,  he  was  again  invited  to 
Paris,  but  soon  went  to  Cologne,  where  he 
attempted  to  rcNave  the  Rhenish  Gazette.  He 
then  settled  in  London,  where  he  engaged  in 
literary  work,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
international  working  men's  association.  After 
the  secession  of  the  anarchist  section  in  1872, 
he  took  but  little  part  in  affairs,  and  died  at 
Hampstead  ten  years  later,  1883.  His  chief 
work  was  Das  Kapital. 

Mary,  Queen  of  England,  1553-58,  was  bom  at 
Greenwich,  1516.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
Henry  VIII.  and  Catharine  of  Aragon,  and  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  her  half- 
brother,  Edward  VI.,  after  the  deposition  of 
Lady  Jane  Grey.  She  began  her  reign  by 
releasing  Gardiner,  Bonner,  Tunstall,  Day,  and 
Heath,  who  had  been  confined  during  the  pre- 
vious reign  for  their  religious  opinions,  and  by 
imprisoning  in  their  stead  Ridley,  Latimer. 
Cranmer,  and  others.  Soon  after  she  beheaded 
Northumberland,  Sir  Thomas  Palmer,  and  Sir 
John  Gates,  for  advocating  the  cause  of  Lady 
Jane  Grey ;  and  a  few  months  later  she  beheaded 
that  unfortunate  lady,  and  her  husband,  Lord 
Guildford  Dudley.  In  1554  she  was  married  to 
Philip  II.  of  Spain;  and  in  the  following  year, 
having  already  repealed  all  the  laws  enacted  in 
favor  of  Protestantism,  and  reestablished  Cathol- 
icism, she  began,  probably  reluctantly,  that 
series  of  persecutions  of  the  Protestants  which 
have  earned  for  her  the  title  of  "the  bloody 
Mary."  During  her  short  reign  of  four  years,  no 
fewer  than  284  persons,  of  all  ages  and  sexes,  were 
put  to  death.  In  1558  Calais,  which  had  been  in 
the  possession  of  the  English  ever  since  the  time 
of  Edward  III.,  a  p>eriod  of  210  j'ears,  was  taken 
by  the  duke  of  Guise.  This  loss  to  the  English 
nation  so  distressed  Mary,  that  she  said  the  name 
of  Calais  would,  after  death,  be  found  engraven 
on  her  heart.  She  died  in  1558,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  her  half-sister,  Elizabeth. 

Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  daughter  of  James  V.  and 
Mary  of  Lorraine,  was  bom  at  Linlithgow, 
Scotland,  1542.  She  became,  by  her  father's 
death,  queen  before  she  was  a  week  old.  Her 
early  childhood  was  spent  on  an  island  in  the 
lake  of  Menteith;  she  was  sent  to  France  in 
1548,  brought  up  at  court  with  the  royal  princes, 
and  married  to  the  dauphin  in  1558,  who  for  a 
year,  1559-60,  was  King  Francis  II.  On  his 
death  she  had  to  leave  France,  and  returned  to 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


871 


assume  the  government  in  Scotland,  now  in  the 
throes  of  the  reformation.  Refraining  from 
interference  with  the  Protestant  movement,  she 
retained  her  own  Catholic  faith,  but  chose 
Protestant  advisers.  Out  of  many  proposed 
alliances  she  elected,  against  all  aavice,  to  be 
married  to  her  cousin.  Lord  Darnley,  in  1565, 
and  easily  quelled  the  insurrection  that  broke  out 
under  Moray.  Darnley,  granted  the  title  of  king, 
tried  to  force  her  to  settle  the  succession^  in  the 
event  of  her  dying  childless,  on  him  and  his  heirs, 
and  deeming  her  favorite,  Rizzio,  to  stand  in  the 
way,  he  plotted  with  the  Protestant  lords  to 
have  him  murdered,  and  Mary  was  obliged  to 
agree  to  his  demands.  The  murder  was  com- 
mitted, and  the  queen  was  for  a  time  prisoner  in 
Holyrood.  She  succeeded  in  detaching  Darnley 
from  the  conspirators  and  the  scheme  fell  through. 
Her  only  son,  afterward  James  VI.,  was  bom 
three  months  later,  in  1566.  Darnley  was 
murdered  by  Hepburn,  earl  of  Bothwell,  almost 
certainly  with  Mary  s  connivance,  and  her 
marriage  with  Bothwell  in  May  alienated  the 
nobles.  They  rose,  took  the  queen  prisoner  at 
Carberry,  carried  her  to  Edinburgh,  then  to 
Loch  Leven,  where  they  forced  her  to  abdicate 
in  July.  Next  year,  escaping,  she  fled  to  Eng- 
land, and  was  there  for  many  years  a  prisoner. 
Catholic  plots  were  formed  to  liberate  her  and 
put  her  m  place  of  Elizabeth  on  the  English 
throne,  by  virtue  of  the  fact  that  she  was  next  in 
order  of  succession,  being  great-granddaughter 
of  Henry  VII.  At  last  she  was  accused  of  com- 
plicity in  Babington's  conspiracy,  tried,  found 
guilty,  and  executed  in  Fotheringay  castle, 
1587.  She  was  faithful  to  her  religion  to  the  end, 
and  was  a  woman  of  great  beauty  and  charm, 
courage  and  ability, warm  affection,  and  generous 
temper. 

Mason,  George,  American  statesman,  was  bom  at 
Doeg's  Neck,  Va.,  1725.  In  1775  the  Virginia 
convention  made  him  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittee of  safety  which  was  charged  with  the 
government  of  the  colony.  The  next  year  he 
drew  up  a  declaration  of  rights  and  a  constitu- 
tion for  the  new  state,  which  were  both  adopted 
without  an  opposing  vote.  He  also,  with  the 
help  of  Jefferson,  had  a  bill  passed  making  all 
kinds  of  worship  lawful  in  Virginia.  In  1777  he 
declined  an  election  to  the  continental  congress. 
In  1787  he  was  one  of  the  foremost  men  in  the 
convention  which  drew  up  the  constitution  of 
the  United  States,  and  took  firm  ground  against 
making  slavery  permanent  in  the  country.  He 
stood  shoulder  to  shoulder  with  Patrick  Henry  in 
opposing  the  ratification  of  the  United  States 
constitution  by  Virginia,  and  sought  to  have 
about  twenty  changes  made,  some  of  which  were 
afterward  adopted  by  congress.  He  was  chosen 
Virginia's  first  United  States  senator,  but  refused 
to  serve.     Died  in  Fairfax  county,  Va.,  1792. 

Mason,  James  Murray,  American  jurist  and  states- 
man, was  born  in  Fairfax  county,  Va.,  1798. 
He  was  a  grandson  of  George  Mason,  graduated 
from  the  university  of  Pennsylvania,  and  was 
admitted  to  the' Virginia  bar  when  twenty-two 
years  of  age.  He  served  many  years  in  the 
Virginia  house  of  delegates,  and  in  the  L^nited 
States  congress,  1837-39.  He  was  elected 
senator  from  Virginia  in  1847,  and  retained  that 
place  until  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war, 
when  he  withdrew  from  the  senate  and  cast  in  his 
lot  with  the  seceding  states.  He  was  captured 
with  John  SUdell  on  the  steamer  Trent,  in  1861, 
when  on  his  way  to  Europe  to  represent  the 
confederacy  abroad,  and  was  held  prisoner  by 
the  federal  authorities  until  January  2,  1862, 
when,  upon  the  demand  of  the  English  govern- 
ment, he  was  released.  He  died  near  Alexandria, 
Va.,  1871. 


Maspero    (mds'-pi-rd'),    Gaston    Camille    Charles, 

French  Egyptologist,  was  born  at  Paris,  1846, 
of  Italian  parents.  In  1874  he  became  professor 
of  Egyptology  at  the  College  de  France,  and 
from  1881  to  1886  keeper  of  the  Bulak  museum 
and  director  of  explorations  in  Egypt.  He  made 
valuable  discoveries  at  Sakkara,  Dahshur, 
Akhmym,  and  elsewhere.  In  1880  he  became 
professor  at  the  in.stitute  of  Paris:  was  made  an 
non.  fellow  of  Queen's  college,  and  hon.  D.  C.  L., 
Oxford,  1887.  In  1899  he  returned  to  Egypt  aa 
director  of  excavations.  Author:  Egyptian 
ArchxBology;  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt  and  Aaa^ria; 
Davm  of  Civilization;  The  Struggle  of  the  Nations; 
The  Passing  of  the  Empires,  etc. 

Massasoit  (nids'-d-soitf),  chief  of  the  Pokanoket  or 
Wampanoag  Indians,  ruled  over  most  of  south 
Massachusetts  from  Cape  Cod  to  Narragansett 
bay.  His  tribe,  once  some  30,000  in. number, 
shortly  before  the  landing  of  the  English  haa 
lost  all  but  about  300  by  a  disease,  probably  the 
yellow  fever.  In  1621,  three  months  after 
Pljonouth  had  been  founded,  Massasoit  and 
sixty  warriors,  armed  and  painted,  came  to  the 
settlement  and  made  a  treaty  of  peace.  This 
treaty  was  kept  for  fifty  years,  and  Massasoit 
was  always  friendly  to  the  settlers.  His  home 
was  where  now  stands  the  town  of  Warren, 
R.  I.,  and  here  he  entertained  Roger  Williams 
for  several  weeks,  when  the  latter  was  on  his  way 
to  Providence  after  being  banished  from  Massa- 
chusetts. Massasoit  was  honest,  kept  his  word, 
and  loved  peace.  He  died  in  1661.  His  son 
Pometacom,  on  his  father's  death,  went  to 
Plymouth  and  asked  to  be  given  an  English 
name.  He  was  named  Philip,  and  became  the 
leader  of  King  Philip's  war. 

Mass£na  (md'-sd'-nd'),  Andr^  prince  of  Essling. 
and  duke  of  Rivoli,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
of  Napoleon's  marshals,  was  bom  at  Nice,  1758. 
He  entered  the  army  in  1775,  and  retired  from  it 
after  having  served  for  fourteen  years.  The 
revolution,  however,  again  roused  his  military 
ardor.  His  rise  was  rapid,  and  he  attained  the 
rank  of  general  of  division,  1793.  In  the  Italian 
campaigns  from  1794  to  1798  he  so  distinguished 
himself  on  every  occasion  that  he  was  caUed  the 
darling  child  of  victory,  and  in  1799  saved 
France  from  invasion  by  routing  the  Austrians 
and  Russians  in  Switzerland.  His  memorable 
defense  of  Genoa  in  1800  gave  time  to  Bonaparte 
to  cross  the  Alps,  and  crush  the  Austrian  army 
at  Marengo.  In  the  campaigns  of  1805,  1807,  and 
1809,  in  Italy,  Poland,  and  Germany  he  was 
among  the  most  conspicuously  successful  of  the 
French  leaders.  His  conduct  in  the  last  of  these 
campaigns  was  rewarded  with  the  title  of  prince 
of  Essling.  In  1810  he  was  appointed  to  com- 
mand the  army  which  invaded  Portugal,  but 
was  foiled  by  Wellington,  and  compelled  to 
abandon  the  Portuguese  territory.  After  this 
period  Mass^na  did  not  again  appear  in  the  field. 
He  died  in  1817. 

Massenet  (md'-s'ni'),  Jules  £mlle  Fr6d4rlc,  French 
composer,  was  bom  at  Montaud,  1842.  He  was 
educated  at  Lyc6e,  Saint-Louis,  and  Le  Paris 
conservatoire,  under  Laurent,  Reber,  Savard, 
and  Ambroise  Thomas.  He  was  professor  of 
composition  at  the  conservatoire,  1878-96.  He 
wrote  the  following  operas:  La  Grande  Tante; 
Don  C^sar  de  Bazan;  Le  Roi  de  Lahore;  Hiro- 
diade;  Manon;  Le  Cid;  Esclarmonde;  Le  Mage; 
Werther;  Thais;  Le  Portrait  de  Manon;  La 
Navarraise;  Sapho;  CendriUon;  GrisUidis;  Le 
Jongleur  de  Notre  Dame.  Other  works:  Marie 
Madeleine;  Eve;  La  Vierge;  six  orchestral 
suites,  etc.     Died,  1912. 

Masslllon  {mi'-si^-yda'),  Jean  Baptlste,  one  of  the 
most  eloquent  of  French  pulpit  orators,  waa 
bom  at  Hy^res,  1663.     He  entered  at  the  age  of 


872 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


eighteen  into  the  congregation  of  the  Oratory, 
and  became  so  celebrated  as  a  preacher  that  he 
was  summoned  to  court  to  display  his  powers. 
His  success  there  was  complete.  Louis  XIV. 
complimented  him  in  the  strongest  terms,  but 
neglected  to  promote  him.  It  was  left  to  the 
regent,  duke  of  Orleans,  to  reward  Massillon's 
merit,  and  in  1717  he  gave  him  the  bishopric  of 
Clermont.  Massillon  held  this  see  until  his 
death  in  1742.  His  many  virtues  rendered  him 
universally  beloved.  His  sermons  and  other 
theological  works  form  fifteen  volumes. 

Masslnger  {mOs'-in-ier),  Philip,  English  dramatist, 
was  bom  at  Salisbury,  England,  1583.  He 
studied  at  Oxford,  1602  and  in  1606  went  to 
London  and  is  reported  to  have  entered  the 
Roman  church.  Eighteen  of  his  plays  are  still 
extant,  the  earliest  being  the  Virgin  Martyr, 
published  about  1622.  Notwithstanding  his 
genius  and  the  popularity  of  his  plays,  he  lived 
m  obscurity;  and  the  course  of  his  life  in  Lon- 
don is  not  easily  traced.  Among  his  best-known 
works  are :  Duke  of  Milan,  Fatal  Dowry,  and  A 
New  Way  to  Pay  Old  Debts;  the  last  is  still 
in  use  upon  the  stage.  Fletcher  and  Dekker 
were  associated  with  him  in  the  production  of 
certain  of  his  works.  He  was  found  dead  in  his 
bed  in  1640,  and  was  entered  upon  the  book 
of  the  parish  church  simply  as  "a  stranger." 

Mather  (mUTH'Sr),  Cotton,  American  colonial 
divine,  was  bom  in  Boston,  1663.  The  phe- 
nomenon termed  "Salem  witchcraft"  having 
appeared  in  the  colony,  he  investigated  it,  and 
published,  in  1689,  his  Memorable  Providences 
Relating  to  Witchcraft  and  Poaaesnona.  He 
found  that  devils  or  possessed  persons  were 
familiar  with  dead  and  foreign  languages,  etc., 
and  eagerly  advocated  the  adoption  of  desperate 
remedies  for  the  diabolical  di.sease.  Despite  his 
bitter  bigotry  and  narrow-mindedness,  be  waa 
an  able  man,  and,  with  remarkable  industry, 
wrote  382  works.  His  Essays  to  do  Good  were 
commended  by  Franklin;  ana  it  ought  also  to  be 
remembered  that  he  helped  to  introduce  into  the 
colonies  inoculation  for  small-pox.     Died,  1728. 

Mather,  Increase,  American  colonial  divine,  father 
of  the  preceding,  and  son  of  an  English  non-con- 
formist minister  who  emigrated  to  Massachusetts 
in  1635,  was  bom  at  Dorchester,  1639.  He  was 
for  about  sixty  years  pastor  of  the  North  church, 
Boston.  In  1685  he  was  also  chosen  president 
of  Harvard  college,  for  which  he  obtained  the 
right  to  confer  the  degrees  of  B.  D.  and  D.  D. 
An  industrious  student,  he  spent  sixteen  hours 
a  day  in  his  study,  and  published  upward  of  a 
hundred  separate  works,  most  of  which  are  now 
very  rare.  His  influence  waa  so  great  in  the 
colony  that  he  was  sent  to  England  in  1688  to 
secure  a  new  charter,  and  had  the  appointment 
of  all  offices  under  it.     Died,  1723. 

Mathew,  Theobald,  "Father  Mathew,"  apostle  of 
temperance,  was  bom  at  Thomastown  in  Tip- 
perary,  Ireland,  1790.  He  took  priest's  orders  in 
the  Capuchin  order  in  1814;  and  in  his  ceaseless 
labors  at  Cork,  seeing  how  much  of  the  degrada- 
tion of  his  people  was  due  to  drink,  became  in 
1838  an  ardent  advocate  of  total  abstinence. 
His  cnisade  extended  to  Dublin,  to  the  North, 
to  Liverpool,  Manchester,  London,  Glasgow,  and 
even  to  the  chief  centers  of  the  Irish  in  America. 
His  success  was  mar\'elous,  and  every^vhere  he 
roused  enthusiasm  and  secured  warm  affection. 
But  overwork  ruined  his  health,  and  he  died  in 
1856. 

Matsukata  {mOif-sdf)-ka.'-td.\  Slarquls  Masayoshl, 
Japanese  statesman,  was  born  at  Kagoshima,  1835. 
He  received  a  military  and  literary  education, 
and  naval  training  from  foreigners  in  Nagasaki. 
He  took  part  in  the  poUtical  movement  which 
resulted  m  the  overthrow  of  the  Shogunati;  was 


appointed  a  local  governor  at  the  time  of  the 
restoration,  and  since  1870  has  been  engaged  in 
the  financial  administration  of  the  central  gov- 
ernment, and  has  directed  efforts  to  facilitate 
and  encourage  agricultural  and  industrial  enter- 
prises. He  visited  Europe  as  president  of  the 
Japanese  section  of  the  Paris  exposition  of  1878; 
was  appointed  minister  of  home  affairs,  1880* 
minister  of  finance,  1881.  The  redemption  of 
inconvertible  notes  was  the  most  important 
work  accomplished  during  liis  more  than  ten 
years'  service  as  minister  of  finance.  He  waa 
created  count,  1884;  premier,  1891-92,  and 
1896-98;  minister  of  finance  in  October  of  the 
latter  year  until  October,  1900.  The  adoption  of 
the  gold  standard,  for  which  the  count  waa 
mainly  responsible,  has  been  the  most  important 
incident  in  the  history  of  Japan  in  recent  years. 
He  visited  America  and  Europe,  1902;  received 
an  hon.  D.  C.  L.  from  Oxford,  1902;  has  been 
president  of  the  Japan  red  cross  society  since 
1906,  and  waa  created  marquis  in  recogmtion  of 
services  as  financial  adviser  during  the  Russo- 
Japanese  war.  Author:  Report  on  the  Adjust- 
ment  of  Paper  Currency;  History  of  National 
Dd>ts  xn  Japan;  Report  on  the  Adoption  of  ths 
Gold  Standard  in  Japan;  Report  on  the  Post- 
bellum  Financial  Administration  in  Japan,  etc. 

Matthews,  James  Brander,  American  author, 
professor  of  dramatic  literature,  Columbia,  since 
1900,  was  bom  at  New  Orleans,  1852.  He 
was  graduated  at  Columbia  college,  1871,  LL.  B., 
1873;  D.  C.  L.,  university  of  the  South,  1899, 
Litt.  D.,  Yale,  1901;  LL.  D.,  Columbia,  1904. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  New  York  bar,  but 
turned  to  literature.  Author:  The  Theaters  of 
Paris;  French  Dramatists  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century;  Pen  and  Ink;  With  My  Friends; 
AmericanisTns  and  Briticisms;  The  Story  of  a 
Story;  Studies  of  the  Stage;  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  American  Literature;  Tales  of  Fantasy 
and  Fact;  Aspects  of  Fiction;  Outlines  in  Local 
Color;  A  Confident  To-M arrow;  The  Action  and 
the  Word;  The  Historical  Novel;  Parts  of  Speech, 
Essays  in  English;  DevelopmerU  of  the  Drama; 
Recreations  of  an  Anthologist;  Inquiries  and 
Opinions,  etc.  Decorated  with  legion  of  honor, 
1907. 

Matthews,  Franklin,  American  journalist,  editor  of 
the  New  York  Sun,  1890-1909;  was  bora  at  St. 
Joseph,  Mich.,  1858.  He  was  graduated  at 
Cornell  university.  1883;  followed  by  one  year 
poet-graduate  work,  but  not  for  degree ;  traveled 
as  lecture  agent  for  J.  B.  Pond,  with  Beecher, 
Mark  Twain,  Carl  Schurr,  and  others,  1883-86. 
He  was  reporter  and  editor  of  Philadelphia  Press, 
1886-90.  Author:  Philadelphia;  Our  Navy  in 
Time  of  War;  The  New-born  Cuba;  and  numerous 
contributions  to  The  Century;  Harper's  Maga- 
zine; The  Atlantic;  Chautauquan;  St.  Nicholas; 
Harper's  Weekly;  Harper's  Round  Table;  Leslie's 
Weekly;  and  other  publications.  Compiler  of 
Casual  Essays  of  the  Sun,  1905. 

Matthias  (md^i'-as)^  Corrinus,  king  of  Hungary, 
was  born  in  1443.  He  was  proclaimed  king  in 
1458,  soon  after  his  release  from  imprisonment 
at  Prague;  maintained  the  throne  against  the 
emperor,  Frederick  III.,  and,  after  having 
engaged  in  successful  wars  with  the  Turks, 
received  the  Bohemian  crown  from  the  pope  on 
condition  of  extirpating  the  Hussites.  While 
thus  engaged  a  revolt  took  place  in  Hungary, 
supported  by  Poland  and  other  powers,  which 
combination  he  routed.  After  this  he  engaged 
in  two  wars  with  the  emperor,  and  captured 
Vienna  in  1485,  living  there  imtil  his  death  ia 
1490. 

Maudsley,  Henry,  English  physician  and  alienist, 
was  bom  near  Giggleswick,  Yorkshire,  1835. 
He  waa  educated  there  and  at  University  college. 


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London.     He   graduated    M.    D.    in    1857.    was 

Ehysician  to  the  Manchester  asylum,  settled  in 
ondon  in  18(52  as  a  consulting  physician,  and 
filled  the  chair  of  medical  jurisprudence  at 
University  college,  1869-79.  His  works  are 
Physiology  of  Mind;  Pathology  of  Mind;  Resvon- 
sihUity  in  Mental  Disease;  Body  and  Will; 
Natural  Causes  and  Supernatural  Seemings;  Life 
in  Mind  and  Conduct;  Heredity,  Variation  and 
Genius,  etc. 

Maupertuis  {mo'-'ptr'-twe'),  Pierre  Louis  Moreau 
de,  French  geometrician  and  astronomer,  was 
born  at  St.  Malo,  1698.  He  studied  at  the 
college  of  La  Marche,  at  Paris,  and,  after  having 
Berved  for  five  years  in  the  army,  devoted  him- 
self to  science  and  literature.  He  has  the 
merit  of  having  been  one  of  the  first  in  France  to 
prefer  Newton  to  Descartes.  He  was  one  of 
those  who  were  sent,  in  173G,  to  measure  a  degree 
of  the  meridian  at  the  polar  circle.  In  1740, 
invited  by  Frederick  the  Great,  he  settled  at 
Berlin,  and  was  made  president  of  the  royal 
academy  there.  The  latter  part  of  his  life  was 
embittered  by  his  quarrel  with  Voltaire,  who 
showered  down  sarcasm  and  satire  upon  him. 
He  died  in  1759.     His  works  form  four  volumes. 

Maurice  {tnd'-rls),  prince  of  Orange  and  count  of 
Nassau,  one  of  the  most  skillful  and  distinguished 
generals  of  his  age,  was  born  at  Dillenburg,  1567, 
son  of  William  I.  After  his  father's  assassination 
in  1584,  the  provinces  of  Holland  and  Zealand, 
and  afterward  Utrecht,  elected  him  stadtholder. 
A  great  portion  of  the  Netherlands  was  still  in 
the  hands  of  the  Spaniards,  but,  under  the 
leadership  of  Maurice,  the  Dutch  rapidly  wrested 
cities  and  fortresses  from  their  enemies.  In 
1597,  with  the  help  of  some  English  auxiliaries, 
he  defeated  the  Spaniards  at  Turnhout  in 
Brabant,  and  in  1600  won  a  splendid  victory  at 
Nieuwport.  Finally,  in  1609,  Spain  was  com- 
pelled to  acknowledge  the  united  provinces  as  a 
free  republic.     Died,  1625. 

Maxim,  Sir  Hiram  Stevens,  American  inventor, 
was  born  at  Sangerville,  Me.,  1840.  He  received 
a  common  school  education,  and  his  scientific 
knowledge  was  obtained  by  study  and  attending 
lectures.  He  was  for  four  years  an  apprentice 
to  coach-building;  worked  in  various  iron 
works;  patented  numerous  inventions  in  the 
United  States,  and  went  to  England  in  1881, 
where  he  became  a  naturalized  citizen.  He  has 
patented  many  electrical  inventions,  including 
incandescent  lamps,  self-regulating  current 
machines,  etc. ;  invented  the  Maxim  gun,  auto- 
matic system  of  firearms,  which  makes  the  recoil 
of  the  gun  serve  as  the  power  for  reloading;  also 
other  ordnance  inventions,  cordite,  a  smokeless 
powder,  and  more  recently  has  devoted  much 
time  and  invention  to  aerial  navigation.  He  is  a 
director  in  the  firm  of  Vickers'  Sons  and  Maxim; 
member  of  American  society  of  civil  engineers, 
royal  society  of  arts,  British  association  for  the 
advancement  of  science,  and  many  British 
engineering  and  scientific  societies;  chevalier 
legion  d'honneup,  France,  and  knighted  by 
Queen  Victoria  in  1901. 

Maximilian  I^  German  emperor,  was  bom  in  1459, 
son  of  Frederick  III.  In  his  nineteenth  year  he 
married  Mary,  only  child  and  heiress  of  Charles 
the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy,  and  was  soon 
involved  in  a  war  with  Louis  XI.  of  France,  who 
attempted  to  seize  some  of  her  possessions.  In 
1486  he  was  elected  king  of  the  Romans.  On  the 
death  of  his  father,  in  1493,  he  became  emperor. 
Subsequently  he  married  the  daughter  of  the 
duke  of  Milan,  and,  although  inclined  to  peace, 
he  became  involved  in  war  with  the  Swiss,  the 
Venetians,  and  the  French.     Died,  1519. 

Maximilian,  Ferdinand  Maximilian  Joseph,  arch- 
duke of  Austria  and  emperor  of  Mexico,  was 


bom  in  Vienna,  1832.  He  was  the  brother  of 
the  present  emperor  of  Austria-Hungary.  In 
1863  Napoleon  III.  had  it  in  mind  to  conquer 
Mexico  and  set  up  an  empire,  and  he  offered  the 
crown  to  Maximilian,  wno  went  to  Mexico  in 
1864.  The  country  had  long  been  in  a  state  of 
confusion,  and  at  first  the  people  seemed  inclined 
to  welcome  him  and  look  for  peace  under  his 
rule.  But  he  pleased  no  one,  the  people  rose 
against  him,  and  in  1866,  when  the  French 
troops  left  the  country,  the  empire  fell  to  pieces. 
Maximilian  tried  to  form  a  native  army  tor  his 
own  defense,  but  he  was  captured  by  the  repub- 
licans, and,  after  a  trial,  shot  near  Quer^taro,  in 
his  thirty-fifth  year,  1867. 

Max  O'Rell.     See  Blouet,  Paul. 

Maxwell,  James  Cierl<-,  British  physicist,  was  bom 
at  Edinburgh,  1831.  He  was  educated  at  the 
university  of  Edinburgh,  and,  before  he  was 
fifteen,  wrote  papers  of  scientific  value.  In  1856 
he  became  a  professor  in  Marischal  college. 
Aberdeen,  in  1860  in  King's  college,  London,  and 
in  1871  professor  of  experimental  physics  at 
Cambridge.  In  the  great  work  of  his  life. 
Electricity  and  Magnetism,  2  vols.,  he  constructed 
a  theory  of  electricity  in  which  "action  at  a 
distance"  should  have  no  place.  He  was  the 
first  to  make  color-sensation  the  subject  of  actual 
measurement.  He  obtained  the  Adams  prize  for 
his  splendid  discussion  of  the  dynamical  condi- 
tions of  stability  of  the  ring  system  of  Saturn. 
But  he  was  best  known  to  the  public  by  his 
investigations  on  the  kinetic  theory  of  gases. 
His  Bradford  Discourse  on  Molectdes  is  a  classic. 
Besides  many  papers,  he  published  a  text-book  on 
the  Theory  of  Heat  and  a  little  treatise  on  Mat- 
ter and  Motion.  In  1879  he  edited  Cavendish's 
Electrical  Researches.     Died,  1879. 

Maxwell,  William  Henry,  American  educator, 
superintendent  of  schools  of  Greater  New  York 
since  1898,  was  born  at  Stewartstown,  Ireland. 
1852.  He  was  educated  at  royal  academical 
institution,  Belfast,  and  Queen's  colleges,  Galway 
and  Belfast.  He  was  teacher  in  Victoria  college, 
Belfast,  1872-74;  journalist.  New  York,  1877-80; 
teacher  in  the  public  schools,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
1880-82;  assistant  superintendent  of  schools, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1882-87,  and  superintendent, 
1887-98.  He  is  author  of  a  series  of  text-books 
on  English  grammar  and  cornposition,    etc. 

May,  Sir  Thomas  Erskine,  English  jurist  and 
writer,  was  born  in  London,  1815.  He  was 
educated  at  Bedford  school,  became  assistant 
librarian  of  the  house  of  commons  in  1831;  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1838;  clerk  as.sistant  in  1856. 
and  clerk  of  the  house  in  1871.  He  was  created 
successively  C.  B.  and  K.  C.  B.,  and  was  on  his 
retirement,  in  1886,  created  Baron  Famborough. 
His  Treatise  on  the  Law,  Privileges,  Proceedings, 
and  Usage  of  Parliament  has  been  translated  into 
various  languages;  his  Constitutional  History  of 
England  1760-1860  is  a  continuation  of  Hallam; 
and  his  Democracy  in  Europe  shows  great  learning 
and  impartiality.     He  died  in  1886. 

Mayer,  Henry  (  Hy  Mayer"),  caricaturist,  waa 
bom  at  Worms-on-Rhine,  1868.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  England  and  Germany;  was  graduated 
at  the  gymnasium.  Worms,  1885;  entered  busi- 
ness life  in  England  and  came  to  the  United 
States,  1886.  He  began  his  career  as  an  artist  in 
Cincinnati,  1887,  and  has  resided  in  New  York 
since  1893.  He  has  been  illustrator  for  Flie^cnde 
Blaetter,  Munich;  Figaro  lUustri,  Le  Rire,  Paris; 
Black  and  White,  Pick-Me-Up,  Pall-Mall  Maga- 
zine, Punch,  London;  Life,  Judge,  Truth,  Har- 
per's, Century,  Collier's,  Leslie's,  New  York 
Times,  Herald,  etc.  Author:  Autobiography  of 
a  Monkey;  In  Laughland;  Fantasies  in  Ha-Ha; 
A  Trip  to  Toyland;  Adventures  of  a  Japanese 
DoU;  Alphabet  of  Little  People,  etc. 


876 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Mazarin   (md'-zd'-rds^  Jules,  cardinal  and  chief 
minister  of  France  during  the  minority  of  Louia 
XIV.,  was  bom  at  Piscina,  Italy,  1602.     Having 
accompanied    a    papal    legate    to    the    court    of 
France,   he   became  known  to  Richelieu  about 
1628.      The    latter  perceived  his  great  political 
talents,  and  engaged  him  to  maintain  the  French 
interests    in   Italy,  which  he  did  while  still  em- 
ployed by  the  pope  as  vice-legate  to   Avignon, 
m  1632,  and  nuncio  to  the  French  court.     The 
Spaniards  complained  of  his  partiality  for  France, 
and   the    pope  was   obliged   to   recall   him.     In 
1639   he   openly    entered    the    service   of    Louis 
XIII.,  and  was  naturalized  a  Frenchman-    and 
in  1641  received  a  cardinal's  hat  through  the  in- 
fluence   of    Richelieu,  who  when   dying  recom- 
mended him  to    the    king    as    the    only    person 
capable  of  carrying  on  his  political  system.     Un- 
der him   the    influence   of    France    among    the 
nations  was  increased,  and  in   the  internal  gov- 
ernment of  the  country  those  principles  of  despo- 
tism were  established  on  which  Louis  XIV.  after- 
ward   acted.       The    administration    of    justice, 
however,  became  very  corrupt,  and  the  commerce 
and  finances  of  the  country  sank  into  deep  de- 
pression.    Died,  1661. 
Mazzinl  (mat-se'-ne),  Guiseppe,  Italian  patriot  and 
revolutionist,  was  born  at  Genoa,   1805.     Senti- 
ments of  social  equality  were  early  engendered  in 
him  by  parental  example.     In  1830  his  alliliation 
to  the  secret  society  oi  the  Carbonari  introduced 
his  practical  political  career.     The  organization 
of   a   new   Uberal   league,    "Youn^   Italy,"   was 
Mazzini's    next    work.     He    was    its    animating 
spirit,  and  it  speedily  inclosed  all  Europe  in  a 
network  of  similar  associations,  modified  to  meet 
the     rec^uiremeuts     of     the     various     European 
nationalities.    The  first  fruitsof  his  leagues  proved 
to  be   the   revolutionary   expedition   of   Savoy, 
organized  by  Mazzini  at  Geneva,  but  which  was 
defeated  by  the  royal  troops.     Sentence  of  death 
par  contumace  was  recorded  against  him  in  the 
Sardinian  court ;   but  he  soon  recommenced  with 
increased    vigor    his    revolutionary    opterations. 
A  new  association,  entitled  "New  Europe,"  and 
based    on    principles    of    European    rights    and 
enfranchisement,  was  inaugurated  by  the  exer- 
tions  of   Mazzini   in   Switzerland.     In    1837    he 
quitted    Switzerland,    and    finally    took    up    his 
abode  in  London.     From  there  his  labors  in  the 
Italian    revolutionary    cause   were    unremitting. 
He  is  said  to  have  founded,  in  1865,  the  "um- 
versal  repubhcan  alliance."     In  1868  he  became 
dangerously     ill,     and    never    fully     recovered, 
though   his   zeal    remained    as   ardent    as   ever. 
After    an    ineffective   scheme    for    a    republican 
rising,    he    ventured    to    enter    Italy,    and    was 
arrested  at  Gaeta,  where  he  remained  a  prisoner 
until  Rome  was  taken  by  the  Italian  army.      On 
his  death,    1872,   the  government  honored  him 
with  a  public  funeral. 
Mead,  Larkin  Goldsmith,  American  sculptor,  was 
born   at  Chesterfield,    N.    H.,    1835.     His   early 
years  were  spent  in  Vermont.     He  studied  art 
at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and  in  Italy.     The  "Recording 
Angel,"  his  first  work,  was  modeled  in  snow  and 
afterward  cut  in  marble.     His  large  pieces  were 
executed  for  public  buildings  and   monuments; 
such  as  the  colossal  statue  of  "Vermont"  on  the 
dome  of  the  statehouse,  and  of   "Ethan  Allen" 
in  the  portico  of  the  same  building  in  Vermont, 
and  one  of  the  same  hero,  given  by  the  state  of 
Vermont  to  the  hall  of  representatives  at  Wash- 
in^on ;    the  statue  of  Lincoln  on  the  monument 
at  Springfield,  III. ;  a  group  representing  "Colum- 
bus  before   Queen    Isabella,"    for    the    state  of 
Cahfomia;    the  "Returned  Soldier";    the    "Re- 
tufP  of  Proserpine  from  the  Reabns  of   Pluto," 
which  was  over  the  main  entrance  of  the  agricul- 
tural building  at  the  World's  Columbian  exposi- 


tion, Chicago;  a  large  group  representing  the 
Stanford  family,  to  be  placed  in  Stanford  univer- 
sity, California;  also  a  colossal  statue,  "The  Mis- 
sissippi River " ;  high  relief  portraits  in  bronze 
of  Henry  James,  William  D.  Howelb,  and  John 
Hay  are  other  specimens  of  his  work.  During  the 
civil  war  he  spent  six  montlis  in  camp  as  artist 
for  Harper's  Weekly.  Died,  1910. 
Meade,  George  Gordon,  American  general,  was  bom 
in  Cadiz,  Spain,  where  his  father  was  an  agent 
of  the  United  States  navy,  1815.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point,  1835,  and,  after  serving  one 
year  in  the  army,  resignwi  to  begin  practice  as 
a  civil  engineer.  He  was  frequently  employed 
by  the  government,  and  reentered  its  military 
service  in  1842.  He  served  with  distinction  on 
the  staffs  of  Taylor  and  Scott  in  the  Mexican  war, 
and  in  the  engineer  corps.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  civil  war  ne  was  placed  in  command  of  a 
brigade  of  volunteers,  soon  rose  to  the  command 
of  a  division,  and  joined  his  fortunes  permanently 
to  those  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac.  He  led  his 
division  through  the  Seven  Days'  battle,  was 
severely  wounded  at  Glendale,  went  through  the 
Antietam  campaign,  and  commanded  at  Fred- 
ericksburg, where  he  particularly  distinguished 
himself.  At  Chancellorsville  he  commanded  the 
fifth  corps;  and  when  Hooker  resigned  the  com- 
mand of  the  army,  and  while  the  army  itself  was 
in  hasty  movement  northward  to  check  Lee's 
invasion  of  the  North  in  1863,  Meade  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  command.  He  accepted  it  with 
the  greatest  reluctance,  and  altogether  from  a 
sense  of  duty.  He  had  inclined  to  fight  on  the 
line  of  Pipe  creek,  to  the  south  of  Gettysburg; 
but  Reynolds  fell  into  collision  with  Lee's  sup- 

S>rt,  and  Gettysburg  became  historical.  When 
rant  assumed  general  command  in  1864,  Meade 
continued  to  command  the  army  of  the  Potomac 
under  him,  and  mutual  pood  feeling  enabled 
them  to  maintain  this  delicate  relation  without 
friction,  and  with  the  best  results.  At  the  close 
of  the  war  he  was  made  major-general  in  the 
regular  army,  and  commanded  the  military' 
division  of  the  Atlantic  at  the  time  of  bis  death 
at  Philadelphia,  1872. 
Medlct  (m&'-di-chi),  Lorenzo  de*,  sumamed  "the 
magnificent,"  was  born  in  1448.  He  was  a 
member  of  an  illustrious  Florentine  family, 
which  for  centuries  exerted  great  influence  in 
Italy  and  in  Europe.  He  was  instructed  by 
some  of  the  most  learned  men  of  the  age  in 
languages  and  polite  literature,  succeeded  to  the 
wealth  and  power  of  his  father  in  1469,  and 
exerted  himself  in  every  way  to  promote  the 
growth  of  literature  and  of  the  arts.  In  1478  a 
conspiracy  was  formed  against  him  and  his 
brother  Giuliano,  by  the  Pazzi,  another  distin- 
guished family  of  Florence,  who  were  instigated 
by  Pope  Sixtus  IV.,  and  aided  by  Salviati,  arch- 
bishop of  Pisa.  The  result  was  that  GiuUano  was 
assassinated  and  Lorenzo  wounded;  whereupon 
Salviati  was  hung  out  of  his  palace  window  in 
his  archiepiscopal  robes,  and  Giacopo  de  Pazzi, 
with  one  of  liis  nephews,  shared  the  same  fate. 
The  pope  now  excommunicated  Lorenzo  and  the 
magistrates  of  Florence,  laid  an  interdict  upon 
the  whole  territory,  and,  forming  a  league  with 
the  king  of  Naples,  prepared  to  invade  the 
Florentine  domimons.  Hostilities  followed,  and 
were  carried  on  with  varying  success  during  two 
campaigns.  The  remaincier  of  Lorenzo's  admin- 
istration was  unmarked  bv  any  great  public 
events;  but  his  regard  for  literature  was  mani- 
fested bj'  the  extraordinary  attention  he  paid  to 
the  augmentation  of  the  Laurentian  library, 
which  had  been  founded  by  his  grandfather. 
Died,  1492. 
Melssonier  {mS'-so'^nyd'),  Jean  Louis  Ernest, 
French  painter,  was  bom  in  Lyons,   1815.     He 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


877 


was  a  pupil  of  Cogniet,  and  became  a  member  of 
the  Beaux  Arts  in  1861,  He  first  attracted 
attention  by  his  "Little  Messenger"  in  1836, 
and  continued  to  exhibit  at  the  Paris  salon  for 
many  years.  His  best  pictures  distinguished 
for  minute  detail  are  probably  the  "Napoleon 
Cycle,"  among  which  the  picture  called  "1814" 
was  sold,  in  1887,  for  the  highest  price  ever 
obtained  during  an  artist's  lifetime,  $100,000. 
He  served  in  the  Italian  campaign  and  the  early 
part  of  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  and  was 
colonel  at  the  siege  of  Paris.  He  painted  upward 
of  500  pictures,  about  one-fifth  of  which  are 
owned  in  the  United  States.     Died,  1891. 

Slelanchthon  (7ne4&ngk'-th{i,7i),  Philip,  Luther's 
fellow-laborer  in  the  reformation,  was  born  at 
Bretten,  in  the  palatinate  of  the  Rhine,  1497. 
He  early  decided  in  favor  of  the  reformation,  and 
brought  to  the  aid  of  Luther  great  attainments 
in  learning,  great  acuteness  in  dialectics  and 
exegesis,  a  remarkable  power  both  of  clear 
thinking  and  of  clearly  expressing  his  thoughts; 
and,  along  with  all,  a  gentleness  and  moderation 
that  most  advantageously  tempered  Luther's 
vehemence.  In  1521  he  published  his  Loci 
Communes  Rerum  Theologicarum,  the  first  great 
Protestant  work  on  dogmatic  theology.  In 
1530  he  made  a  most  important  contribution  to 
the  cause  of  Protestantism  in  the  Augsburg  con- 
fession. After  Luther's  death  he  lost,  in  some 
measure,  the  confidence  of  some  of  the  Protes- 
tants, by  those  concessions  to  the  Roman 
Catholics  which  his  anxiety  for  peace  led  him  to 
make;  while  the  zealous  Lutherans  were  no  less 
displeased  because  of  his  approximation  to  the 
doctrine  of  Calvin  on  the  Lord's  supper.  His 
consent,  conditionally  given,  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Augsburg  interim  in  Saxony,  in 
1549,  led  to  painful  controversies;  and  he 
was  involved  in  various  feuds,  which  filled 
the  latter  years  of  his  life  with  disquietude.  He 
died  at  Wittenberg,  1560. 

Melba,  Madame,  n6e  Helen  Porter  Mitchell, 
operatic  vocalist,  was  bom  in  Melbourne,  Aus- 
tralia, 1865.  Her  father  was  Scotch  and  her 
mother  of  Spanish  descent.  At  six  she  sang 
ballads  to  her  own  accompaniment  at  a  charitable 
concert;  subsequently  studied  under  Madame 
Marchesi  in  Paris,  and  made  her  stage  d<5but  in 
1887  in  Rigoletto,  at  the  theatre  de  la  Monnaie, 
Brussels.  Next  year  she  appeared  as  Lucia  at 
Covent  Garden.  In  1889  played  Ophelia  at  Paris 
grand  opera.  For  her  Bemberg  specially  wrote 
Elaine,  produced  in  London  in  1892.  She  has 
taken  a  prominent  part  in  recent  opera  seasons  in 
London  and  New  York,  and,  in  1908,  proved  her- 
self equally  successful  in  concert.  In  1882  she 
married  Charles,  son  of  Sir  Andrew  Armstrong. 
Her  stage  name  is  taken  from  her  birth  place. 

Mellen,  Charles  Sanger,  American  railway  official, 
was  born  in  Lowell,  Mass.,  1851.  He  has  been 
in  the  railway  service  since  1869,  beginning  as 
clerk  in  the  cashier's  ofiice  of  the  Northern  New 
Hampshire  railroad.  He  was  clerk  to  chief 
engineer  Central  Vermont  railroad,  1872-73; 
superintendent's  (Herk  to  chief  clerk  and  assistant 
treasurer  of  Northern  New  Hampshire  railroad, 
1873-80;  assistant  to  manager  of  Boston  and 
Lowell  railroad,  1880-81;  auditor,  1881-83, 
superintendent,  1883-84,  general  superintendent, 
1884-88,  Boston  and  Lowell  and  Concord  rail- 
roads; general  purchasing  agent,  1888,  assistant 
general  manager,  1888-89,  general  traffic  manager, 
1889-92,  Union  Pacific  system;  general  manager 
of  New  York  and  New  England  railroad  at 
Boston,  1892;  second  vice-president  New  York, 
New  Haven  and  Hartforci  railroad,  1892-96; 
president  of  Northern  Pacific  railway  company, 
1896-1903,  New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford 
railroad  company,  since  1903. 


Monander  (mi-nSLn'-der),  Greek  comic  poet,  was 
born  at  Athens,  342  B.  C.  His  uncle  was  the 
comic  poet  Alexis;  he  had  Theophrastus  for 
his  teacher,  and  Epicurus  for  a  friend;  and  the 
influence  of  all  three  is  discernible  in  his  style  of 
thought  and  feeling.  He  was  drowned  while 
swimming  in  the  harbor  of  the  Pirajus,  291  B.  C. 
He  wrote  more  than  100  comedies,  which  were 
held  in  high  repute  among  his  countrymen  for 
their  wit  and  ^race.  Only  a  few  fr^ments  of 
them  now  remain,  but  in  the  plays  of  Terence  we 
have  something  verj'  like  a  Latin  version  of  a  few 
of  them.  At  the  time  when  he  lived  political 
subjects  were  forbidden,  hence  he  treated  only 
lighter  questions  of  social  life. 

Mencius  {mJtn'-shl-us),  Meng-tse,  Chinese  sage,  was 
born  in  Shan-tung,  about  371  B.  C.  He  founded 
a  school  on  the  model  of  that  of  his  great  prede- 
cessor Confucius.  When  forty  years  of  age  he 
led  forth  his  disciples  and  traveled  from  one 
princely  court  to  another  for  more  than  twenty 
years,  seeking  a  ruler  who  would  put  into  practice 
his  system  of  social  and  political  order.  But, 
finding  none,  he  again  withdrew  into  retirement, 
and  died  about  287  B.  C.  After  his  death  his 
disciples  collected  his  conversations  and  exhorta- 
tions, and  published  them  as  the  Book  of  Meng- 
tse.  The  aim  of  his  teaching  was  practical: 
how  men,  especially  rulers,  shall  best  regulate 
their  conduct.  The  philosophic  root  of  his 
system  is  belief  in  the  ethical  goodness  of  man's 
nature.  From  this  root  grew  the  cardinal 
virtues  of  benevolence,  righteousness,  moral 
wisdom,  and  propriety  of  conduct.  It  should  be 
the  aim  of  the  individual  to  perfect  himself  by 
practicing  these  virtues  in  all  the  relations  of  his 
social  and  political  life.  In  his  liberal  and 
enlightened  system  of  political  economy,  he 
advocated  freedom  of  trade,  the  deposition  of 
unworthy  rulers,  division  of  labor,  inspection  of 
work  by  government,  maintenance  of  good  roads 
and  bridges,  poor-laws,  education,  and  the 
abolition  of  war.  Chinese  ethics  are  based  oq 
hi:^  writings. 

Mendelssohn-Bartholdy  {mtn'-dd-son  bdr'-tol'-de'), 
Felix,  German  composer,  was  bom  at  Hamburg, 
1809.  His  father  was  a  convert  to  Christianity, 
and  young  Felix  was  brought  up  in  the  Lutheran 
faith.  Zelter  was  his  instructor  in  composition, 
Ludwig  Berger  on  the  piano.  In  his  ninth  year 
he  gave  his  first  public  concert  in  Berlin,  and  in 
the  following  year  played  in  Paris.  From  this 
period  he  commenced  to  write  compositions  of 
all  sorts,  some  of  them  of  a  verv  difficult  charac- 
ter, for  the  piano,  violin,  violoncello,  etc.  In 
1824  the  first  of  these  —  three  quartets  for  the 
piano  —  were  published.  In  1825  he  went  a 
second  time  to  Paris  and  gave  concerts  there  and 
in  Berlin,  after  which  he  traveled  for  three  years 
in  England,  Scotland,  France,  and  Italy.  la 
1835  he  accepted  the  directorship  of  the  Leipzig 
concerts.  Here  he  was  in  the  center  of  the 
musical  world  of  Germany,  and  was  stimulated 
to  his  highest  and  most  brilliant  efforts.  His 
oratorios,  St.  Paul  and  Elijah,  are  his  two 
greatest  works,  the  latter  second  only  to  the 
greatest  works  of  Handel.  His  Songs  Without 
Words  are  the  most  admired  of  his  minor  com- 
positions.    He  died  at  Leipzig,  1847. 

Mengs  (mSngks),  Anton  Raphael,  modem  German 
artist,  was  bom  in  Aussig,  Bohemia,  1728.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  Danish  artist  who  had  settled  in 
Dresden.  From  his  sixth  year  he  was  comjjelled 
to  exercise  himself  in  drawing  daily  and  hourly, 
and  a  few  years  later  was  instructed  by  his 
father  in  oil,  miniature,  and  enamel  painting. 
His  first  great  compositions  appeared  in  1748, 
and  met  with  universal  admiration.  A  "Holy 
Family"  was  particularly  admired,  and  the 
young  peasant  girl  who  served  him  as  a  model 


878 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


became  his  wife.  On  his  return  to  Dresden  the 
king  appointed  him  principal  court  painter.  In 
1761  Charles  III.  invited  him  to  Spain,  where  his 
principal  works  at  this  time  were  an  "Assemblv 
of  the  Gods,"  and  a  "Descent  from  the  Cross.  ' 
Returning  to  Rome  he  executed  a  great  alle- 
gorical fresco  painting  for  the  pope  in  the  Camera 
de'Papiri,  and  after  three  years  returned  to 
Madrid.  At  this  time  he  executed  the  "Apo- 
theosis of  Trajan"  in  fresco,  his  finest  work.  In 
1776  he  returned  once  more  to  Rome  where  he 
died  in  1779. 

Mercator  (mSr-k&'-tSr),  Gerardus,  Flemish  geogra- 
pher of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  born  at  Rupel- 
monde,  Flanders,  1512,  his  real  name  being 
Kremer,  "merchant,"  of  which  Mercator  is  the 
Latinized  form.  He  took  his  degree  as  bachelor 
of  philosophy  at  Louvain,  but  devoted  his  later 
vears  to  the  study  of  geography.  In  1559  he 
was  appointed  cosmographer  to  the  duke  of 
Cleves.  He  published  several  important  works, 
including  maps  and  descriptions  of  France, 
Germany,  and  Great  Britain.  He  did  a  great 
deal  to  put  geographical  science  upon  a  secure 
footing  and  to  make  popular  the  researches  of 
the  learned.  Some  of  his  later  works  were  of  a 
religious  character  and  were  supposed  to  favor 
the  reformed  doctrines.  He  died  in  Prussia, 
1594. 

Meredith,  George,  English  poet  and  novelist,  a 
native  of  Hampshire,  was  born  in  1828.  After 
studying  for  some  time  in  Germany  he  com- 
menced his  literary  career  with  the  publication 
of  a  volume  of  poems.  This  was  followed  by  the 
Shaving  of  Shagpat,  an  Arabian  entertainment; 
Farina,  a  legend  of  Cologne;  The  Ordeal  of 
Richard  Feverel;  Evan  Harrington;  Modem 
Love;  Poems  of  the  English  Roadside;  Emilia  in 
England;  Rhoda  Fleming;  Vittoria;  The  Adven- 
tures of  Harry  Richmond;  Beauchamp'a  Career; 
The  Egoist;  The  Tragic  Comedians;  Poems  and 
Lyrics  of  the  Joy  of  Earth;  Diana  of  the  Cross- 
ways;  Ballads  and  Poems  of  Tragic  Life;  A 
Reading  of  Earth;  One  of  Our  Conquerors;  Empty 
Purse;  Jump  to  Glory  Jane;  Lord  Ormont  and 
his  Aminta;  The  Amazing  Marriage;  The  Tale 
of  Chloe;  The  House  on  the  Beach;  The  Case  of 
General  Ople  and  Lady  Camper;  Comedy,  and  the 
Uses  of  the  Comic  Spirit;  Selected  Poems,  etc. 
Died,  1909. 

Meredith,  Owen.  See  Lytton,  Edward  Bobert, 
Earl  of. 

Mergentbaler  (rnh-'-ghi-t&'-Ur),  Ottmar,  inventor  of 
the  type-setting  machine  bearing  his  name,  was 
born  in  Wiirttemberg,  Germany,  1854.  He  came 
to  the  United  States  in  1872,  and  received  a  gov- 
ernment position  in  Washington,  D.  C,  to  care 
for  the  mechanism  of  bells,  clocks,  and  signal 
service  apparatus.  He  was  subsequently  con- 
nected with  a  mechanical  engineering  firm  in 
Baltimore,  Md.,  in  1876,  and  while  still  thus 
engaged  began  experiments  which  resulted  in 
the  invention  of  the  linotype  machine.  He  died 
in  Baltimore,  Md.,  1899. 

Merim^e  (mo'-re'-mo').  Prosper,  French  novelist, 
historian  and  archaeologist,  was  born  at  Paris, 
1803.  He  became  a  regular  contributor  to  the 
Revue  de  Paris  and  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes, 
and,  after  several  anonymous  efforts,  wrote 
Clara  Gazul,  and  La  Guda,  Spanish  comedies  and 
IlWrian  songs;  La  Chronique  du  Rdgne  de  Charles 
IX.,  his  most  famous  historical  novel;  Colomba 
and  Carmen,  his  two  masterpieces  of  romance. 
Thereafter  he  applied  himself  to  historical  .re- 
search. He  became  a  member  of  the  French 
academy  in  1844,  was  made  a  senator  in  1853, 
president  of  the  commission  for  reorganizing  the 
bibhothfeque  imp^riale  in  1858,  and  commander 
?li?®  '®8»on  of  honor,  1860.  Died  at  Cannes. 
1870.  ' 


Merlvale  (m^r'-l-tw/),  Charles,  English  historian, 
dean  of  Ely,  was  born  in  Loudon,  1808.  lie  was 
graduated  at  Cambridge ;  was  rector  of  Lawford. 
Essex,  1848-69;  becamedeanof  Ely  in  1869;  held 
a  succession  of  appointments  as  lecturer.  He 
wrote  a  history  of  liome  from  its  foundation  in 
753  B.  C.  to  the  fall  of  Augustus  in  476  A.  D., 
but  his  chief  work  is  the  History  of  the  Romans 
under  the  Empire,  indispensable  as  an  introduction 
to  Gibbon;  Lectures  on  Early  Church  History; 
Contrast  between  Christian  and  Pagan  Society, 
etc.     Died,  1893. 

Merle  d'AublapiA  {mltrl-d6'-bln'-y&'),  Jean  Henri, 
ecclesiastical  historian,  was  bom  near  Geneva, 
Switzerland,  1794.  He  studied  at  Berlin  under 
Neander,  and  in  1818  became  pastor  of  the 
French  Protestant  church  in  Hamburg.  In 
1823  he  was  appointed  court  preaclier  at  Brus- 
sels; but  after  tne  revolution  of  1830  he  declined 
the  post  of  tutor  to  the  prince  of  Orange ;  return- 
ing to  Geneva,  he  took  part  in  the  institution  of 
the  new  Evangelical  college,  and  filled  its  chair  of 
church  history  until  his  sudden  death  in  1872. 
His  History  of  the  Reformation  in  the  \&th  Cen- 
tury has  enjoved  immense  popularity;  other 
works  were :  The  Protector:  a  Vindication;  Ger- 
many, England,  and  Scotland;  and  History  of 
the  Reformation  in  Europe  in  the  Time  of 
Calvin. 

Merrill,  Geoive  Perkins,  American  geologist  and 
educator,  was  bom  at  Auburn,  Me.,  18o4.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  Maine  state  university, 
B.  S..  1879 ;  Ph.  D.  He  was  assistant  in  geologi- 
cal department  of  the  United  States  natiomil 
museum,    1881:     head    curator,    department    of 

?eoIogy,  Unitea  States  national  museum,  since 
897,  and  professor  of  geology  and  mineralogy, 
George  Washington  university,  since  1893. 
Author:  Stones  for  Building  and  Decoration; 
Rocks,  Rock-iveathering  and  Soils;  The  Non- 
Metaliie  Minerals;  The  Non-Metallic  Minerals  — 
Their  Occurrence  and  Uses,  etc.,  and  manv 
scientific  papers  dealing  more  particularly  with 
the  subjects  on  meteorites  and  petrography. 

Merrltt,  Wesley,  American  general,  was  bom  in 
New  York,  1836.  He  was  graduated  from  West 
Point  in  1860;  was  commissioned  brigadier- 
general  of  the  United  States  volunteers,  1863; 
major-general  of  United  States  volunteers,  1865; 
and  after  the  civil  war  regularly  promoted  from 
lieutenant-colonel  to  major-general.  United 
States  army.  He  served  in  tne  army  of  the 
Potomac  until  June,  1864;  participated  in  all 
its  battles  and  earned  six  successive  brevet  pro- 
motions for  gallantry  at  Gettysburg,  Yellow 
Tavern,  Hawes'  Shop,  Five  Forks,  etc.  He 
afterward  accompanied  General  Sheridan  on  a 
cavalry  raid  toward  Charlottesville;  engaged 
in  the  battle  of  Trevilian's  Station;  commanded 
cavalry  division  in  Shenandoah  campaign, 
August,  1864,  to  March,  1865;  was  engaged  in 
battles  of  Winchester,  Fisher's  Hill,  etc.;  and 
commanded  a  corps  of  cavalry  in  Appomattox 
campaign.  He  was  one  of  three  commanders 
from  the  Union  army  to  arrange  with  confederate 
commanders  for  surrender  of  the  army  of  northern 
Virginia.  After  the  war  he  served  in  various 
departments,  participated  in  several  Indian 
campaigns ;  was  superintendent  of  United  States 
mihtary  academy,  1882-87 ;  commanded  depart- 
ment of  the  Atlantic  until  assigned,  May,  1898, 
to  command  of  United  States  forces  in  the 
Philippine  islands,  continuing  there  until  sum- 
moned to  the  aid  of  the  American  peace  com- 
missioners in  session  in  Paris,  December,  1898. 
He  then  returned  to  the  United  States;  was  in 
command  of  department  of  the  East,  Governor's 
island,  until  retirement  in  1900.      Died,  1910. 

Merry  del  Val  {mir'-re  dS,  vOl'),  Raphael,  pontifical 
secretary  of  state,  was  bom  in  London  of  Spanish 


I 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


879 


parents  in  1865.  He  was  educated  at  Ushaw 
college,  Durham,  England,  where  he  resided  for 
some  length  of  time  at  different  periods  in  his 
career.  He  was  at  first  attached  to  the  diocese  of 
Westminster,  acted  for  many  years  as  Camerieri 
Segreto  to  Pope  Leo  XIII.,  and  was  appointed 
president  of  the  Accademia  Pontifica  in  1899, 
and  Italian  archbishop  of  Nicosia  in  1900.  He 
visited  England  as  papal  envoy  on  the  occasions 
of  Queen  Victoria's  jubilee  and  King  Edward's 
coronation,  and  was  sent  to  Canada  on  an  educa- 
tional mission.  In  1903,  on  the  death  of  Leo 
XIII.,  he  was  nominated  consistorial  secretary, 
and  in  October  succeeded  Cardinal  RampoUa  as 
secretary  of  state,  being  afterward  created  a 
cardinal. 

Mesmer,  Fricdrlch  Anton  or  Franz,  founder  of 
mesmerism,  was  born  near  Constance,  Switzer- 
land, 1733.  He  was  intended  for  the  priesthood, 
but  studied  medicine  at  Vienna,  and  about  1772 
took  up  the  opinion  that  there  existed  a  power 
of  extraordinary  medicinal  influence  on  the 
human  body,  which  he  called  animal  magnetism. 
In  1778  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  created  a 
great  sensation.  He  refused  an  annual  pension 
of  20,000  livres  to  reveal  his  secret;  but  in  1785 
a  commission  of  physicians  and  scientists  reported 
on  him  unfavorably.  He  fell  into  disrepute,  and 
after  a  visit  to  England,  spent  the  rest  of  his  life 
in  obscurity  at  Meersburg  in  Switzerland. 
Died,  1815. 

Metastasio  {md'-tas-ta'-zyo),  Pletro  Bonaventura, 
Italian  poet,  whose  real  name  was  Trapassi,  was 
born  in  Rome,  1698.  When  he  was  only  ten 
years  of  age,  his  talent  of  extemporizing  in  verse 
attracted  the  notice  of  Gravina,  who  took  him 
under  his  patronage,  and  fostered  his  poetical 
powers,  while,  at  the  same  time,  he  initiated  him 
in  the  profession  of  the  law.  The  youthful 
Metastasio  also  entered  into  the  minor  order  of 
priesthood.  His  tragedy  of  GiusHno  was  pro- 
duced when  he  was  only  fourteen.  In  1718  his 
patron  died,  and  left  him  the  whole  of  his  prop- 
erty. In  1724  he  published  one  of  his  most  cele- 
brated dramas,  La  Didone,  which,  with  II  Catone 
and  II  Siroe,  conferred  on  the  poet  a  European 
name.  In  1730  he  accepted  the  post  of  poet 
laureate  to  the  imperial  court  of  Vienna.  During 
his  sojourn  in  Vienna  he  composed  his  Giuseppe 
Riconosciuto,  II  Demofoonte,  and  the  AttUio 
Regolo,  his  masterpiece.     Died  at  Vienna,  1782. 

Metchnikoff  {m^ch'-ni-kof),  Illya,  Russian  physi- 
ologist and  cytologist,  was  born  at  Livanovka, 
Russia,  1845.  He  studied  at  Kharkov,  and  after- 
ward at  Giessen  and  at  Munich.  He  occupied 
the  chair  of  zoology  at  Odessa,  1870-82,  but 
resigned  to  devote  himself  to  special  research. 
He  became  chief  assistant  to  Pasteur  in  1892, 
and,  at  the  latter's  death  in  1895,  succeeded  him 
as  director  of  the  Pasteur  institute  at  Paris.  He 
is  the  author  of  The  Nature  of  Man;  Immunity  in 
Infective  Diseases;  The  Prolongation  of  Human 
Life;  Optimistic  Essays,  etc. 

Mettemich  (mit'-er-nis.),  Clemens  Wenzel,  Prince 
von,  Austrian  diplomat  and  statesman,  was  born 
in  Coblentz,  177^.  After  a  distinguished  diplo- 
matic career,  he  became  chief  minister  of  the 
empire  in  1809.  This  high  office  he  held  with 
consummate  ability  for  a  period  of  thirty  years, 
exercising,  almost  without  control,  the  highest 
authority  in  Austria.  The  revolution  of  1848 
Bent  him  into  exile,  from  which  he  returned  three 
years  after.  Died,  1859.  Prince  Mettemich 
was  an  adroit  diplomat  and  exercised  in  his  day 
a  powerful  influence  upon  the  cabinets  of  Europe. 

Meyer,  Adolf,  pathologist,  alienist,  was  born  in 
Niederweningen,  near  Ziirich,  Switzerland,  1866. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  gymnasium,  Ziirich, 
university  of  Zurich,  M.  D.,  1892;  post-graduate 
studies   in    Paris,    London,    Edinburgh,    Ziirich, 


Vienna,  and  Berlin,  1890-92;  LL.  D.,  Glasgow, 
1901.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1892, 
became  a  fellow  and  later  docent  in  neurology, 
universitv  of  Chicago,  1892-95;  was  pathologist 
to  the  Illinois  eastern  hospital  for  the  insane, 
Kankakee,  111.,  1893-95;  pathologist  and  later 
director  of  clinical  and  laboratory  work,  Worces- 
ter, Mass.,  'insane  hospital,  and  docent  in  psy- 
chiatry, Clark  university,  1895-1902;  director  of 
pathological  institute.  New  York  state  hospitala, 
1902-10;  professor  of  psychiatry,  Comell 
medical  college,  1904-09;  professor  psychiatry, 
Johns  Hopkins  university,  and  director  of  Henry 
Phipps  psychiatric  clinic,  Johns  Hopkins  hos- 
pital, since  1910. 

Meyer,  George  von  Lengerke,  American  diplomat, 
was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  1858.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard,  1879,  and  from  1879  to  1899 
engaged  in  business  as  merchant  and  trustee. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Boston  common  coun- 
cil, 1889-90;  member  of  board  of  aldermen,  1891 ; 
member  of  Massachusetts  legislature,  1892-97, 
and  speaker  of  house,  1894-97 ;  chairman  of  Mas- 
sachusetts Paris  exposition  managers,  1898; 
director  of  Amoskeag  manufacturing  company, 
the  Amory  company.  Old  Colony  trust  company, 
National  bank  of  commerce.  United  Electric 
securities  company,  and  president  of  Ames  plow 
company.  He  was  United  States  ambassador  to 
Italy,  1900-05 ;  ambassador  to  Russia,  1905-07 ; 
postmaster-general,  1907-09;  secretary  of  the 
navy,  1909-13. 

Meyerbeer,  Giacomo,  German  composer,  was  bom 
in  Berlin,  1791.  He  was  a  precocious  child, 
and  played  on  the  piano  spontaneously  as  early 
as  his  fifth  year.  He  began  to  study  dramatic 
composition  under  Bernhard  Anselm  Weber; 
and  in  1806  entered  the  school  of  Vogler  at 
Darmstadt,  where  he  formed  an  intimate  friend- 
ship with  Carl  Maria  von  Weber.  While  at 
Darmstadt  he  wrote  a  cantata,  Gott  und  die 
Natur.  He  subseauently  composed  an  opera, 
Jepthah's  Vow,  produced  at  Munich  in  1813.  He 
was  induced  by  his  friend  Salieri  to  visit  Italy, 
where  he  became  an  enthusiastic  convert  to  the 
new  Italian  school,  and  began  the  composition 
of  a  series  of  operas  which  proved  highly  popular. 
His  subsequent  works  include:  Romilda  e  Con- 
stanza;  Semiramide;  Emma  di  Resburgo;  Mar- 
gherita  d'Anjou;  L'Esule  di  Granata;  II  Crociato 
in  Egitto;  Robert  le  Diable;  Les  Huguenots,  in 
which  he  reached  the  climax  of  his  fame;  Le 
Proph^te;  Pierre  le  Grand;  Dinorah;  and 
L'Africaine,  produced  first  in  1865.     Died,  1864. 

Michaelangelo  Buonarroti  {me'-kU-dn'-ja-lo  bw6'- 
ndr-rd'-te).     See  page  128. 

Mlchelet  (meah'-l^'),  Jules,  French  historian,  waa 
born  in  Paris,  1798.  He  was  graduated  from 
the  College  Charlemagne,  and  was  for  many 
years  professor  of  history  in  the  College  de 
France.  In  1843-46  he  became  widely  known, 
not  only  in  his  own  country,  but  also  in  England, 
by  his  attacks  upon  the  Jesuits  in  his  three 
works :  The  Jesuits;  Priests,  Women,  and  Familiea, 
and  The  People.  He  was  the  writer  of  many 
other  works,  several  of  them  of  considerable 
interest;  but  those  of  most  permanent  value  are 
his  History  of  France,  his  History  of  the  French 
Revolution,  and  his  History  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century.     Died,  1874. 

Michelson  (ml'-kSl-sUn),  Albert  Abraham,  scientist, 
educator,  was  bom  at  Strelno,  Germany,  1852. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  United  States  naval 
academy,  1873;  was  midshipman  of  United 
States  navy,  1873;  instructor  of  physics  and 
chemistry.  United  States  naval  academy,  1875- 
79;  nautical  almanac  office,  Washington,  1880; 
student  at  universities  of  Berlin,  1880,  Heidel- 
berg, 1881,  College  de  France  and  Ecole  Poly- 
technique,  1882;   Ph.  D..  Western  Reserve,  1886. 


880 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Stevens  institute,  1887;  Sc.  D.,  university  of 
Cambridge,  1899;  LL.  D.,  Yale,  1901,  Franklin 
bicentenary  university  of  Pennsylvania,  1906. 
He  was  professor  of  physics  at  the  Case  school, 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  1883-89,  Clark  university, 
1889-92,  and  has  been  professor  and  head  of  the 
department  of  physics,  university  of  Chicago, 
since  1892.  He  was  Lowell  lecturer,  1899; 
received  the  Rumford  medal,  1889,  and  the  grand 
prix,  Paris  exposition,  1900 ;  Copley  medal,  royal 
society,  London,  1907,  and  was  awarded  the 
Nobel  prize  for  physics,  $40,000,  by  the  Swedish 
academy  of  sciences,  1907.  He  is  a  member  of 
numerous  scientific  societies,  and  has  been  a 
frequent  contributor  to  the  Philosophical  Maga- 
zine; Nature;  American  Journal  of  Science,  etc., 
chiefly  on  researches  in  light. 

MifSin,  Thomas,  American  general  and  statesman, 
was  born  in  Philadelphia,  1744,  was  originally  a 
merchant  of  his  native  city.  He  was  electea  to 
the  continental  congress  of  1774,  joined  the 
revolutionary  forces,  and  rose  to  be  major- 
general  in  1777,  but  was  removed  for  hb  con- 
nection v/ith  the  Conway  cabal,  1778.  In  1782 
he  was  sent  to  the  federal  congress,  and  in  1783 
became  its  president.  He  was  speaker  of  the 
Pennsylvania  state  legislature,  1785;  member 
of  the  constitutional  convention  of  1787;  presi- 
dent of  the  executive  council  of  Pennsylvania, 
1788-90;  president  of  the  state  convention  of 
1790,  and  governor  of  Pennsylvania,  1790-99. 
Died,  1800. 

Mllbum,  John  George,  American  lawyer,  was  bom 
near  Sunderland,  England,  1851.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  private  schools  in  England;  studied  law 
at  Batavia,  N.  Y. ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
1874,  and  practiced  in  Buflfalo  as  a  member  of 
the  firm  of  Rogers,  Locke  and  Milbum.  He 
is  now  a  member  of  the  firm  Carter,  Ledyard 
and  Milburn,  New  York.  He  was  president  of 
the  Pan-American  exposition,  1901;  Presi- 
dent McKinley  was  taken  to  his  house  after  the 
fatal  assault  on  his  life,  and  died  there.  He  is  a 
trustee  of  the  New  York  life  insurance  company; 
member  of  the  board  of  commissioners  of  statu- 
tory consolidation,  which  consolidated  all  general 
statutes  of  New  York,  from  1777;  member  of  the 
American  bar  association,  and  was  a  delegate  to 
the  universal  congress  of  lawyers  and  jurists,  St. 
Louis,  1904. 

Miles,  Nelson  Appleton,  American  general,  was 
bom  in  Westminster,  Mass.,  1839.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  civil  war  he  was  engaged  in  mercan- 
tile pursuits  in  Boston,  Mass. ;  entered  the  serv- 
ice as  first  lieutenant  of  the  22d  Massachusetts 
regiment  in  1861,  and  distinguished  himself  at 
the  battles  of  Fair  Oaks,  Charles  City  Cross 
Roads,  and  Malvern  Hill.  In  1SG2  he  was  com- 
missioned colonel  of  the  61st  New  York  regiment, 
which  he  led  at  Fredericksburg  and  Chancellors- 
ville,  where  he  was  severely  wounded.  He 
commanded  the  first  brigade,  first  division, 
second  army  corps,  in  the  Richmond  campaign, 
was  promoted  brigadier-general,  1864,  and 
brevetted  major-general  for  gallantry  at  Ream's 
station  in  August,  1864.  At  the  close  of  the 
war  he  was  commissioned  colonel  of  the  40th 
United  States  infantry.  He  was  promoted 
bngadier-general  in  1880;  major-general  in 
1890;  and  succeeded  Lieutenant-General  John 
M.  Schofield  as  commander  of  the  army  in  1895. 
He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  wars  with  the 
Indians  m  1874,  and  thereafter.  In  July,  1898, 
he  went  to  the  front  and  assumed  personal  com- 
mand of  the  army  around  Santiago,  Cuba;  and 
after  the  surrender  of  the  Spanish  army  com- 
manded the  expedition  which  left  Guantanamo 
bay,  July  21st,  landed  at  Guanica,  Porto  Rico, 
July  25th  and  was  marching  on  San  Juan,  the 
capital,  when  the  armistice  stopped  hostile  opera- 


tions. On  the  reorganization  of  the  army  in 
1901,  the  grade  of  iieutenant-general  was  revived 
and  he  was  promoted  to  it.  In  1901  he  publiclv 
expressed  satisfaction  with  Admiral  Dewey's 
report  on  Rear-Admiral  Schley  and  was  repri- 
manded therefor.  He  was  retired  upon  reaching 
the  age  limit,  1903. 

Mill,  James,  Britisii  historian  and  political  econo- 
mist, was  bom  near  Montrose,  Scotland,  1773. 
He  studied  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  in  Greek  and  in 
moral  and  metaphysical  philosophy.  He  became 
editor  of  the  Literary  Journal,  which  after  a  time 
was  discontinued,  and  wrote  for  various  periodi- 
cals, including  the  Eclectic  and  the  Edinburgh 
Review.  He  wrote  much  of  standard  value, 
including  History  of  British  India;  Liberty  of  the 
Press;  Law  of  Nations;  Elements  of  Political 
Economy;  anci  Analysis  of  the  Phenomena  of  the 
Human  Mind.     He  died  in  London,  1836. 

Mill«  John  Stuart,  English  philosopher  and  econo- 
mist, son  of  the  preceding,  was  bom  in  1806. 
He  was  educated  at  home  by  his  father.  In 
1820  he  went  to  France,  where  he  made  himself 
master  of  the  French  language  and  occasionally 
attended  public  lectures  on  science.  He  lived 
for  some  time  at  Paris,  in  the  house  of  the  French 
economist,  Jean  Baptiste  Say,  where  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  many  men  distinguished  then, 
or  afterward,  in  letters  and  politics.  During 
this  stay  in  France  he  laid  the  foundation  of  his 
great  familiarity  with  and  interest  in  the  politics 
aa  well  as  the  literature  of  the  French  nation. 
In  1823  he  entered  the  India  house  as  a  clerk  in 
the  examiner's  office,  where  his  fatiicr  was  assist- 
ant examiner.  For  thirty-three  years  he  con- 
tinued to  occupy  the  department  of  the  office 
named  the  political.  His  first  publication  con- 
sisted of  articles  in  the  Westminster  Reviev.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  political  discussions 
that  followed  the  revolution  of  1830  in  France,  and 
the  reform  bill  movement  in  England;  and  from 
1836  to  1840  was  editor,  and  along  with  Sir  VV. 
Molesworth  proprietor,  of  the  London  and  West- 
minster Review,  where  many  articles  of  his  own 
appeared.  He  established  his  reputation,  in 
1843,  by  the  publication  of  A  System  of  Logic, 
Ratiocinative  and  Inductive,  a  work  the  success 
of  which  paved  the  way  for  The  Principles  of 
Political  Economy.  His  later  works  include: 
Essay  on  Liberty;  An  Examination  of  Sir  William 
Hamilton's  Philosophy;  The  Subjection  of  Women, 
in  which  he  avows  himself  a  partisan  of  what  has 
been  popularly  termed  the  "woman's  rights 
movement""  August  Comte  and  Positivism; 
Nature,  the  Utility  of  Religion,  and  Theism,  etc. 
He  was  a  member  of  parnament,  1865-68.  He 
died  at  Avignon,  France,  1873. 

Millals  (mWd"),  Sir  John  Everett,  English  painter, 
was  bom  of  Jersey  parentage,  at  Southampton, 
1829.  He  studied  at  the  royal  academy,  and  at 
seventeen  exhibited  a  notable  historical  work. 
He  then  early  associated  with  Rossetti  and 
Holman  Hunt,  and  remained  for  over  twenty 
years  under  their  influence.  To  this  period 
belong  "The  Carpenter's  Shop";  "Autumn 
Leaves";  "The  Minuet";  "The  Gambler's 
Wife";  "The  Huguenot,"  etc.  His  subsequent 
work,  in  which  technical  interest  predominates, 
was  chiefly  portraiture,  including  Gladstone 
and  Beaconsfield.  He  was  a  profuse  illustra- 
tor, and  executed  some  etchings.  He  was  made 
R.  A.  in  1863,  a  baronet  in  1885,  and  became 
president  of  the  royal  academy  in  1896.  Died, 
1896. 

Miller,  Hagh,  Scottish  geologist,  was  bom  at 
Cromarty,  1802.  From  sixteen  to  thirty-one 
he  worked  as  a  common  stonemason,  devoting 
the  winter  months  to  writing,  reading,  and 
natural  history.     In   1829  he  published  Poems 


JOHN   STUART   MILL 

From  a  photograph 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


toritten  in  the  Leisure  Hours  of  a  Journeyman 
Mason,  followed  by  Scenes  and  Legends  of  the 
North  of  Scotland,  in  1835.  In  1834-39  he  acted 
as  bank  accountant;  in  1839  was  invited  to 
Edinburgh  to  edit  the  Witness;  and  in  1840 
published  in  its  columns  the  geological  articles 
afterward  collected  as  Tlie  Old  Red  Sandstone,  in 
1841.  His  editorial  labors  during  the  heat  of  the 
religious  disruption  struggle  were  immense,  and, 
worn  out  by  overwork,  he  shot  himself  in  1856. 
His  other  works  include:  First  Impressions  of 
England;  Footprints  of  the  Creator;  My  Schools 
and  Schoolmasters;  Testimony  of  the  Rocks;  The 
Cruise  of  the  Betsey;  Sketch  Book  of  Popular 
Geology;  The  Headship  of  Christ;  Essays,  His- 
torical and  Biographical;  Tales  and  Sketches; 
and  Edinburgh  and  its  Neighborhood. 

Miller,  Joaquin,  pen-name  of  Cincinnatus  Heine 
Miller,  American  poet.  He  was  born  in  Indiana, 
1841;  became  a  miner  in  California,  fought  in  the 
Indian  wars,  was  an  express  messenger,  practiced 
law  in  Oregon;  edited  a  paper  suppressed  for 
disloyalty;  in  1866-70  was  a  county  judge  in 
Oregon;  was  a  Washington  journalist,  and  in 
1887  settled  in  California  as  a  fruit-grower.  His 
works  include :  Songs  of  the  Sierras;  Songs  of  the 
Sunland;  Songs  of  Itcdy;  Songs  of  the  Mexican 
Seas;  In  Classic  Shade;  The  Danites  in  the 
Sierras;  Shadows  of  Shasta;  '49,  or  the  Gold- 
seekers  of  the  Sierras;  The  Ship  of  the  Desert; 
Life  Among  the  Modocs;  First  Families  of  the 
Sierras;  The  One  Fair  Woman;  Memorie  and 
Rime;  Baroness  of  New  York;  The  Destruction 
of  Gotham;  The  Building  of  the  City  Beautiful; 
Chants  for  the  Boer;  True  Bear  Stories,  etc.  He 
also  wrote  the  plays:  The  Danites,  The  Silent 
Man,  and  '49.     Died,  1913. 

Millet  {me'4^'),  Jean  Francois,  French  painter,  was 
bom  in  the  village  of  Gruchy,  France,  1814.  He 
first  worked  as  a  farm  laborer,  but  his  taste  for 
painting  was  so  evident  that  he  was  sent  to 
study  with  Mouchel,  a  painter  in  Cherbourg. 
His  master  induced  the  town  authorities  to  grant 
his  pupil  an  annuity  to  help  him  in  his  studies. 
He  afterward  went  to  Paris  and  studied  with 
Delaroche.  He  painted  small  pictures,  por- 
traits, and  signboards  in  his  first  efforts  to  support 
himself.  After  the  revolution  of  1848,  through 
which  he  had  struggled  practicing  his  art,  and 
fighting  at  the  barricades,  he  settled  in  Barbizon, 
near  the  forest  of  Fontainebleau.  He  lived  here 
much  like  the  peasants  and  began  his  work  of 
painting  the  peasant  life  of  France.  Some  of 
his  best  known  works  are:  "The  Sower"; 
"  Peasants  Graf  ting  " ;  "The  Gleaners";  "Wait- 
ing"; "The  Angelus";  "The  Man  with  the 
Hoe";  "Wool-Carding";  "Shepherdess  and 
Flock."  His  most  celebrated  picture,  "The 
Angelus,"  sold  for  over  $100,000.  He  died  at 
Barbizon,  which  under  his  influence  had  become 
an  artist  colony,  1875. 

Mills,  Claris,  American  sculptor,  was  bom  in 
Onondaga  county,  New  York,  1815.  He  was 
for  nine  years  a  plasterer  in  Charleston,  S.  C. 
In  1846  he  made  a  bust  of  John  C.  Calhoun,  which 
was  purchased  by  the  city.  In  1850  he  com- 
pleted a  model  of  an  equestrian  statue  of  Jackson, 
for  Lafayette  square,  Washington,  which  rested 
on  the  horse's  hind  feet  alone.  Mills  had  to 
build  a  foundry  and  to  learn  the  practical  busi- 
ness of  casting,  for  there  was  then  no  establish- 
ment in  the  country  capable  of  casting  so  large 
a  mass.  He  produced  a  perfect  cast  in  1852,  and 
the  statue  was  set  up  the  following  year.  He 
made  also  the  equestrian  statue  of  Washington, 
dedicated  in  Washington  on  February  22,  1860, 
and  the  colossal  statue  of  Liberty,  from  a  design 
by  Crawford,  which  crowns  the  dome  of  the 
Capitol,  finished  in  1863.  He  died  at  Washing- 
ton, D. C,  1883, 


MlUst  Boser  Quarles,  American  lawyer,  United 
States  senator,  was  born  in  Todd  county,  Ky., 
1832.  He  moved  to  Texas,  1849;  studied  law, 
Palestine,  Tex.,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  at 
twenty  years  of  age ;  began  practice  at  Corsicana, 
1852.  He  was  elected  to  the  Texas  house  of 
representatives,  1859;  was  at  battle  of  Wilson's 
crock,  1861 ;  later  colonel  of  10th  Texas  infantry, 
confederate  army,  which  he  commanded  in  bat- 
tles of  Arkansas  Post,  1862,  Chickamauga,  1863. 
After  the  fall  of  General  James  Deshler,  he  took 
command  of  the  brigade  at  the  battles  of  Mis- 
sionary Ridge,  1863,  New  Hope  church,  and 
Atlanta,  1864,  where  he  was  twice  wounded.  He 
was  a  member  of  congress,  1873-92;  United 
States  senator,  1892-93,  and  1893-99,  and  was 
author  of  the  famous  Mills  tariff  bill.     Died,  191 1. 

Mills,  William  Lennox,  bishop  of  Ontario  since 
1901,  was  born  at  Woodstock,  Ontario,  and  was 
graduated  at  the  Western  university,  London, 
1872;  B.  D.,  D.  D.,  and  D.  C.  L. ,  Trinity  college, 
Toronto;  LL.  D.,  Queen's  university,  Kingston; 
D.  D.,  Bishop's  college,  LennoxviUe.  He  was 
ordained  priest,  1873;  was  incumbent  of  Trinity 
church,  Norwich,  Ontario,  1872;  rector  of  St. 
Thomas's  church,  Seaforth,  Ontario,  1874 ;  rector 
of  the  crown  rectory  of  St.  John's,  province  of 
Quebec,  1875 ;  rector  of  Trinity  church,  Montreal, 
1882;  examining  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Mon- 
treal, and  lecturer  in  ecclesiastical  history  in  the 
Montreal  diocesan  theological  college,  1883; 
canon  of  Christ  church  cathedral,  Montreal,  1884; 
archdeacon  of  St.  Andrew's,  diocese  of  Montreal, 
1896;  bishop  coadjutor  of  Ontario,  with  title  of 
bishop  of  Kingston,  1900. 

Milman,  Henry  Hart,  poet  and  church  historian, 
was  born  in  London,  1791.  He  was  educated  at 
Greenwich,  Eton,  and  Brasenose  college,  Oxford, 
where  in  1812  he  won  the  Newdigate  prize  with 
his  Belvidere  Apollo,  best  of  Oxford  prize  poems. 
In  1818  he  became  vicar  at  Reading;  in  1821-31 
professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford,  where  in  1827  he 
delivered  the  Bampton  lectures  on  The  Character 
of  the  Apostles  as  an  Evidence  of  Christianity;  in 
1835  rector  of  St.  Margaret's,  Westminster,  and  a 
canon  of  Westminster;  and  in  1849  dean  of  St. 
Paul's.  His  Poems  and  Dramatic  Works  com- 
prise Fazio,  a  Tragedy;  Samor;  The  Fall  of 
Jerusalem;  Belshazzar,  etc.  To  the  Historical 
Works  belong  the  History  of  the  Jews;  History  of 
Christianity  to  the  Abolition  of  Paganism  in  the 
Roman  Empire;  and  —  his  masterpiece  —  the 
History  of  Latin  Christianity  to  the  Pontificate  of 
Nicholas  V.  He  also  edited  Gibbon  and  Horace, 
and  wrote  much  for  the  Quarterly.  After  his 
death  appeared  the  delightful  Anruils  of  St. 
Paul's,  and  Savonarola,  Erasmus,  and  other 
Essays.     He  died  in  1868. 

Miltiades  (mil-tV-d-dez),  Athenian  general,  "tyrant 
of  the  Chersonese,"  yet,  as  Byron  sings,  "free- 
dom's best  and  bravest  friend,"  was  bom  about 
540  B.  C.  Forced  by  Darius  to  flee  from  his 
dominions,  he  took  refuge  at  Athens,  and  on  the 
second  Persian  invasion  of  Greece,  his  military 
talents  being  of  a  high  order,  he  was  chosen  one  of 
the  ten  generals.  He  particularly  distin^ished 
himself  by  the  great  victory  which  he  gamed  at 
Marathon  with  a  small  body  of  Athenians  and 
1,000  PlatiBans,  490  B.  C,  over  the  Persians.  He 
failed  in  an  expedition  against  Paros,  was  fined 
fifty  talents,  which  he  was  unable  to  pay,  and 
consequently  died  in  prison,  489  B.  C. 

Milton,  Jolm.     See  page  53. 

Mirabeau  {me'-rd'-bo'),  Gabriel  Honor6  BlquettU 
Comte  de,  French  orator,  was  born  at  Bignon, 
near  Nemours,  1749.  He  was  endowed  with  an 
athletic  frame  and  extraordinary  mental  abili- 
ties, but  was  of  a  fiery  temper,  and  disposed  to 
every  kind  of  excess.  He  wrote  many  effective 
political    pamphlets,    particularly    against    the 


884 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


financial  administration  of  Calonne,  receiving 
pecuniary  assistance,  it  is  said,  from  some  of  the 
great  bankers  of  Paris;  and  became  one  of  the 
Naders  of  the  liberal  party.  When  the  states- 
general  was  convened,  he  sought  to  be  elected 
a  representative  of  the  nobles  of  Provence, 
but  was  rejected,  and  left  them  with  the  threat 
that,  like  Marius,  he  would  overthrow  the  aris- 
tocracy. He  purchased  a  draper's  shop,  offered 
himself  as  a  candidate  to  the  third  estate,  was 
enthusiastically  returned  both  at  Aix  and 
Marseilles,  and  by  his  talents  and  oratorical 
powers  soon  acquired  great  influence  in  the 
states-general  and  national  assembly.  To 
suppress  insurrection,  he  effected  in  1789  the 
institution  of  the  national  guard.  In  1790  he 
was  elected  president  of  the  club  of  the 
Jacobins,  and,  m  1791.  of  the  national  assembly. 
Both  in  the  club  ana  in  the  assembly  he  dis- 
played great  boldness  and  energy;  but  soon 
after  his  appointment  as  president  of  the  latter 
he  died,  1791. 

Mitchel,  Ormsby  McKnight,  American  general  and 
astronomer,  was  born  in  Kentucky,  1810.  He 
was  professor  of  mathematics  at  West  Point  for 
two  years  after  his  graduation  there,  in  1829; 
practiced  law  and  taught  in  Cincinnati  college, 
and  became  director  of  the  Cincinnati  observa- 
tory, which  had  been  built  largely  through  bis 
influence,  and  also  of  the  Dudley  observatory  at 
Albany.  In  the  civil  war  he  entered  the  army 
as  brigadier-general  of  volunteers ;  was  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  major-general,  and,  after  various 
successes,  given  command  of  the  department  of 
the  South.  He  died  of  yellow  fever  at  Beaufort, 
S.  C,  1862,  before  entering  on  the  campaign. 
He  lectured  on  astronomy,  and  invented  several 
instruments  for  astronomical  work.  His  pub- 
lished books  are  Planetary  and  Stellar  Worlds, 
and  Popular  Astronomy. 

Mitchell,  Donald  Grant,  "Ik  Marvel,"  American 
novelist  and  essayist,  was  bom  at  Norwich, 
Conn.,  1822.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  college, 
and  pursued  law  studies  in  New  York  city.  In 
1853  he  was  appointed  United  States  consul  at 
Venice,  and  in  1868  became  editor  of  the  Atlantic 
Monthly.  His  best  known  works  are:  Dream 
Life;  Reveries  of  a  Bachelor;  My  Farm  at  Edge- 
wood;  Wet  Days  at  Edgewood;  Doctor  Johns; 
English  Lands,  Letters,  and  Kings;  and  American 
Lands  and  Letters.     Died,  1908. 

Mitchell,  John,  American  labor  leader,  was  bom  at 
Braidwood,  111.,  1870.  He  received  a  common 
school  education,  read  law  one  year,  and  made  a 
special  study  of  economic  questions.  He  began 
work  in  coal  mines,  1882,  and  has  since,  as 
worker  or  labor  leader,  been  identified  with 
mines  and  mining.  His  official  connection  with 
the  iinited  mine  workers  of  America  began  in 
1895,  and  from  1899  to  1908  he  served  as  presi- 
dent of  that  organization.  He  directecf  the 
strikes  of  the  anthracite  miners  in  1900  and  1902, 
and  was  vice-president  of  the  American  federa- 
tion of  labor  in  1898,  and  since  1900.  He  is  the 
author  of  a  book.  Organized  Labor,  Its  Problems, 
Purposes,   and    Ideals. 

Mitchell,  Maria,  American  astronomer,  was  bom  at 
Nantucket,  Mass.,  1818.  She  assisted  her  father, 
who  was  a  teacher,  in  his  work  in  astronomy, 
and  soon  became  fitted  to  make  investigations 
herself.  In  1847  she  was  awarded  a  gold  medal 
by  the  king  of  Denmark  for  the  discovery  of  a 
coniet.  She  was  employed  in  observations  con- 
nected with  the  coast  survey,  and  in  compiling 
the  nautical  almanacs,  and  was  the  first  woman 
inade  a  member  of  the  American  academy  of 
arts  ajid  sciences.  In  1865  she  became  professor 
of  astronomy  at  Vassar  college,  and  held  that 

Sosition  until  the  year  before  her  death  at  Lynn. 
Lass.,  1889.  •'      ' 


Mitchell,  Silas  Weir,  American  phvsician,  poet,  and 
novelist,  was  bom  at  PhilaJielphia,  Pa.,  1829. 
He  studied  at  the  university  of  Pennsylvania, 
but  was  not  graduated  because  of  illness  during 
his  senior  year;  was  graduated  at  Jefferson 
medical  college,  1850:  LL.  D.,  Harvard,  Edin- 
burgh, Princeton;  M.  D.  hon.  causa,  Bologna. 
He  established  a  practice  in  Philadelphia, 
became  prominent  as  a  physiologist  and  especially 
as  neurologist,  and  stands  at  the  head  of  the 
profession  in  that  department  of  medical  science. 
Author :  Treatise  on  Neurology;  Serpent  Poisons; 
Comparative  Physiology;  and  about  125  papers 
on  neurological  subjects;  Poems;  Injuries  to 
Nerves;  Clinical  Lessons;  Doctor  and  Patient, 
essajrs:  Hephzibah  Guinness;  In  War  Time; 
Rolana  Blake;  Far  in  the  Forest;  Characteristics; 
When  All  the  Woods  are  Green;  Hugh  Wynne, 
Free  Quaker;  Adventttres  of  Francois;  The  Auto- 
biography of  a  Quack;  Dr.  North  and  His  Friends; 
The  Wager,  and  Other  Poems;  Circumstance; 
Youth  of  Washington;   Constance  Trescot,  etc. 

Mltford*  Mary  Russell,  English  author,  was  born 
at  Alresford,  Hants,  1787.  She  was  sent  to 
school  in  Chelsea,  and  her  first  volume  of  poems 
appeared  in  1810,  and  was  followed  by  two  more 
in  1811-12.  Four  of  her  tragedies,  Julian,  The 
Foscari,  Riemi,  and  Charles  /.,  were  acted,  but 
have  not  kept  the  stage.  Her  charming  sketches 
of  country  manners,  scenery,  and  character  were 
rejected  by  several  editors,  but  at  length  found 
a  place  in  the  London  Magaziru,  and  were  col- 
lected as  Our  Village  in  5  vols.  In  1852  she 
published  RecoUeetions  of  a  Literary  Life,  and  in 
1854,  Atherton,  and  Other  Tales.  She  died  in 
1855  at  Swallowfield,  where  she  had  moved  in 
1851. 

Mithridates  (mUh'^rUda'-Uz)  the  Great,  king  of 
Pontus,  Armenia,  and  Parthia,  countries  in  Asia 
Minor,  was  bom  about  132  B.  C.  He  became 
king  when  about  thirteen  years  old.  The  first 
Mithridatic  war,  as  it  is  called,  was  against 
Bithynia,  whose  king  was  sustained  by  the 
Romans.  At  first  Mithridates  conquered  the 
Roman  provinces  in  Asia  Minor,  and  sent  large 
armies  to  help  the  Greeks,  but  finally  had  to 
make  peace  with  Sulla,  giving  up  all  his  Asiatic 
conquests.  In  the  second  war,  83-81  B.  C, 
Mithridates  was  successful,  but  was  again  de- 
feated in  the  third  war,  which  he  carried  on 
against  the  Romans,  from  74  to  65  B.  C,  Pompey 
finally  driving  him  to  his  northern  territories. 
Here  he  planned  revenge,  but  was  prevented 
from  carrj'ing  out  his  purpose  by  the  rebellion  of 
his  son,  when  in  desperation  he  ended  his  life  by 
suicide,  in  63  B.  C.  He  was  one  of  the  strong 
eastern  despots,  but  a  friend  of  culture  and  the 
arts. 

Modjeska  (md-jls'-kd),  Helena  (Mme.  Chlapowski, 
n^e  Opido),  actreas,  was  bom  in  Cracow,  Poland, 
1844.  She  made  her  d^but  in  Bochnia,  Poland, 
1861 ;  soon  became  leading  actress  in  her  native 
country;  married  G.  O.  Modjeska  in  1860, 
and,  in  1868,  Charles  Bozenta  Chlapowski,  com- 

Eatriot.  Her  first  appearance  in  English  was  at 
an  Francisco,  1877,  in  Adrienne  Lecouvreur,  fol- 
lowed by  a  starring  tour  through  the  United  States 
and  England.  She  returned  to  America  after 
two  London  engagements,  and  played  leading 
Shakespearean  parts,  Camille,  Mary  Stuart,  etc. 
She  retired  from  the  stage  in  1905  and  died,  1909. 

Mohammed  {mo-hdm' -id) .     See  page  218. 

Moli^re  {md'4y6.r'),  Jean  Baptiste  Poquelin.  See 
page  57. 

Moltke  {mMtf-ki\  Hellmuth  Karl  Bemhard.  Count 
Ton,  chief  marshal  of  the  German  empire,  was 
born  in  Parchim,  in  Mecklenburg,  1800.  He 
was  graduated  from  the  military  academy  at 
Copenhagen,  1818,  and  entered  the  Prussian  serv- 
ice in    1822    as    lieutenant  in  the  8th  infantry 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


885 


regiment.  In  1835  he  undertook  a  tour  in  Tur- 
key, remained  there  several  vears,  and  took  part 
in  the  campaign  of  tlie  Turks  in  Syria,  against 
the  viceroy  of  Egypt.  lie  became  lieutenant- 
general  of  the  Prussian  army  in  1859,  and 
sketched  the  plans  of  the  campaigns  against 
Denmark,  1864,  and  Austria,  18G6.  He  was  the 
commander-in-chief  in  tlie  Franco-German  war. 
1870-71,  and  to  his  brilliant  strategy  are  ascribea 
the  splendid  victories  of  the  German  arms.  He 
is  generally  regarded  as  the  first  strategist  of  the 
day,  was  created  a  count  in  1870,  and  chief 
marshal  of  the  German  empire  in  1871.  He 
published  numerous  essays,  letters,  speeches,  a 
novel,  and  several  military  works.  Died  at 
Berhn,  1891. 

Monimsen  {mom'-zSn),  Theodor,  German  historian, 
was  born  at  Garding  in  Schleswig,  1817,  son  of  a 
pastor.  He  studied  at  Kiel;  for  three  years 
examined  Roman  inscriptions  in  France  and 
Italy  for  the  Berlin  acauem}'^,  1844—47,  and  in 
1848  was  appointed  to  a  chair  of  law  at  Leipzig, 
of  which  two  years  later  he  was  deprived  for  the 
part  he  took  in  poUtics.  In  1852  he  became 
professor  of  Roman  law  at  Ziirich,  in  1854  at 
fereslau,  and  in  1858  of  ancient  history  at  Berlin. 
He  edited  the  monumental  Corpus  Inscriptionum 
Latinaruyn,  helped  to  edit  the  Monumenta  Ger- 
TTianice  Historica,  and  from  1873  to  1895  was 
secretary  of  the  academy  of  science.  In  1882  he 
was  tried  and  acquitted  on  a  charge  of  slandering 
Bismarck  in  an  election  speech.  His  fine  library 
was  burned  in  1880.  His  greatest  work  remains 
his  History  of  Rome,  followed  by  The  Roman 
Provinces.  Freeman  characterized  Mommsen  as 
"the  greatest  scholar  of  our  times,  well-nigh  the 
greatest  scholar  of  all  times  .  .  .  language, 
law,  mythology,  customs,  antiquities,  coins,  m- 
scriptions,  every  source  of  knowledge  of  every 
kind  —  he  is  master  of  them  all."  Among  his 
920  separate  publications  were  works  on  the 
Italic  dialects,  Neapolitan  inscriptions,  Roman 
coins,  Roman  constitutional  law,  and  an  edition  of 
the  Pandects.     He  died  at  Charlottenburg,  1903. 

Money,  Hernando  De  Soto,  lawyer.  United  States 
senator,  was  bom  in  Holmes  county.  Miss.,  1839. 
He  was  educated  at  the  university  of  Mississippi, 
Oxford,  Miss.;  served  in  the  confederate  army 
from  the  beginning  of  the  war  until  1864,  when 
he  was  forced  to  retire  from  service  by  defective 
ejyesight ;  was  elected  to  the  house  of  representa- 
tives from  the  forty-fourth  to  the  forty-eighth 
and  from  the  fifty-third  to  the  fifty-fourth  con- 
gresses ;  and  in  1897  was  appointed  to  the  United 
States  senate  to  fill  a  vacancy  caused  by  the 
death  of  Hon.  J.  Z.  George.  In  1898  he  was 
elected  to  fill  out  the  unexpired  term  ending 
1899,  and  was  then  elected  to  succeed  himself  for 
the  terms  1899-1911.     Died,  1912. 

Monge  (mdNzh),  Gaspard,  French  mathematician 
and  physicist,  was  born  at  Beaune,  1746.  He 
studied  at  Lyons  and  M^ziferes,  in  1780  became  a 
member  of  the  P'rench  academy,  during  the 
revolution  was  minister  of  marine,  but  soon  took 
charge  of  the  national  manufactories  of  arms  and 
gunppwder.  After  he  had  helped  to  found 
the  Ecole  Polytechnique,  he  was  sent  by  the  direc- 
tory to  Italy.  Here  he  formed  a  close  friendship 
with  Bonaparte,  followed  him  to  Egypt,  and  was 
made  successively  professor  in  the  Ecole  Polytech- 
nique, a  senator,  and  count  of  Pelusium.  He  wrote 
Traiti  Elimentaire  de  Statique,  Lemons  de  Giom.6trie, 
etc.,  and  was  the  founder  of  the  science  of 
descriptive  geometry.     He  died  at  Paris,   1818. 

Monk,  George,  duke  of  Albemarle,  English  general, 
was  born  in  County  Devon,  1608.  After  a  brief 
service  in  Holland  he  fought  at  first  on  the  side 
of  Charles  I.  during  the  English  civil  war;  then, 
changing  to  the  other  side,  he  commanded  a 
republican  army  in  Ireland,  1646-50,  and  in  1651 


reduced  Scotland  to  submission  to  Cromwell. 
In  1653  he  commanded  in  the  sea-fight  in  which 
the  Dutch  were  defeated,  and  their  admiral, 
Tromp,  killed.  After  the  death  of  the  protector 
in  1658,  Monk  proclaimed  the  former's  son, 
Richard  Cromwell,  his  successor,  and  himself 
retained  command  of  the  army  in  Scotland. 
With  that  armv,  in  1600,  he  marched  upon 
London,  and  cfeclared  for  the  restoration  of 
Charles  II.,  which  consummation  he  succeeded 
in  bringing  about.  His  last  great  victory  at  sea 
was  over  the  Dutch  in  1066.     Monk  died  in  1670. 

Monmoutii,  James  Fltzroy,  Duke  of,  English 
general,  was  born  at  Rotterdam,  1649.  He  waa 
a  natural  son  of  Charles  II.  and  Lucy  Walters, 
and  as  such  was  loaded  with  rank  and  honors. 
He  had  high  hopes  of  succeeding  to  the  English 
throne,  but  this  his  father  waa  unable  to  secure. 
Monmouth  was  sent  into  Scotland  in  1679  to 
quell  a  rebellion.  In  time  he  became  the  idol 
of  the  English  nonconformists.  The  return  of 
the  duke  of  York  was  followed  by  the  exile  of 
Monmouth  to  Holland,  where  he  allied  himself 
with  the  leaders  of  the  nonconformist  party, 
exiled  like  himself.  When  he  was  allowed  to 
return  to  London  he  was  received  with  such 
demonstrations  of  joy  that  he  felt  he  was  the 
people's  choice.  In  1684  he  went  to  Holland 
and  remained  abroad  until  the  death  of  the  kins, 
when  he  resolved  to  embark  for  England.  He 
landed,  in  1685,  with  a  small  force,  at  Lyme- 
Regis,  and  issued  a  manifesto  declaring  James  to 
be  a  murderer  and  usurper,  charging  him  with 
introducing  popery  and  arbitrary  power,  and 
asserting  his  own  legitimacy  and  right  by  blood 
to  be  king  of  England,  hoping  that  the  people, 
especially  in  the  west  and  north  of  England, 
would  flock  to  his  banner.  On  the  fifth  day, 
however,  his  force  consisted  only  of  a  rabble  oi 
some  2,000  rudely  armed  peasants  and  farmers. 
Contrary  to  his  expectations,  the  gentry  held 
aloof  from  him.  lie  was  completely  defeated 
at  the  battle  of  Sedgemoor,  the  last  great  fight 
on  English  soil,  was  taken  prisoner,  and,  on 
July  15,  1685,  was  brought  to  the  scaffold  and 
beheaded  on  Tower  hill. 

Monroe,  James,  fifth  president  of  the  United 
States,  was  bom  in  Westmoreland  county,  Va., 
1758.  He  was  graduated  at  Wilham  ana  Mary 
college,  served  in  the  revolutionary  army,  waa 
present  at  several  battles,  and  in  1783  entered 
the  general  congress  as  a  delegate  from  his  native 
state.  In  the  Virginia  convention,  1788,  he 
opposed  the  adoption  of  the  federal  constitu- 
tion, and  allied  himself  with  the  republican 
party,  which  party  elected  him  a  member  of  the 
United  States  senate  in  1790.  Four  years  later 
he  proceeded  to  France  as  minister-plenipoten- 
tiary, from  which  office  he  was  recalled  in  1796. 
During  the  years  1799-1802,  he  filled  the  office 
of  governor  of  Virginia.  In  1802,  as  the  asso- 
ciate of  Livingston,  he  was  dispatched  on  a 
special  mission  to  negotiate  for  the  purchase  of 
Louisiana.  In  1803,  in  England,  and  in  1805, 
in  Spain,  he  performed  special  diplomatic  serv- 
ices for  his  country.  In  1811  he  again  accepted 
the  governorship  of  Virginia,  and  in  the  same 
year  became  secretary  of  state  under  President 
Madison's  administration.  In  1816  he  waa 
elected  president  of  the  United  States  by  the 
republican  (democratic)  party,  and  made  him- 
self very  popular.  The  acquisition  of  Florida 
from  Spain,  and  the  settlement  of  the  vexed 
question  respecting  the  extension  of  slaverj'  by 
tne  Missouri  compromise,  by  which,  after  the 
reception  of  Missouri  as  a  slave  state,  the  institu- 
tion was  prohibited  above  the  line  of  latitude 
36°  30',  helped  to  secure  his  reelection  in  1820. 
His  most  popular  acts,  perhaps,  were  the  recog- 
nition of  the  independence  of  Mexico  and  the 


886 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


South  American  republics,  and  the  promulgation 
of  what  has  since  been  called  the  "Monroe 
doctrine."  In  1825  he  retired  to  his  seat  at  Oak 
Hill,  Loudoun  county,  Va.,  but  he  still  con- 
tinued in  the  public  service.  After  being  twice 
president,  he  was  justice  of  the  peace,  a  visitor 
of  the  university  of  Virginia,  and  member  of  a 
state  convention;  but  a  profuse  generosity  and 
hospitality  caused  him  to  be  overwhelmed  with 
debt,  and  he  found  refuge  with  his  relatives  in 
New  York,  where  he  died  in  1831  —  like  his 
predecessors,  Adams  and  Jefferson  —  on  the 
4th  of  July. 

Slontagu,  Lady  Mary  Wortley,  English  beauty, 
wit,  and  writer,  was  bom  at  Thoresby,  in  Not- 
tinghamshire, about  1689,  eldest  daughter  of 
Evelyn  Pierrepont,  duke  of  Kingston.  She 
was  carefully  educated,  and  manifested  pre- 
cocious talents.  In  1712  she  married  Edward 
Wortley  Montagu,  and  in  1716  accompanied 
him  on  his  embassy  to  Constantinople.  To  this 
journey  we  are  indebted  for  her  admirable 
Letters.  After  her  return  to  England  in  1718,  she 
shone  conspicuously  in  the  circles  of  talent  and 
fashion.  Pope  was  among  her  friends,  but  he  at 
length  c[uarreled  with  and  libeled  her.  In  1739 
her  declming  health  induced  her  to  settle  on  the 
continent,  whence,  however,  she  returned  in 
1761.  She  died  in  the  following  year.  Her 
collected  works  have  been  pubhshed  in  six 
volumes,  and  her  Letters  place  her  at  the 
head  of  feminine  epistolary  writers  in  Great 
Britain,  and  leave  her  few  rivals  in  other  coun- 
tries. 

Montaigne  {mdn-tan';  Fr.  mdN'-tdn'-y')^  Michel 
Eyquem  de.     See  page  39. 

Montalembcrt  {Tn6N'-td'4aN'-hdr'\  Charles  Forbes, 
Comte  de,  French  historian,  orator,  and  publi- 
cist, was  born  in  London,  1810.  He  became  a 
peer  of  France  on  the  death  of  his  father,  his 
mother  being  a  Scotchwoman.  Several  times 
during  his  career  he  came  into  conflict  with  the 
authorities  for  his  bold  defense  of  what  he 
deemed  to  be  the  rights  of  his  church  against  the 
encroachments  of  the  civil  power;  but  his  name 
came  most  prominently  before  Europe  through 
his  uncompromising  opposition  to  Louis  NapK)- 
leon,  after  the  coup  d'itat  of  1851.  In  1858  he 
published  a  pamphlet  entitled,  Un  Dibat  sur 
Vinde,  eulogizing  English  institutions,  and 
depreciating  those  then  existing  in  France. 
For  this  pamphlet  he  was  summoned  before  the 
bar  of  the  correctional  police,  and  was  sentenced 
to  imprisonment  for  six  months,  and  to  pay  a 
fine  of  3,000  francs;  and,  though  this  penalty  was 
immediately  remitted  by  the  emperor,  Mon- 
talembert  appealed  against  the  decision  of  the 
court,   was   again   condemned,   and   once   more 

Eardoned,  very  much  to  his  own  disgust.  Among 
is  other  writings  are:  History  of  Saint  Elizabeth 
of  Hungary;  Life  and  Times  of  St.  Ansdm;  The 
Pohtical  Future  of  England;  and  a  pamphlet 
entitled  Piu^  IX.  and  France  in  1849  and  1859 
He  died  at  Paris,  1870. 

Montcalm  {m6nt-kam'\  Louis  Joseph  St.  Vfiran, 
Marquis  de,  commander-in-chief  of  the  French 
troops  in  Canada,  1756-59,  was  born  near  Ntmes 
France,  1712.  He  captured  Fort  Ontario  at 
Oswego,  1756;  Fort  William  Henry  in  1757- 
repulsed  the  British  under  Abercrombie  at 
Ticonderoga  m  1758;  repelled  Wolfe's  attack  on 
Quebec,  1759;  and  was  defeated  and  mortally 
7°V'°<ifl»i^  the  battle  of  Quebec,  September 
1610.  of  the  same  year. 

Montesquieu  (mbn' -tes-ku' ;  Fr.  m6if-(ik^-k^-iif\ 
Charles  de  Secondat,  Baron  de.     See  page  61. 

Montfort,  Simon  de,  English  general  and  statesman, 
was  born  m  France  about  1208,  son  of  a  French 
count  He  went  to  England  in  1230,  where  he 
mhented  from  his  grandmother  the  earidom  of 


Leicester.  He  here  attached  himself  to  Henry 
III.,  married  the  king's  sister,  and  was  sent  to 
govern  Gascony  in  1248.  He  returned  in  1253, 
and  passed  over  to  the  side  of  the  barons,  whom 
he  ultimately  led  in  the  struggle  against  the 
king.  After  repeated  unsuccessful  attempts  to 
make  Henry  observe  the  provisions  of  Oxford, 
Simon  took  arms  against  hira  in  1263.  The  war 
was  indecisive,  and,  appeal  being  made  to  the  arbi- 
tration of  Louis  the  Good,  Simon,  dissatisfied 
with  his  award,  renewed  hostilities,  defeated  the 
king  at  Lewes,  and,  taking  him  and  his  son 
prisoner,  governed  England  for  a  year  during 
1264-65.  lie  sketched  a  constitution  for  the 
country,  and  summoned  the  most  representative 
parliament  that  had  yet  met,  but  as  he  aimed  at 
the  welfare  not  of  the  barons  only,  but  of  the 
common  people  as  well,  the  barons  began  to  dis- 
trust him.     He  was  slain  at  Evesham,  1265. 

Montgolfler  {m6N'-g6l'-fyd'),  Jacques  £tlenne  and 
Joseph  MicheU  two  brothers,  distingui.shed  as 
the  inventors  of  balloons,  were  the  sous  of  a  cele- 
brated paj>er  manufacturer  at  Annonay,  France. 
The  former  was  bom  in  1745,  and  the  latter  in 
1740.  Etienne,  after  a  few  successful  experi- 
ments with  the  balloon,  went  to  Paris;  out, 
though  his  discovery  created  a  great  sensation, 
and  was  followed  out  in  practice  by  many  eminent 
men,  he  obtained  little  pecuniary  aid  in  carrying 
on  his  experiments,  and  at  length  retired  to  his 
native  town,  where  he  rt^unied  the  manufacture 
of  paper,  and  died  at  Servidres  in  1799.  Joseph, 
the  sharer  of  his  labors  and  his  ^lor>',  was  a  man 
of  much  genius  and  little  education ;  but  the  two 
brothers  were  fitted  to  supplement  each  other's 
deficiencies,  and  together  tney  made  many  dis- 
coveries, and  were  both  received  as  members  of 
the  French  academy.  Joseph  invented  the 
hydraulic  screw^  the  calorimeter,  etc.,  and  in  the 
latter  part  of  his  life  filled  a  post  in  the  depart- 
ment of  arts  and  manufactures.  He  died  at 
Paris  in  1810. 

Montgomery,  James,  British  poet,  was  born  in 
Scotland,  1771.  He  was  intended  for  a  Moravian 
preacher,  but,  showing  little  aptitude,  became  a 
shop  boy.  In  1790  he  went  to  London,  where  a 
book-seller  refused  a  volume  of  poems  written 
by  him,  but  employwi  him.  In  1792  he  entered 
the  service  of  Joseph  Gales  in  Sheffield,  and  in 
1794  started  the  Sheffield  Iris,  a  weekly  advocate 
of  peace  and  reform,  which  he  edited  until  1825. 
He  was  fined  and  imprisoned  in  1795  and  1796 
for  seditious  publications.  In  1797  he  published 
a  small  volume  of  poems.  Prison  Amusements, 
followed  by  The  Wanderer  of  Switzerland;  The 
West  Indies;  The  World  before  the  Flood;  and 
Greenland.  He  was  a  liberal  whig,  and  an  ardent 
abolitionist.  He  also  publish^  The  Pelican 
Island,  and  other  Poems;  Original  Hymns,  and 
Lectures  on  Poetry  and  General  Literature.  Died, 
1854. 

Montgomery,  Richard,  American  general,  was  bom 
in  Ireland,  1736.  in  1772  he  resigned  his  com- 
mission in  the  British  service,  and  settled  in 
Dutchess  coimty,  N.  Y.,  representing  it  in  the 
continental  congress,  1775.  As  brigadier  in  the 
colonial  army  he  took  Montreal,  and  was  killed 
in  the  assault  on  Quebec,  December,  1775. 

Moody,  Dwlght  Lyman,  American  preacher  and 
revivaUst,  was  bom  in  Massachusetts,  1837.  He 
renounced  Unitarianism,  became  a  Congrega- 
tionalist,  served  during  the  civil  war  on  the 
Christian  commission,  and  from  1856  entirely 
abandoned  business  and  devoted  himself  to 
reUgious  work  in  Chicago  and  elsewhere.  His 
church  and  schoolhouse  at  Chicago  having  burned 
down  in  1871,  he  went  to  England  to  raise  funds 
for  rebuilding  them,  and  was  successful  in  his 
object.  For  many  years  he  associated  Ira  D. 
S^ikey    with    him    in    his    revival    work.     He 


THROUGHOUT  THE   WORLD 


887 


established  a  school  for  Christism  workers  at 
NorthHeld,  Mass.,  and  a  Bible  institute  at 
Chicago.     Died,  1899. 

Moody,  WiUlam  Henry,  American  lawyer,  jurist, 
former  associate  justice  of  United  States  supreme 
court,  was  bom  in  Newbury,  Mass.,  1853.  He  was 
graduated  from  Harvard  university,  1876,  was 
admitted  to  the  Massachusetts  bar  in  1878,  and 
began  practice  at  Haverhill,  Mass.  He  was  dis- 
trict attorney  for  the  eastern  district  of  Massa- 
chusetts, 1890-95;  member  of  54th  congress 
from  6th  Massachusetts  district  to  fill  vacancy; 
also  member  of  55th,  56th,  and  57th  congresses: 
secretary  of  the  navy,  1902-04;  attorney-general 
of  the  United  States,  1904-06,  and  in  1906  asso- 
ciate justice  of  the  United  States  supreme  court, 
from  which  he  retired,  1910. 

Moore,  George  Foot,  American  scholar  and  educator, 
preacher,  1900-03,  professor  theology,  1902-04, 
Frothingham  professor,  history  of  religion,  since 
1904,  Harvard;  was  bom  at  West  Chester,  Pa., 
1851.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  college,  1872, 
D.D.,  1897;  graduated  Union  theological  seminary, 
1877;  LL.  D.,  Western  Reserve,  1903,  Harvard, 
1906.  Ordained  to  the  Presbyterian  ministry, 
1878.  He  was  minister  of  the  Putnam  Presby- 
terian church,  Zanesville,  Ohio,  1878-83;  profes- 
sor of  Hebrew,  Andover  theological  seminary, 
1883-1902.  Author:  The  Book  of  Judges  in 
Hebrew;  Index  to  the  Journal  of  the  American 
Oriental  Society;  and  many  articles  on  biblical 
and  oriental  subjects  in  Andover  Review,  Journal 
of  Biblical  Literature,  Journal  of  American  Ori- 
ental Society,  etc.  He  was  appointed  Roosevelt 
lecturer  at  Berlin  university,   1909. 

Moore,  Sir  John,  British  general,  was  bom  in  Glas- 
gow, Scotland,  1761.  He  served  in  the  British 
army  during  the  American  war ;  became  a  mem- 
ber of  parliament  in  1784;  served  in  Corsica, 
1793-94;  in  the  attack  on  St.  Lucia,  of  which 
he  became  governor;  and  subsequently  in  Ire- 
land, Holland,  Egypt,  and  Sicily.  In  1798  he 
was  made  major-general.  On  his  return  from 
an  expedition  in  aid  of  Sweden,  he  was  sent  to 
Portugal  to  command  an  army  to  cooperate 
with  the  Spaniards,  1808.  He  was  obliged  to 
retreat  from  Salamanca  to  the  sea,  won  the 
victory  of  Corunna  in  1809,  but  fell  in  the  battle 
and  died. 

Moore,  John  Bassett,  American  publicist,  was  bom 
in  Smyrna,  Del.,  1860.  He  was  graduated  at 
the  university  of  Virginia,  1880;  LL.  D.,  Yale, 
1901.  He  studied  law  at  Wilmington,  Del., 
passed  the  United  States  civil  service  examina- 
tion, 1885,  and  was  appointed  law  clerk  in  the 
state  department  at  $1,200  a  year.  In  1886  he 
became  third  assistant  secretary  of  state.  Al- 
though a  democrat,  he  was  retained  in  that 
jxjsition  by  Blaine;  resigned,  1891,  to  become 
professor  of  international  law  and  diplomacy  at 
Columbia  university;  was  appointed  in  April, 
1898,  assistant  secretary  of  state,  resigning  in 
September  to  become  secretary  and  counsel  to 
the  peace  commission  at  Paris.  He  is  an  author- 
ity on  international  law.  Author:  Report  on 
Extraterritorial  Crime;  Report  on  Extradition; 
Extradition  and  Interstate  Rendition;  American 
Notes  on  the  Conflict  of  Laws;  History  and  Digest 
of  International  Arbitrations  (6  vols.) ;  American 
Diplomacy,  Its  Spirit  and  Achievements,  etc.  He 
is  also  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Political  Science 
Quarterly,  and  of  the  Journal  de  Droit  Inter- 
national Priv^e. 

Hoore,  Thomas,  Irish  poet,  was  bom  in  1779.  He 
was  graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  1798, 
and  in  1799  went  to  London  to  study  law,  taking 
with  him  a  translation  of  the  odes  of  Anacreon, 
which  he  published  in  1800.  In  1801  he  pub- 
lished The  Poetical  Works  of  the  Late  Thomas 
Little,    Esq.,    a    pseudonym    suggested    by    his 


dinainutive  stature.  In  1803  he  was  appointed 
registrar  to  the  admiralty  in  Bermuda,  but  soon 
returned  to  England,  having  first  made  a  rapid 
tour  through  a  portion  of  the  Unitetl  States  and 
Canada.  In  1813  he  settled  at  Mayfield  cottage, 
near  Ashbourne  in  Derbyshire.  Here  were 
written  many  of  the  songs  known  as  Irish 
Melodies,  which  were  extended  to  ten  series. 
These  songs  have  enjoyed  a  popularity  surpassing 
that  of  any  similar  poems  in  the  language.  He 
also  published  two  series  of  Sacred  Melodies,  six 
series  of  National  Airs,  Legendary  Ballads,  and 
many  miscellaneous  pieces.  In  1817  he  com- 
pleted Lalla  liookh,  the  most  elaborate  of  his 
works,  followed  by  The  Fudge  Family  in  Paris; 
Tom  Crib's  Memorial  to  Congress;  Rhymes  on  the 
Road;  Fables  for  the  Holy  Alliance;  Loves  of  the 
Angels;  Life  of  Sheridan;  and  The  Epicurean,  a 
prose  fiction.  His  most  important  prose  work 
was  his  Notices  of  the  Life  of  Lord  Byron.  His 
remaining  works  comprise :  The  Summer  Fete,  a 
poem ;  Memoirs  of  Lord  Fitzgerald;  Travels  of  an 
Irish  Gentleman  in  Search  of  a  Religion;  and  the 
History  of  Ireland,  written  for  Lardner's  Cabinet 
Cyclopcedia.     Died,  1852. 

Moot,  Adelbert,  American  lawyer,  was  bom  in 
Allen,  Allegany  county,  N.  Y.,  1854.  He  was 
educated  in  the  high  and  state  normal  schools, 
and  at  Albany  law  school,  1876-76.  He  has 
practiced  law  at  Nunda,  N.  Y.,  and  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.,  since  1876.  He  is  president  of  the  Uni- 
tarian conference  for  the  middle  states  and 
Canada;  he  was  a  member  of  the  board  of  com- 
missioners of  statutory  consolidation  that  consol- 
idated all  general  statutes  of  New  York  from  1777 
to  1909.  Elected  member  New  York  state  board 
of  Regents,  1913. 

Moran,  Thomas,  American  artist,  was  bom  at 
Bolton,  in  Lancashire,  England,  1837.  His  early 
life  was  spent  at  Philadelpliia,  where  he  learned 
engraving.  He  then  studied  painting  in  England, 
France,  and  Italy.  His  large  paintings,  the 
"Grand  Canon  of  the  Yellowstone,"  and  the 
"Chasm  of  the  Colorado,"  were  bought  by  con- 
gress for  $20,000.  These  were  the  first  land- 
scapes ever  purchased  by  the  government.  His 
other  works  are  mostly  of  the  same  class:  "Bal- 
boa Discovering  the  Pacific,"  "Hiawatha  and  the 
Serpents,"  "The  Wilds  of  Lake  Superior,"  etc. 

More,  Hannah,  English  writer,  daughter  of  the 
village  schoolmaster  of  Stapleton,  near  Bristol, 
was  bom  in  1745.  She  wrote  verses  at  an  early 
age,  and  in  1762  published  The  Search  After 
Happiness,  a  pastoral  drama.  In  1774  she  was 
introduced  to  the  Garricks,  Johnson,  Burke, 
Reynolds,  and  the  best  literary  society  of  London. 
During  this  period  she  wrote  two  tales  in  verse, 
and  two  tragedies,  Percy  and  The  Fatal  False- 
hood, both  of  which  were  acted.  Led  by  her 
religious  views  to  withdraw  from  society,  she 
retired,  on  the  publication  of  her  Sacred  Dramas, 
to  Cowslip  Green  near  Bristol,  where  she  did 
much  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  poor,  and 
still  helped  oy  her  writings  to  raise  the  tone  of 
English  society.  Her  essays  on  The  Manners  of 
the  Great  and  The  Religion  of  the  Fashionable 
World,  her  novel  Cadebs  in  Search  of  a  Wife, 
and  a  tract  called  The  Shepherd  of  Salisbury 
Plain  were  her  most  popular  works.  In  1828 
she  settled  at  Clifton,  where  she  died  in  1833. 

More,  Sir  Thomas,  English  statesman,  was  bom  at 
London,  1478.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
and  at  Lincoln's  Inn;  rose  to  eminence  as  a 
lawyer,  was  appointed  under-sheriff  and  judge 
of  the  sheriff's  court  for  London  and  Middlesex, 
and  was  elected  a  burgess  of  the  parliament 
under  Henry  VII.,  where  he  was  often  successful 
in  resisting  claims  of  the  crown.  In  1514  and 
1515  he  was  sent  on  commercial  embassies  to  the 
Netherlands,    and    after    his    return    became    a 


888 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


privy  councilor.      In  1521  he  was  knighted  and 
made  treasurer  of  the  exchequer;   and  at  various 
times  was  employed  in  France  to  manage  the 
intrigues  of  Wolsey  with  Francis  I.     In  1523  he 
was  chosen  speaker  of  the  house  of  commons; 
in  1525  was  appointed  chancellor  of  the  duchy 
of  Lancaster;    in  1527  he  accompanied  Wolsey 
on   his   magnificent    embassy    to    France;     and 
about  this  time  published  several  learned,  witty, 
and  bitter  pamphlets  against  the  reformers.     He 
became  lord  chancellor  in  1529,  held  the  great 
seal  for  two  years  and  a  half,  and  constantly 
refused  to  lend  his  authority  to  Henry  VIII. 's 
project  of  divorce  and  second  marriage.     In  1534 
he  refused  to  swear  allegiance  to  the  act  of  suc- 
cession for  securing  the  throne  to  the  offspring 
of   Anne   Boleyn,    and  was   committed   to   the 
Tower.     In  July,  1535,  he  was  brought  to  the 
bar  of  the  high  commission  charged  with  traitor- 
ously attempting  to  deprive  the  king  of  his  title 
as  supreme  head  of  the  church,  and  was  con- 
demned.    He  was  executed  July  6th.     He  wrote 
Utopia  and  several  other  works,  most  of  them 
in  Latin. 
Moreau  {mo'-ro'),  Jean  Victor,  celebrated  French 
general,  was  born  at  Morlaix,  1763,  and  educated 
for  the  bar.     The  army,  however,  was  the  pro- 
fession of  his  choice,  and  he  entered  before  he 
was  eighteen,  but  was  taken  from  it  by  his  father. 
The  revolution  enabled  him  to  gratify  his  wishes, 
and  he  made  his  first  campaign  under  Dumouriez. 
1792.     He  gained  the  rank  of  brigadier-general 
in  1793,  and  that  of  general  of  division  in  1794. 
In  the  latter  year  he  commanded  the  right  wing 
of  Pichegru's  army,  and  obtained  great  successes 
in  the  Netherlands.     In  1796  he  was  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine.     In  that  year 
he    distinguished    himself    by    penetrating    into 
Bavaria,   and  by  his  masterly  retreat  before  a 
superior  force;    in  1797,  by  his  passage  of  the 
Rhine;    and  in  1800,  by  his  campaign  in  Ger- 
many, crowned  by  the  decisive  victory  of  Hohen- 
linden.     Having  engaged  with  Pichegru,  Georges, 
and  other  royalists,  in  a  plot  against  the  consular 
government,  he  was  brought  to  trial,  1804,  and 
sentenced  to  two  years'  imprisonment,  but  was 
allowed  to  come  to  America.     Here  he  remained 
until  1813,  when  he  was  prevailed  upon  to  join 
the  allied  sovereigns,  and  appear  in  arms  against 
his  country.    He  was,  however,  mortally  wounded 
at  the  battle  of  Dresden,  and  died  1813. 
Morgagni  (mor-gan' -ye\  Giovanni  Battista,  Italian 
anatomist,  was  born  at  Forli,  Italy,   1682.     He 
was  professor  at  Padua  from  1715,  and  is  the 
reputed    founder    of    pathological    anatomy,    to 
which    his    most    celelarated    works    refer.     His 
chief  book  is  On  the  Seats  and  Causes  of  Diseases 
Investigated   by   Anatomy.     Died,  1771. 
Morgan,  John  Pierpont,  American  banker,  finan- 
cier,  and   art   collector,   was  born   in   Hartford, 
Conn.,  1837.     He  was  graduated  at  English  high 
school,    Boston;     studied    at    the    university    of 
Gottingen,   Germany,   and  entered  the  bank  of 
Duncan,    Sherman    and    Companv,     1857.     He 
became  agent  and  attorney  in  the  tJnited  States, 
1860,  for  George  Peabody  and  Company,  bankers, 
London,  in  which  his  father  was  partner;   was  a 
member    of    Dabney,    Morgan    and    Company, 
investment  securities,   1864-71;    and  became  a 
member,  1871,  of  the  firm  Drexel,  Morgan  and 
Company,   later   J.    P.    Morgan    and    Company, 
leading  private  bankers  of   the   United   States, 
with  important  branch  houses  in  London  and 
Paris.     He     financed    the     largest     reorganiza- 
tions of  railways  and  consolidation  of  industrial 
properties  in  the  United  States;    floated  United 
States  bond  issue  of  $62,000,000  during  Cleveland 
administration;    organized  and  floated  securities 
of  United  States  steel  corporation,  1901,  with  a 
capital  of  $1,100,000,000;  secured  American  sub- 


scriptions of  $50,000,000  to  British  war  loan  of 
1901 ;  organized  existing  agreement  of  anthracite 
operators    of    Pennsylvania,    and    of    soft    coal 
interests   in   Ohio,    Indiana,    and    Pennsylvania; 
controlled  over  50,000  miles  of  railways  and  large 
American  and  British  ocean  transportation  lines. 
Gave   site,    buildings,    and  funds  amounting  to 
about  $1,500,000  to  Ij'ing-in  hospital.  New  York, 
and    large   donations    to    the    New    York   trade 
schools,  the  cathedral  of  St.  John  the  Divine,  and 
many  other  institutions.    He  made  valuable  gifts 
to  the  American  museum  of  natural  history.  Met- 
ropolitan museum  of  art,  and  New  York  public 
library,  and  owned  famous  collections  of  pictures, 
books,  manuscripts,  curios,  etc.     In  1912  he  gave 
to  library  of   congress  a  oomplete   set  of  auto- 
graphs of  the  signers  of  the  declaration  of  inde- 
pendence.    He  was  president  of  the  Metropolitan 
museum  of  art ;   was  member  of  many  societies, 
clubs,  etc.,   in  the    United   States  and  abroad. 
Died,  1913. 
Morgan,  John  Tyler,  American  soldier,  lawyer,  and 
statesman,   was   bom   at   Athens,   Tenn..    1824. 
He  removed  to  Alabama  in  1833;   was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1845;    became  a  delegate  to  the 
Alabama  secession  convention,  1861 ;    joined  the 
confederate  army  in  1861,  and,  passing  through 
all    grades    from    private    upward,    was    made 
brigadier-general  in  1863,  and  served  to  the  close 
of  the  struggle.     After  the  war  he  resumed  the 
practice  of  ww  at  Selma,  Ala. ;  was  a  presidential 
elector.  1876;   and  from  1877  to  1907  was  one  of 
the  ablest  members  of  the  United  States  senate. 
He   was    appointed    by    President    Harrison    as 
arbitrator  on  Bering  sea  fisheries,  1892,  and  was 
appointed  by  President  McKinley,  in  1898,  one 
of  the  commissioners  to  organize  government  in 
Hawaii,  after  passage  of  annexation  bill.     Died, 
1907. 
Morley,  Bt.  Hon.  John,  British  statesman  and  writer, 
was  bom  in  Blackburn  in  1838,  and  educated  at 
Cheltenham  and  Oxford.     He  was  called  to  the 
bar.  but  has  devoted  his  time  chiefly  to  writing 
and  public  duties.     He  edited,  among  other  pub- 
lications,   the  Fortnightly  Review  from    1867   to 
1882,  the  Pall  MaU  Gazette  from  1880  to  1883, 
and  MacmiUan  in  1883-85,  and,  after  two  unsuc- 
cessful candidatures,  in  1869  and  1880,  entered 
parliament  in   1883,  as  member  for  Newcastle. 
From  the  first,  he  advocated  home  rule  for  Ire- 
land, and  his  articles  in  favor  of  it,  followed  up 
by    speeches    in    1885,    made    him    Gladstone's 
most  conspicuous  supporter.     In  1886  he  became 
chief  secretary  for  Ireland,   and  again  in   1892, 
and  secretarv  for  India  in  1905.     His  best  known 
books  are :  tldmund  Burke;  Critical  Miscdlaniea; 
Voltaire;    On   Compromise;     Rousseau;    Diderot 
and  the  Encyclopedists;   Richard  Cobden;  Studies 
in    Literature;     and    an    authoritative    Life    of 
Gladstone.     Created  a  viscount,  1908. 
Morrill,  Justin  Smith,  American  legislator,  was  bom 
in  Strafford,  Vt.,   1810,  and  devoted  himself  to 
mercantile  pursuits  until  his  election  to  congress. 
He  sat  in  the  house  of  representatives  from  1855 
to  1867,  and  in  the  senate  from  1867  until  his 
death,  the  longest  term  of  service  up  to  that  time. 
In  1861  he  succeeded  in  securing  President  Lin- 
coln's approval  of  a  bill,  previously  vetoed  by 
Buchanan,  for  the  reestablishment  through  pub- 
lic land  grants  of  state  colleges  for  the  teaching 
especially  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts. 
By  virtue  of  this  bill  there  had  been  established 
in  1899  in  the  various  states  sixty-four  institu- 
tions   giving    instruction    to    36,000    students. 
Senator  Morrill  was  also  the  author  of  the  famous 
Morrill  tariff  bill  of  1861.     He  died  in  1898. 
Morris,    Clara,    American    actress,    was    bom    in 
Toronto,    Canada,     1849.     She    was    taken    to 
Cleveland  when   a   child,    and   grew  up   there; 
became  a  member  of  the  ballet  in  academy  of 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


music,  Clevelsmd,  1861,  and  mpidly  advanced  to 
leading  lady.  In  1869  she  became  leading  lady 
at  Wood's  theater,  Cincinnati ;  became  member  of 
Daly's  Fifth  avenue  company,  New  York,  1870- 
soon  became  prominent  in  emotional  r61e8  and 
appeared  as  a  star  in  the  principal  American 
theaters.  Leading  r6!e3:  Camille,  Alixe,  Miss 
Multon,  Mercy  Merrick  in  Ttie  New  Magdalene, 
Cora  in  L' Article  47,  etc.  She  married  Frederick 
C  Harriott  in  1874.  Slie  has  been  a  contributor 
to  St.  Nicholas,  Century  Magazine,  Pearson's, 
Ladies'  Home  Journal,  etc.  Author:  A  Silent 
Singer;  My  Little  Jim  Crow;  Life  on  the  Stage; 
A  Paste-board  Crown,  a  novel ;  Stage  Confidences; 
The  Trouble  Woman;  Life  of  a  Star;  Dressing 
Room  Receptions,  etc. 

Morris,  George  Pope,  American  journalist  and  poet, 
was  born  in  Philadelphia,  1802.  He  was  asso- 
ciated with  N.  P.  Willis  in  the  publication  of  the 
New  York  Mirror,  established  in  1823,  the  New 
Mirror,  1843,  the  Evening  Mirror,  1844,  and  the 
Home  Journal,  1846,  founded  by  Morris  alone  as 
the  National  Press,  1845.  He  edited  American 
Melodies,  and,  with  N.  P.  Willis,  The  Prose  and 
Poetry  of  America.  His  best  known  poem  is 
Woodman,  Spare  That  Tree.  Various  editions  of 
his  poems  have  been  published.  In  1825  he 
produced  a  drama  entitled  Briardiff,  which  ran 
forty  nights.  He  also  published  a  volume  of 
prose  sketches  entitled  The  Little  Frenchman  and 
His  Water  Lots.     Died,  1864. 

Morris,  Gouvemeur,  American  statesman,  was  bom 
in  1752.  He  became  a  member  of  the  provincial 
congress  of  New  York,  and  was  one  of  those  who 
drew  up  the  state  constitution  in  1776.  He  was 
also  a  prominent  member  of  the  continental  con- 
gress in  1777-80,  the  colleague  of  Robert  Morris 
as  superintendent  of  finance,  and  the  organization 
of  the  bank  of  North  America  was  largely  due  to 
him.  In  1787  he  was  one  of  the  committee  to 
draft  the  federal  constitution;  was  minister  to 
France  during  the  revolution,  and  became  United 
States  senator  on  his  return.  He  wrote  Obser- 
vations on  the  American  Revolviion,  and  his 
Correspondence  throws  much  light  on  the  French 
revolution.     Died,  1816. 

Morris,  Robert,  American  financier,  was  bom  in 
Liverpool,  England,  1734.  He  came  to  America 
at  an  early  age  and  settled  in  Philadelphia,  be- 
coming a  partner  in  the  counting-house  of  C. 
Willing.  He  opposed  the  stamp  act;  signed  the 
non-importation  agreement  in  1765;  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  continental  congress ;  signed  the  decla- 
ratiom  of  independence,  and  greatly  helped  the 
American  cause  from  his  own  purse,  both  during 
the  revolution  and  afterward.  He  founded  the 
bank  of  North  America,  was  superintendent  of 
finance  from  1781  to  1784,  but  declined  the 
secretaryship  of  the  treasury.  He  was  finally 
ruined  by  his  speculations  and  imprisoned  for 
debt.     He  died  in  1806. 

Morris,  William,  English  poet  and  artist,  was  bom 
near  London,  1834.  He  was  educated  at  Marl- 
borough school  and  at  Oxford,  and,  in  1863, 
established  the  business  in  stained  glass  and 
decoration  with  which  his  name  has  since  been 
associated.  In  an  artistic  capacity  he  did  much 
to  elevate  the  taste  of  the  public  in  domestic 
decoration,  designing  wall-papers,  fabrics,  and 
furniture.  He  published  The  Earthly  Paradise 
and  many  other  works,  and  rendered  into  Eng- 
lish the  Anglo-Saxon  Beovndf,  the  Odyssey, 
Mneid,  etc.  He  also  carried  on  for  a  time  the 
Kelmscott  Press,  which  reprinted  various  choice 
works.  In  his  latter  years  he  published  Socialism 
and  became  known  as  one  of^the  leaders  of  the 
socialist  movement  in  England.  His  works 
include,  besides  the  above :  Defense  of  Guenevere 
and  Other  Poems;  The  lAfe  and  Death  of  Jason; 
Love    is    Enough;    Hopes    and    Fears   for  Art; 


News  from  Nowhere,  etc.      He  died  at  London. 
1896. 

Morse,  Samuel  Flnley  Breese.     See  page  397. 

Morton,  Levi  Parsons,  American  banker  and  states- 
man, was  born  in  Shoreham,  Vt.,  1824.  He  wa« 
graduated  from  Shoreham  academy;  LL.  D., 
Dartmouth  college,  1881,  Middlebury  college, 
1882.  He  founded  the  banking  houses  of  L.  P. 
Morton  and  Company,  and  Morton,  Bliss  and 
Company,  New  York,  Morton,  Rose  and  Com- 
pany Morton,  Chaplm  and  Company,  London, 
and  Morton  trust  company.  New  York;  was  • 
member  of  congress  from  New  York,  1879-81; 
United  States  minister  to  France,  1881-85; 
vice-president  of  the  United  States,  1889-93; 
governor  of  New  York,  1895-96.  He  was 
president  of  the  Morton  trust  company,  Fifth 
Avenue  trust  company;  director  of  Equitable 
life  assurance  society  of  the  United  States, 
Home  insurance  company.  National  bank  of 
commerce.  Guaranty  trust  company.  Industrial 
trust  company,  Newport  trust  company. 

Morton,  Oliver  Perry,  American  statesman  and 
jurist,  was  bom  in  Wayne  county,  Ind.,  1823. 
He  was  graduated  at  Miami  university  in  1843; 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1847,  and  began 
practice  at  Centerville,  Ind.  He  was  circuit 
judge  of  Indiana  in  1852;  governor,  1861-67; 
United  States  senator  from  Indiana,  1867-77. 
He  declined  the  post  of  United  States  minister 
to  England  in  1870.  During  the  civil  war  he 
won  great  applause  throughout  the  North  for 
his  promptitude  and  energy  in  supporting  the 
national  government.  In  1877  he  was  a  member 
of  the  United  States  electoral  commission,  and 
died  the  same  vear. 

Moscheles  (mosh  S-lds),  Ignaz,  German  pianist  and 
composer  for  the  piano,  was  born  at  Prague, 
1794,  of  Jewish  parents.  He  made  frequent 
tours  throughout  Europe  from  1815;  from  1825 
he  taught  at  the  London  academy  of  music,  and 
directed  at  the  Philharmonic  concerts;  from 
1846  he  w^as  a  professor  at  the  Leipzig  conserva- 
torjr  until  his  death,  1870.  He  edited  in  English 
Schindler's  Life  of  Beethoven,  and  wrote  numerous 
concertos,  sonatas,  and  studies  for  the  piaAo. 

Moses.     See  page  189. 

Motley,  John  Lothrop,  American  historian  and 
diplomat,  was  born  in  Massachusetts,  1814.  He 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1831,  and 
studied  at  Gottingen  and  Berlin;  D.  C.  L., 
Oxford,  1858.  After  traveling  for  some  years  in 
Europe  he  returned  to  the  United  States,  studied 
law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1841  he 
became  secretary  of  legation  at  St.  Petersburg; 
was  minister-plenipotentiary  at  Vienna  from 
1861  until  1867;  in  1869  was  appointed  Ameri- 
can minister  to  the  court  of  St.  James,  a 
post  from  which  he  was  removed  in  1870.  "The 
three  great  works  upon  which  Motley  has  built 
up  one  of  the  foremost  literary  reputations  of 
the  age  are:  The  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic — a 
History;  its  sequel.  The  History  of  the  United 
Netherlands  from  the  Death  of  William  the  Silent 
to  the  Synod  of  Dort ;  John  of  Barneveld.  AU 
have  been  translated  into  the  French,  Dutch,  and 
German  languages.     Died  in  England,  1877. 

Mott,  Lucretia,  n6e  Coffin,  Quaker  philanthropist 
and  reformer,  was  bom  in  Nantucket,  1793. 
She  was  a  delegate  to  the  world's  anti-slavery 
convention  in  London,  1840,  but  was  not  allowed 
to  take  a  seat  as  delegate  because  of  her  sex. 
She  did  much  for  the  cause,  and  was  also  early 
and  always  identified  with  the  movement  for  the 
larger  emancipation  of  women.  She  was  a 
woman  of  great  simplicity  and  purity  of  char- 
acter, and  her  discourses  and  sermons  were  fre- 
quently printed  in  the  newspapers.  She  pub- 
lished a  Sermon  to  Medical  Students  in  pamphlet 
form,  and  also  a  Discourse  on  Women,  delivered 


890 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


in    Philadelphia,    1849.     Died    at    Philadelphia, 
1880.  ^         .  ,_ 

Moulton,  BUen  iMuiae  Chandler,  American  novehst 
and  poet,  was  born  in  Pomfret,  Conn.,  1835. 
daughter  of  Lucius  L.  Chandler.  She  married 
William  U.  Moulton  in  1855.  Author:  This, 
That,  and  the  Other;  Juno  Clifford;  My  Third 
Book;  Bed-Time  Stories;  More  Bed-Time  Stories; 
Some  Women's  Hearts;  SwaUow  Flights;  Poems; 
New  Bed-Time  Stories;  Random  Rambles;  Fire- 
light Stories;  Ourselves  and  Our  Neighbors;  Miss 
Eyre  from  Boston,  and  Other  Stories;  In  the 
Garden  of  Dreams;  Stories  Told  at  Twilight; 
Lazy  Tours  in  Spain  and  Elsewhere;  In  Child- 
hood's Country;  At  the  Wind's  Will,  etc.  Edited : 
Garden  Secrets;  A  Last  Harvest,  by  Philip  Bourke 
Marston;  Collected  Poems  of  Philip  Bourke 
Marston,  Selections  from  Poems  of  Arthur 
O'Shaughnessy,  etc.     Died,  1908. 

Moulton,  Richard  Green,  educator,  author,  was 
bom  in  Preston  England,  1849.  He  was  grad- 
uated from  Loncion  university,  1869;  Cambridge, 
1874;  Ph.  D.,  university  of  Pennsylvania,  1891. 
He  has  been  university  extension  lecturer  with 
English  and  American  universities;  he  is 
professor  of  literary  theory  and  interpretation, 
university  of  Chicago.  Author:  Shakespeare  aa 
a  Dramatic  Artist:  a  Study  of  Indu^ive  Literary 
Criticism;  The  Ancient  Classical  Drama:  a  Study 
of  Literary  Evolution;  Four  Years  of  Novel  Read- 
ing—  Account  of  an  Experiment  in  the  Study  of 
Fiction;  The  Literary  Study  of  the  Bible;  A  Short 
Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Bible;  The 
Moral  System  of  Shakespeare,  etc.  Editor:  The 
Modern  Reader's  Bible,  in  21  vols. 

Moultrie.  William,  American  revolutionary  general, 
was  born  in  South  Carolina,  1731.  He  repulsed 
an  attack  on  Sullivan's  island,  Charleston  harbor, 
where  Fort  Moultrie  now  stands,  in  1776,  for 
which  he  received  the  thanks  of  congress: 
defended  Charleston  in  1779.  In  1785  ana 
again  in  1794  he  became  governor  of  his  native 
state,  and  died  in  1805. 

Moxom  (nUik'-sHm),  Philip  Stafford*  American 
clergyman,  was  bom  in  Markham,  Canada,  1848. 
He  was  ordained  to  the  ministry,  1871.  He  was 
pastor  of  the  First  Baptist  church,  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  1879-85,  First  Baptist  church,  Boston, 
1885-93,  South  Congregational  church,  Spring- 
Geld,  Mass.,  since  1894.  Author:  The  Aim  of 
Life;  From  Jerusalem  to  Nicaea;  The  Church  in 
the  First  Three  Centuries;  The  Religion  of  Hope; 
and  numerous  articles  in  religious  and  secular 
periodicals. 

Mozart  {mo'-ts&rt),  Johann  Wolfgang  Amadeus. 
See  page  169. 

Millilenberg  (mu'-Zcn-62rK),  Heinrich  Melchlor, 
American  clergyman,  and  founder  of  the  German 
Lutheran  church  in  America,  was  bom  at 
Eimbeck,  Germany,  1711.  He  studied  at  Got- 
tingen  and  Halle;  was  pastor  of  a  Lutheran 
church  in  Lusatia,  1739-41,  and  settled  in  Penn- 
sylvania, 1742,  as  a  missionary.  In  1748  he  was 
instrumental  in  forming  the  first  American 
Lutheran  synod.  In  1762,  while  he  resided  in 
Philadelphia,  he  formulated  the  constitution  for 
the  Lutheran  congregation  there,  which  W£U3 
subsequently  adopted  by  many  others.  He  died 
in  1787. 

Muhlenberg  (rnu'4en-htrg\  John  Peter  Gabriel, 
American  general,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  bom 
in  Pennsylvania,  1746.  He  was  pastor  at  Wood- 
stock, Va.,  and  formed  a  regiment  among  his 
parishioners.  He  was  made  brigadier-general  in 
1777,  and  major-general  at  the  close  of  the  revo- 
lution. In  1785  he  became  vice-president  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  was  a  member  of  congress. 
1789-91,  1793-95,  and  1799-1801.  Died,  1807! 
Muir,  John,  geologist,  naturalist,  born  in  Scotland, 
1838;  educated  in  Scotland  and  at  University  of 


Wisconsin.  Discovered  Huir  glacier,  Alaska; 
visited  the  arctic  regions  on  the  United  States 
steamer  Corwin  in  search  of  the  DeLong  expedi- 
tion; has  devoted  many  years  to  cause  of  forest 
preservation.  Member  of  many  learned  societies. 
Traveled  in  Asia,  Australasia,  South  America  and 
Africa.  Author:  The  Mountains  of  California; 
Our  National  Parks;  Stickeen,  the  Story  of  a  Dog; 
My  First  Summer  in  the  Sierra,  and  many  scien- 
tific articles. 

Mttiler  (mid'-er),  Friedrlch  Max,  British  philologist 
and  orientalist,  was  born  in  Dessau,  1823,  son  of 
a  German  poet,  Wilhelm  Miiller.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Leipzig;  studied  at  Paris,  and  settled 
in  England  in  1846.  He  was  appointed  Taylorian 
professor  at  Oxford  in  1854.  and  1868-75  was 
professor  of  comparative  philology  there,  a  science 
to  which  he  had  made  large  contributions. 
Besides  editing  the  Rig-Veda,  he  has  published 
Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Language,  and  Chips 
from  a  German  Workshop,  dealing  not  merely 
with  the  origin  of  languages,  but  with  the  early 
religious  and  social  systems  of  the  East;  The 
Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion;  Comparative 
MyUwloay;  Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Language; 
Biograpnical  Essays,  etc.  He  was  chief  editor 
of  the  very  important  series  of  works  entitled 
The  Sacred  Books  of  the  East.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  British  privy  council.     Died,  1900. 

Mulock  (mii'4ik),  Dinah  Maria  (Mrs.  Craik), 
English  author,  was  bom  at  Stoke-upon-Trent, 
1826.  Settling  in  London  at  twenty,  she  pub- 
lished The  OgUvies;  Olive;  The  Head  of  the  Family, 
and  Agatha's  Husband.  She  never  surpassed  or 
even  eaualed  her  John  Halifax,  Gentleman,  pub- 
lished in  1857,  which  has  been  translated  into 
French,  German,  Italian,  Greek,  and  Russian. 
In  1865  she  married  George  Lillie  Craik,  and 
spent  a  period  of  quiet  happiness  anil  literary 
industry  at  Comer  House,  Shortlands,  Kent, 
where  she  died,  1887.  Much  of  her  verse  is 
collected  in  Thirty  Years'  Poems. 

Mulock,  Sir  William,  Canadian  jurist,  chief-justice 
of  the  exchequer  division  of  the  high  court  of 
justice  for  the  province  of  Ontario  since  1905, 
was  bom  at  Bond  Head,  Canada,  1843.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  university  of  Toronto,  1863; 
barrister,  1868,  and  Q.  C,  1888.  He  was  first 
elected  to  the  parliament  of  Canada,  1882; 
reelected  1887,  1891,  1896,  1900,  and  1904;  was 
pHjstmaster-general  of  Canada,  189G-1905,  and 
minister  of  Tabor,  1900-05.  On  his  motion,  the 
inter-imperial  postal  conference  adopted  penny 
postage  within  the  empire,  1898.  He  also  intro- 
duced and  carried  through  the  house  of  commons 
a  bill  establishing  the  Canadian  department  of 
labor,  1900.  For  some  years  he  was  lecturer  on 
equity  and  law  examiner  for  the  law  society  of 
upper  Canada.  He  represented  the  Dominion 
of  Canada  at  proceedings  connected  with  inaugu- 
ration of  federal  parliament  of  Australia. 

Mtlncbhausen  (miingK.'-hou-zen),  HleronTmus  Karl 
Friedrich,  Baron  von,  member  of  an  ancient  and 
noble  German  family,  who  attained  a  remarkable 
celebrity  by  false  and  ridiculously  exaggerated 
tales  of  his  exploits  and  adventures,  so  that  his 
name  has  become  proverbial;  was  bom  in  Han- 
over, Germany,  1720.  He  served  as  cavalry  oflScer 
in  Russian  campaign  against  Turks,  1737-39. 
The  title  of  the  tales  ascribed  to  him  is  Baron 
Milnchhausen's  Narrative  of  His  Marvelous 
Travels  and  Campaigns  in  Russia.     Died,  1797. 

Munree,  Charles  Edward,  American  chemist,  edu- 
cator, was  bom  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1849.  He 
was  graduated  at  Harvard,  S.  B.,  1871 ;  Ph.  D., 
Columbian,  1894;  was  assistant  in  chemistry, 
Harvard  university,  1871-74;  professor  of  chem- 
istry at  United  States  naval  academy,  1874-86; 
chemist  to  torpedo  corps.  United  States  naval 
torpedo  station  and  war  college,  1886-02;    head 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


891 


profeesor  of  chemistry  since  1892,  and  dean  of 
faculty  of  graduate  studies,  George  Washington 
university;  expert  special  agent  in  charge  of 
chemical  industries  of  the  United  States  for 
censuses  of  1900, 1905,  and  1910.  He  is  the  inven- 
tor of  smokeless  powder  and  an  authority  on 
explosives ;  author  of  over  100  books  and  papers 
on  chemistry  and  explosives.  President  of  Amer- 
ican chemical  society,  1898-99;  fellow  of  London 
and  Berlin  chemical  societies,  etc. 

Munsey,  Frank  Andrew,  American  publisher,  was 
born  in  Mercer,  Me.,  1854.  He  was  educated  in 
the  public  schools  of  Maine,  and  started  his 
business  career  in  a  country  store.  He  became 
manager  of  the  Western  Union  telegraph  office. 
Augusta,  Me.;  went  to  New  York,  1882,  ana 
started  The  Golden  Argosy,  a  juvenile  weekly, 
now  the  adult  monthly.  The  Argosy;  in  1889  he 
launched  Munsey's  Weekly,  converted  in  1891 
into  Munsey's  Magazine;  now  also  owns  The 
All-Story  Magazine,  and  other  papers.  Author: 
Afloat  in  a  Great  City;  The  Boy  Broker;  A 
Tragedy  of  Errors;  Under  Fire;   Derringforth,  etc. 

Milnsterberg  {nmn'-stSr-b&rK),  Hugo,  German-Amer- 
ican psychologist,  educator,  and  author,  was 
born  at  Danzig,  Germany,  1863.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Danzig  gymnasium,  1882 ;  pursued  post- 
graduate studies  in  philosophy,  natural  sciences, 
and  medicine  in  Leipzig  and  Heidelberg,  1882-87 
Ph.  D.,  Leipzig,  1885,  M.  D.,  Heidelberg,  1887 
A.  M.,  Harvard,  1901 ;  LL.  D.,  Washington 
university,  1904.  He  was  instructor  in  the 
university  of  Freiburg,  Germany,  1887;  assistant 
professor  in  same,  1891 ;  professor  of  psychology 
since  1892,  and  director  of  psychological  labora- 
tory. Harvard.  Author:  Psychology  and  Life; 
Grundzilge  der  Psychologie;  and  other  works  in 
German;  American  Traits;  The  Americans; 
Principles  of  Art  Education;  Eternal  Ldfe; 
Science  and  Idealism,;  Eternal  Values,  etc.,  and 
has  been  a  frequent  contributor  to  magazines, 
educational  and  psychological  publications,  etc. 
Editor  of  Harvard  Psychological  Studies  since 
1903. 

Murat  (mii'-rd'),  Joachim,  celebrated  French  mar- 
shal, was  born  at  La  Bastide,  near  Cahors,  France, 
1771.  He  was  one  of  the  best  generals  of  Napo- 
leon I.,  and  one  of  his  most  devoted  adherents. 
Originally  the  son  of  an  innkeeper,  he  rose  by  his 
bravery  and  by  his  services  to  the  emperor,  until 
at  last,  having  married  Napoleon's  sister  Caroline, 
he  was  made,  in  1808,  king  of  Naples,  under  the 
style  of  Joachim  I.  Napoleon.  In  1812  he, 
accompanied  the  great  army  to  Moscow,  in 
command  of  the  cavalry,  and  again  commanded 
the  cavalry  at  the  battle  of  Leipzig,  in  the  follow- 
ing year.  After  the  return  of  Napoleon  from 
Elba,  he  led  an  army  against  the  Austrians, 
whom  he  encountered  at  Tolentino,  in  upper 
Italy,  but  was  signally  defeated,  losing  at  once 
his  army  and  his  throne.  Subsequently  he 
landed  with  a  few  followers  on  the  coast  of 
Calabria,  but  was  again  defeated,  captured,  and, 
after  trial  by  court-martial,  shot  at  Pizzo,  dying 
with  the  same  bravery  he  had  exhibited  during 
life,  1815. 

Murfree,  »Iary  Noailles  (Charles  Egbert  Craddock), 
author,  was  born  in  Murfreesboro,  Tenn.,  1850, 
daughter  of  William  L.  Murfree.  For  years  she 
concealed  her  identity  and  sex  under  her  pen- 
name.  Author:  In  the  Tennessee  Mountains; 
Where  the  Battle  was  Fought;  Dovon  the  Ravine; 
The  Prophet  of  the  Great  Smoky  Mountain;  In 
the  Clouds;  The  Story  of  Keedon  Bluffs;  The 
Despot  of  Broomsedge  Cove;  In  the  "  Stranger- 
People' s"  Country;  His  Vanished  Star;  The 
Phantoms  of  the  Footbridge;  The  Mystery  of 
Witchface  Mountain;  The  Juggler;  The  Young 
Mountaineers;  The  Story  of  Old  Fort  Loudon; 
The  Bushwhackers  and  Other  Stories;    The  Cham- 


pion; A  Spectre  of  Power;  Storm  Centre;  The 
Frontiersman;   The  Windfall,  etc. 

MuriUo  (mai>-r6l'-y6)t  BartolomA  EsMban,  Spanish 
painter,  was  bom  in  Seville,  Spain,  1617.  In 
1G4G  he  finished  painting  the  little  cloister  of  St. 
Francis;  and  the  manner  in  which  he  executed 
it  produced  the  greatest  astonishment  among  his 
countrymen.  His  picture  of  the  "  Death  of  Santa 
Clara"  and  that  of  "St.  James  Distributing 
Alms"  crowned  his  reputation.  In  the  first  he 
showed  himself  a  colorist  eaual  to  Van  Dvck, 
and  in  the  second  a  rival  oi  Velasquez.  They 
obtained  him  a  multitude  of  commissions,  which 
procured  him  an  independent  fortune.  He 
enriched  the  churches  and  convents  of  Seville 
and  other  cities  with  numerous  works.  His 
greatest  picture  is  probably  that  of  the  "Immacu- 
late Conception."  Having  been  invited  to  Cadiz 
to  paint  the  grand  altar  of  the  Capuchins,  he 
there  executed  his  celebrated  picture  of  the 
"Marriage  of  St.  Catharine."  As  he  was  about 
to  firush  it  he  injured  himself  severely  by  a  fall 
from  the  scaffolding,  and  died  soon  after  from 
the  effects  of  the  accident,  in  Seville,  1682. 

Murray,  Sir  James  Augustus  Henry,  British  philolo- 
gist, was  born  at  Deuholm,  1837.  He  was  grad- 
uated from  the  London  university ;  was  a  school- 
master at  Hawick,  foreign  correspondent  in  the 
Oriental  bank  at  London,  and  tnen  master  at 
Mill  Hill  school.  His  Dialect  of  the  Southern 
Counties  of  Scotland  established  his  reputation 
as  a  philologist.  The  great  work  of  his  life,  the 
editing  of  the  philological  society's  New  English 
Dictionary,  was  begun  at  Mill  Hill,  1879,  and 
has  been  continued  at  Oxford.  This  dictionary 
is  designed  to  be  the  most  complete  and  exhaust- 
ive in  the  English  language.  He  was  knighted 
in  1908. 

Slurray,  John  Clark,  Canadian  educator  and  writer, 
professor  of  moral  philosophy,  McGill  university, 
Montreal,  since  1872,  was  oorn  in  1836.  He  was 
educated  at  the  universities  of  Glasgow,  Edin- 
burgh, Heidelberg,  and  Gottingen,  and  was 
appointed  to  the  professorship  of  philosophy  in 
Queen's  university,  Kingston,  Canada,  1862. 
Author :  Outline  of  Sir  W.  Hamilton's  Philosophy; 
The  Ballads  and  Songs  of  Scotland  in  View  of 
Their  Influence  on  the  Character  of  the  People; 
A  Handbook  of  Psychology;  An  Introduction  to 
Ethics;  An  Introduction  to  Psychology;  A  Hand- 
book of  Christian  Ethics;  and  numerous  articles 
in  periodicals. 

Murray,  Lindley,  American  grammarian,  was  born 
at  Swatara,  Pa.,  1745.  He  was  educated  at  a 
Quaker  school  at  Philadelphia.  At  first  in  a 
New  York  counting-house,  he  studied  law,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar;  but  during  tlie  revo- 
lutionary war  he  amassed  a  fortune  in  commerce. 
In  1784,  his  health  failing,  he  went  to  England 
and  purchased  an  estate  near  York.  From  1785 
he  was  crippled  by  a  fever.  In  1787  he  pub- 
lished his  Power  of  Religion  on  the  Mind.  His 
English  Grammar,  long  a  standard,  was  followed 
by  English  Exercises,  an  English  Reader,  etc., 
besides  A  Compendium  of  Faith  and  Practice, 
The  Duty  and  Benefit  of  a  Daily  Perusal  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  an  autobiograpliy.     Died,   1826. 

Musset  (mii-sS'),  Louis  Charles  Alfred  dc,  French 
poet,  was  born  in  1810.  In  1828  he  received  a 
prize  for  a  Latin  dissertation.  His  first  work 
was  Les  contes  d'Espagne  et  d'ltalie;  his  next, 
Le  spectacle  dans  un  fauteuil.  His  morbid  and 
skeptical  views  of  life  mar  to  some  extent  the 
beauty  of  his  exquisite  poem,  Rolla,  and  of  his 
Confession  d'un  enfant  du  slide.  His  Poisies 
nouvelles  contain  his  Strophes  d,  la  Malibran,  and 
his  Nuits,  which  are  regarded  as  his  finest  lyrics. 
In  1841  he  answered  Becker's  German  war  song, 
Sie  soUen  ihn  nicht  habcn,  den  freien  Deutachen 
Rhein,  with  a  poem  entitled  Nona  I'avons  eu. 


892 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


vofe  Rhin  aUemand.  He  was  librarian  in  the 
ministry  of  the  interior  for  several  years  before 
1848,  and  was  restored  to  his  office  in  1852,  with 
the  title  of  reader  to  the  empress.  He  wrote 
also  several  dramas,  but  they  were  less  successful 
than  his  poems.  His  complete  works  appeared 
in  ten  volumes  in  1865-66.     Died,  1857. 

Mutsuhlto  (mddt'-soo-he'-td),  emperor  of  Japan,  was 
born  in  1852,  ascended  the  throne  in  18G7,  and 
married  Princess  Haruko  in  1869.  His  reign  has 
been  marked  by  great  reforms;  and  the  feudal 
system,  which  had  impeded  the  general  progress 
of  the  country,  was  abolished  in  1871.  Under 
the  rule  of  the  present  emperor,  Japan  has  entered 
upon  an  unprecedented  era  of  prosperity.  Civili- 
zation has  made  rapid  progress,  and  the  intro- 
duction of  western  arts  and  ideas  has  secured 
for  Japan  the  foremost  place  among  Asiatic 
nations.  He  has  given  the  Japanese  a  parlia- 
mentary constitution  based  on  European  prin- 
ciples.    Died,  1912. 

Myers,  Philip  Van  Ness,  author,  historian,  was  bom 
at  Tribes'  Hill,  N.  Y.,  1846.  He  was  graduated 
at  WilUams  college,  1871;  LL.  B.,  Yale,  1890; 
L.  H.  D.,  Miami  university.  1891.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Farmers'  college,  Ohio,  1879-90; 
professor  of  history  and  political  economy,  uni- 
versity of  Cincinnati,  1890-1900 ;  dean  academic 
faculty,  university  of  Cincinnati,  1895-97. 
Author:  Life  and  Nature  Under  the  Tropica; 
Remains  of  Lost  Empires;  Ancient  History; 
MediavaL  and  Modern  History;  General  History; 
Eastern  Nations  and  Greece;  History  of  Rome; 
History  of  Greece;  Rome,  Its  Rise  and  Fall; 
The  Middle  Ages;   The  Modern  Age,  etc. 

Myrick,  Herbert,  publisher,  editor,  author,  was 
bom  at  Arlington,  Mass.,  1860.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  the  Massachusetts  agricultural  college, 
Amherst,  Mass.,  1882.  He  was  a  writer  for  the 
New  England  Homestead,  of  which  he  became 
agricultural  editor,  upon  graduation,  also  agri- 
cultural editor,  1884,  Farm  and  Home.  He  is 
now  president  and  editor  of  Phelps  publishing 
company;  for  several  years  director  of  Good 
Housekeeping;  was  vice-president  of  the  Orange 
Judd  company  and  managing  editor  of  American 
Agriculturist  at  New  York,  1888,  and  Orange 
Judd  Farmer  at  Chicago,  1894 ;  president,  editor, 
and  manager  of  Orange  Judd  company,  New 
York,  since  1891.  Author:  How  to  Codperate; 
Turkeys,  How  to  Grow  Them;  Mortgage  Lifters; 
Tobacco  Leaf;  Key  to  Profitable  Stock  Feeding; 
The  American  Sugar  Industry;  The  Hop;  The> 
Crisis  in  Agriculture;  The  Book  of  Com;  A 
Swim  for  Life;   Cache  la  Pandre,  etc. 

Nadir  Shah  (n&'-der  sh&),  Persian  ruler,  belonging 
to  the  Afshars,  a  Turkish  tribe,  was  bom  near 
Kelat,  in  Khorassan,  Persia,  1688.  Having  been 
degraded  and  punished  for  some  real  or  supposed 
offense,  he  betook  himself  to  a  lawless  life,  and 
for  several  years  was  the  daring  leader  of  a  band 
of  3,000  robbers,  who  levied  contributions  from 
almost  the  whole  of  Khorassan.  He  was  sent 
against  the  Turks  in  1731,  and  defeated  them  at 
Hamadan,  regaining  the  Armenian  provinces 
which  had  been  seized  by  the  Turks  in  the  pre- 
ceding reign;  but  his  sovereign  having,  in  his 
absence,  engaged  unsuccessfully  the  same  enemy. 
Nadir  caused  him  to  be  put  in  prison,  and  ele- 
vated his  infant  son,  Abbas  III.  to  the  throne  in 
1732.  The  death  of  this  puppet,  in  1736,  opened 
the  way  for  the  elevation  of  Nadir  himself,  who 
was  crowned  as  Nadir  Shah,  1736.  He  invaded 
India,  took  Delhi  in  1739,  and  seized  the  Koh-i- 
noor  diamond  and  the  peacock  throne.  His  last 
years  were  marked  by  rapacity  and  oppression, 
?S?^  T?  '  ^*  ^^*  ^^^^^  ^^^  ^and  of  an  assassin, 
1747.  He  IS  still  reckoned  by  the  Persians, 
however,  aa  one  of  their  great  national  heroes 


Nag;el«  Charles,  lawyer,  secretary  of  conuneroo 
and  labor,  1909-13;  was  born  in  Colorado 
county,  Texas,  1849.  He  left  his  home  in  1863 
as  a  result  of  the  civil  war,  accompanying  his 
father  to  old  Mexico,  and  from  there,  by  way  of 
New  York,  to  St.  Louis.  He  was  graduated 
from  the  St.  Louis  law  school  in  1872;  attended 
the  university  of  Berlin,  1873,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  the  same  year.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Missouri  legislature  from  1881  to  1883; 
president  of  the  St  Louis  city  council  from  1893 
to  1897;  lecturer,  St.  Louis  law  school,  1885- 
1909.  He  has  taken  an  active  part  in  politics 
for  the  last  twenty  years,  and  has  delivered 
addresses  before  bar  associations  and  similar 
organizations  upon  various  topics  of  public 
interest. 

Nansen  (n&n'-ahi),  Frldtjof,  arctic  explorer,  was 
bom  in  Norway,  1861,  and  was  graduated  from 
the  university  of  Christiania,  Ph.  D.,  1888.  He 
started  on  his  first  arctic  expedition  in  1882. 
and  in  May,  1888,  undertook  hia  celebrated 
journey  across  Greenland,  which  he  accomplished 
m  forty-six  days.  The  highest  altitude  regis- 
tered was  over  10,000  feet  with  a  temperature 
of  from  80°  to  90°  below  zero.  In  1893  the 
Norwegian  Storthing  voted  $50,000,  and  the 
king  of  Norway  and  Sweden  gave  $50,000  more 
for  a  new  expedition  in  search  of  the  north 
pole.  In  1893  Nansen  sailed  in  the  Fram  to 
make  an  examination  of  the  entire  polar  regions, 
and  penetrated  farther  north  than  any  of  his 
predecessors.  He  then  became  professor  of 
zoology  at  Christiania  university;  took  an  active 
part  in  the  separation  of  Norway  and  Sweden 
m  1905,  was  minister  for  Norway  at  the  court 
of  St.  James,  1905-08;  professor  of  ocean- 
ography, Christiania  university,  since  1908. 
Author:  Across  Greenland;  Eskimo  Life,  Farthest 
North;  The  Norwegian  North  Polar  Expedition; 
Scientific  Results;  Norway  and  the  Union  with 
Sweden;  also  various  scientific  works. 

Napier  {napT-yir;  nA-pir'),  Sir  Charies.  British  ad- 
miral, was  bom  at  Merchiston  hall  near  Falkirk, 
1786,  cousin  to  the  hero  of  Sind.  At  thirteen  he 
went  to  sea;  in  1808  received  the  command  of 
the  Recruit,  and  for  his  share  in  capturing  a 
French  line-of-battle  ship  received  a  post-cap- 
taincy. He  served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  penin- 
sular array.  Commanding  the  Thames  in  1811, 
he  inflicted  great  damage  upon  the  enemy  in  the 
Mediterranean.  In  1814  he  led  the  way  in  the 
ascent  of  the  Potomac,  and  took  part  in  the 
operations  against  Baltimore.  In  command  of 
the  fleet  of  the  young  queen  of  Portugal,  he  de- 
feated the  Miguehte  fleet  and  placed  Donna 
Maria  on  the  throne.  In  the  war  between  the 
porte  and  Mehemet  All  he  stormed  Sidon,  de- 
feated Ibrahim  Pasha  in  Lebanon,  attacked 
Acre,  blockaded  Alexandria,  and  concluded  a 
convention  with  Mehemet  All.  He  also  com- 
manded the  Baltic  fleet  in  the  Russian  war ;  but 
the  capture  of  Bomarsund  failed  to  realize  expec- 
tations, and  he  was  superseded.  He  twice  sat  in 
the  British  parliament,  and,  until  his  death  at  his 
Hampshire  seat,  Merchiston  hall,  in  1860,  he 
labored  to  reform  the  naval  administration. 

Napier,  Sir  Charles  James,  British  general,  the 
conqueror  of  Sind,  was  bom  at  London,  1782. 
He  served  during  the  Irish  rebelUon,  and  at 
the  battle  of  Corunna  was  five  times  wounded 
and  taken  prisoner.  He  then  returned  to  Eng- 
land and  gave  himself  to  literary  work,  but  in 
1811  went  to  the  Iberian  peninsula,  where  he 
took  part  at  Coa,  Busaco,  where  his  jaw  was 
broken  and  eye  injured  by  a  shot,  Fuentes 
d'Onoro,  and  Badajoz.  He  also  took  part  in 
the  Anglo-American  war  of  1812.  From  1822- 
30  he  was  governor  of  Cephalonia;  in  1838,  a 
K.  C.  B.,   and  in  1841  was  sent  to  India   to 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


803 


command  the  army  of  Bombay  against  the 
ameers  of  Sind.  Here  he  destroyed  the  fortifi- 
cation of  Emaun  Ghur,  1843,  followed  by  the 
battle  of  Meanee  (Miani),  where,  with  2,800 
English  and  Sepoys,  he  defeated  22,000  Baluchs. 
After  the  annexation  he  was  appointed  governor 
of  Sind,  but  dififerences  witn  the  authorities 
caused  him  to  return  to  England  in  1847.  He 
died  near  Portsmouth,  1853. 

Napier  {nd'-pSr),  Jolin,  Scottish  mathematician, 
inventor  of  logarithms,  was  born  at  Merchiston 
castle,  Edinburgh,  in  1550.  He  matriculated  at 
St.  Andrews  in  1563,  traveled  on  the  continent, 
and  settled  down  to  a  Ufe  of  literary  and  scien- 
tific study.  In  1593  he  published  his  Plain 
Discovery  of  the  Whole  Revelation  of  Saint  John. 
which  was  translated  into  Dutch,  French,  and 
German.  He  made  a  contract  with  Logan  of 
Restalrig  for  the  discovery  of  treasure  in  Fast 
castle,  in  1594,  devised  warlike  machines  for  de- 
fense against  Philip  of  Spain,  and  recommended 
salt  as  a  fertilizer  of  land.  He  described  his 
famous  invention  of  logarithms  in  Mirifici 
Logarithmorum  C ononis  Descriptio,  in  1614,  and  the 
calculating  apparatus  called  Napier's  bones"  in 
Rabdologice  seu  Numerationis  per  Virgulas  libri 
duo,  1617,     Died  at  Merchiston,  1617. 

Napier  of  Magdala,  Robert  Cornells  Napier,  Lord, 
British  general,  was  bom  at  Colombo,  Ceylon, 
1810.  He  was  educated  at  Addiscombe,  entered 
the  Bengal  engineers  in  1826,  served  in  the 
Sutlej  campaign,  was  wounded  at  Multan,  and 
fought  in  the  battle  of  Gujrat.  As  chief  engineer 
of  the  Punjab  he  greatly  developed  the  resources 
of  the  country.  During  the  Indian  mutiny  he 
was  chief  engineer  in  Sir  Colin  Campbell's  army, 
distinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of  Lucknow, 
and  was  made  K.  C.  B.  He  received  the  thanks 
of  parliament  for  his  services  in  the  Chinese  war 
of  1858.  For  his  brilliant  conduct  of  the  expe- 
dition in  Abyssinia  in  1868  he  received  the  thanks 
of  parliament  and  an  annuity  of  2,000  pounds, 
and  was  made  G.  C.  B.  and  Baron  Napier  of 
Magdala.  In  1870  he  became  commander-in- 
chief  in"  India  and  a  member  of  the  Indian  coun- 
cil, and  was  subsequently  governor  of  Gibraltar, 
field-marshal,  and  constable  of  the  Tower.  He 
died  in  1890,  and  was  buried  in  St.  Paul's. 

Napier,  Sir  William  Francis  Patrick,  brother  of 
Sir  Charles,  was  born  near  Dublin,  1785.  He 
served  in  the  peninsular  campaign  and  retired 
as  a  lieutenant-general.  He  wrote  a  famous 
History  of  the  War  in  the  Peninsvla,  The  Con- 
quest ofScinde,  and  the  Life  of  Sir  Charles  Napier. 
He  died  at  Clapham,  London,  1860. 

Napoleon  I.     See  page  485. 

Napoleon  III^  or  Charles  Louis  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte, emperor  of  the  French,  was  born  in  the 
palace  of  the  Tuileries,  Paris,  1808.  He  was  the 
third  son  of  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  king  of 
Holland,  and  of  Hortense  Beauharnais,  daughter 
of  Emjjress  Josephine.  His  youth  was  spent 
chiefly  in  Switzerland,  and  devoted  to  military 
studies,  and  to  the  preparation  of  political 
treatises.  In  1830,  however,  he  took  part  in  a 
revolutionary  movement  in  Italy,  and  in  1836 
entered  France;  but,  seeking  to  arouse  the 
soldiery  at  Strassburg  in  his  favor,  he  was  taken 
prisoner  and  transported  to  the  United  States. 
He  returned  in  the  following  year  to  Switzerland ; 
but  France  demanded  his  extradition,  and  he 
speedily  sought  refuge  in  England,  where  he 
remained  for  three  years.  In  1840  he  landed  at 
Boulogne,  again  hoping  to  arouse  the  French 
soldiery  in  his  favor;  for  this  second  attempt  he 
was  tried  for  high  treason  before  the  chamber  of 
peers,  and  received  a  sentence  of  perpetual 
imprisonment  in  the  castle  of  Ham.  In  1846 
he  escaped  from  Ham  in  the  disguise  of  a  work- 
man, and  once  more  took  up  bis  residence  in 


London.  In  1848,  on  the  abdication  of  Louis 
Philippe,  the  provisional  government  permitted 
his  return  to  France.  In  June  of  that  year  he 
was  elected  to  the  national  assembly  for  the 
department  of  Seine  and  for  three  other  depart- 
ments; and  in  the  following  December  he  was 
elected  by  an  immense  majority  president  of  the 
newly-constituted  republic.  In  December,  1861, 
the  famous  coup  d'Uat  took  place,  and  Louis 
Napoleon  secured  his  election  as  president  for 
ten  years;  but  a  year  later  he  again  appealed  to 
the  people,  and  obtained  an  almost  unanimous 
vote  for  the  restoration  of  the  empire.  In  1864 
he  joined  England  and  Turkey  in  tne  war  against 
Russia.  In  1859  he  entered  upon  the  war  with 
Austria  on  behalf  of  Italy,  which  ended  in  the 
treaty  of  Villafranca,  1859.  This  was  followed 
by  the  annexation  of  Savoy  and  Nice  to  France. 
1860.  He  occupied  Mexico  in  1863,  but  the  sati 
issue  of  that  occupation  was  the  execution  of  the 
emperor  Maximilian  in  1867.  In  1870  the 
Franco-Prussian  war  broke  out,  which  led  to 
the  surrender  of  the  emperor  and  his  army  at 
Sedan,  and  to  the  ultimate  reestablishment  of 
the  republic.  He  died  at  Chiselhurst,  England, 
1873. 

Narses  (ndr'-sez),  Byzantine  statesman  and  general, 
was  born  toward  the  last  quarter  of  the  fifth 
century.  From  a  menial  office  in  the  imperial 
household  at  Constantinople  he  rose  by  successive 
steps  to  the  post  of  private  chamberlain  to  the 
emperor  Justinian,  and  ultimately  to  that  of 
keeper  of  the  privy  purse.  In  the  difficult  art 
of  courtiership  Narses  long  maintained  pre- 
eminence. In  538  he  was  sent  to  Italy  in  com- 
mand of  a  body  of  troops,  professedly  to  act  in 
concert  with  Belisarius ;  but  in  reality,  it  is  con- 
jectured, with  a  secret  commission  to  observe 
and  control  that  general.  After  some  successes 
Narses,  having  disputed  with  Belisarius,  assumed 
an  independent  authority;  but  his  separate 
command  was  unfortunate,  and  he  was  recalled 
to   Constantinople   in   639.     After   some   years, 

*  however,  Belisarius  was  recalled,  and  Narses  was 
appointed  to  the  chief  command  in  Italy.  Narses 
took  possession  of  Rome,  and  after  a  series  of 
successes,  both  in  southern  and  northern  Italy, 
completely  extinguished  the  Gothic  power  in 
that  peninsula.  Justinian  appointed  Narses 
exarch  of  Italy  in  554,  and  he  resided  at  Ravenna 
until  his  death  in  568. 

Navarro  (n&-var'-r6),  Mary  Anderson  de,  American 
actress,  was  bom  in  Sacramento,  Cal.,  1859. 
-Her  mother  was  of  German  descent  and  her 
father  was  a  confederate  officer  who  fell  in  the 
civil  war.  She  was  reared  at  Louisville,  Ky., 
educated  in  Ursuline  convent  and  Presentation 
academy  there.  She  made  her  d6but  as  Juliet 
at  McAuley's  theater.  Louisville,  1875.  She  had 
great  success  in  leading  legitimate  rdles  in  the 
United  States  and  England  until  1889,  when  she 
married  Antonio  de  Navarro,  and  retired  from 
the  stage.  She  has  since  lived  in  England. 
Author:  A  Few  Memories. 

Neander  (nd-&n'-dir\  Johann  Au^st  Wllhelm, 
noted  German  ecclesiastical  historian,  was  bom 
at  Gottingen,  1789,  of  Jewish  parents,  named 
Mendel.  He  received  his  early  education  at  the 
Johanneum  in  Hamburg,  and  had  for  companions 
Vamhagen  von  Ense,  Chamisso  the  poet,Wilhelm 
Neumann,  Noodt,  and  Sieveking.  In  1806  he 
publicly  renounced  Judaism,  and  was  baptized, 
adopting,  in  allusion  to  the  religious  change 
which  he  had  experienced,  the  name  of  Neander. 
In  1811  he  took  up  his  residence  at  Heidelberg 
university  as  a  pnvat  docent;  in  1812  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  theology;  and  the  follow- 
ing year  was  called  to  the  newly  established 
university  of  Berlin  as  professor  of  church  his- 
tory.    Here  he  remained  until  his  death  in  1850. 


894 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


He  enjoyed  immense  celebrity  as  a  lecturer.  Ab 
a  Christian  scholar  and  church  historian  he  ranks 
among  the  first  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The 
most  important  work  of  his  life  was  his  Universal 
History  of  the  Christian  Religion  and  Church,  in 
6  vols.  His  Life  of  Jesus  Christ  in  Its  Historical 
Relations  was  an  able  refutation  of  the  well- 
known  work  of  Strauss.  He  was  also  the  author 
of  The  Emperor  Julian  and  His  Times,  and 
Memorable  Occurrences  from  the  History  of  Chris- 
tianity and  Christian  Ldfe. 

Nearchus  {ne-ar'-kOs),  Macedonian  naval  com- 
mander, was  a  native  of  Crete,  who  settled  in 
Amphipolis  during  the  reign  of  Philip,  and 
became  the  companion  of  the  young  Alexander 
the  Great.  In  330  B.  C.  he  was  governor  of 
Lycia;  in  329  he  joined  Alexander  in  Bactria 
with  a  body  of  Greek  mercenaries,  and  took  part 
in  the  Indian  campaigns.  Having  built  a  fleet 
on  the  Hydaspes,  Alexander  gave  Nearchus  the 
command.  He  left  the  Indus  in  November,  325, 
and,  skirting  the  coast,  reached  Susa  in  324. 
His  narrative  is  preserved  in  the  Indica  of  Arrian. 

Nebuchadnezzar  (Tt^b'-ii-fcdd-n^z'-dr)  king  of  ancient 
Babylon,  was  born  about  645  B.  C.  He  was  the 
son  of  Nabopolassar,  and,  being  sent  by  him 
against  Necho,  king  of  Egypt,  he  defeated  Necho 
and  conquered  Palestine.  In  604  B.  C.  he 
became  king,  took  Jerusalem  about  606,  and 
made  Zedekiah  king  as  his  vassal.  Zedekiah 
soon  rebelled,  and  Nebuchadnezzar  again  took 
Jerusalem,  after  a  terrible  siege,  destroyed  the 
temple,  threw  down  the  walls  of  the  city,  and 
earned  the  people  captives  to  Babylon.  He  took 
Tyre  after  a  siege  of  thirteen  years,  overran 
Egypt,  and  became  one  of  the  most  powerful 
sovereigns  of  his  time.  Among  the  captives 
whom  he  carried  to  Babylon  was  the  Hebrew 
prophet  Daniel,  who  tells  much  about  him  in 
the  book  of  Daniel.     He  died  about  561  B.  C. 

Necker  (nS'-kdr'),  Jacques,  French  financier  and 
statesman,  was  born  at  Geneva,  1732,  and  was 
for  many  years  a  banker  at  Paris.  His  Eulogy 
on  Colbert,  his  Treatise  on  the  Corn  Laws  aria 
Trade,  and  some  Essays  on  the  Resource*  of 
France  inspired  such  an  estimate  of  his  talents 
for  finance,  that,  in  1776,  he  was  appointed 
director  of  the  treasury,  and,  shortly  after, 
comptroller-general  of  France.  Before  his  resig- 
nation in  1781,  he  published  a  statement  of  his 
operations,  addressed  to  the  king;  and  while  in 
retirement  produced  a  work  on  the  administra- 
tion of  the  finances,  and  another  on  the  imp>or- 
tance  of  religious  opinions.  He  was  reinstated, 
in  the  comptrollership  in  1788,  and  advised  the 
convocation  of  the  states-general;  was  abruptly 
dismissed,  and  ordered  to  quit  the  kingdom  in 
1789;  but  was  almost  instantly  recalled,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  ferment  which  his  departure 
excited  in  the  public  mind.  Necker,  however, 
soon  became  as  much  an  object  of  antipathy  to 
the  people  as  he  had  been  of  their  idolatry,  and 
in  1790  he  left  France  forever.  He  died  at 
Coppet,  in  Switzerland,  1804.  The  whole  of  his 
works  form  fifteen  volumes. 

Needham,  Charles  Willis,  American  lawyer  and 
educator,  was  born  in  Castile,  N.  Y.,  1848.  He 
received  an  academic  education,  and  was  grad- 
uated at  the  Albany  law  school,  1869;  LL.  D., 
university  of  Rochester,  Georgetown  college, 
Kentucky.  He  practiced  law  in  Chicago,  1874- 
90,  and  at  Washington,  1890-97.  He  assisted 
in  orgamzme  Chicago  university,  and  was  one 
of  the  board  of  trustees;  was  elected  professor 
of  law,  1897,  at  the  Columbian  university,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. ;  organized,  and  was  elected  dean 
of  the  school  of  comparative  jurisprudence  and 
diplomacy,  1898;  became  professor  of  transpor- 
tation and  interstate  commerce  in  school  of  com- 
parative jurisprudence  and  diplomacy,  and  was 


president  of  the  George  Washington  university 
(formerly  Columbian),  1902-10;  lecturer  upon 
legal  ethics,  trusts,  and  trades  unions.  He 
is  a  member  of  the  American  economic  asso- 
ciation, and  many  other  learned  and  educational 
societies.  Delegate  to  Congr^s  International  de 
Droit  Compart,  1900 ;  delegate  to  Congrfes  Inter- 
national des  Chemins  de  Fer ;  delegate  to  Congr^ 
International  d'assistance  publique  ct  de  Bien- 
faisance  Privde,  Paris;  speaker  up>on  jurispru- 
dence, congress  of  arts  and  sciences,  St.  Louis 
exposition,  1904.  Author  of  several  pamphlets 
on  education,  law,  and  jurisprudence,  a  con- 
tributor to  periodicals,  and  author  of  numerous 
legal  and  educational  addresses. 

Nehemiah,  Jewish  reformer,  was  a  Jew  of  the 
captivity,  of  royal  degree  and  in  high  favor,  ana 
was  the  icing's  cup-bearer  at  the  court  of  Arta- 
xerxes,  the  Persian  king.  He  received  a  com- 
mission from  the  king  to  repair  to  Jerusalem 
and  restore  the  Jewish  worship,  and  ruled  over 
it  for  twelve  years,  until  he  saw  the  walls  of  the 
city,  amid  much  opposition,  restored.  He  sub- 
sequently returned  to  superintend  the  reform  of 
the  worship,  of  which  the  book  of  the  old  testa- 
ment, named  after  himj  relates  the  story. 

Nelll,  Charles  P^  American  economist  and  edu- 
cator, was  born  at  Rock  Island,  III.,  1865.  He 
was  educated  at  the  university  of  Notre  Dame. 
Ind.,  1886-88.  university  of  Texas,  1888-89,  and 
was  graduated  from  Georgetown  university,  D. 
C,  1891 ;  attended  Johns  Hopkins  university, 
1894-97,  Ph.D.,  1897.  He  was  instructor  in  the 
university  of  Notre  Dame.  1891-94 ;  instructor 
and  associate  professor  and  professor  of  political 
economy,  CatnoUo  imiversity,  Washington,  1897- 
1905,  and  United  States  commissioner  of  labor, 
1905-13.  Vice-president  board  of  charities,  D.  C, 
1900-08.  Assistant  recorder  of  anthracite  strike 
commission,  1902;  recorder  of  arbitration  board, 
Birmingham,  1903,  and  member  of  the  United 
States  inunigration  commission,  1907-10. 

Neilson  (nel'-siin),  LJUlan  Adelaide,  English  actress, 
was  bom  in  Leeds,  Yorkshire,  England,  1848. 
Her  real  name  was  Elizabeth  Ann  Brown,  though 
she  was  sometimes  called  Bland,  that  being  the 
name  of  her  step-father.  She  made  her  ddbut 
as  Juliet  when  only  seventeen  years  old ;  appeared 
as  Amy  Robeart  in  1870,  in  London,  with  im- 
mense success,  and  by  1878  stood  at  the  head 
of  her  profession.  In  1872  she  came  to  the 
United  States,  playing  in  Booth's  theater,  New 
York,  and  in  Boston,  where  she  was  equally 
successful.  She  made  four  visits  to  the  United 
States,  her  last  one  being  in  1880.  She  died  in 
Paris,  France,  1880. 

Nelson,  Horatio,  Viscount,  famous  English  admiral, 
was  bom  at  Bumham-Thorpe,  Norfolk,  1758. 
He  entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman  in  1770, 
and  after  voyages  to  the  West  Indies,  the  Arctic 
ri^ons,  and  the  East  Indies,  was  promoted  to  a 
lieutenancy  in  1777.  Three  years  later  he 
headed  the  exi>edition  against  San  Juan,  was 
invalided  home,  and  in  1782  acted  under  Lord 
Hood  in  American  waters.  While  in  command 
of  the  Boreas  on  the  Leeward  islands  station,  he 
involved  himself  in  trouble  through  his  severe 
and  arbitrary  enforcement  of  the  navigation  act 
against  American  traders.  He  then  returned 
home  and  lived  for  five  years  in  retirement,  but 
on  the  eve  of  the  French  revolutionary  war  he 
was  again  sununoned  to  active  service ;  in  com- 
mand of  the  Agamemnon,  he  advanced  his  repu- 
tation by  gallant  conduct  in  the  Mediterranean 
operations  by  Lord  Hood,  losing  his  right  eye 
during  the  storming  of  Calvi,  in  Corsica.  His 
conspicuous  bravery  at  the  engagement  with  the 
Spaniards  off  Cape  St.  Vincent  in  1797  brought 
him  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral.  In  the  same 
year  he  lost  his  right  arm  at  Santa  Cruz,  and  in 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


895 


the  following  year,  with  an  inferior  force,  anni- 
hilated the  French  fleet  in  the  bay  of  Aboukir, 
for  which  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron 
Nelson,  and  created  duke  of  Bronte  by  the  king 
of  Naples.  In  1800  he  returned  home,  his  never 
robust  strength  considerably  impaired.  As  vice- 
admiral,  nominally  under  Sir  Hyde  Parker,  he, 
in  1801,  sailed  for  the  Baltic  and  Copenhagen. 
For  this  he  was  made  viscount  and  commander- 
in-chief.  During  the  scare  of  a  Napoleonic  inva- 
sion he  kept  a  vigilant  watch  in  the  channel, 
and,  on  the  resumption  of  war,  he  in  1805  crowned 
his  great  career  by  a  memorable  victory  off 
Trafalgar  over  the  French  fleet  commanded  by 
Villeneuve,  but  was  himself  mortally  wounded 
at  the  very  height  of  the  battle,  dying  in  1805. 

Nelson,  Knute,  lawyer.  United  States  senator,  was 
bom  in  Norway,  1843.  He  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1849,  and  resided  in  Chicago,  111.,  until 
the  fall  of  1850;  removed  to  the  state  oi  Wis- 
consin, and  from  there  to  Minnesota,  1871.  He 
was  a  private  and  noncommissioned  officer  in 
the  4th  Wisconsin  regiment  during  the  war  of 
the  rebellion,  and  was  wounded  and  taken 
prisoner  at  Port  Hudson,  La.,  1863.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  the  spring  of  1867;  was  a 
member  of  the  assembly  in  the  Wisconsin  legis- 
lature, 1868  and  1869;  county  attorney  of 
Douglas  county,  Minn.,  1872,  1873,  and  1874; 
state  senator,  1875,  1876,  1877,  and  1878; 
presidential  elector,  1880;  member  of  board  of 
regents  of  the  state  university,  1882-93 ;  member 
of  the  forty-eighth,  forty-ninth,  and  fiftieth  con- 
gresses for  the  5th  district  of  Minnesota ;  elected 
governor  of  Minnesota  in  the  fall  of  1892  and 
reelected  in  the  fall  of  1894;  elected  United 
States  senator  for  Minnesota,  1895,  and  reelected 
in  1901,  1907,  and  1913. 

Nepos  {ne'-pds),  Cornelius,  Roman  historian,  was 
bom  probably  at  Verona,  Italy,  and  flourished 
during  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar  and  the  first  six 
years  of  the  reign  of  Augustus.  He  enjoyed  the 
friendship  of  Cicero,  and  his  only  extant  work, 
Vitce  Excellentium  Imperaiorum,  is  held  in  high 
esteem  as  an  educational  classbook. 

Nemst  (n^nst),  Walther,  German  chemist  and 
physicist,  was  bom  at  Briesen,  Prussia,  1864. 
He  was  educated  at  Zurich,  Berlin,  and  Wiirz- 
burg;  was  assistant  to  Professor  Ostwald  at 
Leipzig,  1887 ;  appointed  professor  of  physics  at 
Gottingen  in  1891,  where  in  1895  he  organized 
the  institute  for  physical  and  electro-chemistry, 
of  which  he  became  director  in  1905.  His  work 
in  electricity  and  chemistry  is  of  a  high  order, 
and  his  treatise  on  Theoretical  Chemistry  has  been 
translated  into  a  number  of  languages.  He  is 
the  inventor  of  the  Nernst  electric  lamp. 

Nero,  Claudius  Caesar  Drusus  Gcrmanlcus,  Roman 
emperor,  was  born  at  Antium,  in  Latium,  A.  D. 
37.  His  original  name  was  Lucius  Domitius. 
His  father  was  Domitius  Ahenobarbus,  a  Roman 
consul,  and  his  mother  was  Agrippina,  daughter 
of  the  emperor  Germanicus.  He  was  adopted 
by  the  emperor  Claudius,  who  married  Agrippina, 
A.  D.  50,  and  four  years  later  he  succeeded 
Claudius  on  the  throne,  which  he  occupied  for 
fourteen  years.  His  whole  reign  was  character- 
ized by  licentiousness,  brutality,  and  cruelty. 
He  put  his  mother  to  death  in  order  to  please 
one  of  his  mistresses,  on  the  plea  that  she  had 

E lotted  against  him ;  and  he  afterward  murdered 
is  wife,  Octavia,  in  order  that  he  might  marry 
the  same  mistress.  The  great  fire  in  Rome 
happened  in  Nero's  reign,  and  it  is  asserted  by 
some  writers  that  the  city  was  set  on  fire  by  the 
order  of  Nero,  who  attributed  the  fire  to  the 
Christians,  and  persecuted  them  with  the  most 
unrelenting  cruelty.  He  afterward  kicked  Pop- 
paja  Sabina  (the  mistress  whom  he  had  marriea) 
to  death;    murdered  Antonia,   the  daughter  of 


Claudius,  because  she  refused  to  marry  him; 
and  finally  married  Statilia  Mossalina,  whose 
husband  he  had  killed.  The  philosopher  Seneca, 
who  had  been  his  tutor,  and  the  poet  Lucan 
were  also  put  to  death  by  his  order.  At  length 
a  formidable  conspiracy  was  raised  against  hira, 
and  he  fled  to  a  house  about  four  miles  from 
Rome,  where  he  put  an  end  to  his  own  life  on 
hearing  the  trampling  of  the  horses  on  which 
his  pursuers  were  mounted,  68  A.  D. 

Nesselrode  (nis'-Sl-rd'-dyS),  Karl  Robert,  Count* 
llu.s8ian  diplomat,  was  born  at  Lisbon,  Spain, 
1780,  son  of  the  Russian  ambassador.  He 
gained  the  confidence  of  Emperor  Alexander, 
took  a  principal  part  in  the  negotiations  which 
ended  in  the  peace  of  Paris,  and  in  the  congress 
of  Vienna,  and  was  one  of  the  most  active  diplo- 
mats of  the  holy  alliance.  He  dealt  a  deadly 
blow  to  the  revolutionary  cause  in  Hungary  in  ' 
1849 ;  exerted  himself  to  preserve  peace  with  the 
western  powers,  and  in  1854  strove  for  the 
reestablish ment  of  peace.     Died,  1862. 

Nestorlus  (nis-to'-rl-us),  celebrated  heresiarch,  waa 
born  in  Syria.  He  was  made  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople in  428,  deposed  for  heresy  by  the 
council  of  Ephesus,  431,  and  banished  to  the 
Lybian  desert,  where  he  died  after  439.  The 
heresy  he  taught,  called  after  him  Nestorianism, 
was  that  the  two  natures,  the  divine  and  the 
human,  coexist  in  Christ,  but  are  not  united, 
and  he  would  not  allow  to  the  Virgin  Mary  the 
title  that  had  been  given  to  her  as  the  "mother 
of  God."  The  orthodoxy  of  the  church  as 
against  the  doctrine  was  championed  by  Cyril 
of  Alexandria. 

Nethersole  {nirn'Sr-sol),  Olga,  English  actress,  waa 
born  in  London,  1870,  daughter  of  Henry  Nether- 
sole. She  was  educated  privately  in  London, 
Holland,  and  Germany,  and  maae  her  profes- 
sional d^but  at  the  Theater  Royal,  Brighton,  in 
Henry  Hamilton's  drama.  Harvest,  1887.  She 
then  joined  the  Garrick  theater  under  John  Hare's 
management  in  1889;  visited  Australia  on  star- 
ring tour,  1890;  was  lessee  and  manager  of  the 
Court  theater,  London,  1894;  several  times 
visited  the  United  States  on  starring  tours,  and 
as  manager  of  her  own  company;  was  manager 
of  Her  Majesty's  theater,  London,  1898,  when 
she  produced  The  Termagant,  and  was  manager 
of  the  Adelphi  theater,  London,  during  1002, 
where  she  produced  Sapho,  and  also  of  the 
Shaftesbury  theater,  1904. 

Nevada  (nS-va'-dd),  Emma,  n6e  Emma  Wixon, 
prima  donna,  was  born  at  Austin,  Nev.,  1861. 
She  studied  under  Mme.  Marchesi,  Paris,  and 
made  her  d^but  at  Her  Majesty's  theater,  Lon- 
don, 1880,  as  Amina  in  La  Sonnambtda.  She 
sang  in  Italy  in  1883,  appearing  as  Mysole  in 
La  Perle  de  Bresil,  and  afterward  as  Mignon; 
sang  at  Norwich  festival,  1884,  and  in  1885 
made  a  tour  of  the  United  States.  She  subse- 
quently sang  in  America  and  in  Europe.  In  1885 
sne  married  Dr.  Raymond  Palmer,  and  now 
lives  in  Paris. 

Nevin,  Ethelbert,  American  composer,  was  bom 
at  Edgeworth,  Pa.,  1862.  As  a  child  he  was  a 
remarkable  pianist;  later  he  studied  in  Europe 
under  Van  Bohme,  Von  Biilow,  and  Klindwortn, 
exhibiting  a  rare  gift  for  composition.  From 
1887  to  1893  he  taught  in  Boston,  then  went  to 
southern  Europe  to  study  until  1900  when  he 
returned  and  associated  himself  with  H.  W. 
Parker  at  Yale.  His  compositions,  all  cast  ia 
miniature  form,  are  characterized  by  dainty 
originality  and  exquisite  melody.  Narcissus, 
among  a  group  entitled  Water  Scenes,  and  a  song, 
"The  Rosary,"  are  perhaps  the  most  popular. 
He  died  in  1901  at  New  Haven. 

Newcomb  (nu'-fctiTn),  Simon,  American  astronomer 
and  mathematician,  was  bom  in  Wallace,  N.  S., 


896 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


1835.     He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1853; 
was   graduated    at    Lawrence    scientific    school, 
Harvard,  1858,  and  was  appointed,   1861,  pro- 
fessor   of    mathematics,    United    States    navy; 
LL.  D.,  Columbian,   Yale,  Harvard,  Columbia, 
Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Princeton,  Cracow,  Johns 
Hopkins,  Toronto;    Sc.  D.,  Heidelberg,  Padua, 
Dublin,    Cambridge;     doctor    of    mathematics, 
Christiania;   D.  C.  L.,  Oxford;  master  of  mathe- 
matics and  doctor  of  natural  philosophy,  Leyden. 
He  was  assigned  to  duty  at  United  States  naval 
observatory;      professor    of    mathematics    and 
astronomy,  Johns  Hopkins,  1884-94,  and  editor 
of  American  Journal  Mathematics.     In  1874  he 
was  made  correspondent,  and  after  1893  was  one 
of  the  eight  foreign  associates  of  the  institute  of 
France;  made  officer  of  legion  of  honor  of  PVance, 
1893.     Author:    Secular   Variations  and  Mutual 
Relations  of  the  Orbits  of  the  Asteroids;  Investiga- 
tion of  the  Orbit  of  Neptune;    Researches  on  the 
Motion  of  the  Moon;    Popular  Astronomy;    Cal- 
culus; A  Plain  Man's  Talk  on  the  Labor  Question; 
Principles    of   Political    Economy;     Elements    of 
Astronomy;  His  Wisdom  the  Defender;  The  Stars;  j 
Astronomy  for  Everybody;    Reminiscences  of  an  j 
Astronomer;  Spherical  Astronomy;  Side  Lights  on 
Astronomy;  and  various  other  books  on  astronom- 
ical  and   economical   topics,    magazine   articles, 
etc.     He  also  published  the  tables  of  the  motions 
of  the  stars,  the  planets,  and  the  moon  now  used 
by  astronomers  in  their  computations  and  as  the 
basis  of  the  navigation  of  the  vessels  of  the 
world.     Died,  1909. 
Newlands,  Francis  Griffith,  lawyer,  United  States 
senator,  was  bom  in  Natchez,  Miss.,  1848.     He 
entered  the  class  of  1867  at  Yale  college  and 
remained  until  the  middle  of  his  junior  year; 
attended   Columbian    law    school,    Washington, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  by  the  supreme 
court  of  the  District  of  Columbia  and  went  to 
San  Francisco,  where  he  entered  upon  the  prac- 
tice of  law  and  continued  in  the  active  practice 
of  his  profession  until  1888,  when  he  became  a 
citizen  of  the  state  of  Nevada.     He  was  elected 
to  the  fifty-third,   fiftv-fourth,   fifty-fifth,   fifty- 
sixth,  and  fifty-seventh  congresses,    and  to  the 
United  States  senate  in  1903  and  1908. 
Newman,  John  Henry,  English  prelate  and  author, 
was  born  at  London,    1801,   son  of  a  London 
banker.     He  was  graduated  from  Trinity  college, 
Oxford,  1820,  and  took  orders  in  1824,  when  he 
became  vice-principal  of  St.  Alban's  hall,  and 
in  1828  became  vicar  of  St.  Mary's.     He  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  tractarian  movement,  and  in 
1841  wrote  Tract  XC,  which  was  severely  con- 
demned.    After  living  at  Littlemore  for  some 
years  in  seclusion,  he  was  received  into  the  Roman 
Catholic  church,  1845;    founded  the  Brompton 
oratory  in   1850,   and  directed  the  Edgbaston 
oratory  for  the  greater  part  of  his  remaining 
years.     He    took    part    in    controversies    with 
Kingsley     in    1864,    and    Gladstone    in    1874, 
and  accepted  the  infallibility  dogma  with  some 
reservations.     He  was  created  cardinal  in  1879. 
Chief  among  his  works  are  Apologia  pro  VitA  SuA; 
An  Essay  in  Aid  of  a  Grammar  of  Assent;    and 
The  Dream  of  Gerontius.     Died,  1890. 
Newton,  Sir  Isaac     See  page  360. 
Ney   {na\  Michel,  French  marshal,  was  bom  in 
Saarlouis,  now  in  Pmssia,   1769,  the  son  of  a 
cooper.  _   He    entered    the    army    as    a    private 
hussar  in  1788;    became  a  general  of  brigade  in 
1796,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  bravery 
m  the  wars  of  the  revolution  and  the  empire. 
He   earned   for   himself   from   the    army   imder 
Napoleon,  and  from  Napoleon  himself,  the  title 
of  the  "brave  of  the  braves."     When  Napoleon 
abdicated  in  1814  he  attached  himself  to  Louis 
XVIII.,  but  on  the  former's  return  from  Elba 
he  jomed  his  old  master,   and  stood  by  him 


during  tlie  hundred  days.  He  was  defeated  by 
Wellington  at  Quatre-Braa,  in  1815,  and  conv- 
manded  the  Old  Guard  at  Waterloo  on  June  18th. 
On  the  second  restoration  he  was  arrested,  tried 
by  his  peers,  and  shot,  December  7,  1815. 
Nicholas  I^  emperor  of  Russia,  third  son  of  Paul  I., 
was  born  at  St.  Petersburg.  1796.  He  was 
carefully  educated,  and  later  devoted  himself  to 
military  studies  and  political  economy.  He 
traveled  over  E^urope,  and  after  marrying  the 
eldest  daughter  of  Frederick  Wilhelm  III.  of 
Prussia,  and  upon  the  resignation  of  his  elder 
brother,  Constantine,  he  ascended  the  throne  in 
1825.  In  1826  the  war  with  Persia  began,  and 
on  its  close  occurred  the  war  with  Turkey.  This 
was  followed  by  the  rising  of  Poland,  which  he 
subdued,  and  reduced  the  kingdom  to  a  mere 
province.  His  rule  now  became  despotic  and 
fierce.  He  remained  inactive  until  the  Austro- 
Ilungarian  rebellion  in  1848-49,  when  he  was 
called  in  to  aid  Austria.  This  strengthened  him 
with  the  European  powers  and  he  began  to  think 
of  absorbing  Turkey.  The  opposition  of  the 
western  powers  IchI  to  the  Crimean  war,  during 
which  he  dietl  at  St.  Petersburg,  1855. 

Nicholas  11^  czar  of  Russia,  was  bom  in  St.  Peters- 
burg, 1868,  son  of  Alexander  III.,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  1894.  His  education  under  his  father 
was  conducted  expressly  with  a  view  to  what 
might  be  required  of  him  on  his  acces.sion  to  the 
throne.  During  the  famine  of  1891,  he  was,  at 
bis  own  request,  made  president  of  the  com- 
mittee of  succor,  and  worked  hard  in  the  organi- 
zation of  relief.  As  czarevitch  he  held  several 
military  commands  in  his  own  country  —  in  the 
famous  Pr(?obrajensky  regiment  among  others  — 
and  in  England  be  had  conferred  upon  him,  in 
1893,  the  order  of  the  garter.  He  married 
Princess  AUx  of  Hesse-Darmstadt  in  1894.  Four 
daughters  came  first,  but  a  son  was  bom  in  1904, 
and  was  named  Alexis.  The  coronation  of  the 
czar  took  place  with  impressive  ceremonial  at 
Moscow  in  May,  1896,  anu  in  August  of  the  same 
year  he  commenced  a  tour  which  included  visits 
to  the  emperor  of  Austria  and  Germany,  to  the 
king  of  Denmark,  to  Queen  Victoria,  and  to  the 
president  of  France.  The  famous  peace  pro- 
posals, which  he  made  to  the  powers  during  1898, 
led  to  the  first  peace  conference  at  The  Hague  in 
1899,  the  establishment  of  the  permanent  court 
of  arbitration  there,  and  indirectly  to  the  second 
conference  in  1907.  He  is  gifted  with  the  lin- 
guistic facility  of  most  of  his  countrymen,  and 
speaks  fluently  French,  German,  Italian,  and 
especially  English.  The  czar  must  belong  to  the 
orthodox  Greek  church,  and  his  consent  is  neces- 
sary to  the  marriage  of  any  prince  or  princess  of 
the  imperial  family.  His  reign  has  been  marked 
by  the  construction  of  the  trans-Siberian  railroad 
to  the  Pacific  coast,  by  the  Russo-Japanese  war. 
by  adroit  diplomacy  with  China,  by  a  strong  ana 
conservative  attitude  toward  Turkey,  as  well  as 
toward  the  European  powers,  and  by  the  granting 
of  a  constitution  in  1905. 

Nicholas  V^  pope,  Tonunaso  Parentucelll,  was 
bom  near  Pisa,  Italy,  1398.  He  was  educated 
at  Bologna  and  Florence,  went  to  Rome  in  1426, 
and  entered  the  ecclesiastical  seijvice.  In  1444 
he  became  bishop  of  Bologna,  and  showed  such 
astuteness  during  the  councils  of  Basel  and 
Florence  that  he  was  chosen  pope  in  1447.  He 
prevailed  on  the  antipope,  Felix  V.,  to  abdicate, 
and  thus  restored  the  peace  of  the  church  in 
1449.  A  liberal  patron  of  scholars,  he  despatched 
agents  east  and  west  to  purchase  or  to  copy 
important  Greek  and  Latin  manuscripts,  and 
may  almost  be  said  to  have  founded  the  Vatican 
library.  He  vainly  endeavored  to  arouse  Europe 
to  the  duty  of  succoring  the  Greek  empire. 
Died,  1455. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


807 


Nichols,  Edward  Leamington,  American  physicist, 
professor  of  physics,  Cornell,  since  1887,  was 
born  of  American  parentage,  at  Leamington, 
England,  1854.  He  was  graduated  at  Cornell  in 
1875;  studied  at  the  universities  of  Leipzig, 
Berlin,  and  Gottingen;  Ph.  D.,  1879;  fellow  of 
Johns  Hopkins,  1879-80.  He  was  with  Edison 
at  Menlo  Park,  N.  J.,  1880-81;  professor  of 
physics  and  chemistry.  Central  university,  Ky., 
1881-83;  and  professor  of  physics  and  astron- 
omy, university  of  Kansas,  1883-87.  He  is 
editor-in-chief  of  the  Physical  Review,  and  author 
of  The  Galvanometer;  A  Laboratory  Manual  of 
Physics  and  Applied  Electricity  (2  vols.);  The 
Elements  of  Physics  (3  vols.),  with  Professor 
W.  S.  Franklin;  Outlines  of  Physics;  and  numer- 
ous papers  in  scientific  journals  on  experimental 
physics. 

Nlclas  (nish'-i-as),  Athenian  statesman  and  general 
of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  was  the  son  of  the 
wealthy  Niceratus.  After  the  death  of  Pericles, 
he  was  the  poUtical  opponent  of  Cleon,  and  later 
of  Alcibiades.  In  427  B.  C.  he  defeated  the 
Spartans  and  Corinthians,  and  ravaged  Minoa, 
Melos,  and  Locris.  In  424  he  ravaged  Cythera 
and  part  of  Laconia.  In  415  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  commanders  against  Sicily,  and  in  the 
autumn  laid  siege  to  Syracuse.  At  first  success- 
ful, later  his  fleet  was  destroyed,  his  army  began 
a  retreat,  and  he  was  captured  and  put  to  death 
in  413  B.  C. 

NicoU  (nik'-iil),  De  Lancey,  American  lawyer,  was 
born  at  Bayside,  L.  I.,  N.  Y.,  1854.  He  was 
graduated  at  Princeton,  1874;  Columbia  law 
school,  1876;  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  has 
since  practiced  laW  in  New  York  city.  He  was 
nominated  by  the  Tammany  organization  for 
district  attorney,  1890;  was  elected  and  served 
three  years.  He  was  a  member  of  the  constitu- 
tional convention,  1894;  is  now  a  member  of  the 
law  firm  of  Nicoll,  Anable  and  Lindsay,  and  has 
appeared  in  numerous  corporation  cases. 

Nlebuhr  (ne'-bdor),  Barthold  Georg,  German  his- 
torian and  critic,  was  born  in  Copenhagen,  1776, 
where  his  parents  then  resided.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Kiel  and  Edinburgh,  held  several 
appointments  under  the  Danish  government,  and 
entered  the  Prussian  civil  service  in  1806.  At 
the  opening  of  the  university  of  Berlin,  in  1810 
he  became  connected  with  that  institution,  and 
was  for  many  years  lecturer  on  Roman  hi.story 
and  antiquities.  In  1816  he  was  appointed 
Prussian  ambassador  at  Rome.  In  1823  he  took 
up  his  residence  at  Bonn,  where  he  delivered 
lectures  on  history  and  archaeology.  His  great 
work  is  his  History  of  Rome,  upon  which  he  was 
engaged  for  many  years.  His  Lectures  on  Roman 
History,  and  several  other  works,  were  published 
after  his  death  by  Dr.  Schmitz  and  others,  from 
notes  of  Niebuhr's  viva  voce  lectures.  The  value 
of  kis  labors  in  the  field  of  Roman  history  is 
undoubted,  but  many  of  his  theories,  though 
they  obtained  wide  acceptance  for  a  time,  are 
now  held  to  be  untenable.  His  death  was 
hastened  by  excitement  caused  by  apprehension 
as  to  the  political  results  of  the  French  revolu- 
tion of  1830.     He  died  at  Bonn,  1831. 

Nlehaus  (ne'-hous),  Charles  Henry,  American 
sculptor,  was  bom  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1855. 
He  was  educated  in  the  Cincinnati  schools,  and 
at  the  royal  academy,  Munich,  Germany.  He 
won  numerous  prizes  and  medals  for  art  work 
and  executed  the  Garfield  statue,  Cincinnati; 
Ingalls,  Allen,  Garfield,  and  Morton,  in  rotunda 
of  capitol,  at  Washington;  statues  of  Gibbon 
and  Moses,  Congressional  library;  Hahnemann 
at  Scott  circle,  Washington;  AJstor  historical 
doors.  Trinity  church,  New  York;  pediment  to 
appellate  court  house.  New  York;  statues  of 
Hooker  and  Davenport,  Connecticut  state  house ; 


statue  to  Drake,  erected  by  Standard  oil  com- 
pany, at  Titusville,  Pa.;  two  large  groups, 
"Mineral  Wealth,"  Pan-American  exposition; 
"Apotheosis  of  St.  Louis"  for  St.  Louis  expo- 
sition; statues  of  Lincoln,  Farragut,  and  McKjn- 
ley,  Muskegon,  Mich. ;  equestrian  statue  of  Gen- 
eral Forrest,  Memphis.  Tenn.;  statue  of  McKinloy 
and  lunette  for  tomb  at  Canton,  Ohio;  Benjamin 
Harrison  monument,  Indianapolis;  pediment 
state  capitol,  Frankfort,  Ky.;  John  Paul  Jones 
monument,  Washington,  etc. 

Nielsen  (nel'-sen),  Alice,  American  opera  singer,  was 
bom  at  Nashville,  Tenn.  She  received  her  musical 
education  in  San  Francisco,  under  Mile.  Ida 
Valerga,  and  naade  her  first  stage  appearance 
with  an  opera  company  at  Oakland,  Cal.,  1893, 
as  Yum  Yum  in  Mikado.  She  then  joined  the 
Bostonians,  1896,  and  took  the  r61e  of  Annabel 
in  Robin  Hood;  the  following  season  plaved 
leading  part  of  Maid  Marion,  and  the  pnncfpal 
soprano  r61e  in  The  Serenade.  She  made  her 
stellar  d^but  at  the  Grand  opera  house,  Toronto, 
1898,  in  The  Fortune  Teller;  later  starred  in 
The  Singing  Girl,  and  plaj'cd  in  The  Fortune 
Teller,  London,  1902.  She  studied  grand  opera 
in  Rome,  and  ma<ie  her  first  appearance  in  grand 
opera  at  BelUni  theater,  Naples,  Italy,  as  Mar- 
guerite in  Faust;  appeared  at  San  Carlo  opera 
house,  Naples,  in  La  Traviata,  and  at  Covent 
Garden,  London,  in  Don  Giovanni,  The  Marriage 
of  Figaro,  La  Boheme,  and  Rigoletto.  She  toured 
the  United  States  in  grand  opera,  1906-08;  with 
Boston  opera  company,  1910-11;  with  Metropol- 
itan opera  company  since  1910. 

Nightingale,  Florence,  a  famous  philanthropic 
nurse,  was  born  at  Florence,  Italy,  1820,  of 
wealthy  English  parentage.  At  the  age  of 
twenty-two  she  entered  the  institution  of  Protes- 
tant deaconesses  at  Kaiserswerth  to  be  trained 
as  a  nurse,  and  afterward  studied  the  methods 
of  nursing  and  hospital  management  with  the 
sisters  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  Paris.  In  1854 
she  volunteered  to  organize  a  staff  of  nurses 
during  the  Crimean  war,  and,  during  the  terrible 
winter  of  1854-55,  she  ministered  with  unwearied 
devotion  to  the  suffering  soldiers.  On  her  return 
in  1856  she,  with  public  support,  established  a 
training  college  for  nurses  at  St.  Thomas's  and  at 
King's  college  hospital.  She  wrote  Notes  on 
Nursing,  Notes  on  Hospitals,  etc.     Died,  1910. 

Nlkisch  {nlk'-lsh),  Arthur,  noted  Hungarian  orche*. 
tral  conductor,  was  bom  in  Ldb^ny  Szent-Mikl68, 
1855,  and  at  an  early  age  disclosed  extraordinary 
musical  talent.  In  his  eighth  year  he  played  the 
violin  in  public,  and  was  but  eleven  when  he 
entered  the  royal  conservatory  of  music  in  Vienna. 
He  remained  at  the  conservatory  for  eight  years ; 
was  appointed  first  violinist  at  the  royal  opera; 
and,  in  1878,  went  with  Neumann  to  Leipzig, 
where  he  was  made  assistant  conductor  and 
conductor  in  the  Old  opera  house.  In  1889  he 
succeeded  Herr  Gericke  as  conductor  of  the 
Boston  symphony  orchestra,  and  in  1893  accepted 
the  post  of  director  of  the  royal  op)era  at 
Budapest.  In  1895  he  became  conductor  of 
the  Leipzig  Gewandhaus  on  the  retirement  of 
Reinicke.  He  is  also  conductor  of  the  Berlin 
Philharmonic  orchestra,  with  which  he  has  ap- 
peared throughout  Europe.  He  is  conceded  to 
be  one  of  the  greatest  conductors  of  our  time. 

Nilsson  {nU'-sur^,  Christine  (Comtesse  de  Miranda), 
Swedish  operatic  singer,  was  bom  near  Wexio, 
Sweden,  1843,  daughter  of  a  peasant.  Her 
singing  at  a  fair  in  1857  so  impressed  j.  magistrate 
of  Ljungby  that  he  sent  her  for  a  musical  educa- 
tion to  Stockholm  and  Paris.  She  made  her 
d6but  at  Paris  in  1864,  in  London,  1867.  She 
soon  became  one  of  the  foremost  soprano  singers, 
and  was  distinguished  for  her  dramatic  talent  as 
well.     She  repeatedly  visited  the  United  States. 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


In  1872  she  married  M.  Rouzaud,  who  died  in 
1882;  and  in  1887,  at  Paris,  she  became  the 
wife  of  the  Count  de  Miranda,  and  retired.  Her 
chief  successes  were  in  The  Magic  Flute,  Martha, 
Don  Juan,  Faust,  and  Robert  the  Devil. 

Nixon,  George  S.,  banker,  United  States  senator, 
was  bom  in  Placer  county,  Cal.,  1860.  He  was 
educated  in  the  public  schools  of  that  state; 
worked  on  his  father's  farm  until  nineteen  years 
of  age,  when  he  entered  the  employ  of  a  railroad 
company  and  studied  telegraphy.  In  1881  he 
was  transferred  to  Nevada,  where  he  served 
three  years  as  a  telegraph  operator,  and  in  1884 
accepted  a  clerical  position  in  a  bank  at  Reno. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Nevada  legislature, 
1890,  and  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
senate  for  the  terms  1905-11, 1911-17.    Died,  1912. 

Nixon,  Lewis,  shipbuilder,  was  born  in  Leesburg, 
Va.,  1861.  He  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  naval  academy,  1882.  He  was  sent  to  the 
royal  naval  college,  Greenwich,  England,  by 
navy  department,  and  transferred  to  construc- 
tion corps  of  navy,  1884.  In  1890  he  designed 
the  battle-ships  Oregon,  Indiana,  and  Massachu- 
setts, and  then  resigned  from  navy  to  become 
superintending  constructor  of  the  Cramp  ship- 
yard, Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and  in  1895  founded  the 
Crescent  shipyard,  Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  where  he  has 
built  100  vessels  in  six  years,  among  others  the 
sub-marine  torpedo-boat,  Holland,  monitor  Flor- 
ida, torpedo-boat  O'Brien,  and  cruiser  Chattci- 
nooga.  He  was  appointed  by  Mayor  Van  Wyck 
president  of  East  river  bridge  commission,  1898; 
appointed,  1902,  New  York  commissioner  to 
Louisiana  Purchase  exposition,  St.  Louis;  and 
is  a  trustee  of  Webb's  academy  and  home  for 
shipbuilders.  He  succeeded  Richard  Croker  as 
leader  of  Tammany  Hall,  1901-02.  He  is  now 
president  of  the  Standard  motor  construction 
company,  proprietor  of  Lewis  Nixon's  shipyard, 
etc. 

Nobel  {no-bW),  Alfred  Bemhard,  Swedish  chemist 
and  engineer,  was  born  at  Stockholm,  1833.  His 
father,  a  mechanician,  resided,  1837-59,  in  St. 
Petersburg,  and  in  1862  began  to  manufacture 
nitroglycerine.  In  1867  Alfred,  who  assisted 
him,  discovered  through  the  accidental  escape 
of  some  nitroglycerine  from  a  cask  into  the 
siliceous  sand  of  the  packing,  how  to  make  a 
safe  and  manageable  explosive  —  d3rnamite.  He 
also  invented  blasting-jelly  and  several  kinds  of 
smokeless  powder.  Ultimately  he  had  manu- 
factories at  Brefors  in  Sweden,  and  experimented 
on  mild  steel  for  armor  plates,  etc.  At  his  death 
at  San  Remo,  Italy,  in  1896,  he  left  a  fortune  of 
over  2,000,000  pounds,  most  of  which  he  destined 
to  go  for  annual  prizes  for  those  making  the  most 
important  discoveries  in  physics,  chemistry, 
physiology,  writing  the  best  literature,  and 
accomplishing  the  most  for  humanity  and  peace. 

Nodzu  (no'-dzod),  Mlchltsura,  Count,  Japanese 
general,  was  born  in  Satsuma,  1840.  He  fought 
on  the  side  of  the  mikado  in  the  war  of  restora- 
tion, and  with  imperialists  in  the  Satsuma 
rebellion.  During  the  war  with  China  he  cap- 
tured Ping-yang;  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
5th  division;  later  on  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  first  army,  and,  during  the  Japanese 
and  Russian  war,  commander-in-chief  of  the 
fourth  army.    Created  a  count,  1895.     Died,  1908. 

Nogl  (no'-ge),  Klten,  Count,  Japanese  general,  was 
born  m  Choshu,  Japan,  1849.  He  served  in  the 
Batsuma  rebellion  of  1877,  and  was  twice  severely 
wounded.  In  the  Chinese-Japanese  war  of  1894- 
95  he  commanded  a  brigade  at  the  battles  of 
Hm-Chow  and  Port  Arthur,  and  at  its  conclusion 
was  promoted  lieutenant-general.  He  com- 
manded the  third  army  in  the  Russo-Japanese 
wa.r,  and  captured  Port  Arthur,  1905.  He  was  the 
only  Choshu  general  in  command  during  theRvisso- 


Japanese  war.    Created  baron,  1895,  count,  1906. 
Died,  1912. 

Nordau  (ndr'-dou).  Max  Simon,  German  physician 
and  writer,  of  Jewish  descent,  was  born  at  Buda- 
pest, 1849,  but  is  a  Prussian  subject  and  a 
citizen  of  the  German  empire.  He  received  his 
university  education  at  Budapest,  Berlin,  and 
Paris,  obtained  the  degree  of  M.  D.,  traveled 
over  Europe,  and  has  lived  in  Paris  since  1880. 
He  was  co-founder  and  for  many  years  vice- 
president  of  the  association  Litteraire  et  Artis- 
tique  Internationale,  Paris;  a  member  of  the 
Hellenic  national  academy,  Athens;  and  first 
vice-president  of  the  Zionist  congresses  at  Bdle, 
1897,  1898,  1899,  1901,  1903,  and  London  1900. 
His  first  book  on  Paris  appeared  in  1878;  others, 
more  especially  two  in  English  translation,  Con- 
verUioTuu  Lies  of  the  Children  of  Ctdture,  and 
Degeneration,  were  much  criticised  and  led  to 
considerable  discussions.  They  were  followed 
by  The  Drones  Must  Die.  He  has  also  published 
books  in  Italian  and  French,  and  is  one  of  the 
greatest  of  living  Jews. 

Nordenskjbld  (nd'-ren-shiU'),  Nils  Adolf  Erik,  Baron, 
Swedish  explorer,  geologist,  was  bom  at  Helsing- 
fors,  Finland,  1832.  He  studied  at  the  univer- 
sity of  Borgo.  and  was  graduated  in  1853  at  the 
umversity  of  Helsingfors.  He  was  soon  ap- 
pointed director  of  the  faculty  of  mathematics 
and  physics,  but  in  1855  was  cashiered  for 
political  reasons,  and  thereupon  left  the  country. 
In  1858  he  was  appointed  state  mineralogist  at 
Stockholm,  having  obtained  letters  of  naturaliza- 
tion as  a  Swedish  subject.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  chamber  of  nobles  during  the  last  two  assem- 
blies of  the  Swedish  states,  and  from  1869  to  1871 
was  a  liberal  member  for  Stockholm.  After 
several  successive  voyages  and  explorations  in 
the  Arctic  sea,  in  which  he  paid  frequent  visits 
to  Spitzbergen,  where  he  measured  an  arc  of  the 
meridian,  he  in  1878-79  discovered  the  northeast 
passage  by  traversing,  alons  the  northern  shores 
of  Europe  and  Asia,  the  w-hole  Arctic  sea  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  He  was  created 
baron  in  1880,  and  is  the  author  of  a  number  of 
scientific  works.     Died,  1901. 

NordhofT  (ndrd'-hdf),  Charles,  American  author, 
was  bom  at  Erwitte,  Pmssia,  1830.  He  came 
to  the  United  States  with  his  parents  when  a 
child  of  five  years,  and  was  educated  at  Cincin- 
nati. He  entered  the  United  States  navy  in 
1844,  and  during  a  service  of  three  years  made 
a  voyage  around  the  world.  He  afterward 
joined  the  commercial  marine,  remaining  at  sea 
most  of  the  time  until  1853,  when  he  became  a 
journalist,  first  at  Philadelphia  and  later  at 
Indianapolis.  From  1861  to  1871  he  was  edi- 
torial writer  for  the  New  York  Evening  Post. 
The  next  two  years  he  spent  in  travel  through 
California  and  the  Hawaiian  islands.  He  then 
became  Washington  correspondent  for  the  New 
York  Herald.  His  principal  works  are:  A  Man- 
of-War-Life;  The  Merchant  Vessel;  Whaling  and 
Fishing;  Stories  of  the  Island  World;  Cape  Cod 
and  All  Along  Shore;  California;  Politics  for 
Young  Americans;  The  Communistic  Societies  of 
the  United  States,  etc.      Died,  1901. 

Nordlca  (ndr'-dl-ka),  T.nnan,  n6e  Lillian  Norton, 
stage  name  of  Mrs.  George  W.  Young,  American 
prima  donna,  was  bom  at  Farmington,  Me., 
1859.  Her  earlier  musical  education  was  pur- 
sued at  the  New  England  conservatory,  Boston, 
and  her  later  studies  at  Milan,  Italy.  She  made 
her  d^but  as  an  opera  singer  at  Brescia,  Italy, 
in  La  Traviata.  In  1887  she  appeared  in  London 
with  rnarked  success,  following  up  her  triumphs 
in  Paris,  in  St.  Petersburg,  and  various  European 
capitals.  She  has  sung  leading  soprano  parts  in 
forty  operas  and  in  aU  the  stan<^rd  oratorios, 
but  she  is  best  known  in  Wagnerian  parts.     She 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


has  appeared  in  grand  opera  in  the  United  States 
several  seasons.  She  was  married  first  to  Fred- 
erick A.  Gower,  second  to  Herr  Dome,  third  to 
George  W.  Young. 

Norman,  Sir  Henry,  English  journalist,  author,  and 
traveler,  was  born  at  Leicester,  England,  1858. 
He  was  graduated  from  Harvard  colfege  in  1881 ; 
studied  at  Leipzig,  Germany,  and  then  accepted 
a  position  on  the  Pall  Mall  Gazette,  London,  and 
later  became  associate  editor  of  the  London 
Daily  Chronicle.  He  was  several  times  sent 
abroad  upon  important  missions  on  account  of 
his  proficiency  in  modern  languages.  Having 
inherited  a  moderate  fortune  in  1888,  he  spent 
the  following  years  in  travels  throughout  the 
least-known  parts  of  Asia.  He  published  works 
upon  China,  Corea,  Japan,  Siberia,  and  the 
Balkans.  In  1895  he  was  sent  to  Constantinople 
to  report  upon  the  Armenian  massacres;  and 
from  there  proceeded  to  Washington,  D.  C,  to 
write  for  the  London  Daily  Chronicle  the  status 
of  the  Monroe  doctrine.  He  was  elected  to  par- 
liament in  1900;  founded  The  World's  Work  in 
1902,  and  has  published  in  recent  years  The  Real 
Japan;  The  Peoples  and  Politics  of  the  Far  East; 
The  Near  East;  All  the  Russias;  Thoughts  I  Met 
on  the  Highway;  Motors  and  Men,  etc.  He  was 
knighted  in  1906. 

North,  Frederick,  eighth  Lord  North,  second  earl 
of  Guilford,  English  statesman,  was  bom,  1732, 
and  educated  at  Oxford.  He  entered  the 
house  of  commons  at  the  age  of  twenty-two, 
and  was  made  junior  lord  of  the  treasury  in 
1759.  In  1767  he  was  appointed  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer  and  leader  of  the  house  of  com- 
mons, being  there  opposed  to  Fox  and  Burke. 
In  1770  he  became  prime  minister,  and  his 
course,  to  a  large  extent,  caused  England  to  lose 
America.  He  resigned,  1782,  and  became  blind  five 
years  before  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1792. 

North,  Simon  Newton  Dexter,  journalist,  statisti- 
cian, was  born  in  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  1849,  and  was 
graduated  at  Hamilton  college,  1869.  He  was 
managing  editor  of  the  Utica  Morning  Herald, 
1869-^6 ;  president  of  New  York  state  associated 
press,  1885-86;  editor  and  joint  proprietor  of 
Albany  Express,  1886-88,  and  secretary  of  the 
national  association  of  wool  manufacturers, 
1888-1903.  Appointed  member  of  United  States 
industrial  commission  by  President  McKinley, 
1898;  he  resigned  in  1899  to  accept  position  of 
chief  statistician  for  manufactures,  twelfth  cen- 
sus; appointed,  1903,  director  of  United  States 
census;  resigned  in  1909.  Author:  An  American 
Textile  Glossary;  A  History  of  the  American  Wool 
Manufacture;  Old  Greek,  An  Old-Time  Professor 
in  an  Old-Fashioned  College;  and  numerous  pam- 
phlets and  lectures  on  economical,  industrial, 
and  educational  subjects. 

Northrop,  Cyrus,  American  educator,  president  of 
universitj^  of  Minnesota,  1884-1911,  was  bom  at 
Ridgefield,  Conn.,  1834.  He  was  graduated  at 
Yale,  1857,  Yale  law  school,  1859;  LL.  D.,  Yale, 
1886,  university  of  Wisconsin,  1904,  Illinois  col- 
lege, 1904,  Soyth  Carolina  college,  1905.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  Connecticut  bar  in  1860; 
was  clerk  of  the  Connecticut  hovise  of  representa- 
tives, 1861,  and  of  the  Connecticut  state  senate 
in  1862 ;  was  editor  of  the  New  Haven  Palladium, 
1863,  and  professor  of  rhetoric  and  English 
literature,  Yale,  1863-84. 

Norton,  Charles  Eliot,  American  educator,  critic, 
and  scholar,  professor  of  art  at  Harvard,  1874— 
98,  was  bom  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1827.  He 
was  graduated  at  Harvard,  1846;  Litt.  D.,  Cam- 
bridge, England,  1884;  L.  H.  D.,  Columbia, 
1885 ;  LL.  D.,  Harvard,  1887,  Yale,  1901 ;  hon. 
D.  C.  L.,  Oxford  university,  England,  1900.  He 
entered  a  counting  house  in  Boston,  1846;  went 
as   supercargo    on    East    Indian    voyage,    1849, 


later  made  several  trips  to  Europe,  and  became 
known  as  a  Dante  scholar  and  an  authority  on 
art.  In  1864-68  he  was  joint  editor  with  Lowell 
of  the  North  American  Review.  In  1874  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  the  history  of  art  at 
Harvard,  and  in  1879  became  president  of  the 
archaeological  institute  of  America,  holding  that 
office  for  eleven  years.  Author:  Considerationa 
on  Some  Recent  Social  Theories;  Historical 
Studies  of  Church  Building  in  the  Middle  Ages; 
Notes  of  Travel  and  Study  in  Italy.  Editor: 
Letters  of  James  Russell  Liowdl;  Writings  of 
George  William  Curtis;  Correspondence  of  Carlyle 
and  Emerson;  Correspondence  of  Goethe  and  Car- 
lyle; Reminiscences  and  Letters  of  Thomas  Carlyle; 
Letters  of  John  Ruskin;  and  translator  of  Dante's 
Vita  Nuova  and  Divina  Commcdia.     Died,  1908. 

Novalis  (no-va'-lls),  German  lyric  poet  and  philoso- 
pher, was  born  in  Saxony,  1772.  His  real  name 
was  Friedrich  von  Hardenberg.  He  was  a 
son  of  Baron  von  Hardenberg,  and  studied  at 
Jena,  Leipzig,  and  Wittenberg.  His  principal 
works  are  Lehrlinge  ru  Sais,  Hymnen  an  die 
Nacht,  and  an  unfinished  art  romance  entitled 
Heinrich  von  Ofterdingen.  A  remarkably  inter- 
esting account  of  the  life  and  work  of  Novalia 
is  to  be  found  in  the  Miscellaneous  Essays  of 
Carlyle,  by  whom  he  is  called  "the  German 
Pascal."     He  died  of  consumption,  1801. 

Noyes,  Frank  Brett,  American  journalist,  was  bom 
at  Washington,  D.  C,  1863.  He  was  educated 
in  the  public  and  high  schools  of  Washington, 
and  at  Columbian  university,  D.  C.  He  was 
manager  of  the  Washington  Star,  1881-1901; 
president  of  the  associated  press.  New  York, 
since  1900;  editor  of  Chicago  Record-Herald, 
1902-09;  since  1910  president  Evening  Star  news- 
paper company,  Washington ;  director  in  a  niun- 
ber  of  financial  institutions. 

Noyes,  George  Bapall,  American  biblical  scholar, 
was  bom  in  Massachusetts,  1798.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  college,  1818,  and  studied 
theologv  at  Cambridge  divinity  school.  He  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1822,  and  held  pastorates 
at  Brookfield  and  at  Petersham,  Mass.  In  1840 
he  was  made  professor  of  Hebrew  and  oriental 
languages  and  Dexter  lecturer  on  biblical  litera- 
ture at  Harvard  university.  Besides  many  re- 
views and  sermons,  he  published  new  transla- 
tions, with  notes,  of  several  books  on  the  old 
testament.     Died,  1868. 

Nye,  £dgar  Wilson,  American  writer  and  humorist, 
who  wrote  largely  under  the  pseudonym  of 
"Bill  Nye,"  was  bom  at  Shirley,  Me.,  1850.  He 
was  but  two  years  old  when  his  parents  moved 
to  St.  Croix  county,  Wisconsin.  Afterward  he 
removed  to  Wyoming,  where  he  studied  law,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar,  and  elected  to  the  legislature. 
He  also  acted  as  postmaster  and  newspaper 
correspondent.  On  account  of  ill  health  he 
returned  to  the  East  and  settled  in  New  York, 
having  already  achieved  wide  popularity  through 
his  humorous  contributions  to  the  press.  Hia 
first  book,  published  in  Chicago  in  1881,  was 
entitled  Bill  Nye  and  the  Boomerang.  In  connec- 
tion with  James  Whitcomb  Riley  he  made  fre- 
quent tours  of  the  country,  giving  entertainments 
consisting  of  lectures  and  readings.  In  1891  he 
wrote  a  play  called  The  Cadi,  which  appeared  at 
Union  Square  theater,  New  York.     Died,  1896. 

Oberlln  (o'-65r-/ln),  Jean  Fr«d*rlc  German  clergy- 
man and  philanthropist,  was  bom  in  Strassburg, 
1740.  He  was  educated  at  Strassburg  univer- 
sity, studied  theology,  became  a  German  Luth- 
eran clergyman,  and  was  celebrated  for  his 
philanthropy,  and  for  his  services  to  the  popula- 
tion of  Ban-de-la-Roche,  among  whom  he  labored 
for  fifty-nine  years.  He  made  roads,  improved 
the  system  of  agriculture,  promoted  education. 


900 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


and  introduced  infant  schools,  of  which  institu- 
tion he  was  the  founder.  At  the  time  of  the 
French  revolution,  Ban-de-la-Roche  was  not  only 
secured  from  molestation  by  the  reputation  of 
the  people  and  their  pastor,  but  Oberlin  was 
even  able  to  afford  an  asylum  to  several  pro- 
scribed persons.  His  name  was  celebrated 
throughout  Europe,  and  Louis  XVIII.  presented 
him  with  the  decoration  of  the  legion  of  honor. 
Oberlin  college,  Ohio,  is  named  after  him.  Died 
at  Waldbach,  1826. 

O'Brien,  Morgan  Joseph,  American  lawyer  and 
jurist,  judge  of  the  New  York  supreme  court, 
1887-1901  and  1901-15;  was  bom  in  New  York, 
1852.  He  was  graduated  at  St.  John's  college, 
New  York;  studied  at  St.  Francis  Xavier,  New 
York,  and  at  the  Columbia  law  school ;  LL.  B., 
Columbia;  A.  M.,  Francis  Xavier;  LL.  D.,  St. 
John's.  He  was  a  trustee  of  the  New  York 
pubUc  schools  and  New  York  public  library  many 
years;  was  corporation  counsel  before  election  to 
the  supreme  bench;  trustee  of  Equitable  life 
assurance  society  of  the  United  States  since  1905. 

O'Brien,  Thomas  J.,  American  lawyer  and  diplo- 
mat, was  born  at  Jackson,  Mich.,  1842.  He  was 
graduated  from  the  law  department,  university 
of  Michigan,  1865,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
1864.  He  was  assistant  general  counsel  of  the 
Grand  Rapids  and  Indiana  railway,  1871-83, 
general  counsel,  1883-1905;  candidate  for  judge 
of  the  supreme  court  of  Michigan,  1883;  E.  E. 
and  M.  P.  to  Denmark,  1905-07;  American 
ambassador  to  Japan,  1907-11,  to  Italy  since  1911. 

Occam  {dk'-am),  or  Ockham,  William  of,  English 
scholastic,  was  born  at  Ockham  in  Surrey, 
between  1270  and  1280.  He  entered  the  Fran- 
ciscan order,  studied  at  Oxford  and  Paris,  and 
headed  the  Franciscans'  revolt  against  Pope 
John  XXII. 's  denunciation  of  evangelical  pov- 
erty. After  four  months'  imprisonment  at 
Avignon  he  fled  to  Munich,  and  found  there  a 
defender  in  Emperor  Louis  of  Bavaria,  whom  he 
in  his  turn  defended  stoutly  against  the  temporal 
pretensions  of  the  pope.  In  1342  he  seems  to 
have  become  general  of  the  Franciscans.  Besides 
insisting  on  the  independent  divine  right  of 
temporal  rulers,  Occam  won  fame  as  the  reviver 
of  nominalism,  for  which  he  won  a  final  victory 
over  the  rival  realism.  He  seems  to  have  died 
at  Munich  in  1349.  His  views  on  civil  govern- 
ment are  expounded  in  his  Dialogues;  his  philo- 
sophical views  in  Summa  Logices,  in  his  com- 
mentaries on  Porphyry  and  Aristotle,  and  the 
commentary  on  the  SenterUiae  of  Peter  the  Lom- 
bard ;  and  his  theological  views  in  this  last  and 
the  Tractatus  de  Sacramento  Altaris. 

Ochs  {6ks),  Adolph  S^  newspaper  publisher,  was 
bom  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1858.  He  received  a 
common  school  education  at  Knoxville,  Tenn.; 
was  a  carrier  and  newsboy  at  Knoxville,  1869-70; 
clerk  in  grocery  store.  Providence,  where  he 
attended  night  school,  1871;  druggist  appren- 
tice, Knoxville,  1872;  printer,  1873;  pubusher 
of  the  Chattanooga  Times,  1878,  of  which  he  is 
still  proprietor;  established  The  Tradesman, 
1879,  of  which  he  is  still  principal  owner.  He 
became  publisher  and  principal  owner  of  the 
New    York   Tim^s,    1896;      publisher    and    pro- 

Erietor  of  the  Philadelphia  Times,  1901;  pub- 
sher  and  principal  owner  Philadelphia  Public 
Ledger,  1902,  which  he  sold,  1912. 
Ochs,  George  Washington,  journalist,  was  bom  at 
Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1861.  He  was  educated  at  the 
university  of  Tennessee,  Knoxville;  was  twice 
mayor  of  Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  refusing  nominai- 
tion  for  third  term;  president  of  board  of  educa- 
tion of  Chattanooga,  1897-1900;  president  of 
Chattanooga  chamber  of  commerce,  1899-1900; 

fublisher  of  Paris   edition   New  York  Times  at 
aris    exposition,     1900,    and    was    decorated 


chevalier  of  l^on  of  honor  by  French  government 
in  recognition  of  service.  Became  general  man- 
ager of  Philadelphia  Times,  1901 ;  m  1902  the 
Public  Ledger  and  the  Philadelphia  Times  con- 
solidated under  the  name  of  Public  Ledger,  and 
he  became  its  publisher  and  general  manager. 

O'Connell,  Daniel,  Irish  orator  and  "Uberator," 
was  born  in  County  Kerry,  Ireland,  1775.  He 
studied  at  the  college  of  Douai,  France,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  Irish  bar  in  1798.  His  large 
practice,  worth,  he  said,  $35,000  a  year,  was 
sacrificed  for  his  country,  when  he  took  a  leading 
part  in  Irish  politics.  He  was  head  of  the 
Catholic  party  and  contended  for  the  admission 
of  CathoUcs  to  parliament,  and  himself  entered 
parliament  in  1829.  He  believed  that  Ireland 
would  never  have  her  rights  until  the  act  of 
union  with  Great  Britain  should  be  repealed; 
but  in  all  his  efforts  to  accomplish  it,  and  to 
arouse  the  Irish  nation,  he  was  careful  not  to 
use  force,  or  allow  anything  criminal.  One  of 
the  greatest  of  orators,  his  remarkable  speeches 
in  parliament,  one  of  which  lasted  for  seven 
hours,  were  equaled  only  by  his  popular  addresses 
throughout  Ireland.  In  1840  he  founded  his 
famous  repeal  a^vsociation,  the  members  of  which 
paid  from  fifty  dollars  to  twenty-five  cents  nnnusl 
fees,  and  which  in  1843  had  an  income  of  over 
$200,000.  In  1844  he,  with  his  son  and  five 
others,  was  tried  for  sedition  and  sentenced  to 
imprisonment  for  one  year,  and  a  fine  of  $10,000, 
and,  though  the  house  of  lords  soon  set  aside  the 
verdict,  the  fourteen  weeks  he  was  in  prison 
brought  on  the  ailment  of  which  he  died.  Worn 
out  with  the  struggle,  he  left  Ireland  for  Rome, 
but  only  reached  ^enoa,  where  he  died  in  1847. 

O'Connell,  Dennis  J.,  American  educator,  was  bom 
at  Charleston,  8.  C.  He  was  educated  at  St. 
Charles's  seminary  and  St.  Mary's  college,  Charles- 
ton; S.  T.  D.,  Propaganda,  Rome,  1877.  He 
was  for  some  time  secretary  to  Cardinal  Gibbons; 
was  head  of  the  American  college  in  Rome 
several  years,  and  rector  of  the  Catholic  univer- 
sity of  America,  1903-09.  Consecrated  auxiliary 
bishop  of  San  Francisco,  1909.  He  is  a  well- 
known  student  of  Dante^  and  president  of  the 
Catholic  educational  association. 

O'Connor,  Thomas  Power,  journalist  and  parlia- 
mentary leader,  popularly  Known  as  "Tay  Pay," 
was  bom  at  Athlone,  Ireland,  1848.  He  was 
educated  at  the  college  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception, Athlone,  and  graduated  at  Queen's  col- 
lege, Galway,  1866.  He  took  up  journalism  in 
Dublin  the  next  year,  and  went  to  London  three 
years  later,  where  he  was  appointed  a  sub-editor 
on  the  Daily  Telegraph.  He  was  afterward 
employed  in  the  London  office  of  the  New  York 
Herald,  and  entered  parUament  as  member  for 
Galway,  1880.  He  was  returned  for  both  Galway 
and  Liverpool,  1885;  chose  the  latter,  and  was 
again  returned  in  1886,  1892,  1895,  1900.  He 
founded  and  was  first  editor  of  the  Star,  the  Sun, 
the  Weekly  Sun  and  T.  P.'s  Weekly.  Author: 
Lord  Beaconsfidd,  a  Biography;  The  PameU 
Movement;  Gladstone's  House  of  Commons;  Som^ 
Old  Love  Stories;  Napoleon;  The  Phantom  Mil- 
lions;  and  a  large  number  of  articles  and  essaj's. 

O'Conor,  Charles,  American  lawyer,  was  bom  in 
New  York  city,  1804.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  New  York,  and  soon 
gained  high  rank  in  the  profession.  He  was 
counsel  in  many  imj)ortant  cases;  was  prose- 
cuting lawyer  in  the  "Tweed  ring"  cases;  in 
1872  was  nominated  in  the  face  of  his  absolute 
refusal  for  the  presidency  by  labor  reform  party, 
and  by  a  convention  of  democrats  dissatisfied 
with  nomination  of  Horace  Greeley.  Died  at 
Nantucket,  Mass.,  1884. 

Octavla  (dfc-td'-rl-d),  sister  of  the  Roman  emperor 
Augustus,  and  wife  of  Mark  Antony,  was  bom 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


901 


about  70  B.  C,  Her  first  husband  was  C.  Mar- 
oellus,  to  whom  she  was  married,  50  B.  C.  He 
died  in  41  B.  C,  shortly  after  which  she  consented 
to  marry  Antony,  to  make  secure  the  reconcilia- 
tion between  him  and  her  brother.  In  a  few 
years  Antony  became  tired  of  his  gentle  and 
virtuous  wife,  and  forsook  her  for  Cleopatra. 
In  35  B.  C.  Octavia  made  an  effort  to  rescue 
him  from  a  degradation  that  was  indifferent  even 
to  the  honor  of  the  Roman  arms,  and  sailed 
from  Italy  with  reenforcements ;  but  a  message 
reached  her  at  Athens  ordering  her  to  return 
home.  In  32  B.  C.  war,  long  inevitable,  broke 
out  between  Antony  and  Octavian,  and  the 
former  crowned  his  insults  by  sending  Octavia  a 
bill  of  divorcement.  But  no  injury  was  too 
great  to  be  forgiven  by  this  "patient  Grizzel" 
of  the  ancient  world,  and  after  her  husband's 
death  she  brought  up  with  maternal  care  not 
only  her  own  children,  but  Cleopatra's  also. 
Her  death  took  place  11  B.  C, 

Odell,  Benjamin  Barker,  Jr^  American  politician, 
ex-governor  of  New  York,  was  bom  at  Newburgh, 
N.  Y.,  1854.  He  was  educated  in  the  pubUc 
schools  of  Newburgh ,  at  Bethany  college,  W.  Va., 
1873,  and  at  Columbia  university,  1873-75.  He 
subsequently  engaged  in  banking,  electric  light- 
ing and  commercial  enterprises  at  Newburgh 
with  his  father;  was  a  member  of  the  republican 
state  committee,  1884-96;  chairman  of  the 
republican  state  executive  committee,  1898- 
1900;  member  of  congress,  17th  New  York  dis- 
trict, 1895-99,  and  declined  renomination.  He 
was  governor  of  New  York,  1901-05. 

Odoacer  (o'-do-a'-ser),  king  of  the  Germanic  tribe 
of  the  Heruli,  ruler  of  Italy  from  476  to  493, 
was  the  son  of  ^dico,  a  secretary  of  Attila,  and 
one  of  his  ambassadors  to  the  court  of  Constan- 
tinople. He  entered  the  military  service  of  the 
western  Roman  empire,  rapidly  rose  to  eminence, 
and  took  part  in  the  revolution  by  which  Orestes, 
in  475,  drove  the  emperor  Julius  Nepos  from  the 
throne,  and  showed  himself  to  be  a  wise  and 
politic  ruler,  quite  unlike  our  general  notion  of 
a  barbarian.  He  fixed  his  residence  at  Ravenna, 
reestablished  the  consulate,  which  was  held  by 
eleven  of  the  most  illustrious  senators  in  succes- 
sion, maintained  peace  throughout  the  peninsula, 
overawed  the  Gauls  and  Germans,  and  recon- 
quered Dalmatia  and  Noricum.  The  valor, 
wisdom,  and  success  of  Odoacer  appear  to  have 
excited  the  jealousy  and  alarm  of  Zeno,  who 
encouraged  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths, 
to  undertake  an  expedition  against  Italy.  The 
first  battle  was  fought  on  the  banks  of  the 
Isontius,  489.  Another  great  battle  took  place 
on  the  banks  of  the  Adda,  when  Odoacer  was 
completely  vanquished.  He  shut  himself  up  in 
Ravenna,  where  Theodoric  besieged  him  for 
three  years,  then  capitulated,  on  condition  that 
the  kingdom  of  Italy  should  be  shared  between 
him  and  Theodoric.  This  agreement  was  sol- 
emnly sworn  to,  493 ;  but  on  March  5th  Odoacer 
was  assassinated  at  a  feast,  either  by  Theodoric 
himself  or  by  his  command. 

GBhlenschlager  (A'-lenshl&'-gSr),  Adam  Gottlob, 
Danish  poet  and  dramatist,  was  born  near  Copen- 
hagen, 1779.  In  1803  appeared  his  first  collec- 
tion of  poems,  including  one  longer  dramatic 
piece.  The  Play  of  St.  John's  Eve,  which  attracted 
favorable  notice  for  the  lively  fancy  with  which 
national  habits  and  local  characteristics  were 
portrayed.  His  Poetical  Writings,  published  in 
1805,  and  his  Aladdin  or  the  Wonderful  Lamp 
completed  his  success  and  raised  him  to  the  rank 
of  the  first  of  living  Danish  poets.  He  subse- 
quently traveled  and  lived  in  Germany,  France, 
and  Italy,  during  which  time  he  commenced  a 
famous  series  of  tragedies  on  northern  subjects, 
which  include:  Hakon  J  tori,  Correggio,  PalncUok9, 


etc.  Hia  poetical  works  comprise  over  thirty 
volumes.  lie  ranks  among  the  Danes  as  Goetho 
among  the  Germans,  and  his  death  in  1850  was 
felt  by  the  whole  nation. 

Oersted  (llr'-Bf^rn),  Hans  Christian,  Danish  physi- 
cist, was  bom  at  Kudkjobing,  in  the  islana  of 
Langeland,  1777.  He  studied  at  the  university 
of  Copenhagen  and  received  the  degree  of  Ph.  D. 
there  in  1799.  He  then  traveled  in  Holland, 
Germany,  and  France,  and  in  1806  was  appointed 
professor  of  natural  philo.sophy  in  the  university 
of  Copenhagen.  In  1820  he  publishe<l  his  famous 
essay  entitled  Experiments  on  the  Effect  of 
Opposing  Electricity  Upon  the  Magnetic  Needle, 
in  which  he  showed  the  identity  of'^the  forces  of 
magnetism,  electricity,  and  galvanism,  and  thus 
opened  the  way  for  the  wonderful  development 
of  knowledge  m  respect  to  those  forces,  which 
was  one  of  the  chief  scientific  glories  of  the  nin&- 
teenth  century.  Oersted  had  the  special  faculty 
of  rendering  science  popular,  and  he  wrote 
numerous  works  which  had  that  object  in  view. 
His  labors  received  honorable  recognition  from 
most  of  the  scientific  societies  of  Europe;  and  at 
his  death  he  was  honored  with  a  public  funeral. 
Died  at  Copenhagen,  1851, 

Offenbach  (jsf'-en-ba^),  Jacques,  French  composer 
of  comic  operas,  was  bom  in  Cologne,  1819,  of 
German-Jewish  parents.  In  183.5-37  he  studied 
at  the  Paris  conservatory;  in  1847  he  became 
leader  of  the  orchestra  at  the  Th6&tre  Frangaise; 
and  in  1855  opened  the  Bouffes  Parisiens  on  the 
Champs  Elysdes,  and  the  same  year  transferred 
his  company  to  the  Th6dtre  de  Comte,  in  the 
passage  Choiseul.  For  eight  years  he  was  its 
manager,  and  during  that  period  supplied  it  with 
almost  all  its  attractions,  chief  of  which  were: 
Les  Deux  Aveugles;  Une  Nuit  Blanche;  Ba-ta- 
Clan;  Le  Violoneux;  Tromb-al-cazar;  La  Rose 
de  St.  Fleur;  Le  Marriage  aux  Lantcmcs;  Croque- 
fer;  Lea  Petite  Prodiges,  etc.  His  OrphSe  aux 
Enfers,  Barbe  Bleu,  La  Grande  Duchcsse,  La 
Perichole,  Genevieve  de  Brabant,  and  Les  Brigands 
mark  a  new  era  in  his  compositions,  in  which  he 
discarded  the  one-act  comedietta  and  turned  to 
downright  opera  bouffe.  He  was  installed  man- 
ager of  the  Gait6  theater  in  1873,  and  sank  some 
millions  of  francs  in  the  experiment.  He  after- 
ward visited  the  United  States.  Died  at  Paris, 
1880. 

Ogden,  Robert  Curtis,  retail  merchant  and  philan- 
thropist, was  bom  at  Philadelphia,  Pa,  1836 
He  was  educated  in  select  schools  at  Philadel- 
phia; M.  A.,  Yale,  1902;  LL.  D.,  Tulane  univer- 
sity, 1903.  He  was  a  member  of  the  firm  of 
John  Wanamaker,  1885-1907,  and  retired  in  the 
latter  year.  He  was  president  of  the  board  of 
trustees  of  Hampton  institute,  Hampton,  Va. ; 
director  of  Union  theological  seminary,  New 
York:  trustee  of  Tuskegee  institute,  Alabama; 
president  of  Southern  education  board,  confer- 
ence for  education  in  the  South,  and  trustee  of 
general  education  board.  Author:  Samuel  Chap- 
man Armstrong,  'FonnApT's  day  address,  Hamp- 
ton, Va. ;  Pew  Rents  and  the  New  Testament,  Can 
Thai  he  ReconciledT  Sunday  School  Teaching. 
He  clied  in  1909. 

Oglethorpe  (o'-g'l-thdrp),  James  Edward,  English 
general  and  founder  of  Georgia,  was  born  at 
London,  1696.  He  served  in  the  British  army, 
and  was  thirty  years  in  parliament.  He  plannea 
a  colony  in  America,  as  a  refuge  for  debtors,  who 
were  then  imprisoned  in  English  jails,  and  also 
for  p>ersecutea  German  Protestants.  George  II. 
gave  the  land,  which  was  named  Georgia  after 
him,  and  parliament  contributed  $50,000.  He 
took  out  130  persons,  and  founded  the  city  of 
Savannah,  in  1733.  Another  party,  including 
the  two  Wesleys,  went  out  in  1735,  and  in 
1738   Oglethorpe    returned    to   Georgia  with   ft 


902 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


regiment  of  600  men,  in  anticipation  of  a  war 
with  Spain.  He  invaded  Florida,  was  unsuccess- 
ful in  an  attack  on  St.  Augustine,  but  repulsed  a 
Spanish  invasion  of  Georgia.  He  left  the  colony  in 
1743,  and  surrendered  the  charter  to  the  British 
government  in  1752.  Died  in  England,  1785. 
Ohm  (dm),  Georg  Simon,  German  physicist,  was 
bom  at  Erlangen,  Bavaria,  1787.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  university  of  Erlangen,  held  the 
chair  of  physics  at  Cologne  from  1817  to  1826, 
was  director  of  the  Nuremberg  polytechnic  school, 
1833-49,  and  became  in  the  latter  year  professor 
at  Munich.  "Ohm's  law"  was  a  result  of  his 
researches  in  electricity,  and  the  measure  of 
resistance,  called  the  ohm,  was  so  named  in  honor 
of  his  achievements  by  the  Paris  congress  of 
physicists  in  1881.  He  died  at  Munich,  1854. 
Ohnet  (o'-n^')»  Georges,  French  novelist  of  great 
popularity,  was  born  in  Paris,  1848.  He  was 
educated  at  Sainte  Barbe,  and  at  the  Lyc6e  Bona- 
parte. Under  the  general  title  of  Lea  BataUiea 
de  la  Vie  he  published  a  series  of  novels,  some  of 
which  have  reached  a  hundredth  edition.  Chief 
of  these  are :  Serge  Panine;  Le  Maitre  de  Forges; 
La  ConUesse  Sarah;  Lise  Fleuron;  La  grande 
MarniSre;  Dette  de  Haine;  Dernier  Atnour; 
Nemrod  et  Cie;  La  Dame  en  Gris;  Le  Cw6  de 
Faviirea;  Roi  de  Paris;  La  Marche  it  I'Amaur; 
La  Dixi^me  Muse,  etc.  He  also  wrote  the  plaj's : 
Regina  Sarpi;  Marthe;  Le  Colonel  Roquebrune; 
Les  Rouges  et  les  Blancs;  and  has  dramatized 
several  of  his  novels  with  great  success.  He  was 
elected  in  1902  pr6sident  de  la  soci6t6  des  auteurs 
dramatiques. 
Oken  (d'-fcen),  Lorenz,  German  naturalist,  was  bom 
at  Bohlsbach,  Swabia,  1779.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Jena  in  1807,  and  in  1816 
issued  a  journal  called  Isis,  which  led  to  govern- 
ment interference  and  his  resignation.  In  1828 
he  obtained  a  professorship  at  Munich,  and  in 
1832  at  Zurich.  His  system  was  a  transcendental 
nature-philosophy,  fertile  in  ideas.  He  developed 
the  theory,  now  exploded,  that  the  skull  is  a 
modified  vertebra.  Died  at  Zurich,  1851. 
Oku  {o'-kdb).  General  Hokyo,  Count,  Japanese 
soldier,  a  Samurai  of  Ko-Kura,  was  bom  in  1845. 
He  entered  the  army  in  1871 ;  was  major  in  the 
imperial  forces  during  the  Satsuma  rebellion  of 
1877,  being  besieged  in  Kumamoto  castle  for 
four  months.  He  commanded  the  5th  division 
during  the  China-Japan  war,  1895,  and  was 
rewarded  with  the  title  of  baron  for  distinguished 
service.  He  was  commander  of  the  second  army 
during  the  Russo-Japanese  war,  1904-05,  which 
landed  on  the  east  coast  of  the  Liao-tung  penin- 
sula in  May,  1904,  won  the  brilliant  victory  at 
Kinchau,  and  did  splendid  service  in  the  subse- 
quent fighting  in  Manchuria.  He  was  chief 
of  general  staff,  1906-12;  made  count,  1906. 
Okimia  (o'-fcoo-wid),  Coimt  Shigenobu,  Japanese 
statesman,  was  born  at  Saga,  Hizen,  1838.  He 
was  a  retainer  of  Lord  Nabeshima;  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  new  government;  finance 
minister,  1869-81;  foreign  minister,  1888-89- 
minister  of  agriculture  and  commerce,  1896-97- 
prime  minister  and  foreign  minister,  1898- 
founder  and  ex-leader  of  the  progressive  party 
founder  and  president  of  the  Waseda  universitv 
lokyo,  and  founder  of  the  Japanese  Women's 
umversity. 

*^'SQi^'''Tv®*?''*'  '^'^S  of  Norway,  was  bom  in 
ay&,  and  having  made  his  name  a  terror  on  the 
^^^MK  ■  Normandy  and  England,  succeeded, 
in  1015,  in  securing  the  throne  of  Norway.     The 

nZniL""!-^  ^}'S\>^  «°"eh*  *o  exte^inate 
?Sp  of  n^""**^*?  his  subjects,  who  adhered  to 
law  T«roil  ''"TS"^-  .  ^^^f  fl^d  *o  1^'S  brother-in- 
i^Ti.  l^'*^.*'^  Russia,  who  gave  him  4,000  men 
fi^iklJt^""'  1°  1^??,'  he  gave  Canute 'battS^t 
Btiklestad,  where  Olaf  was  defeated  and  slain. 


His  body,  laid  in  the  cathedral  of  Trondhjem. 
was  said,  to  have  wrought  many  miracles,  and 
Olaf  was  proclaimed  patron  saint  of  Norway. 

Olcott,  Chauncey,  otherwise  Chancellor  John 
Olcott,  singer  and  actor,  was  born  in  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.,  1860.  He  was  educated  in  the  Buffalo 
public  schools;  was  brought  out  as  singer  by 
R.  M.  Hooley,  1880.  He  was  with  Hooley's 
company  for  two  years,  then  consecutively  with 
Haverly's  company,  Carncross  minstrels,  Denman 
Thompson,  Duff's  opera  coinpany  for  several 
seasons;  sang  two  years  in  England  in  comic 
opera,  then  succeeded  W.  J.  Scaulan  as  star  in 
Irish  musical  dramas.  He  has  since  appeared 
in  various  leading  rdles  in  the  United  States  and 
England. 

Oliphant,  Laurence,  English  traveler,  diplomat,  and 
writer,  was  bom  at  Cape  Town  in  1829.  He  was 
called  to  the  Scottish  bar ;  later  to  the  English  bar. 
He  became  private  secretary  to  the  earl  of  Elgin, 
then  governor-general  of  Canada,  whom  later  he 
accompanied  to  China,  thus  finding  material  for 
his  books  Minnesota  and  the  Far  Wext,  and 
The  Earl  of  Elgin's  Mission  to  China  and  Japan. 
lu  1861,  while  acting  as  chargi  d'affaires  in  Japan, 
he  was  severely  wounded  by  assassins,  and  i^rom 
1865  to  1868  he  represented  Stirling  in  parliament. 
He  published  Piccadilly  in  1870;  joined  the  relig- 
ious community  of  T.  L.  Harris  in  the  United 
States,  and  finally  settled  at  Haifa  in  Palestine. 
He  dieid  at  Twickenham,  1888.  His  later  mystical 
views  he  published  in  Sympneumata  and  Scien- 
tific Religxon,  as  well  as  in  his  novel  MasoUam. 
Other  books  were :  The  Transeaxtoasian  Campaign 
under  Omar  Pasha;  Patriots  and  Filibusters; 
The  Land  of  Gilead;  Traits  and  Travesties;  The 
Land  of  Khemi;  Haifa;  and  Episodes  in  a  Life  of 
Adventure. 

Oliphant,  Margaret  (n6e  Wilson),  British  novelist 
and  biographical  writer,  was  born  at  Wallyford, 
Midlothian,  1828.  In  1849  she  published  her 
first  work.  Passages  in  the  Life  of  Sirs.  Margaret 
Maitland  of  Sunnyside,  which  instantly  won 
attention  and  approval.  It  is,  however,  on  the 
Chronicles  of  Carlingford  that  her  reputation  as 
a  novelist  most  securely  rests.-  Besides  many 
other  works,  she  published  a  Life  of  Edward 
Irving;  St.  Francis  of  Assisi;  Memoir  of  the 
Comte  de  Montalembert:  The  Makers  of  Florence; 
Literary  History  of  England;  The  Makers  of 
Venice,  etc.  In  1852  she  married  Francis 
Oliphant.     She  died  in  London,  1897. 

Oliver,  George  Tener,  manufacturer,  newspaper 
publisher.  United  States  senator,  was  bom  in 
County  Tyrone,  Ireland,  1848,  while  his  parents 
were  visiting  in  that  country,  they  at  the  time 
being  residents  of  Allegheny  city.  Pa.  He  was 
graduated  at  Bethany  college.  West  Virginia, 
1868;  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
of  Allegheny  county,  1871.  After  an  active 
practice  of  ten  years  he  retired  in  1881  and 
engaged  in  iron  and  steel  manufacturing,  and 
was  actively  engaged  in  this  business  until  1901, 
when  he  disposed  of  his  interest  in  several  large 
concerns.  He  was  president  of  the  Youngstown 
car  manufacturing  company,  at  Youngstown, 
Ohio,  director  of  several  financial  and  industrial 
corporations  in  Pittsburgh,  and  president  of  the 
Duquesne  club.  In  1900  he  purchased  the 
Pittsburgh  Gazette,  and  acquired  the  controlling 
interest  in  the  Pittsburgh  Chronide-Tdegrnph,  and 
in  1906  merged  the  former  with  the  Pittsburgh 
Times  under  the  name  of  the  Gazette-Times,  of 
which  he  is  the  principal  owner.  He  was  elected 
in  1909  to  the  United  States  senate  to  fill  out  the 
unexpired  term  of  Hon.  P.  C.  Knox,  who  resigned 
to  accept  the  oflBce  of  secretary  of  state  in  Presi- 
dent Taft's  cabinet,  and  was  reelected,  1911. 

Olmsted  (dm'-stM),  Frederick  L.aw,  American 
landscape-gardener,  was  bom  at  Hartford,  Conn., 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


903 


1822.  He  studied  engineering  at  Yale,  became 
interested  in  landscape-gardening,  traveled  on 
foot  through  England  in  1850,  and  in  1856 
through  France,  Italy,  and  Germany,  to  study 
the  parks  and  ornamental  groimds  of  those 
countries  He  published  Walks  and  Talks  of  an 
American  Farmer  in  England;  A  Journey  in  the 
Seaboard  Slave  States;  A  Journey  Through  Texas; 
and  A  Journey  in  the  Back  Country;  after  a  tour 
through  the  South  and  West.  He  is  best  known 
as  the  superintendent,  with  Vaux,  of  the 
laying  out  of  Central  park.  New  York,  and  also 
of  the  grounds  around  the  capitol  at  Washington. 
He  also  designed  parks  and  public  works  at 
Chicago,  Buffalo,  Brooklyn,  Boston,  Milwaukee, 
and  Montreal,  and  acted  as  commissioner  of  the 
national  park  of  the  Yosemite  He  was  ap- 
pointed by  Lincoln  on  the  commission  to  inquire 
into  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  United  States 
army,  serving  on  it  from  1861  to  1864.  Died  at 
Waverly,  Mass.,  1903. 

Olney,  Richard,  American  lawyer  and  statesman, 
was  born  at  Oxford,  Mass.,  1835.  He  was 
graduated  at  Brown,  1856,  and  at  Harvard  law 
school,  1858;  LL.  D.,  Harvard,  1893,  Brown, 
1894,  Yale,  1901.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1859;  practiced  law  at  Boston;  served  in  the 
Massachusetts  legislature,  1874;  was  appointed 
United  States  attorney-general  by  President 
Cleveland,  and  served  from  1893  to  1895,  and 
during  1895-97  as  secretary  of  state.  He  then 
resumed  the  practice  of  law  in  Boston.  He  was 
a  regent  of  the  Smithsonian  institution,  Washing- 
ton, 1900-08;  member  of  American  philosophical 
society,  etc.  While  in  public  office  he  evinced 
great  ability,  and  his  state  papers  are  among  the 
most  vigorous  documents  of  those  offices. 

Oman,  Charles  William  Chadwick,  British  histo- 
rian, Chichele  professor  of  modern  history  at 
Oxford  since  1905,  was  bom  at  Mozufferpore, 
India,  1860.  He  was  graduated  at  Oxford,  has 
been  a  fellow  of  All  Souls  college  since  1883,  and 
is  author  of  the  following  works:  A  History  of 
Greece;  Warvnck  the  King-maker;  Short  History 
of  the  Byzantine  Empire;  A  History  of  Europe; 
A  Short  History  of  England;  A  History  of  the 
Art  of  War  in  the  Middle  Ages;  A  History  of  the 
Peninsular  War,  1807-10;  Seven  Roman  States- 
men; The  Great  Revolt  of  1381,  etc. 

Omar  (o'-mdr),  Abu-Hafsa-lbn-al-Khattab,  second 
caliph  of  the  Moslems,  was  bom  about  581.  His 
early  history  is  little  known,  but  previous  to  his 
conversion  he  was  an  ardent  persecutor  of  Mo- 
hammed and  his  followers.  After  Mohammed's 
death  he  caused  Abu-Bekr  to  be  proclaimed 
caliph,  and  was  himself  appointed  prime  minister. 
Though  of  a  fiery  and  enthusiastic  temperament, 
he  proved  a  sagacious  adviser,  and  it  was  at  his 
suggestion  that  the  caliph  put  down  with  an  iron 
hand  the  many  dissensions  which  had  arisen 
among  the  Arabs  after  the  prophet's  death,  and 
resolved  .to  strengthen  and  consolidate  their 
new-born  national  spirit,  as  well  as  propagate 
the  doctrines  of  Islam,  by  engaging  them  in 
continual  aggressive  wars.  On  the  death  of 
Abu-Bekr,  Omar  succeeded  as  caliph,  and 
pushed  on  the  wars  of  conquest  with  increased 
vigor.  He  was  summoned  to  Jerusalem,  in  637, 
to  receive  the  keys  of  that  city,  and  before  leaving 
gave  orders  to  build  a  mosque,  now  called  by  his 
name,  on  the  site  of  the  temple  of  Solomon.  He 
instituted  the  practice  of  dating  from  the  hegira. 
He  died  in  644. 

Omar  Khayy&m  (o'-mdr  •K.l-yam'),  astronomer-poet 
of  Persia,  was  bom  at  Nishapur  about  1017,  and 
is  said  to  have  died  there  in  1123  or  1124.  Sum- 
moned to  Merv  by  the  sultan,  he  reformed  the 
Moslem  calendar.  Of  his  Arabic  mathematical 
treatises,  one  on  algebra  was  edited  and  trans- 
lated by  Woepke  in  1851 ;  and  it  waa  as  a  mathe- 


matician that  he  was  known  to  the  western 
world,  until  in  1859  Edward  FiteQerald  published 
his  translation  of  one  hundred  of  his  Rubdiydt 
or  quatrains.  Omar  was  the  poet  of  agnosticism, 
though  some  see  nothing  in  iiis  poetry  save  the 
wine  cup  and  roses,  and  others  read  iiito  it  that 
Sufi  mysticism  with  which  it  was  largely  adul- 
terated long  after  Omar's  death.  He  waa  a  true 
poet;  yet  FitzGerald's  translation  is  far  finer 
than  the  original. 

Omer  Pasha  {o'-mJSr  pd-ah&'),  Turkish  general,  was 
born  at  Plaski,  in  Croatia,  a  province  of  Austria, 
1806.  His  real  name  was  Michael  Lattas.  He 
fled,  in  fear  of  punishment,  from  the  Austrian 
army  to  Bosnia.  Here  he  became  a  Mohamme- 
dan, and  was  made  writing-master  to  Abdul 
Med j  id,  then  heir  to  the  Turkish  throne.  When 
Medjid  became  sultan,  he  made  Omer  Pasha 
governor  of  Lebanon.  When  the  Russians 
invaded  the  European  dominions  of  Turkey,  he 
was  sent  with  an  army  of  60,000  men  against 
them,  and  succeasfulljy  withstood  them  at 
Kalafat,  and,  after  their  withdrawal  irom  the 
country,  entered  Bucharest  in  triumph,  August. 
1854.  He  embarked  for  the  Crimea  in  1855,  ana 
defeated  40,000  Russians  at  Eupatoria.  He  was 
sent  to  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  when  in  insur- 
rection, September,  1861,  and,  after  settling  their 
difficulties,  he  attacked  Montenegro,  papturing 
the  city  Cetinj^ ;  and  in  1867  he  led  a  command 
against  the  insurgents  in  Crete.  He  was  gover- 
nor-general of  Bagdad,  and  also  minister  of  war 
at  different  periods.  He  died  at  Constantinople, 
1871. 

Ontario,  Bishop  of.    See  Mills,  William  L«nnox. 

Oppenheim,  Nathan,  American  physician,  medical 
author,  was  born  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  1865.  lie 
was  graduated  at  Harvard,  1888,  and  from  the 
college  of  physicians  and  surgeons.  New  York, 
1891.  He  is  attending  physician,  children's 
department.  New  York  Red  Cross  hospital,  and 
New  York  city  children's  hospital  and  schools, 
and  has  made  a  specialty  in  diseases  of  children. 
Author:  The  Development  of  the  Child;  The 
Medical  Diseases  of  Childhood;  The  Care  of  the 
Child  in  Health;  Mental  Growth  and  Control;  and 
various  scientific  essays. 

Opper,  Frederick  Burr,  American  artist,  was  bom 
at  Madison,  Ohio,  1857.  He  left  school  at  four- 
teen; worked  a  year  or  more  in  the  village  news- 
paper office;  went  to  New  York  and  worked  in 
a  store  for  a  short  time,  and  then,  having  sold 
some  humorous  sketches  to  Wild  Oats  and  other 
comic  papers,  began  drawing  as  a  profession. 
He  was  on  the  art  stafif  of  Frank  Leslie's  three 
years;  an  artist  on  Puck  for  eighteen  years,  and 
severed  his  connection  with  Puck  to  accept  an 
offer  from  Hearst's  New  York  Journal,  1899. 
He  was  illustrator  for  Bill  Nye,  Mark  Twain, 
F.  P.  Dunne,  etc.  Author:  The  Polka  in  Funny- 
ville,  with  his  own  verses  and  pictures;  Our 
Antediluvian  Ancestors;  Happy  Hooligan;  Al- 
phonse  and  Gaston;  John  Bull;  Happy  Hooligan 
Home  Again;  Maud  the  Matchless,   etc. 

Optic,  Oliver,  American  writer  of  books  for  young 
folks,  was  bom  in  Medway,  Mass.,  1822.  His 
real  name  was  William  T.  Adams,  and  he  was 
for  several  years  a  public  school  teacher  in  Boston. 
He  wrote  a  large  number  of  books  which  are 
published  in  several  series,  called  "Army  and 
Navy  Stories."  "Boat  Club  Series,"  "Great 
Western  Series,"  "Lake  Shore  Series,"  "Onward 
and  Upward  Series,"  "Riverdale  Story  Books," 
"Sailor  Boy  Series,"  "Soldier  Boy  Series." 
"Starry  Flag  Series."  "Woodville  Stories," 
"Yacht  Club  Series,  and  "Young  America 
Abroad  Series."  Each  of  these  is  composed  of 
several  books,  making  more  than  one  hundred 
voliHnes  in  all.  Oliver  Optic's  Magazine  for  Boys 
and  Girls  waa   edited   by  him  for  many  years. 


904 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


but  it  was  discontinued  in  1875.  He  died  at 
Boston,  1897. 

Orange,  Prince  of.  See  William  I^  the  SUent; 
William  III.,  Icing  of  England. 

Orcagna  (ar-kan'-yd),  Andrea  dl  Clone,  Italian 
painter,  sculptor,  architect,  and  poet,  was  born 
at  Florence,  about  1316,  his  father  being  a 
sculptor  and  worker  in  silver  and  his  elder 
brother  a  painter.  He  was  appointed  architect  of 
the  church  of  Or  San  Michele  at  Florence,  1355, 
and  his  greatest  work  is  the  marble  tabernacle 
of  this  church,  which  is  considered  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  art  creations  of  Italy.  He  was 
also  chief  architect  of  the  cathedral  at  Orvieto. 
The  frescoes  of  the  "Last  Judgment"  and  "Christ 
and  the  Virgin,"  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  at 
Florence,  still  survive  as  examples  of  his  painting. 
His  work  was  studied  by  succeeding  painters, 
especially  by  Michaelangelo  and  Raphael.  He 
died  about  1376. 

O'Reilly,  John  Boyle,  Irish-American  poet,  was 
born  at  Uowth  Castle,  County  Mcath,  Ireland, 
1844.  He  passed  through  the  various  stages  of 
journalism  from  type-setting  to  the  writing  of 
editorials.  Although  a  Fenian,  he  enlisted  in  the 
Irish  hussars  with  the  intention  of  exciting  a  re- 
volt. Being  discovered,  he  was  tried  for  treason, 
convicted,  and  banished  to  Australia  in  1866. 
Escaping  from  that  country,  he  reached  the 
United  States  in  1869,  and  became  the  editor  of 
the  Boston  Pilot.  Some  of  his  poems  were  of  high 
merit  and  attained  deserved  popularity.  His 
chief  books  were :  Songs  from  the  SovUfiern  Seas; 
Songs,  Legends,  and  Ballads;  The  Statues  in  the 
Block,  etc.     Died  at  Hull,  Ma.ss.,  1890. 

Origen  (dr'-i-]Sn),  Greek  church  father,  was  bom  at 
Alexandria,  about  185.  Much  of  his  life  was 
spent  in  Alexandria,  in  which  city  he  obtained 
great  reputation  as  a  teacher,  but  which  he  was 
compelled,  by  persecution,  to  leave  finally  in 
231.  From  Alexandria  he  retired  to  Caesarea, 
and  afterward  to  Tyre.  In  the  persecution  under 
Decius  in  250,  he  was  cast  into  prison  at  Tyre, 
and  subjected  to  protracted  torture.  His  writ- 
ings are  said  to  have  amounted  to  six  thousand, 
but  by  far  the  greater  number  are  lost.  Of  his 
Hexapla,  which  occupied  him  for  twenty-eight 
years,  only  fragments  remain.  The  same  is  to  be 
said  of  his  numerous  Commentaries.  A  treatise 
on  Prayer,  an  Exhortation  to  Martyrdom,  and  an 
apologetic  pamphlet  Against  Celsus  are  the  most 
important  of  his  works  which  are  left  to  us.  As 
to  the  learning  of  Origen  and  his  ability  as  a 
teacher,  we  possess  the  most  ample  testimony; 
but  some  of  his  opinions  were,  after  his  death 
and  for  long  afterward,  the  subject  of  violent 
controversy  in  the  church.     He  died  at  Tyre,  254. 

Osier  (ds'-Ur),  William,  Canadian  physician,  edu- 
cator, and  author,  was  bom  at  Tecumseh, 
Ontario,  1849.  He  was  graduated  at  McGill 
university,  Montreal,  1872;  LL.  D.,  McGill, 
Toronto,  university  of  Edinburgh,  university  of 
Aberdeen,  Harvard,  Yale,  Johns  Hopkins;  D.  Sc, 
Oxford,  D.  C.  L.,  Trinity  university,  Toronto. 
He  was  professor  of  the  institutes  of  medicine, 
McGill  university,  1874-84;  professor  of  clinical 
medicine,  university  of  Pennsylvania,  1884-89, 
and  at  Johns  Hopkins  university,  1889-1905; 
has  been  regius  professor  of  medicine,  Oxford 
university,  since  1905.  Author:  The  Cerebral 
Palsies  of  Children;  Chorea  and  Choreiform 
Affections;  Lectures  on  Abdominal  Tumors; 
Angina  Pectoris  and  Allied  States;  The  Principles 
and  Practice  of  Medicine;  Cancer  of  the  Stomach; 
Science  and  Immortality,  IngersoU  lecture.  Har- 
vard university;  ^quanimitas,  and  Other  Ad- 
dresses; Counsels  and  Ideals,  etc.  He  is  also 
the  editor  of  System  of  Medicine. 

Osman  I.  (os'-man)  or  Othman  (oth'-miin),  sur- 
named     the  conqueror,"  was  bom  in  Bithynia, 


1259.  When  the  Mongols  overthrew  the  sultan- 
ate of  Iconium,  1299,  he  seized  a  portion  of 
Bithynia.  Then  forcing  the  passes  of  Olympus, 
he  took  possession  of  the  territory  of  Nicsea,  ana 
gradually  subdued  a  large  part  of  Asia  Minor, 
and  thus  became  the  founder  of  the  present 
empire  of  Turkey,  called  from  him  the  Ottoman 
empire.  From  his  name  the  terms  Ottoman  and 
Osmanli  are  derived.     He  died  in  1326. 

Ossian  (5sti'-an),  Celtic  bard,  supposed  to  have 
lived  in  Scotland  or  Ireland  about  tifteen  hundred 
years  ago.  He  waa  the  son  of  Fingal,  king  of 
Morven,  a  famous  hero,  and  was  blind.  His 
poems  are  remarkable  for  their  grandeur  and 
wild  beauty,  and  are  very  different  from  all 
other  poetry.  They  have  been  published  in 
nearly  all  European  languages. 

Ossoil  (da'-6-le).  Marchioness.  See  Fuller,  Sarah 
Margaret. 

Otho  I.,  the  Great,  einperor  of  the  West,  son  of 
the  emperor  Henry  I.,  of  Germany,  waa  born  in 
912.  In  936  he  was  formally  crowned  king  of 
the  Germans  and  in  962  holy  Roman  emperor. 
His  reign  was  one  succession  of  eventful  and 
generally  triumphant  wars,  in  the  course  of 
which  he  brought  many  turbulent  tribes  under 
subjection,  acquired  and  maintained  almost  su- 
preme power  in  Italy,  where  he  imposed  laws  with 
equal  success  on  the  kings  of  Lombardy  and  the 
pwpes  at  Rome;  consolidated  the  disjointed  power 
of  the  German  emperors,  and  established  Chris- 
tianity at  many  different  points  in  the  Scandi- 
navian and  Slavonic  lands  which  lay  beyond 
the  circuit  of  his  own  jurisdiction.     Died,  973. 

Otis,  Jamt^s,  American  patriot  and  orator,  was  bom 
at  West  liamstable,  Mass.,  1725,  and  became  a 
leader  of  the  Boston  bar.  He  was  advocate- 
general  in  1760,  when  the  revenue  officers  de- 
manded his  assistance  in  obtaining  from  the 
superior  court  general  search-warrants  allowing 
them  to  enter  any  man's  house  in  quest  oT 
smuggled  goods.  Otis  refused,  resigned,  and 
appeared  in  defense  of  popular  rights.  In  1761, 
elected  to  the  Massachusetts  assembly,  he  was 
prominent  in  resistance  to  the  revenue  acts.  In 
1769  he  was  savagely  beaten  by  revenue  officers 
and  others,  and  l<Mt  his  reason.  In  1783  he  was 
killed  by  lightning.  His  fame  chiefly  rests  on 
The  Rights  of  the  British  Colonies  Asserted  and 
Proved,  published  by  him  in  1764. 

Ottawa,  Bishop  of.     See  Hamilton,  Charies. 

Otter,  William  Dillon,  Canadian  general,  chief  of  the 
general  staff,  Canada,  1908-10;  was  born  in  1843. 
He  was  educated  at  Upper  Canada  college, 
Toronto;  served  for  twenty-two  years  in  active 
militia ;  since  18S3  in  the  i>ermanent  militia,  and 
saw  active  service  during  Fenian  raids  of  1866 
and  1870,  Northwest  rebellion  of  1885,  and  dur- 
ing the  Boer  war  of  1899-1900.  During  the  latter 
he  was  in  command  of  the  first  contingent  from 
Canada.  He  was  adjutant  and  commandant, 
Canadian  teams  of  1873  and  1883,  to  Wimbledon; 
command  of  royal  school  of  infantry,  1883-99; 
command  of  M.  D.  No.  2,  1886-1905,  and  of 
western  Ontario,  1905-08.  He  is  the  author  of 
T?ie  Guide,  a  Manual  of  Interior  Economy,  etc., 
for  Canadian  Infantry. 

Oudlnot  ((XZ-de'-nd'),  Charles  Nicolas,  duke  of 
Reggio,  French  marshal,  was  bom  at  Bar-le-Duc, 
1767.  He  served  in  the  revolutionary'  wars,  and 
in  1805  obtained  the  grand  cross  of  the  legion  of 
honor  and  the  command  of  ten  reserve  battaUons, 
the  "grenadiers  Oudinot."  He  fought  at  Auster- 
litz  and  Jena,  gained  the  battle  of  Ostrolenka  in 
1807,  and  helped  at  Friedland.  Conspicuous  in 
the  Austrian  campaign  of  1809,  he  was  created 
marshal  of  France  and  duke  of  Reggio.  In  1810 
he  was  charged  with  the  occupation  of  Holland; 
he  took  part  in  the  Russian  campaign  and  in 
the  battles  of  1813  with  Russians  and  Austrians. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


906 


He  was  one  of  the  last  to  abandon  Napoleon. 
At  the  second  restoration  he  became  a  minister 
of  state,  commander-in-chief  of  the  royal  and 
national  guards,  and  a  peer  of  France.  In  1823 
he  commanded  in  Spam;  became  grand  chan- 
cellor of  the  legion  of  honor  in  1839,  and  suc- 
ceeded Marshal  Moncey  as  governor  of  the 
Invalides,  1842.     He  died  at  Paris,  1847. 

Oulda  (ive'-da).     See  De  la  Ram£c,  Louise. 

Overbeck,  Johann  Friedrlch,  German  painter,  was 
born  at  Liibeck,  1789.  He  studied  art  at  Vienna, 
1806-10,  and  settled  in  Rome,  "where  he  allied 
himself  with  the  like-minded  Cornelius,  Schadow. 
Schnorr,  and  Veit,  who,  from  the  stress  thej'  laia 
on  religion  and  moral  significance,  were  scoffed 
at  as  church-romanticists,  pre-Raphaelites,  etc. 
A  madonna,  in  1811,  brought  Overbeck  into 
notice;  and  Bartholdy,  the  Prussian  consul, 
employed  him  to  adorn  his  house  with  scripture 
subjects.  He  next  painted  in  fresco,  in  the  villa 
of  the  Marchese  Massimo,  five  compositions  from 
Tasso's  Jerusalem,  Delivered.  His  oil-pictures 
are  inferior  to  his  frescoes.  Among  his  famous 
pictures  are  a  fresco  at  Assisi,  "The  Vision  of  St. 
Francis";  "Christ's  Entry  into  Jerusalem"; 
"Christ's  Agony  in  the  Garden";  "Lo  Sposa- 
lizio";  "The  Triumph  of  Religion  in  the  Arts"; 
and  "Incredulity  of  St.  Thomas."  He  died  in 
1869. 

Ovennan,  Lee  Slater,  lawyer.  United  States  senator, 
was  born  in  Salisbury,  N.  C,  1854.  He  was 
graduated  at  Trinity  college,  N.  C,  1874;  taught 
school,  1875-76;  was  private  secretary  to 
Governor  Vance,  1877-78,  to  Governor  Jarvis, 
1879;  admitted  to  the  bar,  1878;  member  of 
North  Carolina  legislature,  1883,  1885,  1887,  1893, 
1899,  and  speaker,  1893.  He  was  president 
of  the  North  Carolina  railroad,  1894;  was 
president  of  the  Salisbury  savings  bank,  and 
trustee  of  the  state  university.  He  was  elected 
United  States  senator,  1903,  and  reelected  for 
the  term  1909-15. 

Ovid  idtZ-ld),  or  Publius  Ovldlus  Naso,  Roman 
poet  and  writer,  was  born  at  Sulmo,  Italv,  43 
B.  C.  He  belonged  to  a  noble  family,  and  was 
brought  up  to  the  law;  but  his  love  for  poetry 
and  his  natural  indolence  led  him  to  desert  the 
practice  of  the  law,  though  he  occupied  one  or 
two  judicial  positions.  He  died  in  banishment 
at  Tomi,  18  A.  D.  Besides  the  Metamorphoses, 
consisting  of  all  the  transformations  recorded  in 
legend  from  the  creation  of  the  world  to  the  time 
of  Julius  Caesar,  he  was  the  author  of  a  poem 
called  Ars  Amatoria,  or  the  "Art  of  Love"; 
Fasti,  a  sort  of  poetical  Roman  calendar;  Tristia 
and  Epistolae  ex  Ponto,  elegies  written  during  his 
banishment,  and  other  works.  His  poetical 
genius  has  always  been  admired.  A  masterly 
facility  of  composition,  a  fancy  vigorous  and 
rarely  at  fault,  a  fine  eye  for  color,  and  a  versifica- 
tion very  musical  in  its  flow  are  the  merits  which 
have  made  him  a  favorite  of  poets  from  Milton 
downward,  in  spite  of  his  occasional  slovenliness 
and  falsity  of  thought. 

Owen,  Sir  Richard,  British  naturalist,  was  bom  at 
Lancaster,  England,  1804.  He  studied  medicine 
at  Edinburgh  arid  London,  but  soon  began  his 
work  in  zoology  and  comparative  anatomy,  by 
preparing  catalogues  of  the  collections  in  the 
museum  of  the  royal  college  of  surgeons,  and 
lecturing  on  comparative  anatomy.  In  1856 
he  became  superintendent  of  the  natural  history 
department  of  the  British  museum,  a  position 
favorable  for  his  studies  on  living  and  fossil 
animals.  He  visited  Paris  and  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Cuvier,  with  whose  name  his  will 
always  be  connected  in  the  science  of  zoology. 
Owen's  researches  in  zoology  number  nearly  400; 
they  are  largely  devoted  to  structure,  and  em- 
brace every  class  of    animals  from  a  sponge  to 


man.  He  produced  monographs  on  the  pearly 
nautilus,  tne  Venus  flower-basket,  king  crab, 
the  mud-fish,  anthropoid  apes,  and  manv  extinct 
birds  and  reptiles.  Amons  his  voluminoua 
writings  are:  Comparative  Anatomy  of  Inver- 
tebrates; Comparative  Anatomy  and  Physiology 
of  Vertebrates;  The  Skeleton  and  the  Teeth; 
History  of  British  Fossils;  Reptiles,  Birds,  Mam- 
mals.    Died,  1892. 

Owen,  Robert,  English  social  reformer,  was  bom  in 
Wales.  1771.  In  1799  he  married  the  daughter 
of  David  Dale,  from  whom,  with  others,  he  bought 
the  village  and  cotton  mills  of  New  Lanark, 
Scotland.  Here  he  introduced  a  sj'Stem  of 
reform  which  proved  for  a  time  highly  successful. 
In  1812  he  published  A  New  View  of  Society,  and 
subsequently  a  Book  of  the  New  Moral  World,  and 
various  other  works,  in  which  he  maintained  a 
theory  of  modified  communism.  He  came  to 
the  United  States  in  1824,  and  tried  to  found  a 
conununist  society  at  New  Harmony,  Ind. ;  but 
the  scheme  failed,  and  in  1827  he  returned  to 
Great  Britain,  where  experiments  of  a  similar 
nature,  attended  by  a  similar  result,  were  made  at 
Orbiston  in  Lanarkshire,  and  at  Tytherley  in 
Hampshire.  In  1828  he  went  to  Mexico  on  the 
invitation  of  the  government  to  carry  out  his 
experiment  there,  but  effected  nothing.  He 
revisited  America  several  times.  His  ideas  are 
clearly  developed  in  his  Lectures  on  a  New  State 
of  Society;  Essays  on  the  Formation  of  Human 
Character;  Outline  of  the  Rational  System;  and 
especially  in  his  Book  of  the  New  Moral  World, 
in  which  he  came  forward  as  the  founder  of  a 
system  of  religion  and  society  according  to 
reason.  He  finally  became  a  spiritualist.  Died, 
1858. 

Owen,  Robert  Latham,  lawyer,  United  States 
senator,  was  born  at  Lynchburg,  Va.,  1856.  He 
was  graduated  at  Washmgton  and  Lee  university; 
was  principal  teacher  in  the  Cherokee  orphan 
asylum,  1879-80;  began  practice  of  law,  1880; 
was  secretary  of  board  of  education,  Cherokee 
nation,  1881-84;  editor  and  owner  Indian  Chief- 
tain, Vinita,  1884;  United  States  Indian  agent 
for  the  five  civilized  tribes,  1885-89;  organizer 
of  the  First  national  bank  of  Muskogee  and  its 
president,  189Q-1900.  He  is  the  owner  of  exten- 
sive banking,  real  estate,  farming,  and  cattle 
interests.  As  attorney  for  Choctaws,  Chicka- 
saws,  and  Cherokees  he  recovered  from  the  United 
States  government,  in  money,  nearly  §9,000,000 , 
drew  up  the  act  of  congress  of  1891,  giving 
United  States  citizenship  to  every  Indian  in 
Indian  territory.  Elected  United  States  senator 
from  Oklahoma  for  terms,  1907-13,  1913-19. 

Oxenstjema  (6k'-sen-shh-'-nd),  Axel,  Ck>unt,  Swed- 
ish statesman,  was  bom  at  P'ano,  in  Upland, 
1583.  He  was  originally  educated  for  the  church, 
and  studied  theology  as  well  as  jurisprudence  at 
Rostock,  Jena,  and  Wittenberg,  in  the  last  of 
which  universities  he  took  his  degrees.  Although 
he  afterward  devoted  himself  to  public  affairs,  he 
continued  all  his  life  to  take  a  deep  personal 
interest  in  religious  questions,  and  labored  zeal- 
ously for  the  extension  of  the  Protestant  doc- 
trines. He  was  made  chancellor  by  Gustavus 
Adolphus  in  1611;  succeeded  him  as  leader  of 
the  Protestant  party  in  Germany,  1632-35; 
acted  as  regent  throughout  the  minority  of 
Christina,  and  became  her  chief  minister  when 
she  assumed  the  government  in  1644.  Died, 
1654. 

Oyama  (d'-yd-md),  Iwao,  Prince,  Japanese  field- 
marshal,  was  bom  in  Kagoshima,  1842.  He 
entered  the  Japanese  army,  was  appointed 
colonel  in  1871,  promoted  major-general  in  the 
same  year,  lieutenaat-general  in  1878,  general  in 
1891,  and  in  1898  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  field- 
marshal.     Having    served    as    military    attachd 


906 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


during  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  upon  his  return 
to  Japan  he  entered  the  ministry  of  war,  and 
assisted  in  the  work  of  reorganizing  the  army. 
In  the  Satsuma  rebellion  of  1877  he  took  com- 
mand of  a  brigade,  and  played  a  conspicuous 
part  in  subduing  the  revolt.  He  was  afterward 
appointed  under-secretary,  and  subsequently 
minister  of  war.  During  the  war  between  Japan 
and  China  he  was  minister  of  war,  but  took  the 
field  as  commander  of  the  second  army,  and 
captured  Kinchow,  Talienwan,  Port  Arthur, 
and  Wei-hai-wei.  In  1904  he  was  chief  of  the 
general  staff,  and  when  war  broke  out  with 
Russia  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  in 
Manchuria,  defeating  the  Russians  at  the  three 
great  battles  of  Liao-Yang,  the  Shaho,  and 
Mukden.  He  received  the  order  of  merit,  1906, 
and  resigned  his  post  as  chief  of  the  general 
staff  in  April.     He  was  created  prince  in  1907. 

Packard,  Alpheus  Spring,  American  naturalist,  was 
bom  at  Brunswick,  Maine,  1839,  was  graduated 
from  Bowdoin  in  1861,  and  became  assistant  to 
Aga.ssiz    at    Cambridge.     After    taking    part    in 
tseveral  scientific   expeditions,   he  became  state 
entomologist  of  Massachusetts  and  professor  of 
zoology  and  geology  at  Brown  university.     He  is 
widely  known  as  an  entomologist  and  zoolo^st. 
Besides  many  technical  papers,  his  publications 
include.  Guide  to  the  Study  of  Insects;   Our  Com- 
mon Insects;   Zoology;   Entomology  for  Beginners; 
Text-Book  of  Entomology,  etc.     Died,  1905. 
Paderewski    (pd'-dii-rff'-ske),    Ignace   Jan,    Polish 
pianist  and  composer,  was  born  in  Podolia,  Rus- 
sian Poland,  1860.     He  began  to  play  the  piano 
at  three,  and  at  seven  was  placeci  by  his  father 
under  the  care  of  a  local  teacher,  Pierre  Lowinski, 
and  with  him  remained  for  four  years.     In  1872 
he  went  to  Warsaw,  studied  under  Roguski,  and 
subsequently  pursued  his  studies  under  the  late 
Frederick  Kiel  of  Berlin.     In  1884  he  resolved 
to  adopt  the  career  of  a  virtuoso,  removed  to 
Vienna,     placed     himself     under     his     fellow- 
countryman,  Theador  Leschetizky,   and  at  the 
expiration  of  three  years'  hard  study  made  his 
d^but.     Afterward  he  visited  Germany,  and  in 
the  autumn  of  1889  made  his  first  appearance 
before  a  Parisian  audience.     His  first  appearance 
in  England  took  place  at  St.  James's  hall,  London, 
1890,  and  he  has  paid  four  visits  to  America.     He 
has  written  Manru,  an  opera,  Suite  for  Orchestra 
in  G,  etc. 
Paganlnl    (p&'-ga-ne'-^e),  Nicold,  Italian  violinist, 
son  of  a  commission  broker  at  Genoa,  was  born 
in  1784.     His  musical  talent  showed  itself  in  his 
childhood;   in  his  ninth  year  he  had  instructions 
from  Costa  at  Genoa,  and  afterward  from  Rolla 
at  Parma,  and  from  Ghiretti.     In  1805  he  began 
a  professional  tour  of  Italy;    he  created  subse- 
quently a  great  sensation  on  appearing  in  the 
principal  towns  of  Germany.     In  1831  his  violin 
playing  created  an  equal  furor  in  Paris  and  Lon- 
don.    His  mastery  of  the  violin  has  never  been 
excelled.     He  died  at  Nice,  1840. 
Page,    Carroll    Smalley,    banker,    United    States 
senator,  was  bom  at  Westfield,  Vt.,  1843.     He 
received  an  academic  education;    LL.  D.,  Nor- 
wich university;    is  president  of   the   Lamoille 
County  savings  bank  and  trust  company  and  of 
the  Lamoille  Coimty  national  bank,  both  of  Hyde 
Park,  Vt. ;    is  a  director  of  the  Swanton  savings 
bank    and    trust    company,    of    Swanton,    Vt. 
Extensive  dealer  in  raw  calfskins.    He  represented 
Hyde    Park    in    the   house   of    representatives, 
iot^l^'  ^^^  Lamoille  coimty  in  the  state  senate, 
1874-76;  was  savings  bank  examiner,    1884-88; 
governor  of  Vermont,  1890-92;    and  elected  to 
the   Umted    States    senate,    1908,    to    fill    the 
vacancy  caused  by  the  death  of  Redfield  Proctor 
Unammously  reelected,  1910. 


Page,  Tbomas  Nelson,  American  author,  was  bom 
on  Oakland  plantation,  Hanover  county,  Virginia, 
1853.  He  was  educated  at  Washington  and  Lee 
university:  LL.  B.,  university  of  Virginia,  1874; 
Litt.  D.,  Wasiiington  and  Lee,  1887,  Yale,  1901: 
LL.  D.,  Tulane  university,  1899.  He  practiced 
law  at  Richmond,  Va.,  1875-93,  but  subsequently 
turned  to  literature  and  lecturing.  Author:  Jn 
Ole  Virginia;  Two  Little  Confederates;  On  New- 
found River;  The  Old  South;  Among  the  Camps; 
Elsket  and  Other  Stories;  Befo'  de  War  (with 
Armistead  C.  Gordon);  Pastime  Stories;  The 
Burial  of  the  Guns;  Unc'  Edinburg  Meh  Lady; 
Morse  Chan;  PoUy;  Social  Life  in  Old  Virginia; 
The  Old  Gentleman  of  the  Black  Stock;  Two 
Prisoners;  Red  Rock;  Santa  Claus's  Partner;  A 
Captured  Santa  Claus;  Gordon  Keith;  Ths 
Negro  —  The  Southerner's  Problem;  Bred  in  the 
Bone;  The  Coast  of  Bohemia,  poems;  Under  th$ 
Crust,  etc. 

Pace,  Walter  Hines,  American  journalist  and 
writer,  editor  of  The  World's  Work  since  1900. 
was  bom  at  Cary,  N.  C,  1855.  He  was  educated 
at  Randoiph-Mac-on  college,  Virginia,  and  Johns 
Hopkins  university;  LL.  D.,  Randolph-Macon, 
ana  Tulane.  He  was  editor  of  The  Forum,  1890- 
95;  literary  adviser  to  Houghton,  MifHin  and 
Company,  1895-99;  editor  of  Tlie  Atlantic 
Monthly,  1896-99;  and  is  a  member  of  the  firm 
of  Doubleday,  Pace  and  Company,  publishers. 
New  York.  Author:  The  Rebuilding  of  Old 
Commonwealths,  etc. 

Paget  (paf-U),  Sir  James,  English  surgeon,  was  bom 
at  Yarmouth,  England,  in  1814.  He  entered  the 
royal  college  of  surgeons  in  1836,  became  member 
of  the  council  in  1865,  president  in  1875,  and 
Bradshawe  lecturer  in  1882.  He  was  surgeon 
to  Queen  Victoria,  and  to  the  then  prince  of 
Wales,  and  consulting  surgeon  to  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's hospital.  He  was  made  a  baronet  in 
1871,  and  also  an  LL.  D.  bv  the  university  of 
Edinburgh.  His  works  are  Lectures  on  Surgical 
Pathology,  Clinical  Lectures,  etc.  Died  at 
London,  1899. 

Paine,  John  Knowles,  American  composer  and 
organist,  professor  of  music.  Harvard,  1876-1906. 
was  bom  in  Portland,  Maine,  1839.  He  studied 
music  under  Hermann  Kotzschmar  there;  made 
his  first  appearance  as  organist,  1S57;  studied  in 
Germany  under  Ilaupt  and  others,  1858-61 ;  and 
made  an  artistic  tour  there,  1806-67.  He  was 
instructor  in  music.  Harvard,  in  1862,  and 
becanae full  professor  there  in  1876 ;  A.M., Mus.  D. 
He  composed  the  music  for  the  Oedipus  Tyrannus 
of  Sophocles  performed  in  Greek  at  Cambridge, 
1881;  a  number  of  symphonies  and  symphonic 
poems;  overture  to  As  You  Like  It;  cantatjis. 
Nativity  and  Song  of  Promise;  choruses  to  Birds 
of  Aristophanes,  etc.;  opera  of  Azara;  Centen- 
nial Hymn  to  Whittier's  words,  sung  at  opening 
of  Philadelphia  exposition,  1876;  Columbus 
march  and  hymn  for  World's  Columbian  exposi- 
tion, 1893 ;  liymn  of  the  West,  words  by  Stedman, 
sung  at  the  opening  of  the  St.  Louis  exposition, 
1904;  the  oratorio,  St.  Peter;  cantatas,  Realm  of 
Fancy,  Phoebus  Arise,  etc.     Died,  1906. 

Paine,  Thomas,  Anglo-American  writer,  was  bom, 
1737,  at  Thetford,  England.  He  was  trained  to 
the  business  of  his  father,  who  was  a  staymaker, 
but  afterward  obtained  a  situation  in  the  customs, 
and  the  management  of  a  tobacco  manufactory. 
His  income,  however,  was  small,  and  he  fell  into 
.  debt,  and  was  dismissed  in  1774,  after  which  he 
came  to  America,  was  favorably  received  by  a 
bookseller  in  Philadelphia,  and  in  1776  published 
a  pamphlet  entitled  Common  Sense,  in  which  he 
maintained  the  cause  of  the  colonies  against  the 
mother  country.  The  success  and  influence  of 
this  publication  were  extraordinary,  and  it  won 
him  the  friendship  of  Washington,  Franklin,  and 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


907 


other  distinguished  American  leaders.  He  was 
appointed  by  congress  secretary  to  the  committee 
of  foreign  affairs;  visited  France  in  the  summer 
of  1787,  wiiere  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Buffon,  Malesherbes,  La  Rochefoucauld,  and  other 
eminent  men;  and  in  the  autumn  following  went 
to  England,  where,  in  1791-92,  he  published 
The  Rights  of  Man,  the  most  famous  of  all  the 
replies  to  Burke's  Reflections  upon  tfie  French 
Revolution.  In  1792  the  department  of  Pas-de- 
Calais  elected  him  a  deputy  to  the  national  con- 
vention, where  he  usually  voted  with  the  Giron- 
dists. At  the  trial  of  Louis  XVI.  he  proposed 
that  the  king  should  be  spared  and  afforded  an 
opportunity  of  seeking  an  asylum  in  America. 
In  1793  Robespierre  caused  him  to  be  ejected 
from  the  convention  on  the  ground  of  his  being 
a  foreigner,  and  thrown  into  prison.  Wliile  he 
was  in  France,  appeared  Tlie  Age  of  Reason, 
against  atheism  and  against  Christianity,  and  in 
favor  of  deism.  In  1802  he  returned  to  the 
United  States,  and  died,  1809. 

Palestrlna  (pa'4ds-tre'-n&),  Giovanni  Pierluigi  da, 
distinguished  Italian  composer,  was  born  near 
Rome  about  1514.  In  1551  he  was  made  master 
of  the  Julian  chapel,  Rome,  and  in  1554  published 
a  collection  of  masses,  so  highly  approved  by 
Pope  Julius  III.,  to  whom  they  were  dedicated, 
that  he  appointed  their  author  one  of  the  singers 
of  the  pontifical  chapel.  During  the  remaining 
years  of  his  life  the  number  and  the  quality  of  the 
works  of  Palestrina  were  remarkable.  His  pub- 
lished works  consist  of  thirteen  books  of  Masses; 
six  books  of  Motets;  one  book  of  Lamentations; 
one  book  of  Hymns;  one  book  of  Offertories;  one 
book  of  Magnificats;  one  book  of  Litanies;  and 
four  books  of  Madrigals.  These  works  mark  an 
epoch  in  the  annals  of  music.     He  died  in  1594. 

Paley  (pd'-Zi),  William,  English  divine  and  writer, 
was  born  at  Peterborough  in  1743.  He  was 
educated  at  Christ's  college,  Cambridge,  of 
which  he  became  a  fellow  in  1766,  and  for  ten 
subsequent  j'ears  he  resided  at  the  university. 
In  1776  he  obtained  the  vicarages  of  Dalston,  in 
Cumberland,  and  Appleby,  in  Westmoreland. 
Within  the  next  nine  years  he  became  a  preben- 
dary, archdeacon,  and  chancellor  of  Carlisle.  In 
1785  he  at  once  attained  high  reputation  by  his 
Principles  of  Moral  and  Political  Philosophy.  In 
this  work  he  propounds  his  ethical  theory,  which 
is  commonly  called  utilitarianism.  In  1790 
appeared  his  most  original  and  valuable  work  — 
the  HorcB  Paulince;  then  followed  A  View  of  the 
Evidences  of  Christianity  and  Natural  Theology. 
The  latter,  however,  is  based  on,  and,  to  a  large 
extent,  is  borrowed  from  the  Religious  Philosopher, 
a  work  by  a  Dutch  philosopher  named  Nieu- 
wentyt.  He  was  successively  made  vicar  of 
Stanwix,  a  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's,  subdean  of 
Lincoln,  a  doctor  of  divinity,  and  rector  of 
Bishop's  Wearmouth.     Died,  1805. 

Palissy  (pd'-le'-se'),  Bernard  de.     See  page  342. 

Palladlo  (pal4a'-dy6),  Andrea,  famous  Italian 
architect,  was  born  at  Vicenza,  1518.  After 
having  studied  with  the  greatest  care  the  writings 
of  Vitruvius  and  jthe  monuments  of  antiquity  at 
Rome,  he  settled  in  his  native  city,  and  first 
acquired  a  reputation  by  his  restoration  of  the 
basilica  of  Vicenza.  His  style,  knoT\Ti  as  the 
Palladian,  is  a  composite,  and  is  characterized 
by  great  splendor  of  execution  and  justness  of 
proportion,  and  it  exercised  an  immense  influence 
on  the  architecture  of  northern  Italy.  He  died 
at  Vicenza,  1580.  He  wrote  a  work  on  architec- 
ture which  is  highly  prized. 

Palma  (pal'-ma),  Tomas  Estrada,  Cuban  patriot, 
was  bom  about  1836  in  Bayamo,  Cuba;  studied 
law  at  university  of  Seville,  but  never  practiced ; 
and  took  part  in  the  Cuban  revolution  of  1868-78, 
in  the  early  part  of  which  his  mother  had  been 


captured  and  starved  to  death  by  the  Spaniards. 
Her  death  made  him  heir  to  a  vast  estate,  which 
the  Spaniards  confiscated.  He  became  president 
of  the  Cuban  republic,  but  was  captured,  1877, 
and  imprisoned  until  hostilities  ceased,  1878. 
He  then  went  to  Honduras;  became  a  teacher 
and  later  postmaster-general;  married  a  daugh- 
ter of  President  Guardiola;  came  to  the  United 
States,  and  settled  in  Central  Valley,  Orange 
county,  N.  Y.  During  the  last  Cuban  revolution 
he  was  delegate-at-large  and  minister  plenipo- 
tentiary for  Cuban  republic,  and  subsequently 
president  of  Cuba,  1902-06.     He  died,  1908. 

Palmer,  Alice  Freeman,  American  educator,  was 
born  at  Colesville,  N.  Y.,  1855.  She  graduated 
at  the  university  of  Michigan,  1876 ;  was  professor 
of  history  at  Wellesley  college,  1879-81;  presi- 
dent, 1882-87;  and  non-resident  dean  of  the 
woman's  department,  university  of  Chicago, 
1892-95.  She  married  George  Herbert  Palmer, 
professor  of  philosophy  in  Harvard  university,  in 
1887.  She  was  one  of  the  most  forceful  and 
cultured  of  American  educators.     Died,  1902. 

Palmer,  Edward  Henry,  English  explorer  and 
orientalist,  was  born,  1840,  at  Cambridge.  He 
graduated  from  Cambridge  in  1867;  devoted 
himself  to  oriental  studies;  and  during  1808-70 
was  engaged  for  the  Palestine  exploration  fund 
in  the  survey  of  Sinai  and  the  desert.  In  1871 
he  was  appointed  Lord  Almoner's  professor  of 
Arabic  at  Cambridge,  and  in  1874  was  admitted 
to  the  English  bar.  In  1881  he  turned  journalist, 
writing  principally  for  the  Standard.  In  1882, 
on  the  eve  of  Arabi's  Egyptian  rebellion,  sent  by 
government  to  win  over  the  Sinai  tribes,  he, 
Captain  Gill,  and  Lieutenant  Charrington  were 
on  August  11th  murdered  in  the  ravine  of  Wady 
Sudr.  Among  Palmer's  works  are  the  Desert  of 
the  Exodus;  Arabic  Grammar;  Song  of  the  Reed; 
Poems  of  Behh  ed  Din  Zoheir;  Persian  Dic- 
tionary; Haroun  Alraschid;  and  a  translation  of 
the  Koran. 

Palmer,  Erastus  Dow,  American  sculptor,  was  bom 
at  Pompey,  N.  Y.,  1817.  He  was  a  joiner  by 
trade,  and  made  carvings  first  of  animals  and 
leaves  in  wood.  Seeing  a  cameo  head,  he  cut  on 
a  shell  a  portrait  of  his  wife,  and  his  success 
induced  him  to  try  working  in  marble.  The 
bas-reliefs,  "Morning  and  Evening,"  "The  Sleep- 
ing Peri,"  "The  Angel  at  the  Sepulchre,"  in  the 
cemetery  at  Albany ;  "Immortality,"  "Faith,"  and 
"Sappho,"  are  some  of  his  best  known  works. 
He  executed  busts  of  Alexander  Hamilton, 
Washington  Irving,  Commodore  Perry,  and 
others,  and  a  statue  of  Robert  Livingstone,  for 
the  state  of  New  York,  cast  in  bronze.  "Tlie 
Landing  of  the  Pilgrims,"  in  the  capitol  at  Wash- 
ington, IS  one  of  his  largest  works.    He  died,  1904. 

Palmer,  George  Herbert,  American  educator  and 
scholar,  Alford  professor  of  natural  religion, 
moral  philosophy,  and  civil  polity,  Harvard, 
since  1889,  was  bom  in  Boston,  1842.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard,  1864;  studied  at  the 
university  of  Tiibingen,  1867-69-  graduated 
Andover  theological  seminary,  1870";  LL.  D.,  uni- 
versity of  Michigan,  1894,  Union,  1895,  Harvard, 
1906;  Litt.  D.,  Western  Reserve,  1897.  He  was 
tutor  in  Greek  at  Harvard,  1870-72,  assistant 
professor,  1873-83,  and  professor  of  philosophy, 
1883-89.  Author :  The  Odyssey,  an  English  trans- 
lation in  rythmic  prose;  The  New  Education; 
The  Glory  of  the  Imperfect;  Self  Cultivation  in 
English;  The  Antigone  of  Sophocles,  a  translation ; 
The  Field  of  Ethics;  The  Nature  of  Goodness; 
The  Life  and  Works  of  George  Herbert;  and 
Life  of  Alice  Freeman  Palmer,  etc. 

Palmerston  (pdm'-ir-stun),  Henry  John  Temple, 
Viscount,  British  statesman,  was  bom  at  Broad- 
lands,  in  Hampshire,  1784.  He  entered  parlia- 
ment as  member  for  Newport  in  1807,  and  in  1811 


908 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


became  member  for  the  university  of  Cambridge, 
which  constituency  he  represented  until  1831. 
He  afterward  became  member  for  Bletchingly 
and  for  South  Hampshire  successively,  and  from 
1835  to  his  death  represented  Tiverton.  Lord 
Palmerston  was  engaged  in  official  life  during 
nearly  the  whole  of  his  career.  In  1807  he 
became  a  junior  lord  of  the  admiralty  under  the 
duke  of  Portland,  and  from  1809  to  1828  was 
secretary  for  war.  In  the  administrations  of 
Earl  Grey,  Viscount  Melbourne,  and  Lord  John 
Russell,  he  held  the  post  of  foreign  secretary, 
resigning  that  office  in  1851  because  of  a  difference 
between  himself  and  his  colleagues  arising  out  of 
his  too  ready  acknowledgment  of  the  coup 
d'6tat  effected  by  Louis  Napoleon.  In  1852  he 
became  home  secretary  under  the  earl  of  Aber- 
deen, whom  he  succeeded  as  first  lord  of  the 
treasury  in  1855.  In  1858  he  was  defeated  and 
compelled  to  resign  office  owing  to  a  conspiracy  bill 
arising  out  of  Orsini's  attempt  to  assassmate 
Napoleon  III.;  but  in  the  following  year  he 
returned  to  power,  and  remained  prime  minister 
until  his  death.  He  was  a  statesman  of  unerring 
tact  and  deep  sagacity  in  relation  to  questions  of 
foreign  policy,  of  which  he  was  an  acknowledged 
master.     Died,  1865.  I 

Paoll  {■p&'-o4e),  Pasquale,  famous  Corsican  patriot,  ! 
was  Dorn  in  1725  at  Morosaglia,  in  Corsica.     In 
1755  he  was  elected  captain-general  of  the  island. 
He  actively  applied  himself  to  the  reformation  of 
the  barbarous  laws  and  customs  of  the  island, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  the  expulsion  of  the 
Genoese.     In  1789  he  entered  into  the  schemes 
of  the  revolutionary  party:   but  during   the  an- 
archy of  France  in  1792-93  he  conceived  a  scheme 
for    making    Corsica    an    independent    republic. 
He    allied    himself    with    Britain,    favored    the 
landing  of  2,000  British  troops  in  the  island  in 
1794,  and  joined  them  in  driving  out  the  French. 
He  then  surrendered  the  island  to  George  III., 
but,  becoming  dissatisfied  with  the  government, 
he    quarreled    with    the    British    viceroy.     He 
therefore  retired  from  the  island  in   1796,   and 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  London.     He  died,  1807. 
Pape,  Eric,  American  artist,  illustrator,  was  bom  in 
San  Francisco,  1870.     He  received  his  art  educa- 
tion in  Paris  under  Boulanger,  Lefebvre,  Con- 
stant, Doucet,  Blanc,  and  Delance  and  at  Ecole 
des  Beaux  Arts  under  G6r6me  and  Laurens,  and 
has    lived    in    France,    Germany,    and    Egypt. 
Instructor   in   the   Cowles   art   sbhool,    Boston, 
1897 ;  founded,  1898,  and  has  since  been  director 
and  head  instructor  of  the  Eric  Pape  school  of 
art.     He  exhibited   at   Paris   salon,    1890-1900, 
World's    Columbian    exposition,     1893,    Munich 
Kunst    Austellung,     1897,     Omaha    exposition, 
1899,  Paris  exposition,  1900,  Pan-American  expo- 
sition, 1901,  St.  Louis  exposition,  1904,  and  at 
various    art    museums    and    exhibitions    in    the 
United  States  and  abroad,   and  has  illustrated 
many  important  works. 
Papln    ipd-p&N'),    Denis,    French    physicist,   was 
born  at  Blois,    1647.     He  studied  medicine  in 
Paris,    where,    after    receiving    his    degree,    he 
practiced   for   some   time    as    a    physician.     To 
Papin  undoubtedly  belongs  the  high  honor  of 
having  first  applied  steam  to  produce  motion  by 
raising   a   piston;     he   combined  with   this   the 
simplest  means  of  producing  a  vacuum  beneath 
the    raised    piston  —  viz.,    by    condensation    of 
aqueous  vapor;    he  is  also  the  inventor  of  the 
safety  valve,"  an  essential  part  of  his  "digest- 
er.      By   this    latter    machine    Papin     showed 
that  liquids   in  a  vacuum  can  be  made  to  boil 
at  a  much  lower  temperature  than  when  freely 
exposed  to  the  air.     Papin's  sagacity  led  him  to 
many   other  discoveries,  among  which  was  the 
principle  of  action  of  the  siphon.     He  improved 


the  pneumatic  machine  of  Otto  de  Guericke,  and 
took  part  against  Leibnitz  in  the  discussion  con- 
cerning "living"  and  "dead"  forces.  Died  at 
Marburg,  Germany,  1712. 

Papinianus  (pa-pin-l-a'-nua),  JEvaUlus,  Roman 
jurist,  was  bom  about  14G.  He  held  offices  at 
Home  under  Septimius  Severus,  but  was  put  to 
death  by  Caracalla  in  212.  He  was  remarkable 
for  his  juridical  genius,  the  lucidity  of  his  decisions 
and  his  high  sense  of  right  and  morality.  Nearly 
GOO  excerpts  from  his  legal  works  were  incorpora- 
ted in  Justinian's  PandecU. 

Pappenheim  {p&p'-en-him),  Gottfried  Helnrtch, 
Count  von,  a  great  imperialist  general  in  the 
thirty  years'  war,  was  born,  1594,  at  Pappen- 
heim, Bavaria,  of  an  old  and  distinguished  Swabian 
family.  He  studied  at  Altdorf  and  Tiibingen.  and 
at  the  age  of  twenty  went  over  to  the  Catnolic 
church.  He  served  under  the  king  of  Poland 
against  the  Russians  and  the  Turks,  and  then 
joined  the  Catholic  league,  defeating  the  Bohe- 
mians at  Prague  in  1620.  Again,  in  1626,  in  the 
Austrian  service,  he  suppressed  the  peasant 
revolt,  in  which  40,000  peasants  died,  and  then 
fought  against  the  Danes,  Swedes,  and  Saxons  of 
the  Protestant  league.  At  Liitzen,  in  1632,  he 
arrived  in  time  to  save  Wallenstein  from 
defeat  by  the  Swedes,  but  was  mortally  wounded 
in  the  second  charge  and  died  at  Leipzig, 
1632. 

Paracelsus  (pdr-d-sil'-siis),  otherwise  Theophrsstus 
Bombastus  von  Hohenheim,  German-Swiss  phy- 
sician and  alchemist,  was  bom  in  Switzerland  in 
1493.  He  entered  Basel  university  at  sixteen, 
studied  alchemy  and  chemistry  with  Trithemius 
bishop  of  Wiirzburg,  and  next  at  the  mines  in 
Tyrol  learned  the  properties  of  metals  and  min- 
erals. In  subsequent  wanderings  he  amassed  a 
vast  store  of  facts,  learned  the  actual  practice 
of  medicine,  but  lost  all  faith  in  scholastic  dis- 
quisitions and  disputations.  He  acquired  fame 
as  a  medical  practitioner,  was  made  town  phy- 
sician at  Basel,  and  lectured  on  medicine  at  the 
university,  but  flouted  at  Galen  and  Avicenna, 
and  justified  the  furious  enmities  that  pursued 
him  by  his  own  vanitv,  arrogance,  aggressiveness, 
and  intemperate  habits.  A  dispute  with  the 
magistrates  in  1528  drove  him  from  Basel;  he 
wandered  for  a  dozen  years,  and  settled  in  1541 
at  Salzburg,  but  died  in  the  same  year,  having 
been  thrown  out  of  a  window  by  some  of  his 
excited  opponents.  Of  some  250  works  attrib- 
uted to  him,  the  critics  admit  only  from  ten  to 
twenty-four  as  genuine,  the  others  being  by  his 
followers  the  "Paracelsists."  In  spite  of  his 
attraction  to  alchemy  and  mysticism,  he  made 
new  chemical  comf)ounds,  and  improved  phar- 
macy and  therapeutics,  encouraged  research  and 
experiment,  ana,  in  an  empirical  fashion,  revo- 
lutionized hide-bound  medical  methods. 

Paris  (pd'-re'),  Comte  de,  Louis  Philippe  Albert 
d'Orldans,  grandson  of  King  Louis  Philippe,  was 
born  in  Paris,  1838.  He  was  educated  in  Eng- 
land; accompanied  his  uncle,  the  Prince  de 
Joinville,  to  the  United  States,  1861,  whe*^  he 
served  for  ten  months  on  the  staff  of  Generals 
McClellan  and  Porter.  He  afterward  returned  to 
France,  entered  the  national  assembly  in  1871, 
but  was  expelled  in  1886,  and  went  to  England 
where  he  occupied  himself  in  writing  a  History 
of  the  American  CivU  War.  He  was  the  bead 
of  the  Orleans  familv,  and  a  claimant  to  the 
French  throne.  Died",  1894. 
Park,  Mungo,  eminent  African  explorer,  was  bom 
near  Selkirk,  Scotland,  in  1771,  and  educated  at 
Edinburgh  university.  In  1795  he  set  out  for 
Africa  to  find  the  source  and  course  of  the  Niger 
river,  in  which  he  succeeded  the  following  year. 
He  returned  to  Great  Britain  and  published  his 
Travels  in  the  Interior  of  Africa.     In   1805  he 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


909 


headed  a  large  expedition  in  search  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Niger.  Most  of  the  party  died,  and  finally 
Park  and  his  three  remaining  companions  were 
drowned  in  the  rapids  near  Boussa,  1806.  The 
details  of  the  expedition  were  made  known 
through  his  journal  and  the  discoveries  of  later 
explorers. 

Park,  Roswell,  American  physician,  was  bom  at 
Pomfret,  Conn.,  1852.  He  was  graduated  from 
Racine  college:  A.  M.,  Harvard;  M.  D.,  medical 
department  of  Northwestern  university,  187G; 
hon.  M.  D.,  Lake  Forest  university;  LL.  D., 
Yale,  1902.  He  was  instructor  in  anatomy. 
Woman's  medical  college,  Chicago,  1877-79; 
adjunct  professor  of  anatomy,  medical  depart- 
ment. Northwestern  university,  1879-82;  lec- 
turer on  surgery.  Rush  medical  college,  Chicago, 
1882;  and  since  1883  professor  of  surgery, 
medical  department,  university  of  Buffalo,  and 
surgeon  to  Buffalo  general  hospital.  He  is  a 
member  of  all  national  and  several  foreign  sur- 
gical societies.  He  attended  President  McKinley 
after  he  was  shot,  1901.  Author:  Lectures  on 
Surgical  Pathology;  History  of  Medicine;  Text- 
Book  of  Surgery  (2  vols.);  The  Principles  and 
Practice  of  Modern  Surgery,  etc. 

Parker,  Alton  Brooks,  American  lawyer,  jurist, 
was  bom  in  Cortland,  N.  Y.,  1852.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Cortland  academy,  Cortland 
normal  school,  and  graduated  at  the  Albany  law 
school;  LL.  D.,  Union  university.  After  admis- 
sion to  the  bar  he  practiced  in  Kingston,  N.  Y. ; 
was  surrogate  of  Ulster  county,  1877-85;  dele- 
gate to  democratic  national  convention,  1884; 
tendered  office  of,  first  assistant  postmaster- 
general,  1885;  chairman  of  democratic  state 
committee,  1885;  appointed  justice  of  supreme 
court  of  New  York,  1885,  elected,  1886;  justice 
court  of  appeals,  second  division,  1889-92; 
member  of  general  term,  1893-96,  of  appellate 
division,  1896-97;  and  chief-justice  of  court  of 
appeals,  1898-1904.  He  resigned  to  accept 
democratic  nomination  for  the  presidency  made 
on  first  ballot,  July  9,  1904.  He  was  president 
of  the  American  bar  association,  1906-07,  and  is 
now  practicing  law  as  a  member  of  the  firm  of 
Parker,  Hatch  and  Sheehan. 

Parker,  Sir  Horatio  Gilbert,  Anglo-Canadian  novel- 
ist, was  born  in  Canada,  1862.  He  was  educated 
at  Trinity  college,  Toronto;  D.  C.  L.,  Toronto. 
He  was  trained  to  journalism  in  Australia,  and 
there  first  began  his  literary  and  dramatic  work ; 
traveled  among  South  Sea  islands,  and  exten- 
sively in  the  East,  in  Europe,  Egypt,  and  north- 
em  Canada;  initiated  and  organized  the  first 
imperial  universities  conference  in  London,  1903. 
He  is  the  author  of  A  Lover's  Diary,  poems; 
The  Vendetta;  No  Defence;  Round  the  Compass 
in  Australia;  Pierre  and  His  People;  Mrs. 
Falchion;  The  Trespasser;  The  Translation  of  a 
Savage;  The  Trail  of  the  Sword;  When  Valmond 
Came  to  Pontine;  An  Adventurer  of  the  North; 
The  Seats  of  the  Mighty;  The  Pomp  of  the  LaviU- 
ettes;  The  Battle  of  the  Strong;  The  Lane  That 
Had  No  Turning;  The  Right  of  Way;  Donovan 
Pasha;  History  of  Old  Quebec;  A  Ladder  of 
Stvords;  The  Weavers;  Northern  Lights,  etc.  He 
was  returned  to  parliament  for  Gravesend  as  a 
Unionist  in  1900,  and  was  knighted  in  1902. 

Packer,  Horatio  William,  American  composer  and 
organist,  professor  of  the  theory  of  mtisic,  Yale, 
since  1894,  was  bom  at  Auburndale,  Mass.,  1863. 
He  was  educated  at  Auburndale  and  in  Europe; 
graduated  at  Roval  Conservatoire,  Munich,  1885 ; 
M.  A.,  Yale,  1892;  Mus.  D.,  Cambridge  uni- 
versity, England,  1902.  He  was  professor  of 
music,  cathedral  school  of  St.  Paul,  Garden  City, 
L.  I.,  1885-87;  organist,  Holy  Trinity  church. 
New  York,  1888-93,  and  at  Trinity  church, 
Boston,    1893-1901.     His   Hora  Novissima  was 


performed  at  the  Chester  (England)  festival,  July, 
1899,  and,  in  September  1899,  at  festival  of  the 
three  choirs,  Worcester,  England.  He  is  author 
of  the  cantatas.  King  Trojan  and  The  Kobolda; 
the  oratorios,  Hora  Novissima  and  St.  Christo- 
pher, and  much  other  music,  sacred  and  secular. 
Awarded  the  Metropolitan  opera  prise  of  $10,000 
for  the  opera  Mona,  1911. 

Parker,  Joseph,  English  preacher  and  author,  the 
son  of  a  stonecutter,  was  born  at  Hexham,  1830. 
He  studied  at  University  college,  London,  and 
became  pastor  of  Congregational  chapels  at 
Banbury,  Manchester,  and,  in  1869,  of  that  now 
represented  by  the  City  temple  in  London. 
Among  his  books  are:  Helps  to  Truth-seekers; 
Ecce  Dctw,  a  reply  to  Ecce  Homo;  Ad  Clerum; 
City  Temple  Sermons;  Inner  Life  of  Christ; 
Apostolic  Life;  People's  Prayer-book;  People's 
Bible;  Tt/ne  Chylde:  My  Life  and  Teaching,  etc. 
Died,  1902. 

Parker,  Matthew,  second  Protestant  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  was  bom  at  Norwich,  England, 
1504.  He  studied  at  Corpus  Christi  college, 
Cambridge,  and  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1527. 
In  1535  he  was  appointed  chaplain  to  Queen 
Anne  BolejTi,  who,  not  long  before  her  death, 
exhorted  her  daughter  Elizabeth  to  avail  herself 
of  Parker's  wise  and  pious  counsel.  In  1552  he 
was  presented  by  King  Edward  VI.  to  the 
canonry  and  prebend  of  Covingham,  in  the 
church  of  Lincoln.  On  the  accession  of  Queen 
Mary  he  refused  to  conform  to  the  reestablished 
order  of  things,  and  was  deprived  of  his  prefer- 
ments, and  even  obliged  to  conceal  himself. 
The  death  of  Mary,  and  the  accession  of  Eliza^ 
beth,  called  him  from  his  compulsory  retirement, 
when  he  was  appointed  by  the  queen  archbishop 
of  Canterbury.  "The  subsequent  history  of 
Archbishop  Parker,"  it  has  been  justly  remarked, 
"is  that  of  the  church  of  England."  It  is  to 
Parker  we  owe  the  "Bishops'  Bible,"  undertaken 
at  his  request,  carried  on  under  his  inspection, 
and  published  at  his  expense  in  1572.  He  haa 
also  the  principal  share  in  drawing  up  the  Book 
of  Common  Prayer.  It  was  under  his  presidency, 
too,  that  the  thirty-nine  articles  were  finally 
reviewed  and  subscribed  to  by  the  clergy,  1562. 
He  died,  1575. 

Parker,  Theodore,  American  clergyman  and 
scholar,  was  bom  at  Lexington,  Mass..  1810.  He 
entered  Harvard  college  in  1830,  and  during  his 
collegiate  course  supported  himself  by  teaching 
private  classes  and  scliools,  and  studied  meta^ 
physics,  theology,  Anglo-Saxon,  Syriac,  Arabic. 
Danish,  Swedisli,  German,  French,  Spanish,  and 
modem  Greek.  He  then  graduated  from  Har- 
vard divinity  school  in  1836,  and  the  next  year 
became  a  Unitarian  minister  at  West  Roxbury. 
He  was  somewhat  separated  from  the  conserva- 
tive Unitarians,  as  shown  ^  his  sermon.  The 
Transient  and  Permanent  in  Christianity,  and  his 
Discourse  on  Af alters  pertaining  to  Religion,  fol- 
lowed by  Sermons  of  the  Times,  all  of  which 
attracted  widespread  notice  and  comment.  His 
complete  works,  in  twelve  volumes,  edited  by  F. 
P  Cobbe,  were  published  in  1863-65.  After  a 
trip  to  Europe  for  his  health,  he  retximed  in  1844 
and  for  years  preached  to  immense  congregations 
at  Melodeon  and  Music  halls,  Boston.  He  also 
lectured  throughout  the  country  and  became  an 
ardent  anti-slavery  agitator.  His  health  com- 
pelled him  to  go  to  Mexico,  thence  to  Italy,  where 
ke  died  at  Florence,  1860. 

Parkhurst,  Charles  Henry,  American  Presbjrterian 
clergj'man,  was  bom  in  Framingham,  Mass., 
1842.  He  graduated  from  Amherst,  1866; 
studied  theology  at  Halle,  1869-70,  and  Leipzig, 
1872-73;  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Amherst.  He  taught  in 
Williston  seminary,  Easthampton,  Mass.,  1870- 
71;    wae  pastor  of  the  Congregational  church. 


910 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Lenox,  Mass.,  1874-80;   and  since  1880  pastor  of 
Madison  Square  Presbyterian  churcli,  New  York. 
He  became  president  in  1891  of  the  society  for 
prevention  of  crime,  and  his  assertion  of  partner- 
ship of  police  with  criminals  led  to  an  investiga- 
tion of  the  New  York  police  by  the  New  York 
legislature.     Author:    Forma  of  the  Latin  Verb 
Illustrated   by   the   Sanskrit;     The   Blind   Man's 
Creed;   The  Pattern  on  the  Mount;   Three  Gates  on 
a   Side;     What    Would   the    World    Be    Without 
Religion?     The    Suriss    Guide;     Our    Fight    with 
Tammany;  The  Sunny  Side  of  Christianity;  A 
Little  Lower  than  the  Angels,  etc. 
Parkman,  Francis,  American  historical  writer,  was 
born  in  Boston  in  1823;  graduated  at  Harvard, 
1844.     He  began  the  study  of    law,  but  aban- 
doned it  to  devote  himself  to  historical  literature. 
He  lived  some  time  among  the  Indians  of  the 
Rocky  mountains,  and  wrote  The  Conspiracy  of 
Pontiac;     The   Old    Rigime  in   Canada;     Count 
Frontenac  and  New  France  under  Louis  XIV.; 
Montcalm  and  Wolfe;  A  Half  Century  of  Conflict; 
The  California  and  the  Oregon    Trail,   etc.     He 
died  at  Jamaica  Plain,  Mass.,  1893. 
Parmenides    (par-min'-i-dez),    Greek    philosopher, 
and  greatest  member  of  the  Eleatic  school,  was 
born    at    Elea,    and   flourished    about    the    fifth 
century  B.  C.     In  his  didactic  poem  On  Nature 
he  sought  to  demonstrate  the  reality  of  absolute 
being.     The     fragments     were     rendered     into 
English  hexameters  by  Thomas  Davidson,  and 
paraphrased  in  English  prose  by  W.  L.  Courtney, 
in  1882. 
Pamell  (pilr'-nSl),  Charles  Stewart,  Irish  statesman, 
was  born  in  1846,  in  Avondale,  Ireland,  and  was 
educated  at  Cambridge.     He  entered  public  life 
as  member  for  Meath  in  1875,   and  two  years 
later  became  conspicuous  for  his  opposition  to 
the  prisons  bill.     He  gradually  ousted  Mr.  Butt 
from  the  leadership  of  the  home  rule  party,  and, 
in  1880,  became  leader  of  the  Irish  party  and 
entered  upon  the  land  agitation.     At  the  general 
election  he  was  elected  for  three  constituencies, 
but  chose  Cork,   and  as  the  head  of  the  land 
league  was  prosecuted  in  1880,  by  the  Gladstone 
government,  the  result  being  a  disagreement  of 
the   jury.     In    the    following  session,  with    the 
majority  of  his  followers,  he  was  removed  from 
the  house  of  commons  by  the  sergeant-at-arms 
for   obstructing   business,    and   in    October  was 
imprisoned  in  Kilmainham  under  the  coercion 
act.     He  was  released  in  April,    1882,   but  the 
"no  rent"  manifesto  had  meanwhile  been  issued, 
and  in  1883  the  national  league  took  the  place 
of  the  suppressed  land  league.     At  the  general 
election  of  1885,  he  nominated  every  home  rule 
candidate,    and    subsequently    entered    into    an 
alliance   with    the   followers   of    Gladstone.      In 
the  next  parliament  he  proposed  a  bill  to  suspend 
evictions  and  reduce  rent,  after  the  rejection  of 
which    the    agitation    continued.      In     1888    a 
special   commission  was  appointed  to  examine 
the  charges  made  against  Pamell  and  others  by 
the  London  Times,  the  result  being  his  acquittal. 
He  then  brought  suit  for  libel  against  the  Times 
and  recovered  £5,000  damages.     In  consequence 
of  the  result  of  the  O'Shea  divorce  case  in  1890, 
he  was  deposed  by  the  majority  of  his  partv,  but 
continued  to  lead  the  minority  and  to  carry  on 
an  active  campaign  until  his  death  in  1891. 
Parrhasius  (.pd-ra'-shl-Hs),  celebrated  Greek  painter, 
was  the  son  of  Evenor,  also  an  artist,  and  was 
bom  at  Ephesus  in  the  fifth  centurv  B.  C.     He 
practiced  his  profession  at  Athens,"  the  inhabit- 
ants of  which  held  him  in  high  estimation,  and 
conferred    on    him    the    rights    of    citizenship. 
According  to  Pliny  he  was  the  first  who  estab- 
lished a  true  proportion  between  the  different 
parts  of  a  picture,  and  delineated  with  elegance 
and  precision  all  the  minutiae  of    the  features 


even  to  those  evanescent  motions  that  betray  the 
most  delicate  sentiments  of  the  soul.  Quintilian 
called  him  the  legislator  of  his  art,  because  his 
canon  of  proportion  for  gods  and  heroes  waa 
followed   by   all   contemporary   and   subsequent 


painters.  Among  his  works  were  an  apparently 
symbolical  picture  of  the  "Atheniaui  Demos'  : 
''^l^heseus";  "Naval  Commander  in  Full 
Armor";  "Ulysses  Feigning  Madness." 
Parrottv  Robert  Parker,  American  inventor,  waa 
born  in  New  Hampshire  in  1804,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1824,  and  waa  assistant  professor 
there  of  mathematica  and  of  natural  and  experi- 
mental philosophy  until  1829.  He  became 
captain  in  the  ordnance  corps  in  1836,  and  soon 
afterward  superintendent  of  the  West  Point  iron 
and  cannon  foundry,  at  Cold  Springs,  N.  Y., 
where  he  waa  first  judge  of  the  court  of  common 
pleaa,  1844-47.  Here  he  invented  the  Parrott 
system  of  rifled  ^na  and  projectilea,  which  were 
first  intro<luced  into  actual  uae  at  the  battle  of 
Bull  Run,  1861.  Died.  1877. 
Parsons,  Alfred  WUHam,  English  landscape  painter, 
waa  bom  at  Beckington,  Somersetshire,  1847. 
He  waa  educated  in  private  schools ;  was  a  clerk 
in  the  savings  bank  department  of  a  London  post 
office,  1865-67,  since  which  he  has  devoted  him- 
self to  painting.  He  was  an  exhibitor  at  the 
roval  academy^  Grosvenor,  New  gallery,  etc. 
His  picture,  "When  Nature  Painted  All  Things 
Gay,  waa  bought  by  the  Chantrey  fund,  1S87. 
He  haa  executed  illustrationa  for  Harper's  Maga- 
tine  and  other  publications;  with  E.  A.  Abbey, 
illustrationa  for  Herrick's  Poems;  She  Stoops  to 
Conquer;  Old  Songs;  The  Quiet  Life;  Alone,  for 
Wordswortli's  Sonnets;  The  Warwickshire  Avon; 
Notes  in  Japan,  the  laat  written  by  him;  Ths 
Danube,  from  the  Black  Forest  to  the  Black  Sea, 
With  F.  D.  Millet,  etc. 
Parsons,  Herbert,  ex-congressman,  lawyer,  waa  bora 
in  New  York,  1869.  He  waa  graduated  at  Yale, 
1890;  university  of  Berlin,  1890-91;  Harvard 
law  school,  1891-93,  Metropolis  law  school, 
1893-94;  admitted  to  bar,  1895.  He  is  now  a 
member  of  the  law  firm  of  Parsons,  Closson  A 
Mcllvaine.  Was  alderman  of  New  York,  1900- 
03,  two  terms;  candidate  for  congress,  1900, 
12th  New  York  district ;  and  member  of  congress, 
13th  New  York  district,  1905-11.  He  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  board  of  managers  of  the  New  York 
association  for  improving  condition  of  the  p>oor, 
society  for  reformation  of  juvenile  delinquents, 
Manhattan  eye  and  ear  hospital,  etc. 
Parsons,  William  Barclay,  American  engineer,  waa 
born  in  New  York,  1859.  He  was  graduated  at 
Columbia  university,  1879,  C.  E.,  1882.  He 
made  surveys  for  the  Canton-Hankow  railway, 
China,  1,000  nailes,  1898-99;  as  chief  engineer  of 
the  New  York  rapid  transit  commission,  designed 
and  constructed  underground  railway  s^tem  in 
New  York ;  was  a  member  of  the  isthmian  canal 
commission  and  of  the  advisory  board  to  the 
royal  commission  of  London  traffic,  1904.  He 
is  a  member  of  the  American  society  of  civil 
engineers,  etc.  Author:  Turnouts;  Track;  An 
American  Engineer  in  China,  and  various  mono- 
graphs. 
Parton,  James,  American  author,  was  bom  at 
Canterbury,  England,  1822,  and  was  brought  to 
New  York  when  five  years  old.  He  began 
literary  work  on  the  Home  Journal  of  New  York, 
and  published  lives  of  Horace  Greeley,  Franklin. 
Jefferson,  and  Burr;  Famous  Americans  of 
Recent  Times;  Triumphs  of  Enterprise;  Captains 
of  Industry;  Noted  Women  of  Europe  and 
America;  and  a  collection  of  the  Humorous 
Poetry  of  the  English  Language.  He  died  at 
Newburyport,  Mass.,  1891. 
Partridge,  William  Ordway,  American  sculptor, 
author,  was  born  at  Paris,   France,    1861.     He 


PASTEUR   IN   HIS  LABORATORY 

From  a  fainting  hy  Edlefclt 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


013 


studied  at  Columbia  college,  and  received  his  art 
education  in  Rome,  Florence,  and  Paris.  His 
works  include  statue  of  Shakespeare,  Lincoln 
park,  Chicago;  bronze  statue  Alexander  Hamil- 
ton, Brooklyn;  Kauffmann  memorial,  Wash- 
ington; bust  of  Edward  E.  Hale,  Union  League 
club,  Chicago;  Whittier,  Boston  public  library; 
equestrian  statue  General  Grant  for  Union 
League  club,  Brooklyn ;  Schermerhorn  memorial, 
Columbia  university;  baptismal  font,  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul  cathedral,  Washington;  group, 
"Christ  and  St.  John,"  Brooklyn  museum  of  fine 
arts;  statue,  "Pocahontas,"  Jamestown  exposi- 
tion, 1907,  etc.  He  has  been  an  exhibitor  at  the 
salon,  Paris,  royal  academy,  London  and  Berlin. 
Author:  Art  for  America;  The  Song  Life 
of  a  Sculptor;  The  Technique  of  Sculpture;  The 
Angel  of  Clay,  a  novel;  Nathan  Hale,  the  Ideal 
Patriot;  The  Czar's  Gift,  a  novel. 

Pascal  (pds'-kdl'),  Blaise,  French  philosopher  and 
scholar,  was  born  at  Clermont,  in  Auvergne,  1623. 
From  his  childhood  he  gave  evidence  of  remark- 
able capacity.  His  gift  for  mathematics  was 
extraordinary,  and  he  contributed  largely  to  the 
development  of  that  science.  But,  when  he  was 
in  his  thirty-fourth  year,  he  renounced  the  study 
of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy,  as  well 
as  of  all  human  learning,  and  devoted  himself 
wholly  to  religious  meditation,  mortification,  and 
prayer.  The  last  five  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in 
retirement  at  Port  Royal,  near  Paris.  But  his 
retirement  did  not  prevent  his  noticing  what  was 
passing  in  the  world;  and  he  took  an  interest  in 
the  controversy  between  the  Jesuits  and  the 
Jansenists,  which  led  to  the  publication  of  the 
Provincial  Letters,  in  favor  of  the  latter.  The 
wit  and  genius  of  his  Provincial  Letters  have 
always  been  acknowledged,  though  their  fairness 
has  been  questioned.  His  Thoughts  on  Religion 
has  been  translated  into  most  European  lan- 
guages, and  has  been  many  times  republished. 
Died  at  Paris,  1662. 

Pasteur  (pds'-tur'),  Louis,  distinguished  French 
chemist  and  bacteriologist,  born  in  1822  at  D61e. 
He  received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  science  in 
1847;  in  1848  became  professor  of  physical 
science  at  Dijon,  and  in  1849  of  chemistry  at 
Strassburg.  In  1854  he  became  dean  of  the 
faculty  of  science  at  Lille;  in  1857  director  of 
the  Ecole  Normale  Supdrieure,  Paris;  in  1863 
professor  of  geology,  physics,  and  chemistry  at 
the  school  of  fine  arts;  and  1867-75  professor  of 
chemistry  at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris.  From  1886 
on,  his  researches  were  made  in  connection  with 
the  Pasteur  institute.  At  a  very  early  date  he 
became  celebrated  for  researches  on  isomeric 
crystals  and  their  behavior  in  polarized  light, 
which  obtained  for  him  the  London  royal  society's 
Rumford  medal  in  1856.  In  the  years  1854-57 
he  made  researches  on  ferments  and  fermentation, 
which  also  created  an  epoch,  and  led  directly  to 
his  further  studies  in  specific  germs.  He  subse- 
quently spent  four  years  in  studying  and  suc- 
cessfully combating  the  contagious  silkworm  dis- 
ease; then  the,  diseases  of  fowl-cholera  and 
anthrax,  which  he  successfully  treated  by  vaccine 
of  diluted  virus.  In  1882  he  was  elected  to  the 
French  academy.  His  latest  work  was  connected 
with  a  vaccine  treatment  for  hydrophobia;  but 
concerning  this  much  doubt  has  been  expressed 
of  late  years.  Pasteur  must,  however,  be 
regarded  as  the  parent  of  the  whole  modem 
science  of  bacteriology,  which  has  already 
attained  such  momentous  results.     Died,    1895. 

Pater  (pa'-tSr),  Walter  Horatio,  English  essayist 
and  critic,  was  born  in  London,  1839,  edu- 
cated at  Oxford,  and  became  a  fellow  at  Brase- 
nose  college.  Except  for  short  visits  to  the 
continent,  he  spent  practically  all  of  his  life  in 
quiet  study  at  Oxford.     He  came  early  under 


the  influence  of  Keble,  Jowett,  and  Ruslcin,  and 
succeeded  the  latter  as  the  high  priest  of  aesthetic 
thought.  Hia  Studies  in  the  History  of  the 
Renaissance  in  1873  revealed  him  as  a  penetrat- 
ing critic  with  a  beautiful  prose  style.  Among 
hia  other  works  are:  Alariua  the  lijticurean; 
Imaginary  Portraits;  Plato  and  Platonism;  The 
Child  in  the  House;  and  Greek  Studies.  He  died 
in  1894. 

Paton  {pa'-tun)f  Sir  Joseph  Noel,  British  painter, 
was  born  at  Dunfermline,  Scotland,  1821.  Ho 
stwlied  art  at  the  royal  academy,  London.  His 
pictures  of  "Christ  Bearing  the  Cross,"  and 
'Reconciliation  of  Obcron  and  Titania,"  together 
gained  a  prize  of  $1,500.  Scenes  from  fairyland 
and  legend  and  religious  allegory  have  made  his 
work  familiar  and  have  often  been  engraved. 
Among  his  works  are:  "Home  from  theCnmea"; 
"Luther  at  Erfurt";  "The  Fairy  Raid"; 
"Gethsemane";  "Christ  and  Mary  at  the 
Sepulchre";  "The  Man  of  Sorrows";  and 
"Ihy  Will  Be  Done."  He  is  known  also  by  his 
illustrations  of  the  Lays  of  the  Scottish  Cavaliers 
and  The  Ancient  Mariner.     Died,  1901. 

Patten  (p&f-'n),  Simon  Nelson,  American  economist 
and  writer,  professor  of  political  economy,  uni- 
versity of  Pennsvlvania,  since  1888,  was  born  at 
Sandwich,  111.,  1852.  He  graduated  at  Halle, 
Germany,  1878,  with  the  degree  of  Ph.  D. 
Author:  Premises  of  Political  Economy;  Eco~ 
nomic  Basis  of  Protection;  Theory  of  Dynamic 
Economics;  Theory  of  Social  Forces;  Develop- 
ment of  English  Thought;  Theory  of  Prosperity; 
Heredity  and  Social  Progress;  The  New  Basis  of 
Civilization,  etc. 

Patterson,  Thomas  Macdonald,  lawyer,  journalist, 
ex-United  States  senator,  was  born  in  Ireland, 
1840.  He  was  brought  to  the  United  States  in 
childhood,  and  received  his  education  at  Asbury 
(now  De  Pauw)  university,  and  Wabash  college; 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  has  practiced  at 
Denver,  Colorado.  He  was  city  attorney,  Den- 
ver, 1874;  delegate  in  congress,  Colorado  terri- 
tory, 1875-77;  elected  first  member  of  congress, 
Colorado,  for  term  of  1877-79;  purchased  Rocky 
Mountain  News,  1890,  and  has  edited  it  ever 
since.  He  was  elected  Urxited  States  senator 
from  Colorado,  1901-07. 

Pattl  (pdt'-e),  Adelina  Maria  Clorlnda  (now 
Baroness  Rolf  Cederstrom),  noted  operatic  singer, 
was  born  at  Madrid,  Spain,  1843,  daughter  of 
Salvatore  Patti  of  Catania,  Sicily,  and  Caterina 
Chiesa,  a  well-known  opera  singer.  She  studied 
under  Ettore  Barili,  and  made  her  d^but  at  the 
Academy  of  Music,  New  York,  1859;  Italian 
opera  house,  Covent  Garden,  in  La  Sonnambida, 
1861.  Her  voice  was  a  high  soprano,  of  rich 
bell-like  quality  and  remarkable  evenness  of  tone ; 
to  these  qualities  she  added  purity  of  style  and 
high  artistic  finish.  She  won  golden  opinions  on 
the  continent  wherever  she  appeared,  and  re- 
ceived, in  1870,  the  order  of  merit  from  the 
emperor  of  Russia.  Her  greatest  success  is 
generally  considered  to  have  been  in  the  part 
of  Marguerite  in  Gounod's  Faiist.  In  1868  she 
was  married  to  the  Marquis  de  Caux,  from  whom 
she  was  divorced  in  1885.  She  then  married 
M.  Nicolini,  in  1886,  who  died  in  1898,  and  finally 
Baron  Cederstrom,  in  1899.  She  has  appeared 
in  the  United  States,  South  America,  and  Mexico 
at  various  times 

Pattlson,  Mark,  English  writer  and  scholar,  was 
bom  at  Hornby,  in  Yorkshire,  England,  in  1813. 
He  studied  at  Oxford  and  became  a  fellow  of 
Lincoln  college  in  1839.  His  life  was  that  of  a 
scholar,  and  his  standard  was  so  high  that  his 
work  largely  suggests  his  power  as  a  writer.  He 
contributed  articles  to  the  Quarterly,  the  Weat- 
m^inster,  and  the  Saturday  Review,  and  wrote 
biographies  of  Isaac  Casaubon  and  Milton,  the 


914 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


latter  one  of  the  best  lives  in  the  English  Men  of 
LeUers  series.  He  also  edited  Pope's  Essay  on 
Man,  his  Satires  and  Epistles,  and  the  Sonnets  of 
Milton.  In  1861  he  was  made  rector  of  Lincoln 
college.     He  died  at  Harrowgate,  1884. 

Fatten,  Francis  Landey.  American  educator,  theo- 
logian, was  born  in  Warwick  parish,  Bermuda, 
1843.  He  was  educated  at  Knox  college. 
Toronto,  and  university  of  Toronto;  graduated 
from  Princeton  theological  seminary,  18G5; 
LL.  D.,  Wooster  miiversity,  1878,  Harvard, 
1889,  Toronto,  1894,  Yale,  1901,  Johns  Hopkins, 
1902.  He  was  ordained  to  Presbyterian  min- 
istry, 1865;  was  pastor  of  84th  street  Presby- 
terian church.  New  York,  1865-67,  Presbyterian 
church,  Nyack,  1867-70,  and  South  church, 
Brooklyn,  1871.  He  was  professor  in  McCormick 
theological  seminary,  Chicago,  1872-81 ;  pastor 
of  Jefferson  Park  Presbyterian  church,  Chicago, 
1874-81 ;  was  moderator  of  the  general  assembly. 
1878;  professor  of  relations  of  philosophy  and 
science  to  the  Christian  religion,  Princeton 
theological  seminary,  1881-88,  and  since  1886 
professor  of  ethics,  Princeton  university.  He 
was  president  of  jPrinceton  university,  1888- 
1902,  and  resigned  to  accept  the  presidency  of 
Princeton  theological  seminary.  Author:  The 
Inspiration  of  the  Scriptures;  Summary  of  Chris- 
tian Doctrine,  etc. 

Paul  St.     See  page  206. 

Paul  III.  (Alessandro  Famese),  pope  from  1534  to 
1549,  was  born  in  Tuscany  m  1468.  Though 
ambitious  to  advance  his  family,  making  car- 
dinals of  two  grandsons  while  they  were  yet  bovs. 
he  was,  however,  a  wise  ruler  and  surrounded 
himself  with  good  cardinals.  His  bull,  or  decree 
of  excommunication  against  Henry  VIII.  of 
England,  issued  in  1538,  and  the  one  forming  the 
order  of  the  Jesuits,  1540,  are  the  most  imjjortant 
edicts  of  his  reign.  He  supported  Charles  V.  in 
his  struggles  against  the  Protestant  league  in 
Germany.     He  died  suddenly,  1549. 

Paulding,  James  Kirke,  American  author,  was  bom 
at  Pleasant  Valley,  N.  Y.,  1779.  He  was  self- 
educated,  early  developed  a  tendencv  to  litera- 
ture, was  a  friend  of  Washington  Irving,  and 
wrote  a  portion  of  Salmaguruli.  During  the  war 
of  1812  he  published  The  Diverting  History  of 
John  Bull  and  Brother  Jonathan;  in  1813  a 
parody  on  the  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,  entitled 
A  Lay  of  the  Scottish  Fiddle;  and  in  1814  a  mor« 
serious  work.  The  United  States  and  England,  a 
defense  against  articles  in  the  Quarterly  Review. 
He  held  at  one  period  the  post  of  navy  agent 
at  New  York,  and  was  appointed  by  President 
Van  Buren  secretary  of  the  navy.  At  the  close 
of  Van  Buren's  presidency,  in  1841,  Paulding 
retired  to  a  country  residence  at  Hyde  Park, 
N.  Y.,  where  he  wrote  The  Old  Continental,  a 
novel ;  The  Puritan  and  His  Daughter;  and, 
with  his  son,  a  volume  of  plays  and  fairy  tales. 
Died,  1860. 

Paur  {pour),  Emil,  German  musical  director, 
director  of  New  York  philharmonic  society,  and 
conductor  of  Paur  orchestra,  1899-1900;  was 
bom  in  Austria,  1855.  He  was  a  pupil  of  his 
father,  of  Hellmesberger  for  viohn,  and  of  Dessoff 
for  composition,  and  also  graduated  at  the 
Vienna  conservatory.  He  was  appointed  first 
violin  of  Vienna  imperial  opera  house;  court 
conductor  at  Cassel,  Hanover,  1876-80:  first 
conductor  and  director  of  opera  and  Abonne- 
ments-Konzerte,  Mannheim,  1880-88 ;  conductor 
of  opera,  Leipzig,  1888-93 ;  conductor  of  Boston 
aymphony,  1893-98.  He  has  also  appeared 
With  leading  concert  organizations,  and  as 
solo  pianist,  and  has  been  conductor  of  the 
Pittsburgh  orchestra  since  1904. 

Paxton,  Sir  Joseph,  Enghsh  architect,  was  bom  in 
Bedfordshire,  England,  1801.     He  began  life  as 


a  gardener  in  the  service  of  the  duke  of  Devon- 
shire His  care  of  the  great  glass  conservatories 
of  the  duke  of  Chatsworth  suggested  to  him  the 
use  of  glass  and  iron  for  the  building,  in  Hyde 
Park,  London,  of  the  great  exhibition  of  1851. 
Paxton  was  knighted  for  his  successful  design. 
He  afterward  designed  the  Crystal  Palace  at 
Sydenham,  and  superintended  its  building,  laid 
out  the  terraces,  and  planned  the  gardens  He 
published  the  Cottage  Calendar,  which  was  very 
popular-  Paxton  a  Flower  Garden;  edited  the 
Botanical  Magarine,  and  a  Botanical  Pocket 
Dictionary  He  sat  in  parliament  for  nine  years, 
and  died  at  Sydenham,  near  Ix>ndon,  1865. 

Payne,  John  Howard,  American  dramatist,  was 
bom  at  New  York,  1792  His  first  appearance 
as  an  actor  was  in  that  city  in  1809.  He  was  a 
successful  actor  for  thirty  years,  and  also  wrote 
several  plays,  of  which  the  best  known  are 
Brutus,  CharUs  II.,  and  Clari.  The  song,  "  Home, 
Sweet  Home,"  for  which  he  is  remembered,  is  in 
Clari,  which  was  produced  as  an  opera.  The 
author  of  "  Home,  Sweet  Home  "  had  no  home  for 
the  last  forty  years  of  his  life,  and  died  during 
his  incumbency  as  American  consul  at  Tunis, 
1852.  His  remains  were  brought  to  America, 
and  buried  at  Washington  in  1883. 

Payne,  Sereno  Elisha,  lawyer,  congressman,  waa 
bom  at  Hamilton,  N.  Y..  1843.  He  graduated 
at  the  university  of  Rochester,  1864;  LL.  D., 
Colgate,  1902,  university  of  Rochester,  1903. 
lie  waa  admitted  to  the  bar,  1866,  and  has  since 
been  in  practice  at  Auburn,  N.  Y.  He  was  dis- 
trict attorney  of  Cayuga  county,  1873-79; 
president  of  board  of  education,  1879^2,  Auburn, 
N.  Y.;  member  of  congress  for  2Cth  district, 
1883-85.  27th  district,  188^87,  31fit  district, 
1889-1913,  and  36th  district,  1913-15,  New  York. 
He  is  chairman  of  the  committee  on  wavs  and 
means;  he  was  active  in  framing  the  McKinley, 
Dingley,  and  Payne- .\ldrich  tariff  laws.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  high  joint  commission  to  nego- 
tiate  treaty  with  Canada,  1898. 

Paynter,  Thomas  H-  lawyer,  ex-United  States 
senator,  was  bom  in  Lewis  county,  Ky.,  1851.  He 
was  educated  at  Rand's  academv,  and  at  Center 
college,  Danville,  Ky.;  studie<f  law,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1872.  Appointed  attorney 
for  Greenup  countv,  Kv.,  1876,  elected  to  that 
office,  1878,  and  held  it  until  1882;  elected  to  the 
fifty- first,  fifty-second,  and  fifty -third  con- 
gresses; electeil  judge  of  the  court  of  appeals  of 
Kentucky  in  1894,  for  an  eight-year  term,  and  to 
accept  which  he  resigned,  in  1895,  as  a  member 
of  the  fifty-third  congress;  waa  reelected  judge 
of  the  court  of  appeab  In  1902,  and  served  until 
1906,  when  he  resigned;  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  senate  for  the  term  1907-13. 

Peabody,  Elizabeth  Palmer,  American  educator, 
was  bom  at  Billerica,  Mass.,  1S04.  She  was  a 
sister  of  Mrs.  Natlianiel  Hawthorne  and  Mrs. 
Horace  Mann.  She  taught  in  the  celebrated 
school  of  Bronson  Alcott,  and  was  one  of  the 
first  to  introiluce  the  methods  of  Froebel  into 
American  schools  and  to  use  object  lessons  in 
teaching.  She  was  the  first  to  estabUsh  a 
kindergarten  in  America.  She  published  many 
works  of  an  educational  character,  especially 
upon  her  favorite  theme.  Among  her  best  known 
works  are:  The  Kindergarten  in  Italy;  Letters  to 
Kindergartners;  Guide  to  the  Kindergarten,  etc. 
She  died  at  Jamaica  Plain,  Mass.,  1894. 

Peabody,  Francis  Greenwood,  American  clergvman 
and  educator,  Plummer  professor  of  Christian 
morals.  Harvard,  1886-1912;  was  bom  at  Boston, 
1847.  He  graduated  at  Harvard.  1869 ,  Harvard 
divinity  school,  1872;  D.  D.,  Yale  and  Harvard; 
LL.  D.,  Western  Reserve.  He  was  pastor  of 
First  Parish  church,  Cambridge,  1874-80;  and 
Parkman  professor  of  theology.  Harvard  divinity 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


915 


school,  1881-86.  Author:  Mominga  in  the 
College  Chapel;  Short  Addresses  to  Young  Men 
on  Personal  Religion:  Founder's  Day  at  Hampton; 
Afternoons  in  the  College  Chapel;  Jesus  Christ 
and  the  Social  Question;  Happiness;  Religion  of 
an  Educated  Man;  Jesus  Christ  and  the  Christian 
Character;  etc. 

Peabody,  George,  American  merchant  and  philan- 
thropist, was  born  at  South  Danvers,  Mass., 
1795.  At  the  age  of  eleven  he  was  placed  with 
a  grocer,  and  at  fifteen  in  a  haberdasher's  shop 
in  Newburyport.  When  twenty-two  years  old 
he  was  a  partner  with  Elisha  liiggs  in  Baltimore. 
In  1827  he  first  visited  England,  whore  he  s(!ttlcd 
permanently  ten  years  later.  Withdrawing  from 
the  Baltimore  firm  in  1843,  he  established  himself 
in  London  as  a  merchant  and  broker,  and  accu- 
mulated a  large  fortune.  In  1851  he  supplied 
the  sum  required  to  fit  up  the  American  depart- 
ment at  the  great  exhibition  in  London.  In  the 
following  year  he  sent  a  large  donation,  afterward 
increased  to  $270,000,  to  found  an  educational 
institute,  etc.,  in  his  native  town  of  South 
Danvers  (which  is  now  called  Peabody).  He 
contributed  $1,400,000  to  the  city  of  Baltimore 
for  an  institute  of  science,  literature,  and  the 
fine  arts;  and  $8,000,000  for  the  promotion  of 
education,  endowment  of  libraries,  etc.,  in  the 
United  States.  From  1862  to  1868  ho  gave 
£350,000  for  the  benefit  of  the  London  poor, 
and  in  his  will  he  left  £150,000  for  the  same 
purpose.     He  died  in  London,  1869. 

Peabody,  George  Foster,  American  banker,  was 
born  at  Columbus,  Ga.,  1852.  He  was  educated 
in  private  schools  there,  and  subsequently  en- 
gaged in  banking  in  New  York.  He  was  vice- 
president  and  director  of  the  Mexican  Northern 
railway  company,  Potosi  and  Rio  Verde  railway 
company,  Mexican  coal  and  coke  company, 
Alvarez  land  and  timber  company,  Compania 
Metallurgica  Mexicana,  Montezuma  lead  com- 
pany; director  of  Mexican  mineral  railway- 
company,  Conquista  coal  railway  company, 
Southern  improvement  company  of  New  York; 
director  of  general  education  board,  southern 
education  board ;  was  member  of  board  of  mana- 
gers of  American  Bible  society ;  trustee  of  Hamp- 
ton normal  and  agricultural  institute,  Colorado 
college ;  general  vice-president  of  American  civic 
federation,  1905,  etc. 

Pftale,  Charles  Wlllson,  American  portrait-painter, 
was  born  at  Chestertown,  Maryland,  1741.  He 
received  his  art  education  from  Copley  and 
Benjamin  West.  His  paintings  are  chiefly  por- 
traits, for  which  he  was  celebrated,  among  them 
being  several  of  Washington.  In  1785  he 
formed  a  collection  of  natural  curiosities,  and 
founded  Peale's  museum  at  Philadelphia.  Dur- 
ing the  revolutionary  war,  he  commanded  a 
company  of  soldiers  at  Trenton  and  at  German- 
town.     He  died  at  Philadelphia,  1827. 

Peale,  Bembrandt,  American  painter,  the  son  of 
Charles  W.  Peale,  was  born  in  Pennsylvania, 
1778.  He  resided  for  some  time  at  Charleston, 
S.  C,  and  then  went  to  England  and  France  to 
study  his  art.  Besides  his  many  portraits,  he 
painted  several  historical  pictures,  among  them 
the  well-known  "Roman  Daughter,"  and  "The 
Court  of  Death."  He  published  Notes  on  Italy, 
and  Portfolio  of  Art  and  Artists.  He  died  at 
Philadelphia,  1860. 

Pearsons,  Daniel  Kimball,  American  philanthropist 
was  bom  at  Bradford,  Vt.,  1820.  He  graduated 
in  medicine  at  Woodstock,  Vt.,  and  practiced  in 
Chickopee,  Mass.,  until  1857.  He  then  became 
a  farmer  in  Ogle  county,  Illinois,  in  1857,  but 
in  1860  he  removed  to  Chicago,  where  he  rapidly 
accumulated  a  large  fortune  in  real  estate.  For 
some  years  he  served  the  city  as  alderman  and 
assisted  in  managing  its  financial  budgets.     He 


is  best  known  through  hia  largo  gifts  to  educa- 
tional and  eleemosynary  institutions,  the  Pres- 
byterian hospital  of  Chicago,  and  the  Chicago 
theological  seminary  being  especially  favored. 
There  are  few  of  the  smaller  colleges  to  wluch 
he  did  not  give  from  $25,000  to  $250,000,  and 
his  gifts  run  well  up  into  the  millions.     Died,  1912. 

Peary  (pc'-rl),  Josephine  DIcbltsch,  arctic  traveler, 
author,  was  bom  and  educated  in  Washington, 
D.  C.  She  married  Lieutenant  Robert  Edwin 
Peary,  of  the  United  States  navy,  explorer,  1888; 
accompanied  him  on  his  1891-92  and  1893-94 
expeditions  as  far  as  winter  quarters  in  Green- 
land ;  was  the  first  white  woman  to  winter  with 
an  arctic  expedition,  and  her  daughter,  Mario 
Ahnighito,  is  the  most  northerly  bom  white  cliild 
in  the  world.  She  accompanied  her  husband  on 
his  arctic  trip  in  1897;  went  North  to  meet  him 
in  1900;  the  ship  was  caught  in  the  ice  and 
she  wintered  with  her  little  daughter  at  Cape 
Saline  in  78"  42'  north  latitude.  She  went 
North  again  in  1902,  returning  with  her  husband. 
Author:  My  Arctic  Jourrud,  and  The  Snow 
Baby. 

Peary,  Robert  Edwin,  arctic  explorer,  officer  of 
United  States  navy,  was  bom  at  Cresson,  Pa., 
1856.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin,  1877 ;  entered 
United  States  navy  as  civil  engineer,  1881;  was 
assistant  engineer  Nicaragua  ship  canal  under 
government  orders,  1884-85;  engineer  in  charge 
of  Nicaragua  canal  surveys,  1887-88;  invented 
rolling-lock  gates  for  canal ;  made  reconnoissance, 
1886,  of  the  Greenland  inland  ice-cap,  east  of 
Disco  bay;  was  chief  of  arctic  expedition  of  acad- 
emy of  natural  sciences  of  Philadelphia,  1891-92, 
to  northeast  angle  of  Greenland ;  discovered  and 
named  Melville  Land  and  Heilprin  Land,  lying 
beyond  Greenland ;  made  another  arctic  voyage, 
1893-95;  failed  to  reach  the  northern  end  of 
Greenland  on  third  trip.  Fitted  out  another  ship, 
and  sailed  on  another  polar  expedition  in  1905. 
He  was  commander  of  arctic  expedition  under 
auspices  of  Peary  arctic  club  of  New  York  city, 
1898-1902,  and  attained  a  latitude  of  84°  17' 
north.  In  1908-09  he  made  a  fourth  expedition, 
and  claims  to  have  reached  the  pole  in  April, 
1909.     Author:   Northward  Over  the  Great  Ice. 

Peck,  Harry  Thurston,  American  educator,  scholar 
and  writer,  professor  of  Latin,  Columbia  univer- 
sitv,  1888-1910;  was  bom  at  Stamford,  Conn., 
1856.  He  graduated  at  Columbia,  1881;  Ph.D.; 
L.  H.  D. ;  LL.  D. ;  and  studied  in  Berlin,  Paris, 
and  Rome.  He  was  literary  editor  of  The  Cojti- 
mercial  Advertiser,  1897-1901,  and  editor  of  The 
Bookman,  1895-1907.  Author:  The  Personal 
Equation;  The  Semitic  Theory  of  Creation;  Latin 
Pronunciation;  The  Adventures  of  Mabel;  What  is 
Good  Englisht  Grey  stone  and  Porphyry,  poems; 
Twenty  Years  of  the  Republic;  The  Life  of  Pres- 
cott;  Hilda  and  Her  Wishes;  Studies  in  Severed 
Literatures;  Literature;  The  New  Baedeker;  A 
History  of  Classical  Philology.  Editor  of  Harper's 
Classical  Dictionary;  The  International  Cyclo- 
pcedia;  The  New  International  Encyclopaedia; 
American  Atlas  of  the  World;  The  Library  of  the 
World's  Literature;  Masterpieces  of  Literature. 
Consulting  editor  International  Year  Book,  and 
translator  of  Trimalchio's  Dinner,  etc. 

Peckham,  Rufus  Wheeler,  American  jurist,  was 
bom  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  1838.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Albany  academy  and  in  Philadelphia; 
studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  1859 ; 
LL.  D.,  Union  college,  1894,  Yale,  1896,  Columbia, 
1901.  He  was  district  attorney  of  Albany 
county,  1868;  corporation  counsel,  city  of 
Albany,  1880-81 ;  justice  of  supreme  court  of 
New  York,  1883-86 ;  associate  justice  of  court  of 
appeals.  New  York,  1886-95;  and  associate 
justice  of  United  States  supreme  court  {ix>m 
1895  until  bis  death  in  1909. 


916 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Pedro  I.  (pd'-dro),  emperor  of  Brazil,  was  the 
second  son  of  John  VI.  of  Portugal,  and  was  born 
in  1798.  He  fled  to  Brazil  with  his  parents  on 
Napoleon's  invasion,  and  became  prmce-regent 
of  Brazil  on  his  father's  return  to  Portugal,  1821. 
He  declared  for  Brazilian  independence  in  1822, 
and  was  crowned  as  Pedro  I.  The  new  empire 
did  not  prove  successful  under  his  rule,  and 
Pedro  in  1831  abdicated,  withdrew  to  Portugal, 
where,  after  securing  the  throne  for  his  daughter, 
he  died,  1834. 

Pedro  II.,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  bom,  1825, 
became  emperor  of  Brazil  on  his  father's  abdica- 
tion, and,  distinguished  by  his  love  of  learning 
and  scholarly  tastes,  reigned  in  peace  until  the 
revolution  of  1889  drove  him  to  Europe.  He 
died  at  Paris,  1891. 

Peel,  Sir  Robert,  English  statesman,  was  bom  near 
Bury,  Lancashire,  1788.  He  graduated  at  Oxford 
in  1808,  and  next  year  entered  parliament  as 
tory  member  for  Cashel;  afterward  sat  for 
Oxford  university,  and  after  1832  for  Tamworth. 
He  was  appointed  under-secretarv  for  the 
colonies  in  1811,  and  from  1812  until  1818  was 
secretary  for  Ireland.  In  1822  he  became  home 
secretary,  but  seceded  from  the  government 
when  Canning  became  premier  in  1827.  The 
question  at  issue  was  Catholic  emancipation,  and 
it  was  characteristic  of  Peel  that  in  the  govern- 
ment which  succeeded  Canning's  he  had  the 
courage,  having  changed  his  opmions,  to  intro- 
duce the  measure  which  temoved  the  disabili- 
ties. Opposed  to  reform  he  became  leader  of  the 
conservative  opposition  in  the  parliament  of 
1833,  and  was  called  to  the  premiership  in  1834. 
He  could  not  maintain  his  administration,  how- 
ever, and  it  was  not  until  1841  that  the  victory  of 
protection  over  the  free-trade  agitation  gave  him 
a  stable  majority  in  the  house  of  commons.  His 
first  measure  was  a  modification  of  the  com  laws 
on  protectionist  principles,  1842;  then  followed 
the  income-tax  and  general  tariff  revision.  In 
1845  the  agitation  for  free-trade  in  com  was 
brought  to  a  crisis  by  the  Irish  potato  famine. 
Peel  yielded,  and  next  year  carried  the  final 
repeal  of  the  import  duties  on  food  stuffs.  His 
"conversion"  split  the  tory  party  and  he  retired 
from  office,  becoming  a  supporter  of  the  whig 
ministry  in  its  economical  and  ecclesiastical 
policy.  He  was  a  master  of  finance,  an  easy 
speaker,  slow  to  form  but  conscientious  to  act 
upon  his  convictions,  and  a  man  of  the  highest 
character.  His  death,  in  1850,  was  the  result  of 
a  fall  from  horseback. 

Peelle,  Stanton  Judkins,  American  jurist,  was  bom 
in  Wayne  county,  Indiana,  1843.  He  was 
educated  in  public  schools  and  seminary  in  Indi- 
ana; served  in  the  civil  war;  studied  law,  and 
practiced  at  Winchester,  Ind.,  until  1868,  and 
afterward  at  IndianapoUs.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Indiana  legislature,  1877-79 ;  member  of  con- 
gress, 1881-83;  judge,  1892-1905,  chief-justice, 
1906-13,  United  States  court  of  claims.  He  was 
professor  of  the  law  of  partnership,  and  bailment 
m  the  law  department  of  George  Washington 
university,  1901-11;  tmstee  of  Howard  univer- 
sity and  Garfield  hospital. 
Pehrce,  Benja,min,  American  mathematician,  was 
bom  at  Salem,  Mass.,  1809.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1829;  in  1833  became  professor  at 
Harvard;  m  1849  astronomer  to  the  American 
^auttcal  Almanac;  and  in  1867-74  was  superin- 
il'^^A  u  *^®  U,^*«*i  S*a<^es  coast  survey  In 
l8vJb-46  he  issued  a  series  of  mathematical  text- 
i^^SAQ  J  papers  on  the  discovery  of  Neptune, 
W.iv.t^',-^''*^  ""^  Saturn's  rings  brought  him  mem- 
A^.2  'S^'"!-  '!^™^^  societies  in  Europe  and 
P^fa^T,  /^  j^-  ^.'^-^s^*  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1880. 
IhfLJ^^'^t'^^'  ^"*h'»'-  «»•  systematizer  of 
the  doctrine  known  as  Pelagianism,  was  bom 


about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  in 
Britain,  or,  according  to  some  authorities,  in 
Bretagne.  His  name  is  supposed  to  be  a  Greek 
rendering  of  the  Celtic  apix-llative  Morgan. 
or  sea-bom.  He  settled  in  Rome;  at  the  end 
of  the  fourth  century  had  already  acquired  a 
considerable  reputation  for  sanctity  and  for 
knowledge  of  the  scriptures  and  the  spiritual 
life.  He  then  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem, 
and  in  415  was  accused  of  heresy  before  the 
synod  of  Jerusalem,  by  a  Spaniard  named 
Orosius.  The  impeachment  failed,  but  the 
synod  of  Carthage,  in  416,  condemned  him.  He 
was  then  banished  from  Home  in  418  by  the 
emperor  Honorius.  From  this  date  Pelagius 
disappears.  Of  his  after  life  nothing  is  known 
in  detail.  The  controversy,  considered  as  an 
exercise  of  intellectual  energy,  is  the  most 
remarkable  in  the  ancient  history  of  the  church. 
But  the  most  important  of  the  writings  on  the 
Pelagian  side  have  been  lost. 

P^llssier  {pd'-le'-»y&'),  Aimabie  Jean  Jacques,  a 
marshal  of  France,  was  bom  at  Maromme  near 
Rouen,  1794.  He  entered  the  French  army  at 
the  age  of  twenty;  and  after  thirty-six  years' 
service  attained  the  rank  of  general  in  1850,  In 
the  Crimean  war.  in  1855,  he  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  first  corps,  and  soon  succeeded 
Marshal  Canrobert  in  the  chief  command  before 
Sebastopol.  On  the  8th  of  September  he 
stormed  the  Malakoff,  for  wliich  he  was  rewarded 
with  a  marshal's  baton,  and  after  the  fall  of 
Sebastopol  he  was  also  created  Due  de  Malakoff, 
and  rewarded  with  a  grant  of  $20,000.  He 
became  governor-general  of  Algiers  in  1800  and 
died  there  in  1864. 

Pellico  (pU'-U-kO),  Silvio,  Italian  patriot  and  poet, 
was  born  at  Saluzzo,  in  Piedmont,  1788.  In 
1819  he  became  connected  with  a  liberal  periodi- 
cal wliich  was  published  in  Milan  under  the  title 
of  II  Conciliatore,  "The  Conciliator,"  and  also 
joined  the  revolutionary  society  of  the  Car- 
bonari. Arrested  in  the  following  year  on  a 
charge  of  conspiracy  against  the  Austrian  gov- 
ernment, he  was  imprisoned  from  1822  to  1830 
in  the  subterranean  dungeons  of  the  fortress  of 
Spielberg,  near  Briinn,  being  at  last  liberated  by 
the  command  of  the  emperor.  His  account  of 
his  imprisonment,  published  in  1833  under  the 
title  of^  Le  mie  Priqioni,  "Mv  Prisons,"  has  been 
translated  into  most  of  the  t^uropean  languages. 
He  also  wrote  the  tragedies,  Francesco  da  Rimini 
and  Laodamia.     He  died  at  Turin,  1854. 

Pelopidas  {pe-l6j/-l-das),  Theban  general  of  noble 
descent,  was  noted  among  his  fellow  citizens  for 
his  disinterested  patriotism.  The  inviolable 
friendship  between  nimself  —  one  of  the  richest 
men  in  Thebes  —  and  Epaminondas  —  one  of 
the  poorest  —  is  among  the  most  beautiful 
things  recorded  in  Greek  history.  In  382  B.  C. 
he  was  driven  from  Thebes  by  the  oligarchic 
party,  who  were  supported  by  the  Spartans,  and 
forced  to  seek  refuge  at  Athens,  whence  he 
returned  secretly  with  a  few  associates,  379 
B.  C.,  and  recovered  possession  of  the  Kadmeia, 
or  citadel,  slaying  the  Spartan  leader,  Leon- 
tiades,  with  his  own  hand.  His  "sacred  band" 
of  Theban  vouth  largely  contributed  to  the 
victory  of  Epaminondas  at  Leuctra,  in  371 
B.  C,  but  failed  on  a  subsequent  attack  on 
Sparta  itself.  In  the  expedition  of  the  Thebans 
against  the  tyrant,  Alexander  of  Pherae,  368 
B.  C,  he  was,  after  several  important  successes, 
treacherously  taken  prisoner.  In  364  B.  C.  he 
won  the  battle  of  Cynoscephalae,  but  was  him- 
self killed. 

Pels,  Paul  Johannes,  German-American  architect, 
was  bom  in  Seitendorf,  Germany,  1841.  He  was 
educated  at  the  college  of  St.  Elizabeth  and  col- 
lege   of    the    Holy    Spirit,     Breslau.     He    left. 


\(/lLLlAM   PENN 
From  a  fainting  by  jf .  L.  G.  Ferris 


THROUGHOUT  THE   WORLD 


019 


however,  at  sixteen  to  join  his  father,  who  settled 
in  the  United  States  for  poUtical  reasons.  He 
then  studied  architecture,  1859-66,  in  New  York, 
under  Detlef  Lienau;  was  connected  with 
United  States  lighthouse  board  as  architect  and 
civil  engineer,  during  which  service  he  designed 
many  lighthouses.  He  was  one  of  the  architects 
of  the  Congressional  library  building.  Washington, 
D.  C. ;  architect  of  Georgetown  college  academic 
building;  Carnegie  library,  and  music  hall  build- 
ing, Allegheny,  Pa.;  United  States  government 
array  and  navy  hospital,  Hot  Springs,  Ark. ; 
Chamberlain  hotel.  Old  Point  Comfort,  Va. ; 
clinic  hospital,  university  of  Virginia;  Aula 
Christi,  Chautauqua,  N.  Y. ;  machinery  hall, 
Louisiana  Purchase  exposition,  and  many 
others. 

Penn,  William,  celebrated  Quaker,  and  the  founder 
of  Pennsylvania,  was  born  in  London,  1644.  He 
studied  at  Oxford,  early  gave  evidence  of  strong 
religious  impulses,  and  adopted  the  new  doctrines 
of  the  so-called  society  of  Friends.  This  step  on 
his  part  caused  his  expulsion  from  the  university 
and  consequent  estrangement  from  his  father. 
In  1667  he  was  arrested  and  imprisoned,  and  in 
1669  commenced  preaching  in  London,  for  which 
offense  he  was  tried  before  the  court  of  common 
pleas,  and  heavily  fined.  He  remained  in  prison 
for  some  time  on  his  refusal  to  pay  the  fine,  which 
his  father  ultimately  paid  for  him.  In  1681, 
Penn,  who  had  inherited  from  his  father  a  claim 
against  the  government  of  £16,000,  obtained 
from  the  king  in  satisfaction  therefor  a  grant  of 
an  extensive  tract  of  country  lying  west  of  the 
Delaware  river  and  north  of  Maryland,  in  the 
American  plantations,  and  which  in  the  roval 
patent  was  called  Pennsylvania  (Penn's  wooded 
country),  in  honor  of  the  late  admiral,  the  father 
of  the  grantee.  This  territory  Penn  resolved  to 
form  into  a  commonwealth  based  upon  perfect 
religious  toleration,  and  accordingly  set  sail 
thither,  arriving  in  Delaware  bay  on  the  27th  of 
October,  1682.  In  November  he  entered  into  a 
league  with  the  Indians,  and  next  founded  the 
city  of  Philadelphia.  In  1684  he  returned  to 
England,  where  he  enjoyed  the  confidence  of 
James  II.,  who  had  been  his  father's  friend. 
After  the  accession  of  the  prince  of  Orange  as 
William  III.,  Penn  was  twice  accused  of  treason, 
and  was  arrested  in  1690  on  a  charge  of  con- 
spiracy, but  was  finally  and  honorably  ac(^uitted 
in  1693.  In  1699  he  paid  a  second  visit  to 
Pennsylvania,  and  his  stay,  which  lasted  two 
years,  was  marked  bv  many  useful  naeasures, 
and  by  efforts  to  ameliorate  the  condition  both 
of  the  Indians  and  the  negroes.  In  1701  he 
returned  to  England,  and  died,  1718. 

Pennell  {pin'-U),  Joseph,  American  artist,  illus- 
trator, author,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  1860. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  the  Pennsylvania  academy  of 
fine  arts'  and  Pennsylvania  school  of  industrial 
art.  His  works  are  represented  in  the  national 
collections  of  France,  at  Dresden,  Budapest, 
Melbourne,  Perth,  Adelaide,  and  in  many  state 
and  municipal  collections  in  Europe  and  America. 
He  was  chairman  of  the  international  jury  of 
awards,  St.  Louis  exposition,  1904.  Author: 
A  Canterbury  Pilgrimage;  An  Italian  Pilgrimage; 
Two  Pilgrims'  Progress;  Our  Sentimental  Journey 
Through  France  and  Italy;  Pen  Dravnng  and 
Pen  Draughtsmen;  Our  Journey  to  the  Hebrides; 
The  Stream  of  Pleasure;  The  Jew  at  Home; 
Play  in  Provence;  To  Gypsyland;  Modern  Illus- 
tration; The  Illustration  of  Books;  The  Alhambra; 
The  Work  of  Charles  Keene;  Lithography  and 
Lithographers;  The  Life  of  James  McNeill 
Whistler  (with  Mrs.  Pennell),  etc.  He  has  also 
illustrated  a  large  number  of  books. 

Penrose,  Boles,  politician.  United  States  senator, 
was  bom  in  Philadelphia,  1860.     He  graduated 


from  Harvard  college  in  1881,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1883.  He  practiced  his  professioQ 
in  Philadelphia  for  several  years;  was  elected  to 
the  Pennsylvania  house  of  representatives  la 
1884,  to  the  Pennsylvania  state  senate  in  1886, 
1890,  and  1894;  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
national  republican  committee  from  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1904,  and  to  the  United  States  senate, 
1897.     Reelected  in  1903  and  1909. 

Pepin  le  Bref  (pa'-pdN'  U  brif),  king  of  the  Franks 
and  father  of  Charlemagne,  was  tK)rn  in  714,  the 
younger  son  of  Charles  Martel.  On  the  death 
of  his  father  in  741,  he  received  Neustria  and 
Burgundy;  deposed  Childeric  III.,  and  founded 
the  Carlovingian  dynasty  in  751.  He  was  the 
first  Prankish  monarch  whose  election  received 
the  sanction  of  the  pope,  and  who  was  conse- 
crated to  his  high  dignity.  These  solemn  cere- 
monies put  the  crown,  to  a  great  extent,  at  the 
mercy  of  the  clergy,  who  from  this  time  took  a 
political  rank  in  the  state,  and  from  which  dates 
the  temporal  power  of  the  popes.  Ho  died, 
768. 

Pepper,  Charles  M.,  American  journalist,  was  bom 
in  Ohio,  1859.  He  graduated  at  Wooster  uni- 
versity, 1881.  Appomted  by  President  Roose- 
velt a  delegate  to  the  Pan-American  congress  at 
the  city  of  Mexico,  1901;  was  exposition  com- 
missioner to  Cuba,  1902;  appointed  by  secretary 
of  state  special  Pan-American  railway  commis- 
sioner, 1903;  and  foreign  trade  commissioner, 
department  of  commerce  and  labor,  1906-09. 
He  was  Washington  correspondent  Chicago  Tri- 
bune, 1886-95;  staff  correspondent  New  York 
Herald,  1896-97 ;  from  Cuba  to  leading  American 
papers,  1897-1901.  Author:  Tomorrow  in  Cuba; 
Panama  to  Patagonia,  etc. 

Pepper,  William,  American  physician,  educator, 
author,  and  benefactor,  was  bom  at  Philadelphia, 
1843,  and  educated  at  the  university  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, from  which  he  took  both  his  classical  and 
his  medical  diplomas.  Within  four  years  after 
receiving  his  degree  as  a  physician,  he  was 
appointed  lecturer  in  his  alma  mater,  and  was 
connected  with  it  up  to  the  time  of  his  death. 
He  was  elected  provost  of  the  university  in  1881 ; 
and  during  his  incumbency  of  thirteen  years  it 
became  a  new  institution,  one  of  the  foremost  in 
the  states.  So  great  was  his  devotion  to  the 
university  that  ne  not  only  gave  his  services 
free,  but  contributed  many  thousands  of  dollars 
out  of  his  own  private  fortune  toward  its  various 
endowments.  His  health  suffered  from  too 
constant  application,  and  in  1894  he  retired, 
and  removea  to  California,  where  he  died,  1898. 
His  most  important  literary  work  was  Pepper's 
System  of  Medicine  by  American  Authors,  which 
he  edited. 

Pepperell,  Sir  William,  American  general,  was  bom 
in  Maine  in  1696.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
British  council  for  the  province  of  Massachusetts 
for  thirty-two  years  from  1727,  and  in  1730  was 
appointed  chief-justice  of  the  court  of  common 
pleas.  He  commanded  the  successful  expedition 
against  Louisburg  in  1745,  and  was  made  a 
baronet.  He  was  acting  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts, 1756-58,  and  in  1759  was  made  lieu- 
tenant-general. He  published  an  account  of  a 
Conference  with  the  PcMbscot  Tribe.     Died,  1759. 

Pepys  (peps,  p$p'-is,  pips),  Samuel,  English  poli- 
tician and  diarist,  officer  of  the  English  admiralty 
during  the  reigns  of  Charles  II.  and  James  II., 
was  bom,  1633.  He  was  committed  to  the 
Tower  on  an  unfounded  and  absurd  charge  of 
aiding  in  a  design  to  dethrone  the  king  and 
extirpate  the  Protestant  religion.  Ha\nng  been 
discharged  without  a  trial,  Pepys  was  replaced 
at  his  post  in  the  admiralty,  which  he  retained 
until  the  abdication  of  James  II.  For  two  years 
he  was  president  of  the  royal  society.     He  wrote 


920 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Navy,  1690;  left  to  Mag- 
dalen college,  Cambridge,  his  large  collection  of 
books,  MSS.,  and  prints,  including  about  2,000 
ancient  English  ballads,  fonning  five  folio 
volumes;  but  his  reputation  is  founded  on  his 
Diary  from  1659  to  1669,  which  affords  a  curious 
insight  into  the  manners  and  court  life  of  his 
day.     Died,  1703. 

Pericles  (pSr'-l-Jclez),  greatest  of  Athenian  states- 
men, and  a  general  and  orator,  was  bom  at 
Athens,  495  B.  C.  He  was  the  son  of  Xanthippus 
and  Agariste,  both  of  whom  belonged  to  the 
noblest  families  of  Athens;  received  a  careful 
education,  and  began  to  take  part  in  public 
affairs  when  about  twenty-six  years  of  age.  He 
soon  gained  the  position  of  head  of  the  more 
democratic  party  in  the  state,  in  opposition  to 
Cimon,  the  son  of  Miltiades,  who  was  at  the  head 
of  the  aristocratic  party.  In  461  B.  C.  Cimon 
was  ostracized,  and  gradually  Pericles  was  left 
without  a  rival.  He  led  the  Athenians  against 
Samos  in  440  B.  C,  and  was  their  principal 
adviser  and  commander  during  the  first  two  years 
of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Then  a  plague  broke 
out  in  Athens,  Pericles  lost  his  popularity,  and 
many  of  his  friends.  His  only  surviving  legiti- 
mate son  died  of  the  epidemic;  and  at  length 
he  himself,  worn  out  by  public  and  private 
troubles,  succumbed  to  the  same  disorder. 
Phidias  was  the  friend  of  Pericles,  and  the 
public  buildings  erected  by  him  during  the 
administration  of  Pericles  made  Athens  the 
admiration  of  Greece.  To  Pericles  Athens  was 
indebted  for  the  Parthenon.     He  died,  429  B.  C. 

Perkins,  George  Clement*  United  States  senator, 
was  bom  at  Kennebunkport,  Maine,  1839.  He 
went  to  sea  at  thirteen,  and  was  cabin  boy  and 
sailor  until  1855,  when  he  shipped  before  the 
mast  on  a  sailing  vessel  bound  for  San  Francisco, 
and  on  arrival  there  went  to  Oroville.  He  sub- 
sequently carried  on  a  successful  mercantile 
business  at  San  Francisco;  later  engaged  in 
banking,  milling,  mining,  and  the  steamship 
business;  was  member  of  Goodall,  Perkins  and 
Company,  owners  of  the  Pacific  steamship  com- 
pany; and  first  to  introduce  steam  whalers  for 
Arctic  ocean,  and  operated  numerous  ships  on 
Pacific  ocean  from  Alaska  to  Mexico.  He  was 
state  senator,  1869-76;  governor  of  California, 
1879-83;  appointed  United  States  senator,  1893, 
to  fill  vacancy  caused  by  death  of  Leland  Stan- 
ford and  elected,  1893,  for  remainder  of  same 
term;    reelected,  1895,  1903,  and  1909. 

Perkins,  George  Walbrldge,  financier,  was  bom  at 
Chicago,  1862.  He  received  a  common  school 
education,  and  started  business  career  in  the 
Chicago  office  of  the  New  York  life  insurance 
company,  1877.  Here  he  became  successively 
bookkeeper,  cashier,  1881 ;  inspector  of  agencies, 
1885;  superintendent  of  western  department, 
1889;  third  vice-president,  1892,  in  charge  of 
agency  force,  with  headquarters  at  home  office- 
^cond  vice-president,  1898;  chairman  of  the 
finance  committee.  New  York  Life,  1900;  and 
vice-president,  1903.  He  became  partner  in  the 
banking  firm  of  J.  Pierpont  Morgan  and  Com- 
pany, 1901 ;  financially  interested  in  many  large 
corporations.  " 

Pcn-y,  Bliss,  editor,  author,  educator,  editor  of  the 
AUanttc  Monthly,  1899-1909,  was  bom  in  Wil- 
hamstown,  Mass.,  1860.  He  graduated  at 
Wilhams,  1881;  studied  at  Berlin  and  Strass- 
boirg  umversities;  L.  H.  D.,  Princeton,  1900; 
Wilhams,  1902;  Litt.  D.,  Bowdoin,  1904;  LL  D. 

ot  w^.F*""^^*',^^^-  ^«  ^^«  professor  o^  EngUsh 
at  WilUams,  1886-93;    at  Princeton,  1893-1900- 

Tw!f.^''°'^i?r^^^^'",  °^.  ^°g"«^  literature  at 
Harvard.  Editor:  Selections  from  Burke;  Scotfs 
Woodstock  B.ud  Ivanhoe;  and  LitUe  Masterpieces; 
general    editor  of    Cambridge    editions   of    the 


poets.  Author:  The  Broughton  House;  Salem 
Kittredge,  and  Other  Stories;  The  Plated  City; 
The  Powers  at  Play;  A  Study  of  Prose  Fiction; 
The  Amateur  SpirU;  Walt  Whitman;  Whittier, 
etc. 

Perry,  Oliver  Hazard,  American  naval  commander, 
was  born  in  South  Kingston,  Rhode  Island,  1785. 
During  the  war  of  1812  he  was  chosen  to  fit  out 
a  fleet  at  Presque  Isle  (now  Erie)  on  Lake  Erie. 
After  equipping  nine  vessels,  he  sailed  against 
the  British  fleet,  comprising  six  ships,  but  larger 
and  stronger  than  those  of  the  Americans.  The 
English  attacked  the  Lawrence,  Perry's  flag  ship, 
so  hotly  that  out  of  101  men  on  it  only  eighteen 
were  uninsured.  In  this  strait  Perry  left  the 
Larvrence  in  a  small  boat,  was  rowed  to  the 
Niagara,  and  escaped  unliarmed  from  the  caimon 
balls  that  splashed  around  him.  After  that 
transfer  he  gained  a  splendid  victory,  taking  all 
the  EriRlish  ships.  For  this  s<>rvice  congress 
gave  Perry  a  gold  medal  and  promoted  him  to 
captain.  In  1819  he  commanded  a  fleet  which 
sailed  to  Colombia  and  ascended  the  Orinoco 
river.  While  returning  he  died  of  yellow  fever 
at  the  Port  of  Spain,  Trinidad,  when  thiity-four 
years  old,  1819.  In  18G0  a  marble  statue  of 
nim  was  erected  at  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

PestalosEi  (pSs'-td46t'-se),  Juhann  Helnrlcb,  Swiss 
educationist,  was  born  at  Zurich,  1740.  He 
studied  at  Zurich,  subsequently  turned  his 
attention  to  agriculture,  became  extremely 
interested  in  the  problems  of  education,  and,  in 
1775,  established  on  his  estate,  Neuhof,  a  school 
which  was  intended  to  draw  its  supixjrt  from 
popular  subscription.  This  he  gave  up  in  1780. 
and,  with  government  support,  in  1798  founded 
a  school  for  poor  children  at  Stanz.  He  then 
conducted  schools  at  Burgdorf  and  Yverdon, 
expended  a  considerable  fortune  in  benevolent 
enterprises,  mainly  in  aid  of  orphans  and  poor 
children,  and  died  at  last  m  comparative 
poverty.  The  great  idea  which  lay  at  the  bai^is 
of  his  method  of  intellectual  instruction  —  known 
as  the  Pcstaloszian  system  —  was  that  nothing 
should  be  treated  except  in  a  concrete  way. 
Objects  themselves  became,  in  his  hands,  the 
subject  of  lessons  tending  to  the  development 
of  the  observing  and  reasoning  powers  —  not 
lessons  about  objects.  In  arithmetic  he  began 
with  the  concrete  and  proceeded  to  the  abstract; 
and  into  the  teaching  of  writing  he  for  the  first 
time  introduced  graduation.  His  special  atten- 
tion, however,  was  directed  to  the  moral  and 
religious  training  of  children  as  distinct  from 
their  mere  instrtiction.  Almost  all  Pestalozzi's 
methods  are  now  substantially  adopted  by  the 
instructors  of  elementary  teachers  in  the  schools 
of  Europe  and  America,  and  to  no  other  man 
has  primary  instruction  been  so  largely  indebted. 
His  chief  works  were  How  Gertrude  Instructs  Her 
Children  and  his  Leonard  and  Gertrude.  During 
the  last  two  years  of  his  life  he  wrote  also  his 
autobiography  in  two  works  —  The  Song  of  the 
Dying  Svxin,  and  The  Fortunes  of  My  Life  — 
both  of  which  are  full  of  interest.  He  died  at 
Brugg,  Switzerland,  1827. 

Peter,  St^  one  of  the  foremost  of  the  twelve  apostles, 
originally  called  Simon,  was  the  son  of  Jona,  and 
a  resident  at  Bethsaida.  His  brother  Andrew, 
being  a  disciple  of  John  the  Baptist,  was  by  John 
directed  to  Jesus,  and  speedily  prevailed  on 
Simon  to  accompany  him  to  one  who  he  felt 
convinced  was  the  predicted  Messiah.  Our  Lord 
kindly  received  the  newcomer,  and  gave  him  the 
name  of  Cephas,  the  Aramaic  equivalent  to  the 
Greek  Peter.  Peter  was  a  man  of  ardent  tem- 
perament, affectionate  and  generous.  He  was 
favored  with  special  manifestations  of  his  Master's 
confidence,  and  performed  a  more  prominent  part 
in  the   sacred   history   than   any   other  of  the 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


923 


twelve  disciples.  He  was  crucified  with  his  head 
downward  in  the  persecution  under  Nero,  about 
A.  D.  64. 

Peter  the  Great.     See  page  454. 

Peter  the  Hermit,  French  monk  and  preacher,  was 
bom  at  Amiens,  about  the  middle  of  the  eleventh 
century.  He  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  holy  land 
about  1093,  and  having  witnessed  the  cruelties 
there  inflicted  upon  the  Christians  by  the  Moham- 
medans, communicated  on  his  return  with  Pope 
Urban  II.,  by  whom  he  was  authorized  to  preach 
the  first  crusade  for  the  recovery  of  Jerusalem 
from  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  He  aroused 
western  Europe  by  his  enthusiasm  to  undertake 
several  expeditions,  all  of  which,  except  the  last, 
were  unfortunate;  but  at  length,  in  1099,  he 
had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  Jerusalem  throw 
open  its  gates  to  the  victorious  crusaders  under 
Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  though  he  himself  had 
little  share  in  the  glory  of  the  victory.  His  last 
years  were  spent  in  obscurity,  in  a  monastery 
which  he  had  founded  at  Huy.     Died,  1115. 

Peters,  John  Punnett,  American  clergyman  and 
orientahst,  was  bom  in  New  York,  1852.  He 
graduated  from  Yale,  1873;  studied  philology 
and  theology,  Yale,  Ph.  D.,  1876,  D.  D.,  1895; 
Sc.  D.,  university  of  Pennsylvania,  1895; 
studied  in  Berlin  and  Leipzig,  1879-83.  He  was 
professor  of  old  testament  languages  and  litera- 
ture, Protestant  Episcopal  divinity  school,  Phila- 
delphia, 1884-91 ;  professor  of  Hebrew,  university 
of  Pennsylvania,  1885-93 ;  in  charge  of  expedition 
of  university  of  Pennsylvania  to  Babylonia,  con- 
ducting excavations  at  Nippur,  1888-95;  rector 
of  St.  Michael's  qhurch.  New  York,  since  1893; 
canon  residentiary,  cathedral  of  St.  John  the  Di- 
vine, 1904—10.  Author:  Scriptures,  Hebrew  and 
Christian;  The  Bible  as  Ldterature  (part  author) ; 
In  Lauda  Zion;  Nippur,  or  Explorations  and 
Adventures  on  the  Euphrates;  The  Old  Testament 
and  the  New  Scholarship,  etc.  Translator  of 
Political  History  of  Recent  Times,  and  editor  of 
Diary  of  David  McClure;  Early  Hebrew  Story; 
Some  Tombs  in  the  Necropolis  of  Marissa,  etc. 

Peters,  Madison  Clinton,  clergyman,  was  born  in 
Lehigh  county,  Pennsylvania,  1859.  He  was 
educated  at  Muhlenburg,  and  FrankUn  and 
Marshall  colleges;  graduated  at  Heidelberg  theo- 
logical seminary,  Tiffin,  Ohio;  D.  D.,  Heidelberg 
university  and  Ursinus  college.  He  was  ordained 
to  the  ministry  of  the  Reformed  church,  1880; 
for  eleven  years  was  pastor  of  the  Bloomingdale 
church,  New  York;  resigned  to  become  Baptist; 
was  pastor  of  Sumner  Avenue  Baptist  church, 
Brooklyn,  and  Immanuel  Baptist  church,  Balti- 
more ;  and  of  the  Baptist  church  of  the  Epiphany, 
New  York,  until  1907.  Preached  as  an  inde- 
pendent in  the  Majestic  theater.  New  York. 
Author:  Justice  to  the  Jew;  The  Wit  and 
Wisdom  of  the  Talmud;  The  Jew  as  a  Patriot; 
The  Great  Hereafter;  The  Panacea  for  Poverty; 
Empty  Pews;  Sanctified  Spice;  The  Birds  of 
the  Bible;  Why  I  Became  a  Baptist;  Will  Our 
Republic  Livef  The  Man  Who  Wins;  The  Jews 
in  America;  Will  the  Coming  Man  Marry f 
The  Love  Affairs  of  Great  Poets;  The  True  St. 
Patrick;   Does  Death  End  All?   etc. 

Peterson,  William,  Canadian  educator,  principal  of 
McGill  university  since  1895,  was  bom  in  Edin- 
burgh, 1856.  He  was  educated  at  the  university, 
Edinburgh,  university  of  Gottingen,  and  Oxford 
university;  M.  A.,  Edinburgh  and  Oxford;  hon. 
LL.  D.,  St.  Andrews;  Princeton,  New  Jersey; 
university  of  New  Brunswick;  Yale;  Johns 
Hopkins ;  Pennsylvania.  He  was  assistant  pro- 
fessor of  humanity  in  the  university  of  Edin- 
burgh, 1879-82 ;  principal  of  University  college, 
Dundee,  1882-95.  Author:  QuiniUian'a  Insti- 
tutes of  Oratory;  The  Dialognes  of  Tacitus;  The 
Speech  of  Cicero  for  Cluentius;    The  Relationa  of 


the  English-apeaking  Peoples;  Tlie  Cluni  MS.  of 
Cicero,  etc. 

Petrarch  (pf-trark),  Francis,  great  Italian  poet, 
was  bom  in  1304  at  Arezzo  in  Tuscany.  The 
dissensions  which  distracted  that  country  induced 
his  father  to  remove  to  Avignon;  and  ho  waa 
educated  there  and  at  Montpellier  and  Bologna. 
His  whole  soul,  however,  was  devoted  to  litera- 
ture; but  it  was  not  until  he  was  in  his  twentieth 
year  that  the  death  of  his  father  allowed  him  to 
indulge  his  inclination.  Having  settled  at 
Avignon,  he  became  deeply  attached,  in  1327, 
to  the  beautiful  Laura  de  Noves,  in  whoso  honor 
were  written  those  sonnets  and  odes  wiiich  have 
rendered  his  name  immortal.  After  having 
vainly  traveled  to  forget  or  moderate  his  love, 
he  settled  at  Vaucluse,  a  romantic  spot,  where 
he  wrote  some  of  his  finest  works.  His  literary 
reputation  attracted  the  regard  of  princes;  he 
was  invited  to  Naples,  to  Paris,  and  to  Rome: 
and  received  the  laureate  crown  in  the  capitoi 
of  the  latter  city.  Among  his  warmest  friends 
and  patrons  was  the  Colonna  family.  In  1348 
his  feelings  were  deeply  grieved  by  the  death  of 
Laura.  He  survived  her,  however,  nearly  thirty 
years,  during  which  period  he  was  admired  and 
honored  by  his  own  countrymen,  and  by  foreign 
princes.     He  died,  1374. 

Petrie  (pe'-trl),  William  Matthew  Flinders.  English 
Egyptologist,  was  born  at  Charlton,  1853.  He 
was  educated  privately,  and  his  earliest  explora- 
tions bore  fruit  in  his  Stonehenge,  1880.  He  next 
turned  his  attention  to  the  pyramids  and  temples 
of  Gizeh,  and  subsequently,  with  the  aid  of  the 
Egypt  exploration  fund,  to  the  mounds  of  Said 
and  Naucratis,  and  founded  the  Egyptian 
research  account,  1894,  enlarged  as  the  British 
school  of  archseologv  in  Egypt,  1905.  Author: 
Pyramids  and  Temples  of  Gizeh;  Racial  Portraits; 
Ten  Years'  Digging;  History  of  Egypt;  Egyptian 
Tales;  Six  Temples  at  Thebes;  Religion  and  Con- 
science in  Ancient  Egypt;  Syria  and  Egypt; 
Royal  Tombs  of  the  First  Dynasty;  Royal  Tombs 
of  the  Earliest  Dynasties;  Religion  of  Ancient 
Egypt;  Gizeh  and  Rifeh,  etc. 

Pflelderer  (pfll'-der-er).  Otto,  German  theologian, 
was  bom  at  Stetten  in  Wiirtemberg,  1839.  He 
studied  at  Tiibingen,  1857-61,  became  pastor  at 
Heilbronn  in  18G8,  in  1870  professor  of  theology 
at  Jena,  and  in  1875  at  Berlin.  In  new  testa- 
ment criticism  Pflciderer  belongs  to  the  younger 
critical  school  which  has  grown  out  of  the 
impulse  given  by  Baur.  He  is  an  independent 
thinker,  acute,  suggestive,  and  profoundly 
learned,  and  has  made  his  name  as  well  known 
in  England  and  America  as  in  Germany.  His 
chief  works  are  The  Influence  of  the  Apostle  Paul 
on  Christianity;  The  Development  of  Theolog^j 
Since  Kant;  The  Philosophy  and  Development  of 
Religion;  Evolution  and  Theologi/,  etc.   Died,  1908. 

Phelps,  Edward  J^  American  juri.st  and  diplomat, 
was  bom  at  Middlebury,  Vt.,  1822.  He  studied 
at  Middlebury  college,  graduated  in  law  at  Yale 
in  1843,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  the  same 
j'ear.  In  1851  he  was  appointed  second  comp- 
troller of  the  United  States  treasury;  was  a 
delegate  to  the  constitutional  convention  of 
Vermont  in  1870;  president  of  the  American 
bar  association  in  1880;  and  democratic  candi- 
date for  governor  of  the  state  in  that  year.  He 
became  a  professor  in  the  law  school  of  Yale  in 
1881,  where  he  served  until  appointed  mini.ster 
to  Great  Britain  in  1885.  Phelps  remained 
at  the  court  of  St.  James  until  1889.  He  was 
appointed  in  1893  one  of  the  counsel  in  the  court 
of  arbitration  in  the  Bering  sea  controversy,  to 
represent  the  United  States.  He  died  at  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  1900. 

Phelps-Ward,  Elizabeth  Stuart,  American  author, 
was  bom  at  Andover,  Mass.,  in  1844.     Besides 


924 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


lecturing,  writing  for  magazines,  and  engaging 
in  various  kinds  of  work  for  the  advancement  of 
women,  she  wrote:  Gates  Ajar;  Hedged  In;  The 
Silent  Partner;  Poetic  Studies;  The  Gypsy  Books; 
An  Old  Maid's  Paradise;  Sealed  Orders;  Doctor 
Zay;  Beyond  the  Gales;  The  Madonna  of  the 
Tidis;  Struggle  for  Immortality;  Fourteen  to  One; 
A  Singular  Life;  The  Story  of  Jesus  Christ;  The 
Man  in  the  Case  etc.  In  1888,  she  married 
Rev.  Herbert  D.  Ward.  She  died,  1911. 
Phidias  (Jld'-l-as).  See  page  121. 
Philip  II.,  king  of  Macedon,  father  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  was  born  in  382  B.  C,  and  came  to 
the  throne  in  359  B.  C.  He  first  undertook  the 
thorough  union  of  his  kingdom,  and  tlien  speedily 
entered  upon  a  policy  of  aggression,  his  object 
being  to  reduce  all  the  Grecian  states  to  his 
supremacy.  The  Greek  towns  on  the  coast  of 
Macedonia  were  the  first  objects  of  attack.  In 
Thrace,  he  captured  the  small  town  of  Crenides, 
which,  under  its  new  name  of  Philippi,  soon 
acquired  great  wealth  and  fame.  After  a  few 
years  of  comparative  leisure,  he  advanced  into 
Thessaly,  and  ultimately  to  the  strait  of  Ther- 
mopylae, which  he  did  not  attempt  to  force,  as 
it  was  strongly  guarded  bv  Athenians.  After 
capturing  all  the  towns  of  CJhalcidice,  the  last  of 
which  was  the  city  of  Olynthus,  he  made  peace 
with  the  Thracians,  and  the  next  year  witn  the 
Athenians.  It  was  during  this  siege  of  Olynthus 
that  Demosthenes  delivered  his  famous  oration 
on  the  crown,  in  which  he  sought  in  vain  to 
arouse  his  countrymen  to  a  sense  of  their  danger, 
and  cause  them  to  resist  the  aggressions  of  the 
powerful  and  energetic  Macedonian.  Philip  was 
now  requested  by  the  Thebana  to  interfere  in 
their  behalf  in  the  Sacred  war,  which  was  raging 
between  them  and  the  Phocians.  He  marched 
into  Phocis,  destroyed  its  cities,  and  sent  many 
of  its  inhabitants  as  colonists  to  Thrace.  In 
339  B.  C,  the  Amphictyonic  council,  composed 
of  several  Grecian  states,  declared  war  against 
the  Locrians,  and  the  next  vear  appointed  Philip 
commander-in-chief  of  all  their  forces  The 
Athenians  were  at  last  alarmed  at  his  approach 
into  Greece  in  this  capacity,  and  formed  a  league 
with  the  Thebans  against  him ;  but  their  united 
forces  were  utterly  defeated  at  the  battle  of 
Chaeronea,  338  B.  C;  and  Philip  was  now 
master  of  all  Greece.  Deputies  from  the  differ- 
ent states  met  in  congress  at  Corinth,  and,  after 
resolving  to  make  war  on  the  Persian  king, 
chose  Philip  as  leader  of  their  armies.  Philip 
was  busily  engaged  in  preparations  for  this  great 
enterprise,  when  he  was  assassinated  by  Pausa- 
nias,  at  a  festival  to  celebrate  the  marriage  of 
his  daughter  with  Alexander  of  Epirus,  336 
B.  C,  and  was  succeeded  bv  his  son,  Alexander 
the  Great.  Philip  was  faithfess  in  the  observance 
of  treaty  obligations,  and  utterly  unscrupulous 
as  to  the  means  by  which  he  gained  his  end; 
but  his  great  ability  both  as  a  king  and  a  soldier 
IS  conceded  by  all  historians. 
Philip  II.,  of  France,  called  Philip  Augustus,  on 
account  of  his  great  abilities  and  successful 
admmistration  was  bom,  1 165.  He  was  crowned 
joint  king  with  his  father,  Louis  VII.,  in  1179 
and  on  the  death  of  the  latter,  in  the  year  follow- 
mg,  he  came  into  full  possession  of  the  kingdom. 
±le  was  one  of  the  greatest  monarchs  of  the 
V^apet  dynasty,  while  he  confirmed  his  power  bv 
marrying  Isabella  of  Hainault,  the  l£t  direct 
descendant  of  the  Cariovingians.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Richard  the  Lion-hearted  to  the  throne 
^l^^^^""^'  .\?  H^9'  Philip  and  he  set  out 
together  on  the  third  crusade.     After  staying 

fc  '^'''f'^  '°i^^  h°^y  ^^°d,  Philip  retuSed 
home  and  waged  war  with  Richard.  He  con- 
quered Normandy,  Anjou,  Maine,  Poitou,  and 
Touraine,  and  was  one  of  the  chief  consolidators 


of  the  French  monarchy.  The  crusade  against 
the  Albigenses  occurred  in  his  reign,  and  he 
granted  the  first  charter  to  the  university  of 
Paris.     He  died  at  Nantes,  1223. 

Philip  11^  lung  of  8pain,  only  son  of  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  was  born  in  1527  at  \'alla<lolid.  His 
first  wife  was  Mary  of  Portugal ;  he  then  married 
Mary  Tudor  in  1554;  spent  over  a  year  in  Eng- 
land, and  in  1555  succeeded  his  father  in  the 
sovereignty  of  Spain,  Sicily,  Milan,  the  Nether- 
lands, Franche  ComUJ,  Mexico,  and  Peru.  A 
league  between  Henrv  II.  of  France  and  the  pope 
was  overthrown,  ana  on  the  death  of  Mary  oe 
married  the  French  princess  Isabella,  and 
retired  to  live  in  Spain,  1559.  In  1570  he  married 
his  fourth  wife,  Anne  of  Austria,  his  niece.  Wed- 
ding hiimtelf  now  to  the  cause  of  the  church,  he 
encouraged  the  inquisition  in  Spain,  and  intro- 
duced it  to  the  Netherlands.  The  latter  revolted, 
and  the  seven  united  provinces  achieved  their 
independence  after  a  long  struggle  in  1579.  His 
great  effort  to  overthrow  Protestant  England 
ended  in  the  disaster  of  the  Armada,  1588.  Uis 
last  years  were  embittered  bv  the  failure  of  hb 
intrisues  against  Navarre,  raids  of  English  seamen 
on  ms  American  provinces,  and  by  loathsome 
disease.  He  fatally  injured  Spain  by  crushing 
her  chivalrous  spirit,  hv  persecuting  the  indus- 
trious Moors,  and  by  aaslroying  ber  commerce 
bv  heavy  taxation.     He  died,  IfiOS. 

Fhlilp  IVn  "the  fair,"  king  of  France,  was  bom  at 
Fontainebleau  in  1263.  Ue  succeeded  to  the 
throne  in  1285,  and  by  his  marriage  with  Queen 
Joanna  of  Navarre  obtained  Navarre,  Cham- 
pagne, and  Brie.  The  ehicf  feature  of  nis  reign 
was  his  contest  with  Pope  Boniface  VIII.,  which 
grew  out  of  hb  attempt  to  levy  taxes  upon  the 
clergy,  which  the  pope  directed  them  not  to  pay. 
In  1301  Philip  threw  the  papal  legate  into  prison 
and  sununoned  the  three  estates  of  France  — 
clerry.  nobles,  and  burghers  —  to  which  Boniface 
repuea  with  the  bull,  Unam  Sanctam.  PhiUp 
caused  the  bull  to  be  publicly  burned,  and  con- 
fiscated the  property  of  the  prelates  who  had 
uded  with  the  pope.  Boniface  then  excom- 
municated him,  but  PhiUp  sent  William  de 
Nogaret  to  Rome,  who,  with  the  aid  of  the 
Colonnas,  seised  and  imprisoned  the  pope. 
Though  released  after  a  few  days  by  a  popular 
rising,  Boniface  soon  afterward  died.  In  1302 
Philip's  army  was  defeated  by  the  revolted 
Flemings  at  Courtrai,  and  he  was  forced  t« 
recoj^ze  their  independence  in  1305.  In  1305 
Philip  obtained  the  elevation  of  one  of  his  own 
creatures  to  the  papal  chair  as  Clement  V.,  and 
seated  him  at  Avignon,  which  place  was  the 
residence  of  the  head  of  the  church  for  seventy 
years  thereafter.  Thb  period  of  papal  historv 
is  often  called  "the  seventy  vears'  captivity.'' 
He  suppressed  the  order  oi*^  tbe  Templars,  and 
confiscated  their  lands.     He  died,  1314. 

Philip  VI.,  of  Valois,  king  of  France,  was  bom, 
1293,  and  succeeded  Charles  IV.,  in  1328.  Edward 
III.  of  England  contested  his  claim,  contending 
that  the  Salic  law,  though  it  excluded  females, 
did  not  exclude  their  male  heirs.  Edward  was 
son  of  a  daughter,  Philip  son  of  a  brother,  of 
Philip  IV. ;  thus  began  the  Hundred  Years'  war 
between  France  and  England,  1337.  The 
French  fleet  was  defeated  ofif  Sluys  in  1340,  and 
the  army  at  Crt^cy  in  1346;  a  truce  was  made, 
when  the  war  was  followed  by  the  "  black  death.' 
The  king  afterward  purchased  Majorca.  Died, 
1350. 

Philip^  King,  sachem  of  the  Wampanoag  tribe  of 
Indians,  was  the  second  son  of  Massasoit,  who 
for  nearly  thirty  years  had  been  the  stanch  ally 
of  the  pilgrim  settlers.  In  1 662  PhiUp  succeeded 
his  elder  brother  and  kept  the  treaties  of  his 
father  for  several  years.     But,  at  length,  goaded 


THROUGHOUT  THE   WORLD 


926 


by  the  encroachments  of  the  whites,  he  formed  a 
confederation  of  tribes,  amounting  to  nearly 
10,000  warriors,  and  in  1675  the  war  known  as 
"King  Philip's  war,"  broke  out.  The  Indians 
surprised  and  murdered  a  great  many  colonists, 
but  were  eventually  overcome,  and  in  1676 
Philip  himself  was  captured  and  slain  in  Rhode 
Island. 

Phillips,  Andrew  Wheeler,  American  educator, 
emeritus  professor  of  mathematics  and  dean  of 
the  graduate  school  of  Yale  university,  was  born 
at  Griswold,  Conn.,  1844.  He  graduated  at  Yale, 
1873,  Ph.  D.,  1877 ;  A.  M.,  Trinity  college,  Hart- 
ford, 1875.  He  was  instructor  and  professor, 
1877-1911,  and  dean  of  the  graduate  school, 
1895-1911,  Yale.  Joint  author:  Transcendental 
Curves;  Graphic  Algebra;  The  Elements  of 
Geometry;  Trigonometry  and  Tables;  The  Orbit  of 
Swift's  Comet,  etc. ;  and  editor  of  The  Con- 
necticut Almanac,  1882-93.  He  is  president  of 
the  board  of  trustees  of  Hotchkiss  school,  Lake- 
ville,  Conn.,  and  trustee  of  Hopkins  grammar 
school,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

Phillips,  David  Graham,  American  author,  was 
born  at  Madison,  Ind.,  1867.  He  graduated  at 
Princeton,  1887,  and  adopted  literature  as  a  pro- 
fession immediately  after  graduation.  Author: 
The  Great  God  Success;  Her  Serene  Highness; 
A  Woman  Ventures;  Golden  Fleece;  The  Master 
Rogue;  The  Cost;  The  Plum  Tree;  The  Social 
Secretary;  The  Deluge;  The  Reign  of  Gilt;  The 
Fortune  Hunter;  The  Second  Generation;  Light- 
Fingered  Gentry,  etc.     Died,  1911. 

Phillips,  Stephen,  EngUsh  poet,  was  bom  at 
Somertown,  near  Oxford,  1868;  studied  for  the 
civil  service,  but  abandoned  this  and  went  on  the 
stage,  playing  various  parts  with  Frank  Benson's 
company.  He  then  became  army  tutor  at 
Messrs.  Wolffram  and  Needham's,  and  afterward 
adopted  literature  as  a  profession.  Author: 
Marpessa;  Eremus;  Christ  in  Hades;  Poems; 
Paolo  and  Francesca;  Herod;  Ulysses;  The  Sin 
of  David;  Nero;   The  Last  Heir,  a  drama,  etc. 

Phillips,  Wendell,  American  orator  and  abolitionist, 
was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  1811.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1831,  studied  law  there, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1834;  but 
before  clients  came  he  had  been  drawn  away 
from  tiis  profession  to  the  real  work  of  his  Ufe. 
A  timely  speech  in  Faneuil  hall  in  1837  made 
him  at  once  the  principal  orator  of  the  anti- 
slavery  party;  and  henceforth,  until  President 
Lincoln's  proclamation  of  January  1,  1863,  he 
was  William  Lloyd  Garrison's  loyal  and  valued 
ally  in  the  struggle  for  abolition.  He  also 
championed  the  cause  of  temperance,  woman's 
rights,  and  advocated  the  rights  of  the  Indians. 
In  1870  he  was  nominated  for  governor  of 
Massachusetts  by  the  prohibitionists  and  the 
labor  party.  His  speeches  and  letters  were 
collected  and  published  in  1863,  and  frequently 
since.     He  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  1884. 

Phillpotts  (iU'-p6ts),  Eden,  EngUsh  novelist,  was 
born  at  Mount  Aboo,  India,  1862.  He  was 
educated  at  Plyipouth,  England;  was  a  clerk  in 
the  Sun  fire  insurance  office,  1880-90;  went  to 
London  and  studied  for  the  stage,  but  abandoned 
it  on  finding  iiis  ability  did  not  justify  persever- 
ance, and  adopted  literature.  Author:  Some 
Everyday  Folk;  Down  Dartmoor  Way;  Lying 
Prophets;  Children  of  the  Mist;  The  Human 
Boy;  Sons  of  the  Morning;  The  Striking  Hours; 
The  River;  My  Devon  Year;  The  American 
Prisoner;  The  Secret  Woman;  Knock  at  a  Ven- 
ture; The  Portreeve;  The  Whirlvrind;  The  Folk 
Afield;  The  Virgin  in  Judgment;  The  Three 
Brothers,  etc. 

Philo  Judaeus  (fl'-lo  j6o-de'-iis),  philosopher  of  the 
first  centun',  bom  in  Alexandria;  studied  the 
Greek  philosophy,  and  found  in  it,  particularly  in 


the  teaching  of  Plato,  the  rationalist  explanation 
of  the  religion  of  Moses^  which  he  regarded  as  the 
revelation  to  which  philosophy  was  but  the  key. 
He  was  a  man  of  great  learning  and  great  influence 
among  his  people,  and  was  in  his  old  age  one  of  an 
embassy  sent  by  the  Jews  of  Alexandria  in  A.  D. 
40,  to  Rome,  to  protest  against  the  imperial  edict 
requiring  the  payment  of  divine  honors  to  the 
emperor.  He  iclentified  the  logos  of  the  Pla- 
tonists  with  the  Word  in  the  new  testament. 
He  died  about  54  A.  D. 

Phipps,  Henry,  American  manufacturer  and 
philanthropist,  was  bom  in  Philadelphia,  1839. 
He  worked  in  stores  in  Pittsburgh,  1852-56 ;  was 
office  boy  and  bookkeeper  for  Dilworth  and 
Bidwell,  spike  manufacturers,  1856-61;  partner 
in  Bidwell  and  Phipps,  agents  for  Dupont  powder 
company,  1861;  also  partner  in  small  iron  mill, 
Kloman  and  Phipps;  later  associated  with 
Thomas  M.  and  Andrew  Carnegie  in  iron  and 
steel  manufacture,  building  up  large  fortune, 
and  having,  next  to  Carnegie,  largest  interest  in 
Uiuted  States  steel  corporation.  He  is  a  director 
of  United  States  steel  corporation,  Carnegie 
company.  Van  Norden  trust  company,  Mellon 
national  bank,  Philadelphia  rapid  transit  com- 
pany, and  is  well  known  for  his  many  philan- 
thropies in  improving  workingmen's  nomes, 
contributing  to  hospitals,  and  to  educational 
institutions.  He  gave  $1,000,000  to  the  Johns 
Hopkins  university  endowment  fund  in  1909. 

Phocion  (fd'-shi-on),  an  Athenian  general  and 
statesman  born  about  402  B.  C,  studied  under 
Plato  and  Xenocrates.  As  a  soldier  he  was 
several  times  sent  against  Phihp  of  Macedon, 
though  in  poUtics  he  sided  with  him  against 
Demosthenes.  Forty-five  times  he  was  elected 
strategus.  After  the  victory  at  Chaeronea  he 
advised  submission  to  the  Macedonian  rule. 
Implicated  in  a  plot  to  hand  over  the  Piraeus 
to  the  enemy,  he  was  sentenced  to  death  by  the 
Athenians,  317  B.  C.  A  revulsion  of  feeling 
later  led  to  the  erection  of  a  statue  in  his  honor. 
He  was  neither  a  great  statesman  nor  a  brilUant 
general,  but  was  incorruptibly  honest  and 
possessed  of  sound  common  sense. 

Plccolomlnl  (pek'-ko-ld'-me-ne),  Octavlo,  German 
general,  was  born  in  Italy,  1599,  died  in  Vienna 
in  1656.  He  served  in  the  armies  of  the  German 
emperor,  and  became  one  of  the  distinguished 
generals  in  the  Thirty  Years'  war.  He  was  a 
favorite  of  Wallenstein,  who  intrusted  him  with 
a  knowledge  of  his  projects,  when  he  purposed 
to  attack  the  emperor.  In  spite  of  this  he  made 
himself  the  chief  instrument  of  Wallenstein's 
overthrow,  and,  after  the  latter's  assassination  in 
1634,  was  rewarded  with  a  portion  of  his  estates. 
He  was  defeated  by  Torstenson  at  Leipzig  in 
1642.     Died,  1656. 

Pickering,  Edward  Charles,  American  astronomer, 
was  bom  at  Boston,  1846.  He  graduated  at  tlie 
Lawrence  scientific  school.  Harvard,  1865; 
LL.  D.,  universities  of  California,  1886,  Michigan, 
1887,  Chicago,  1901,  Harvard,  1903,  Pennsyl- 
vania, 1906;  Ph.  D.,  Heidelberg,  1903;  D.  Sc, 
Victoria  university,  England,  1900.  He  was 
instructor  in  mathematics,  Lawrence  scientific 
school,  1865-67;  Thayer  professor  of  physics, 
Massachusetts  institute  of  technology,  1867-76; 
and  professor  of  astronomy  and  director  of  the 
Harvard  college  observatory,  since  1876.  He 
established  the  first  physical  laboratory  in  the 
United  States,  and  under  his  administration  the 
work  of  the  observatory  has  been  devoted 
mostly  to  the  new  fields  of  photometry  and 
photography  as  applied  to  astronomical  obser- 
vation. In  the  latter  field  especially  the  observ- 
atory has  taken  200,000  photographs,  and  it 
Eromises  to  complete  a  survey  of  the  whole 
eavens.     He  accompanied  the  Nautical  Almanac 


926 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


expedition  to  observe  total  eclipae  of  sun,  1869; 
was  a  member  of  the  United  States  coast  survey 
expedition    to    Xeres,    Spain,    1870:     and    was 
awarded  the  Henry  Draper  medal  for  work  on 
astronomical     physics.     Author:      Elements     of 
Physical  Manipulation,  and  various  volumes  of 
annals  and  other  publications  of  Harvard  college 
observatory. 
Pickering,  Timothy,  American  statesman,  was  bom 
in  Massachusetts,  1745.     He  served  as  colonel  in 
the  American  revolution,  became  Washington's 
adjutant-general  in  1777,  and  was  a  delegate  to 
the   Pennsylvania   constitutional   convention   of 
1787    and     1789.     He    also    negotiated    seven 
treaties    with    the    Indians;     was    postmaster- 
general  from  1791-95;    secretary  of  war,   1795; 
secretary    of    state,    1795-1800;     was    judge  of 
common    pleas,    Massachusetts,    1802;     United 
States  senator,    1803-11;    was  one  of  the  war 
board  of  Massachusetts,  1812-15;    and  member 
of   congress,    1815-17.     He  was   the   author   of 
several    political    pamphlets,    and_  paid    much 
attention  to  agriculture.     He  died  in  1829. 
Pickett,    George    Edward,    American   soldier,   was 
bom   at   Richmond,    Va.,    1825.     He  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1846,  and  entered  the  army  as 
second-lieutenant  during  the  war  with  Mexico. 
He  was  brevetted  first  lieutenant,  and  afterward 
captain,    for    conspicuous    bravery    in    Mexico. 
He   served   for   the   most   part   on   the   frontier 
between  1848  and  1861.     At  the  outbreak  of  the 
civil  war,  he  resigned  his  commission  as  captain 
in  the  army  of  the  United  States  and  entered 
the  confederate  service  as  a  colonel.     He  was 
engaged  in  several  desperate  battles  under  Lee, 
but  won  special  distinction  as  the  leader  of  the 
assaulting  column,  at  Gettysburg,  July  3,  1863, 
upon  which  the  fate  of  the  confederacy  hung. 
Tne  point  reached  by  his  troops  in  this  charge, 
and  from  which  they  were  at  last  driven  back, 
is  marked  upon  the  field  of  Gettysburg  to-day 
by  a  granite  monument.     In  the  campaign  of 
1864-65,  he  made  the  final  stand  at  Five  Forks, 
and  he  prevented  the  capture  of  Petersburg  by 
General   Butler.     At   the   close   of   the  war   he 
returned  to  Richmond  and  engaged  in  life  insur- 
ance business.     He  died  at  Norfolk,  Va.,  1875. 
Pierce,  Franklin,  fourteenth  president  of  the  United 
States,  was  bom  in  Hillsborough,  N.  H.,  1804. 
His    father,    General    Benjamin    Pierce,    was    a 
soldier  of  the  war  of  independence  and  governor 
of  New  Hampshire.     Franklin  Pierce  was  edu- 
cated at  Bowdoin  college,   Maine,   and  was  an 
officer  in  the  college  military  company,  in  which 
his   biographer,    Nathaniel    Hawthorne,    was    a 
private.     In  1837  he  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  senate,   of  which  he  was  the  youngest 
member.     He   declined    the    office   of   attorney- 
general,    offered    him    by    President    Polk,    and 
refused   the    nomination    for   governor   of    New 
Hampshire;    and  at  the  commencement  of  the 
Mexican  war  volunteered  as  a  private,  but  was 
appointed  brigadier-general,  and  led  his  brigade 
in  the  battles  of  Contreras  and  Cherubusco.     In 
1852,  in  consequence  of  the  conflicting  claims  of 
the  leaders  of  the  democratic  party  at  the  Balti- 
more convention,  he  was  nominated  as  a  com- 
promise  candidate   for   the    presidency    against 
General  Scott,  the  whig  nominee,  and  received 
the  votes  of  all  but,  four  states.     He  appointed 
an   able   cabmet,    including   Jefferson    Davis   as 
secretary  of  war.     During  his  administration  the 
Missouri  compromise  was  repealed,   the  treatv 
for  reciprocity  of  trade  with  the  British  .\merican 
colonies  was  made,   and  a  treaty  with  Japan, 
lie  died  m  1869. 
Piles,  Samuel  Henry,  lawyer,  ex-United  States  sena- 
tor  was  bom  in  Livingston  countv,  Kentuckv, 
^^t'M.   Av""^    educated    at    private    schools, 
Smithland,  Ky.,  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  be^ 


gan  the  practice  of  law  at  Snohomish  city,  Wash- 
ington, 1883.  He  removed  to  Seattle,  1886; 
was  general  counsel  for  the  Pacific  Coast  com- 
pany, 1895-1905;  city  attorney  of  Seattle, 
1887-89;  a'«istant  district  attorney  for  counties 
of  King,  Kit.sap,  and  Snohomish,  Washington 
territory,  in  the  'SO's;  and  has  been  active  in 
politics  for  twenty  years.  He  was  elected 
United  States  senator  for  the  term  1905-11. 

Pillow,  Gideon  Johnson,  American  soldier,  was 
born  in  Williamson  county,  Tennessee,  1806. 
He  graduated  at  the  university  of  Nashville  in 
1827,  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  served  as  a 
delegate  to  the  democratic  convention  which 
nominated  James  K.  Polk  to  the  presidency. 
During  the  Mexican  war  he  was  appointed  a 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and  commanded 
the  right  wing  at  the  battle  of  Cerro  Gordo, 
where  he  was  wounded.  Promoted  for  gallantry, 
he  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Molino  del  Rey  ana 
Chapultepec,  where  he  was  again  and  more 
severely  wounded.  He  practiced  law  in  his  own 
state  until  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war,  to 
avert  which  he  had  proposed  various  compro- 
Qiises.  But  having  entered  the  confotlerate  serv- 
ice in  1861,  he  was  rapidly  advanced  to  the 
command  of  a  brigade,  and  took  part  in  the 
battles  of  Belmont  and  Fort  Donnelson.  He 
was  second  in  command  when  the  latter  was 
taken  by  the  fetieral  troops.  He  aften^'ard 
served  under  General^  Beauregard  in  the  South- 
west.    He  died  in  Lee  countv,  Arkansas,  1878. 

Plnehot  ijAn'-shB),  Gifford«  American  forester, 
professor  of  forestry,  Yale,  since  1903;  was 
bom  in  Simsbury,  Conn.,  1865.  He  graduated 
from  Yale,  1889:  M.  A.,  Yale,  1901,  Princeton, 
1904;  LL.  D.,  McGill,  1909;  studied  forestry  in 
France,  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Austria; 
and  began  his  first  systematic  forest  work  in 
United  States  at  Biltmore,  N.  C,  1892.  He  was 
chief  of  division,  afterward  of  the  bureau  of  for- 
estry, and  of  forest  service.  United  States  depart- 
ment of  agriculture,  189R-1910.  He  became  a 
member  of  committee  on  organization  of  govern- 
ment scientific  work  and  commission  on  ptiblie 
lands  in  1903 ;  has  been  very  active  in  a  policy  to 
protect  the  natural  resources  of  the  United  States. 

Pinrkney  {plngk'-n\)^  Charles  Cotesworth,  Ameri- 
can statesman,  was  bom  in  South  Carolina,  1746. 
He  fought  during  the  revolution;  assisted  in 
framing  the  constitution  of  the  United  States: 
was  8f>ecial  envoy  to  France,  1796-97;  ana 
unsuccessful  federalist  candidate  for  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  in  1800,  and  for  presi- 
dent in  1804  and  1808.  He  was  a  lawyer  of 
eminence,  and  author  of  the  famous  sentiment, 
"Millions  for  defense,  but  not  one  cent  for 
tribute."     He  died,  1825. 

Pindar  {pln'-dir),  greatest  Greek  lyric  poet,  was 
bom  at  Cynoscepnalae,  a  village  in  the  territory 
of  Thebes,  about  522  B.  0.  He  commenced  his 
career  as  a  poet  at  an  early  age,  and  was  employed 
for  many  years  in  various  courts  and  by  many 
of  the  princes  of  Greece  to  comp>ose  for  them 
choral  pongs  for  special  occasions.  For  the 
praises  which  he  lavished  upon  Alexander,  king 
of  Macedonia,  in  one  of  these  compositions,  his 
house  at  Thebes  is  said  to  have  been  spared 
when  the  rest  of  the  city  was  destroyed  by 
Alexander  the  Great,  more  than  a  century  after 
his  death.  Of  his  many  works  —  which  con- 
sisted of  hymns,  poems,  odes,  songs,  dirges,  and 
encomiums  on  princes  —  only  his  Ejpinicia,  or 
Odet,  have  come  down  to  us  entire.  These  were 
composed  in  commemoration  of  victories  in  the 
public  games.     Died  at  Thebes,  443  B.  C. 

Plnero  {pl-n)h^-6).  Sir  Arthur  Wing,  English 
dramatist,  was  bom  in  London,  1855.  He  was 
educated  in  private  schools;  was  an  actor  from 
1874-81;    and  from  that  time  until  the  present. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


927 


a  dramatic  author.  Author:  The  MagiatraU; 
The  School-mistress;  Dandy  Dick;  The  Hobby 
Horse;  Sweet  Lavender;  The  Profligate;  The 
Weaker  Sex;  The  Cabinet  Minister;  The  Times; 
Lady  BounHfxd;  The  Amazons;  The  Second 
Mrs.  Tanqueray;  The  Notorious  Mrs.  Ebbsmith; 
The  Benefit  of  the  Doubt;  The  Princess  and  the 
Butterfly;  Trelawny  of  the  Wells;  The  Gay  Lord 
Quex;  Iris;  Letty;  A  Wife  WUhotit  a  Smile;  His 
House  in  Order;  The  Thunderbolt;  and  many 
other  plays. 

Pinkerton,  Allan,  Scottish-American  detective,  was 
born  in  Glasgow,  1819,  and  emigrated  to  America 
in  1842.  He  located  in  Illinois,  where  he  cap- 
tured a  gang  of  counterfeiters  and  became  a 
deputy  sheriff  four  years  later.  In  1850  he 
opened  a  detective  agency  in  Chicago ;  recovered 
$40,000  for  the  Adams  express  company,  and, 
discovering  a  plot  to  murder  Abraham  Lincoln 
on  his  inaugural  journey  to  Washington  was 
authorized  to  protect  the  president-elect.  He 
then  organized  the  United  States  secret  service, 
of  which  he  became  the  head,  and  conducted  it 
until  the  close  of  the  war.  Later  his  recovery  of 
$700,000  for  the  Adams  express  company,  the 
arrest  of  some  noted  English  bank  forgers,  and 
the  breaking  up  of  the  notorious  "Molly  Maguire  " 
murderers  in  the  coal  districts  gained  him  an 
international  reputation.  He  wrote  several 
books  connected  with  his  work  before  his  death 
in  1884. 

Pinkney,  William,  American  lawyer  and  diplomat, 
was  born  at  Annapolis,  Maryland,  1764.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1786;  was  a  member  of 
the  Maryland  convention  called  in  1788  to  ratify 
the  United  States  constitution;  served  in  the 
state  council,  house  of  delegates,  and  senate,  and 
in  1796  went  to  England  as  commissioner  under 
the  Jay  treaty.  He  returned  in  1804,  and  the 
next  year  was  made  attorney-general  of  Maryland. 
In  1806  he  was  again  sent  to  England  as  mmister 
extraordinary,  and  remained  as  minister  resident, 
1807-11.  He  was  attorney-general  of  the  United 
States  1811-18;  served  in  the  war  of  1812  as 
commander  of  a  volunteer  corps,  receiving  a 
dangerous  wound  at  Bladensburg ;  was  elected 
to  congress  in  1815,  and  appointed  minister  to 
Russia  the  next  year;  was  a  member  of  the 
United  States  senate,  1820-22.     He  died,  1822. 

Pisistratus  (pi-sts'-tra-tiis),  tyrant  or  ruler  of 
Athens,  was  born  about  612  B.  C,  the  son  of 
Hippocrates,  who  left  him  a  large  fortune.  He 
was  brave,  ambitious,  and  eloquent,  and  by  his 
kindness  and  generosity  won  the  love  of  the 
poorer  classes.  He  usurped  the  throne  in  560 
B.  C,  and  although  he  was  twice  expelled,  he 
regained  it  and  ruled  with  mildness  and  justice. 
He  enforced  the  laws  of  Solon,  who  was  his 
friend  and  relative;  founded  the  first  public 
library  at  Athens,  and  collected  and  arranged 
the  poems  of  Homer.     He  died  about  527  B.  C. 

Pitman,  Benn,  Anglo-American  stenographer,  was 
born  at  Trowbridge,  Wilts,  England,  1822.  He 
was  educated  in  academy  of  his  brother.  Sir 
Isaac  Pitman,  qriginal  inventor  of  phonography, 
and  promulgated  the  art  in  Great  Britain,  by 
lectures  and  teaching,  for  ten  years.  He  settled 
in  the  United  States,  1853,  and  founded  the 
phonographic  institute,  Cincinnati.  He  was 
inventor  of  the  electro-process  of  relief  engraving, 
1856 ;  military  recorder  of  state  trials  during  the 
civil  war;  and  lecturer  on  art  and  teacher  of 
artistic  wood-carving,  etc.,  in  Cincinnati  art 
academy,  1873-92.  Author:  The  Reporter's 
Companion;  Manual  of  Phonography;  Phono- 
graphic Teacher;  History  of  Shorthand;  A  Plea 
for  American  Decorative  Art;  Phonographic  Dic- 
tionary (with  Jerome  B.  Howard);  Life  of  Sir 
Isaac  Pitman;  A  Plea  for  Alphabetic  Reform, 
etc.     Died,  1910. 


Pitman,  Sir  Isaac,  a  British  educator  and  stenog- 
rapher, was  born  at  Trowbridge,  Wiltshire. 
England,  1813.  He  became  master  of  a  school 
at  Barton-on-Humber  in  1832,  and  published 
his  first  studies  of  the  art  which  was  to  make  him 
famous,  in  1837,  in  a  volume  entitled.  Steno- 
graphic Sound-hand.  A  few  years  later  he  issued 
a  second  volume,  which  he  called  Phonography, 
or  Writ.ing  by  Sound.  In  1843  ho  founded  the 
phonetic  society,  and  soon  after  began  the  publi- 
cation of  the  weekly  Phonetic  Journal.  He 
issued  many  text-books  upon  phonograf)hy,  and 
his  system  was  introduced  into  the  United  States 
in  1847.  He  was  knighted  in  1894,  and  died, 
1897. 

Pitt,  William,  first  earl  of  Chatham,  a  famous 
English  statesman,  often  referred  to  as  the  elder 
Pitt,  was  born  in  Westminster,  1708.  Educated 
at  Oxford,  he  entered  parliament  in  1735.  From 
the  beginning  his  oratory  made  him  a  leader  and 
he  contributed  greatly  to  Walpole's  downfall. 
He  later  became  a  member  of  the  privy  council, 
and  was  called  upon  to  form  a  new  cabinet  in 
1756,    of  which   the   duke   of    Devonshire  was 

Erime  minister.  Pitt's  vigorous  war  policy 
rought  England  successfully  through  the 
struggle  with  France  and  earned  for  Pitt  the  title 
of  the  "great  commoner."  He  resigned  in  1761, 
but  five  years  later  was  called  upon  to  form  a 
new  cabinet,  upon  which  he  became  Viscount 
Pitt  and  earl  of  Chatham.  Ill  health  forced  his 
retirement  in  1768,  but  he  kept  up  an  active 
interest  in  public  affairs,  opposed  Lord  North's 
policy  of  taxing  the  colonies,  and,  upon  the 
alliance  of  the  colonies  and  France,  protested,  in 
a  last  great  effort,  against  the  proposal  to  make 
peace.  At  the  close  of  his  speech,  he  fell  into 
the  arms  of  his  friends,  and  died  a  few  days  later, 
1778. 
Pitt,  William,  British  statesman,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  born  at  Hayes,  England,  1759.  He 
was  educated  at  Cambridge,  studied  for  the  bar 
at  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  entered  parliament  in  1781. 
He  made  his  first  speech  in  parliament  the  same 
year,  in  favor  of  Burke's  plan  of  economical 
reform.  At  the  age  of  twenty-three  he  became 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  and  at  twenty-five 
was  regarded  as  one  of  England's  most  powerful 
ministers.  He  ruled  absolutely  over  the  cabinet, 
and  was  at  once  the  favorite  of  the  sovereign,  of 
the  parliament,  and  of  the  nation;  and  from 
this  date  the  life  of  Pitt  becomes  the  history  of 
England.  For  seventeen  years  he  held  his  great 
position  without  a  break.  In  1784  he  established 
a  new  constitution  for  the  East  India  company. 
In  1786  he  carried  through  a  commercial  treaty 
with  France  on  liberal  principles.  In  the  same 
year  he  established  a  new  sinking  fund,  a  scheme 
which  was  long  viewed  Mdth  favor  by  the  nation. 
To  the  exertions  which  were  now  begun  for  the 
abolition  of  the  slave-trade  he  gave  the  help 
of  his  eloquence  and  power.  In  1788-89  he 
maintained  against  Fox  the  right  of  parliament 
to  supply  the  temporary  defect  of  royal  authority 
occasioned  by  the  incapacity  of  the  king.  The 
year  1793  saw  the  beginning  of  the  Anglo-French 
war.  Authorities  differ  as  to  the  cause,  but  it  is 
certain,  however,  that  Pitt's  military  administra- 
tion was  eminently  unsuccessful.  Until  1801  he 
continued  to  hold  the  reins  of  government, 
during  one  of  the  most  stormy  periods  of  British 
history ;  and  his  admirers  have  conferred  on  him 
the  title  of  "the  pilot  that  weathered  the  storm." 
In  1799  he  effected  the  union  with  Ireland.  It 
was  part  of  his  scheme  to  relieve  the  Roman 
Catholic  laity  from  civil  disabilities,  and  to  grant 
a  public  maintenance  to  their  clergy;  but  the 
obstinacy  of  the  king  frustrated  his  design. 
Chagrined  by  this  failure,  Pitt  resigned  office  in 
1801.     In  1804  he  returned  again  to  the  head  of 


928 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


the  treasury,  -which  poBition  he  continued  to 
hold  until  his  death  in  1806.  England  has  had 
few  statesmen  equal  to  him  in  the  handling  of 
financial  and  conamercial  problems,  and  few 
orators  more  fluent  and  persuasive. 

Plus  VI.,  Giovanni  Angelo  Braschl,  pope,  1775-99, 
was  born  at  Cesena,  Italy,  1717.  He  was  elected 
pope  in  succession  to  Clement  XIV.  To  him 
Rome  owes  the  drainage  of  the  Pontine  marsh, 
the  improvement  of  the  port  of  Ancona,  the 
completion  of  St.  Peter's,  the  foundation  of  the 
new  museum  of  the  Vatican,  and  the  embellish- 
ment of  the  city.  The  pope  repaired  to  Vienna, 
but  failed  to  restrain  the  reforming  emperor 
Joseph  from  further  curtailing  his  privileges. 
Soon  after  came  the  French  revolution  and  the 
confiscation  of  church  property  in  France.  The 
pope  launched  his  thunders  in  vain,  and  ere  long 
the  murder  of  the  French  agent  at  Rome,  in  1793, 
gave  the  directory  an  excuse  for  an  attack. 
Bonaparte  took  possession  of  the  legations,  and 
afterward  of  the  march  of  Ancona,  and  extorted 
in  1797  the  surrender  of  these  provinces  from 
Pius.  The  murder  of  a  member  of  the  French 
embassy  was  avenged  by  Berthier  taking  posses- 
sion of  Rome.  Pius  was  called  on  to  renounce 
his  temporal  sovereignty,  and  on  his  refusal  was 
seized,  carried  to  Siena,  and  later  to  Certosa, 
Grenoble,  and  finally  Valence,  where  he  died, 
1799. 

Plus  IX.,  Giovanni  Mastal  Ferrettl,  pope,  1846-78, 
was  born  near  Ancona,  Itah',  1792.  He  waa 
elected  in  1846,  and  his  pontificate  covers  one 
of  the  most  eventful  periods  of  the  papacy.  He 
granted  a  constitution  to  the  Italian  states 
shortly  after  his  accession,  but  refused  to  declare 
war  against  Austria.  After  the  insurrection  at 
Rome,  1848,  he  fled  to  Gseta,  but  was  restored 
by  French  aid  two  years  later.  The  same  year 
he  established  a  Catholic  hierarchy  in  England, 
and  in  1854  defined  the  doctrine  of  the  immacu- 
late conception.  In  1859-60  he  lost  the  greater 
part  of  his  dominions,  but  waa  maintained  in 
Rome  by  a  French  garrison.  In  1870  the  infalli- 
bility dogma  was  promulgated  by  the  ecumenical 
council  held  at  Rome.  In  that  year,  when  the 
French  left  the  city,  it  was  declared  the  capital 
of  Italy,  occupied  by  the  troops  of  Victor  Emman- 
uel, and  the  pope  was  practically  held  a  captive 
in  the  Vatican  until  his  death  in  1878. 

Plus  X.,  253rd  Roman  pontiff,  was  bom  in  1835  at 
Riese,  near  Treviso,  Italy.  His  name  is  Giuseppe 
Sarto,  and  he  is  the  son  of  a  minor  municipal 
oflacial.  His  relatives  are  still  shopkeepers  and 
people  of  humble  position.  He  was  educated  at 
Castelf  ranco  and  the  diocesan  seminary  of  Padua, 
and  ordained  priest,  1858.  He  officiated  nine 
years  as  curate  at  Tombolo,  nine  years  as  parish 
priest  of  Salzano;  he  was  made  canon  and 
chancellor  of  the  diocese  of  Treviso  in  1875.  In 
1884  he  was  appointed  bishop  of  Mantua,  and 
Leo  XIII.  made  him  a  cardinal  and  patriarch  of 
Venice  in  1893.  His  charity  and  tact  brought 
rum  unboxmded  popularity,  and  he  was  more 
thMi  once  instrumental  in  settling  serious  strikes 
and  labor  disputes.  He  came  into  direct  personal 
contact  with  the  king  and  queen  of  Italy  while 
he  was  cardinal,  but  is  credited  with  an  inflexible 
resolve  to  maintain  the  rights  and  liberty  of  the 
church.  On  the  death  of  Leo  XIII.,  1903,  the 
conclave  met.  and,  at  the  seventh  scrutiny, 
elected  him  pope,  and  he  chose  to  be  known  as 
f  ope  Pius  X.  As  priest  and  bishop  his  life  was 
Bpent  in  the  pastoral  and  episcopal  service  of  the 
church  rather  than  in  the  paths  of  diplomatic 
and  official  service.  He  has  always  displayed 
deep  interest  m  social  questions  and  in  bettenng 
the  hfe  of  the  poor,  to  whom  his  charity  at 
Venice  was  proverbial.  He  has  sho^-n  himself 
lealous  in  the  reform  of  church  music  and  in 


other  matters  of  ecclesiastical  discipline.  In 
1907  he  issued  a  decree  intrusting  the  revision  of 
the  vulgate  to  the  Benedictine  order,  and  in 
September  issued  an  encyclical  against  the 
modernist  movement  in  the  church. 

Pliarro  {pe-thiir'-rd),  F'ranclsco,  Spanish  conqueror 
of  Peru,  was  born  at  Trujillo,  Spain,  about  1470. 
He  received  little  education,  was  of  an  adven- 
turous spirit,  entered  the  army,  and  embarked 
with  other  adventurers  for  America.  Having 
distinguished  himself  in  Panama,  he  set  out  hj 
way  of  the  Pacific  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  along 
with  another  soldier  named  Almagro;  landed  on 
the  island  of  Gallo,  on  the  coast  of  Peru,  and 
afterward  returned  with  his  companion  to  Spain 
for  authority  to  conquer  the  country.  In  1520 
he  obtained  the  royal  sanction,  and  set  sail  from 
Spain  with  three  ships  in  1531.  On  his  arrival 
at  Peru  be  found  a  civil  war  raging  between  the 
two  sons  of  the  emperor,  who  had  just  died. 
Pizarro  saw  his  opportunity;  approached  At*- 
hualpa,  the  victorious  one,  who  ha!a  now  become 
the  reigning  Inca,  with  overtures  of  peace,  and 
was  amnitted  into  the  interior  of  the  country. 
He  then  invited  Atahualpa  to  a  banquet,  had  him 
imnrisuncil,  and  commenced  a  whoioule  butchery 
of  his  subjects,  upon  which  be  forced  Atahualpa 
to  discloee  bis  treacurea,  and  then  put  him  per- 
fidiously to  death.  His  power,  by  virtue  of  the 
mere  terror  be  inspired,  was  now  established, 
and  he  might  have  continued  to  maintain  it. 
but  a  contest  aroae  between  Iiim  and  his  old 
comrade  Almagro,  whom  he  put  to  death. 
Finally  the  sons  and  friends  of  the  latter  rose 
against  Pixarro,  seized  him  in  his  palace  at  Lima, 
and  executed  him,  1541. 

Plato.     See  page  261. 

Piatt,  Thomas  Collier,  American  politician,  waa 
born  in  Owego,  N.  Y.,  1833.  He  was  a  member 
of  class  of  1853,  Yale,  but  was  compelled  to  give 
up  his  ooune  because  of  ill  health;  M.  A.,  1876. 
He  then  entered  mercantile  life ;  was  president  of 
Tioga  national  bank  at  its  organization;  became 
largely  interested  in  lumbering  in  Michigan;  was 
clerk  of  Tioga  county,  New  York,  1859-61: 
member  of  congress,  1873-77:  elected  United 
States  senator,  1881,  and  resigned.  May  16th, 
same  year,  with  Roscoe  Conkling.  Ue  was 
secretary  and  director  of  United  States  express 
company,  1879,  and  its  president,  1880-1910. 
President  of  board  of  quarantine  commissioners. 
New  York,  1880-88;  was  president  of  Southern 
Central  railroad  and  of  Addison  and  Northern 
Pennsylvania  railroad;  and  was  the  recognized 
leader  in  New  York  republican  politics  for  years. 
He  was  again  United  States  senator  from  1897 
to  1909.     Died,  1910. 

PlautuB  {-pld'-tiu,)^  Titus  Hacclus,  the  greatest 
comic  poet  of  ancient  Rome,  was  bom  about 
254  B.  C.  at  Sarsina  in  Umbria.  He  early 
associated  himself  with  actors,  and,  while  en- 
gaged in  the  humble  work  of  turning  a  hand-mill 
tor  a  baker,  wrote  three  plavs.  The  proceeds 
enabled  him  to  leave  his  work  and  turn  to  the 
more  congenial  career  of  a  plaj'wright.  Of  the 
twenty-one  comedies  legitimately  assigned  him, 
twenty  are  still  extant.  They  present  great 
vivacity,  well-constructed  plots,  and  humorous, 
life-Uke  characters  and  situations.  His  Latin  is 
particularly  pure  and  vigorous.  He  has  found 
noteworthy  imitators  in  Shakespeare,  Moliftre, 
Dryden,  Addison,  and  Lessing.  His  literary 
career  continued  uninterrupted  until  his  death 
in  184  B.  C. 

Pliny  (piin'-^O,  the  name  of  two  famous  RomaniL 
ususJiy  distinguished  as  Pliny  the  Elder  and 
Pliny  the  Younger.  Pliny  the  Elder,  Caius 
Plimus  Secundus,  was  bom  probably  at  Como, 
Italy,  A.  D.  23.  and  was  a  famous  naturalist.  Of 
his  many  works,   his  Historia  Naturalia  is  the 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


020 


only  one  that  has  come  down  to  us.     He  per- 
ished in  the  great  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  which 
overwlielmed  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii,  79  A.D. 
Pllnythe  Younger,  Caius  Plinius  CwcillusSecundus, 

was  born  at  Como,  A.  D.  G2,  was  the  nephew  of 
the  elder  Pliny,  and  is  celebrated  chiefly  for  his 
Letters,  of  which  ten  books  are  extant.  In  A.  D. 
100  he  was  appointed  consul,  and  he  then  com- 
posed his  Panegyricus,  a  fulsome  eulogium  on 
the  emperor  Trajan,  which  is  also  extant.  In 
103  he  was  appointed  governor  of  the  provinces 
known  as  Bithynia  and  Pontus;  and  in  this 
capacity  he  wrote  his  well-known  letter  to  the 
emperor  Trajan  respecting  the  Christians  in  his 
province,  which  called  forth  the  emoeror's 
equally  well-known  reply.  The  Letters  of  Pliny 
are  remarkable,  not  only  for  their  elegance,  but 
for  the  light  they  throw  upon  the  history  of  the 
period  in  which  they  were  written.  He  died 
about  116  A.  D. 

Plutarch  (plod'-tiirk).     See  page  30. 

Pobyedonostsev  (pd^yS'-da-nds'-tsSf),  Konstantin 
Petrovlch,  Russian  jurist  and  statesman,  was 
born  at  Moscow,  1827.  He  studied  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, became  an  official  of  the  senate  in  Moscow, 
and  later  a  professor  of  civil  law  there,  in  1858. 
In  1872  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  council  of 
the  empire,  and  as  procurator  of  the  holy  synod, 
from  1880  to  1905,  was  the  most  uncompromising 
champion  of  the  autocracy  and  of  the  supremacy 
of  the  orthodox  Greek  church.     He  died  in  1907. 

Pocahontas  {po'-ka-h6n'-tas),  the  legendary  "Prin- 
cess Pocahontas,"  of  American  colonial  history, 
was  bom  about  1595,  the  daughter  of  Powhatan, 
an  Indian  chief  of  Virginia.  She  was  betrayed 
by  her  uncle  Patowomek  (Potomak?)  to  Captain 
Argall,  the  unscrupulous  deputy-governor  of 
Virginia,  and  held  by  him  as  a  hostage  for  the 
purpose  of  extorting  from  her  father  such  terms 
as  he  required.  In  1613  she  married  John  Rolfe, 
one  of  the  settlers  of  Jamestown,  afterward 
secretary  and  recorder-general  of  Virginia.  She 
died  in  England  in  1617,  leaving  a  son,  Thomas 
Rolfe.  Her  descendants  include  some  of  the 
leading  families  of  Virginia,  the  celebrated  John 
Randolph  being  one  of  them. 

Poe,  Edgar  Allan,  famous  American  poet  and 
romancer,  was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  1809.  He 
was  adopted  by  John  Allan  of  Richmond; 
entered  the  university  of  Virginia  in  1826,  but 
left  after  a  term  and  spent  two  years  as  a  private 
in  the  regular  army.  In  1829  Poe  published  a 
volume  of  poems,  his  first  attempt  in  literature, 
under  the  title  of  Al  Aaraaf,  Tamerlane,  and 
other  poems.  He  expressed  a  wish  to  remain  in 
the  army,  and  Mr.  Allan  secured  him  a  cadetship 
in  the  military  academy  at  West  Point.  Here 
he  neglected  his  studies,  and  was  cashiered  in 
1831.  Thrown  now  upon  his  own  resources,  he 
devoted  himself  to  literature  as  a  profession.  In 
1833,  the  publisher  of  a  Baltimore  magazine 
having  ofifered  prizes  for  the  best  prose  story  and 
the  best  poem,  Poe  competed  and  won  both 
prizes.  This  led  to  his  friendship  with  John  P. 
Kennedy,  one  of  the  prize  committee,  who  pro- 
cured for  him  literary  employment  in  connection 
with  The  Southern  Literary  Messenger.  In  1835 
he  married  Virginia  Clemm.  In  1837  he  removed 
to  New  York,  where  he  lived  by  contributing  to 
the  New  York  Quarterly  Review  and  other  peri- 
odicals, and  where  in  1838  he  published  The 
Narrative  of  Arthur  Gordon  Pym.  In  1839  he 
became  the  editor  of  The  GenUeman's  Magazine 
at  Philadelphia,  and  published  a  collection  of 
his  best  stories,  with  the  title  Tales  of  the  Ara- 
besque and  Grotesque.  The  year  1845  was  marked 
by  the  appearance  of  his  famous  poem.  The 
Raven.  In  1847,  after  the  death  of  his  wife,  he 
began  to  deteriorate,  and  died  at  Baltimore,  Md., 
in  1849.     His  poems  and  tales  are  marked  by 


marvelous  flights  of  fancy  and  exquisite  felicity 
of  langu{^e.  His  was  perhaps  the  loftiest  and 
most  original  poetical  genius  which  America  has 
produced. 

Polk  (pok),  James  Knox,  eleventh  president  of  the 
United  States,  waa  bom  in  North  Carolina,  1795. 
He  was  educated  at  the  university  of  North 
Carolina,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Colum- 
bia, Tenn.,  in  1820.  He  was  a  democratic  mem- 
ber of  congress  from  Tennessee,  1825-39;  was 
speaker  of  the  house  of  representatives,  1835-39: 
governor  of  Tennessee,  1839—41 ;  and  was  elected 
as  a  democrat  to  the  presidency  in  1844.  The 
principal  feature  of  Polk's  administration,  which 
extended  from  1845  to  1849,  was  the  Mexican 
war,  by  which  the  United  States  accjuircd  the 
great  states  of  Texas  and  California  and  the  ter- 
ritory of  New  Mexico.  Texas  was  annexed  by 
congress  just  before  Polk's  inauguration.  Dur- 
ing his  administration,  by  a  compromise  treaty 
with  England,  the  northern  boundary  line  of 
Oregon  territory  —  now  the  state  of  Washington 
—  was  fixed  at  49°  north  latitude.  The  low 
tariff  act  of  1846  was  a  favorite  measure  of  Polk's, 
being  passed  in  the  senate  by  the  vote  of  Vice- 
president  Dallas.  Other  features  of  his  adminis- 
tration were  the  admission  of  Wisconsin  into  the 
Union  as  a  state  in  1848;  the  adoption  of  the 
sub-treasury  system,  by  which  some  portion  of 
the  funds  of  the  government  is  kept  in  vaults  in 
Washington  instead  of  being  deposited  in  banks; 
and  the  creation  of  the  interior  department,  its 
secretary  being  added  to  the  cabinet  of  the 
president.  On  the  expiration  of  Polk's  term  he 
retired  to  his  home  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  where 
he  died  a  few  months  afterward,  1849. 

Polk,  Leonidas,  general  in  the  confederate  army, 
and  bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church, 
was  bom  at  Raleigh,  N.  C,  1806.  He  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1827,  and  received  a  commis-  * 
sion  in  the  artillery,  but  resigned  and  studied  for 
the  ministry.  In  1838  he  was  consecrated  bishop 
of  Arkansas  and  Indian  territory,  with  charge 
of  the  dioceses  of  Alabama,  Mississippi,  and 
Louisiana;  but  in  1841  he  resigned  all  these 
except  the  bishopric  of  Louisiana,  which  he  held 
until  his  death,  even  when  commanding  a  corps 
in  the  confederate  army.  Soon  after  the  out- 
break of  the  civil  war.  Bishop  Polk  tendered  his 
services  to  the  confederate  government,  and  was 
appointed  major-general  by  Jefferson  Davis. 
He  commanded  an  army  corps  at  the  battle  of 
Shiloh,  and  in  October  following  was  made 
lieutenant-general.  At  the  battle  of  Chicka- 
mauga  he  commanded  the  right  wing  of  Bragg's 
army,  and  served  under  General  Joseph  Ei. 
Johnston  in  Sherman's  Atlanta  campaign.  He 
was  killed  by  a  cannon-shot  while  reconnoitering 
on  Pine  niountain,  1864. 

Pollock,  Sir  Frederick,  English  legal  writer  and 
educator,  was  bom  in  London,  1845.  He  was 
graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1871.  LL.  D., 
Cambridge;  D.  C.  L.,  Oxford.  He  was  professor 
of  jurisprudence.  University  college,  London, 
1882-83;  professor  of  common  law  in  the  Inns 
of  Court,  1884-90;  member  of  the  royal  labor 
commission,  1891-94;  Corpus  professor  of 
jurisprudence,  university  of  Oxford,  1883-1903; 
and  hon.  fellow  of  Corpus  Christi  college,  Oxford, 
1906.  Author :  Principles  of  Contract;  The  Law 
of  Torts;  The  Land  Laws;  Essays  in  Jurispru- 
dence and  Ethics;  Introduction  to  the  History  of 
the  Science  of  Politics;  Indian  Contract  Act 
(assisted  by  D.  F.  Mulla);  History  of  English 
Law  (with  Prof.  F.  W.  Maitland) ;  A  First  Book 
of  Jurisprudence;  The  Expansion  of  the  Common 
Law;  Spinoza,  Life  and  Philosophy,  etc. 

Pollok,  Robert,  Scottish  poet,  was  bom  at  Muir- 
house,  Scotland,  1798.     He  studied  at  Glasgow 


930 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


for  the  church,  and  in  1824-25  wrote  Tales  of  the 
Covenanters,  and,  in  1827,  The  Course  of  Time,  a 
poetical  description  of  the  spiritual  life  of  man. 
Meantime,  seized  with  consumption,  he  set  out 
for  Italy,  but  died  near  Southampton,  England, 
1827.  ,  .  .    ' 

Polo  (pd'4d),  Marco,  Italian  traveler,  was  bom  m 
Venice,  of  a  noble  family,  about  1255.  In  1271 
he  accompanied  his  father  and  uncle,  while  a 
mere  youth,  to  the  court  of  the  Tartar  emperor 
of  China,  by  whom  he  was  received  with  favor 
and  employed  on  several  embassies.  Unwilling  to 
part  with  hiqi,  the  emperor  allowed  him,  together 
with  his  father  and  uncle,  to  escort  a  young  prin- 
cess who  was  going  to  be  married  to  a  Persian 
prince,  on  the  promise  that  they  would  return. 
But  the  prince  having  died  before  their  arrival, 
and  deeming  themselves  absolved  from  their 
promise  by  his  death,  they  proceeded  to  Venice, 
where  they  arrived  in  1295,  laden  with  rich 
presents  which  had  been  given  them.  He  was 
then^captured  by  the  Genoese,  put  in  prison,  and 
dictated  to  another  captive,  Ilusticiano,  the 
story  of  his  adventures,  which  proved  to  be  the 
first  account  that  opened  up  to  wondering 
Europe  the  magnificence  of  the  eastern  worluT 
He  died  about  1323. 

Polybius  (po4ib'-1r4is),  Greek  historian,  was  bom 
at  Megalopolis,  in  Axcadia,  about  204  B.  0.  He 
was  educated  and  trained  for  a  public  career, 
was  one  of  the  thousand  distinguished  Achaeana 
who  were  carried  as  prisoners  to  Rome,  168  B.  C, 
and  was  an  exile  in  Italy  for  about  seventeen 
years.  After  his  return  to  Greece,  he  undertook 
numerous  journeys  into  foreign  countries,  and 
wrote  his  celebrated  History,  which  seems  to 
have  occupied  him  for  the  remainder  of  his  life. 
Of  this  work,  only  the  first  five  books  out  of 
forty  and  some  fragments  are  left ;  but  it  was 
closely  followed  both  by  Livy  and  by  Cicero. 
His  death  was  caused  by  a  fall  from  his  horse, 
about  122  B.  C. 

Polycarp  (pdl'-l-karp),  bishop  of  Smyrna,  and 
Christian  martyr,  was  bom  about  69  A.  D.  He 
was  brought  up  at  Smyrna,  was  taught  the 
doctrine  of  Christianity  by  the  apostles,  particu- 
larly by  John,  with  whom  he  had  "familiar  inter- 
course." His  martyrdom  is  related  at  great 
length  by  Eusebius,  and  took  place  probably  in 
155  A.  D.,  during  the  persecution  under  the 
emperors  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Lucius  Verus. 
When  asked,  or  rather  entreated,  "to  revile 
Christ,"  Polycarp  replied:  "Eighty  and  six 
years  have  I  served  him  and  he  never  did  me 
wrong,  and  how  can  I  now  blaspheme  my  King 
that  has  saved  me?"  He  was  burned  silive. 
Polycarp  wrote  several  Epistolae,  of  which  only 
one  has  been  preserved,  the  Epistda  ad  Philip- 
venses,  valuable  for  its  numerous  quotations 
from  the  now  testament  —  especially  from  the 
writings  of  Paul  and  Peter. 

Polygnotus  (pdl'-lg-no'-tHs),  early  Greek  painter,  was 
born  in  Thasos,  and  settled  in  Athens  463  B.  C. 
He  is  considered  the  founder  of  historical  paint- 
ing, and  is  praised  especially  by  Aristotle,  who 
pays  a  high  tribute  to  him.  He  was  the  first  to 
attempt  portrait-painting  and  to  exhibit  character 
by  his  art.  He  was  identified  with  Cimon  in  the 
reconstrviction  of  Athens,  and  his  school  did 
much  to  adorn  its  famous  temples. 

Pombal  (pom-bal').  Marquis  of,  Dom  Sebastiao 
Josg  dc  Carvalho,  one  of  the  greatest  of  Portu- 
guese statesmen,  and  one  of  the  ablest  men  of 
his  time,  was  bora  in  1699.  He  was  prime 
mimster  of  Joseph  I. ;  set  himself  to  fortify  the 
royal  power,  to  check  that  of  the  aristocracy, 
and  to  enUghten  the  people.  He  was  the  pro- 
nounced enemy  of  the  Jesuits,  reformed  the 
umvoreity  of  Coimbra,  purified  the  administra- 
ticwi.  directed  the  rebuilding  of  Lisbon  after  the 


earthquake,  and  encouraged  commerce  and 
industry,  whereby  he  earned  for  himself  at  the 
hands  of  the  people  the  name  of  the  "great 
marquis."  On  the  accession  of  Maria,  Joseph's 
daughter  and  MiooeaBor,  he  was,  under  Jesuit 
influence,  dispoascflsed  of  power,  and  died  in 
poverty,  1782. 

Pompey,  Cneius  Pompelua  Magnua,  called  the 
Great,  famous  lioman  general,  was  born,  106 
B.  C.  He  wae  the  son  of  Cneius  Pompeius 
Strabo.  under  whom  he  serveil  in  the  Italian 
campaigns.  The  most  important  of  his  military 
Bucoeases  were  his  campaign  against  Hithridates, 
which  made  Pontus  a  Roman  province,  and  his 
capture  of  Jerusalem,  which  added  Syria  to  the 
empire.  After  these  exploits  he  entered  Rome 
in  triumph,  at  the  end  of  a  procession  which  lasted 
two  days.  Shortly  after  this  he  joined  the  party 
of  Cesar,  and  formed  with  him  an<l  Criissus  the 
first  triumxnrate.  But  he  was  ambitious  to  be 
the  first  citizen  in  Rome,  and  oould  not  endure 
being  second  to  Cieaar.  so  he  determined  on  war. 
The  great  struggle  toolc  place  at  Pbarsalus,  B.  C. 
48,  vmen  Pompey  was  defeated  and  fle«i  to  Egvpt 
for  protection.  Ptolemv,  the  king  of  Elgypt,  dad 
ordered  that  he  should  be  nmrdered  immediately 
on  his  arrival.  His  bodv  was  left  on  the  sands 
and  his  head  taken  to  Canar,  who  wept  at  tlw 
sight  of  it  He  died  when  mt7-«igfat  jrean  old, 
A.  D.  48. 

Ponce  de  Le6n  (v9n'-tha  da  2d-dn'),  Juan,  Spaalah 
explorer,  was  Dom  In  Leon,  Spain,  1460.  He 
distinguished  himself  against  the  Moors;  accom- 
panied Columbus  on  his  second  voyage ;  became 
commander  of  the  east  province  of  Uispaniola; 
and  governed  the  island  of  Porto  Rico  with 
seventv.  Having  heard  of  the  existence  of  a 
fountain  that  could  restore  youth  and  beauty, 
he  set  out  in  search  of  it  in  lol2.  and  discoverea 
and  named  Florida  on  Blaster  Sunday.  At  the 
end  of  a  subsequent  voyage  he  died,  1521. 

Poniatowsld  {pO'-ny&Adf-deSU  Stanislas  Aucustus, 
last  king  of  Poland,  was  bom  at  Wolceyn, 
Lithuania,  1732.  He  was  elected  king  in  1764, 
though  illy  fitted  to  rule  the  countrv  at  such  a 
crisis.  Frederick  the  Great^  who  had  gained  the 
consent  of  Austria  to  a  partition  of  Poland,  made 
a  like  proposal  to  Ruana,  and  the  first  partition 
was  enected  in  1772.  He  tried,  too  late,  to 
introduce  reforms.  The  intrigues  of  discon- 
tented nobles  led  again  to  Russian  and  Prussian 
intervention,  and  a  second  fruitless  resistance 
was  followoa  in  1793  by  a  second  partition.  The 
Poles  now  became  desperate;  a  general  rising 
took  place,  1794,  the  Prussians  were  driven  out, 
and  the  Russians  were  several  times  routed. 
But  Austria  now  appeared  on  the  scene,  Kosci- 
usko was  defeated,  Warsaw  was  taken,  and  the 
Polish  monarchy  was  at  an  end.  Kii^  Stanislas 
resigned  his  crown,  and  died  at  St.  Petersburg, 
1798. 

Ponlatowskl,  Joseph  Antony,  bom  at  Warsaw, 
1762,  was  trained  in  the  Austrian  army.  In 
1789  the  Polish  assembly  appointed  him  com- 
mander of  the  army  of  the  South,  with  which 
he  gained  brilliant  victories  over  the  Russians, 
m  1792;  and  he  commanded  under  Kosciusko, 
1794.  When  the  duchy  of  Warsaw  was  con- 
stituted, in  1807,  he  was  appointed  minister  of 
war  and  commander-in-chief.  In  1809,  during 
the  war  between  Austria  and  France,  he  invaded 
Galicia.  Three  vears  later,  with  a  large  body  of 
Poles,  he  joined  Napoleon  in  his  invasion  of 
Russia,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Smolensk, 
at  Borodino,  and  at  Leipzig,  where,  in  covering 
the  French  retreat,  he  was  drowned  in  the 
Elster,  1813. 

Pontiac  (jpdn'-^-Hk),  chief  of  the  Ottawa  Indians, 
was  bom  about  1720.  In  1748  he  defended 
Detroit,  which  was  then  a  French  settlement. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


931 


against  the  attacks  of  certain  hostile  tribes,  and 
he  is  also  said  to  have  led  his  warriors  at  Brad- 
dock's  defeat  in  1765.  After  the  French  had 
surrendered  Canada,  his  hatred  of  the  English 
prompted  him  to  organize  a  combined  attack  upon 
all  the  English  garrisons  and  settlements  Avitli  a 
view  to  the  extermination  of  what  he  called 
"those  dogs  dressed  in  red."  The  7th  of  May, 
1763,  was  selected  as  the  day  for  the  attack, 
which  in  most  places  was  successful;  but  at 
Detroit,  where  Pontiac  commanded  in  person,  the 
commander  was  forewarned,  and  a  five  months' 
siege  ensued.  Pontiac  resorted  to  every  means 
familiar  to  savages  to  reduce  the  place,  but  was 
unsuccessful.  Peace  was  finally  made  in  1766, 
Pontiac  being  forced  to  submit  to  British  rule. 
He  was  killed  at  Cahokia,  Illinois,  by  a  drunken 
Indian  in  1769. 

Poole,  William  Frederick,  American  bibliographer 
and  librarian,  compiler  of  the  Index  to  Periodical 
Literature,  was  born  at  Salem,  Mass.,  1821,  and 
graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1849.  While  at 
college  he  was  librarian  of  a  literary  society,  and 
prepared  the  first  edition  of  his  Index,  subsequent 
editions  appearing  in  1853  and  1882.  A  supple- 
ment by  Poole  and  W.  I.  Fletcher  was  issued  in 
1888.  He  was  for  many  years  librarian  of  the 
Chicago  city  library,  and  later  was  librarian  of 
the  Newberry  library  in  that  city.  He  died  at 
Chicago,  1894. 

Pope,  Alexander,  celebrated  English  poet,  was 
born,  1688,  in  Lombard  street,  London.  His 
father  was  a  linen  draper,  in  which  trade  he 
amassed  a  considerable  fortune,  retired  from 
business,  and  settled  at  Binfield,  in  Berkshire, 
soon  after  the  birth  of  his  son.  Pope  was  born 
deformed,  small  in  size,  and  delicate  in  constitu- 
tion. The  groundwork  of  learning  he  acquired 
at  two  private  schools,  and  from  two  priests, 
who  were  employed  as  his  tutors;  for  the  rest  he 
was  indebted  to  his  own  persevering  studies. 
Before  he  was  twelve  years  old  he  wrote  a  play 
from  Homer,  which  was  acted  by  his  school- 
fellows. He  was  a  poet  almost  from  infancy. 
His  pastorals  and  some  translations  appeared  in 
Tonson's  Miscellany  in  1709,  but  were  written 
three  or  four  years  earlier.  These  were  followed 
by  the  Essay  on  Criticism,  1711,  and  Rape  of  the 
Lock,  1712-17.  From  1715-26  Pope  was  chiefly 
engaged  on  his  translations  of  the  Iliad  and  the 
Odyssey.  In  1728-29  he  published  his  greatest 
satire,  the  Dundad,  an  attack  on  all  poetasters 
and  pretended  wits.  Of  all  his  delightful  pro- 
ductions, the  most  celebrated  is  the  Essay  on 
Man.     Died,  1744. 

Pope,  John,  American  general,  was  bom  at  Louis- 
ville, Ky.,  1822.  He  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1842,  entered  the  engineer  corps  of  the  United 
States  army,  served  in  the  Florida  war  of  1842—44, 
and  afterward  in  the  Mexican  war,  winning  the 
rank  of  captain  for  his  conduct  at  the  battles  of 
Monterey  and  Buena  Vista.  During  the  civil 
war  he  was  appointed  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers,  and  in  1862  highly  distinguished 
himself  by  the  Capture  of  New  Madrid,  Mo., 
and  "Island  No.  10,"  in  the  Mississippi  river. 
On  account  of  these  signal  successes  he  was 
transferred  to  the  East  and  placed  in  command 
of  the  forces  formerly  under  Generals  Fremont, 
McDowell,  and  Banks,  each  of  whom  had  been 
outgeneraled  and  beaten  by  "Stonewall''  Jack- 
son. He  conducted  a  very  active  and  vigorous 
campaign  against  Lee  and  Jackson,  but  was 
defeated  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run, 
August  29-30,  1862.  In  1882  Pope  was  made  a 
major-general  in  the  regular  army,  and  retired  in 
1886.     He  died  at  Sandusky,  Ohio,  1892. 

Person  (pdr'-s'n),  Richard,  eminent  English  Greek 
scholar,  was  bom  in  Norfolk,  England,  1759. 
He  was  graduated  at  Cambridge,  held  a  profes- 


sorship of  Greek  there,  and  proved  to  be  a  prodigy 
of  learning  and  critical  acumen.  He  edited  the 
plays  of  jTvSchylus  and  four  of  Euripides,  but 
achieved  little  of  original  value  in  certification  to 
posterity  of  his  ability  and  attainments.  After 
his  death,  several  of  his  works  left  in  manuscript 
were  published.     Died,  1808. 

Porter,  David  D.,  American  admiral,  was  born  at 
Chester,  Pa.,  1813;  entered  the  navy  as  mid- 
shipman in  1829;  was  employed  from  1836  to 
1841  in  the  coast  survey  of  the  United  States; 
in  1841  appointed  as  lieutenant  to  the  frigate 
Congress,  and  employed  four  years  on  the  Medi- 
terranean and  Brazil  stations;  in  1845  was 
transferred  to  the  national  observatory  at  Wash- 
ington, and  during  the  Mexican  war  to  the  naval 
rendezvous  at  New  Orleans;  again  to  the  coast 
survey,  and  from  1849  to  1853  engaged  in  com- 
mand of  the  California  mail  steamers.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  civil  war  he  was  appointed, 
with  the  rank  of  commander,  to  the  steam  sloop- 
of-war  Powhatan;  distinguished  himself  in  the 
capture  of  New  Orleans,  and  commanded  the 
gunboat  and  mortar  flotilla  which  cooperated 
with  the  squadron  of  Admiral  Farragut  in  the 
first  attack  on  Vicksburg.  In  the  fall  of  1862 
he  was  placed  in  command  of  all  the  naval  forces 
on  the  rivers  above  New  Orleans,  with  the  rank 
of  rear-admiral,  when  his  ability  as  a  commander 
was  demonstrated  in  many  ways.  At  the 
termination  of  the  war  he  was  appointed  super- 
intendent and  president  ex  officio  of  the  United 
States  naval  academy,  Annapolis.  He  was  made 
vice-admiral  in  1866,  and  in  1870  became  admiral. 
Died,  1891. 

Porter,  Gene  Stratton  (Mrs.),  author,  illustrator; 
born  on  a  farm  in  Indiana,  1868;  married  Charles 
Darwin  Porter,  1886.  Editor  camera  department. 
Recreation,  two  years;  was  on  natural  history 
staff  of  Outing  two  years;  specialist  in  natural 
history  photography  on  Photographic  Times 
Annual  Almanac  four  years.  Author  and  illus- 
trator: The  Song  of  the  Cardinal;  Freckles;  What 
I  Have  Done  With  Birds;  At  the  Foot  of  the  Rain- 
bow; A  Girl  of  the  Limberlost;  Birds  of  the  Bible; 
Music  of  the  Wild;   The  Harvester. 

Porter,  Horace,  Ainerican  diplomat  and  soldier, 
was  bom  at  Huntingdon,  Pa.,  1837.  He  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point,  1860;  LL.  D.,  Union,  1894, 
Princeton,  1906.  He  served  in  the  civil  war; 
was  lieutenant  colonel  and  aide-de-ctmip  to 
General  Grant,  1864;  colonel  of  staff  and  aide- 
de-camp  to  the  general-in-chief  of  United  States 
army,  1866.  He  was  assistant  secretarv  of  war, 
1866,  and  executive  secretary  to  f*resident 
Grant,  1869-73.  He  became  vice-president  of 
the  Pullman  palace  car  company,  1873;  was 
president  of  New  York,  West  Shore  and  Buffalo 
railroad,  St.  Louis  and  Santa  Fe  railway  com- 
pany; United  States  ambassador  to  France, 
1897-1905 ;  has  been  an  orator  on  many  noted 
occasions.    Author:   W est  Point  Life ;  Campaign- 

'   ing  with  Grant,  etc. 

Porter,  Noah,  American  educator  and  philosophi- 
cal writer,  was  bom  at  Farmington,  Conn.,  1811. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1831,  and,  after 
teaching  for  a  number  of  years,  studied  theology 
and  became  pastor  of  a  Congregational  church 
at  New  Milford,  Conn.,  and  afterward  at  Spring- 
field, Mass.  He  was  professor  of  metaphysics 
and  moral  philosophy  at  Yale  college,  1846-71; 
president  of  Yale,  1871-86;  and  died  at  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  1892.  Among  Dr.  Porter's 
numerous  works  are:  The  Human  Intellect; 
Books  and  Reading;  Elements  of  Intellectual 
Science;  Elements  of  Moral  Science;  and  an 
edition  of  Kant's  Ethics.  He  was  the  editor  of 
Webster's  Unabridged,  and  of  the  International 
Dictionary,  and  was  widely  known  as  a  scholar 
and  thinker. 


932 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Ponis  (po'-rHs),  the  Greek  name  of  a  king  of  India 
who  lived  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
He  ruled  the  country  east  of  the  river  Hydasp^, 
and,  when   Alexander   attempted    to    cross    the 
river,  Porus  met  him  with  a  large  armv  and  more 
than  two  hundred  trained  war  elephants.     He 
was  defeated  after  a  bloody  battle,  in  which  two 
of  his  sons  were  killed  and  he  himself  was  cap- 
tured.    Alexander  treated  him  humanely,  made 
him  his  ally,  and  enlarged  his  kingdom  by  giving 
him  others  which  were  conquered  by  the  Greeks. 
When  Alexander  departed  from  India,   he  left 
his  army  in  charge  of  Eudemus,  who  put  Porus 
to  death,  about  317  B.  C. 
Post,    Louis    Freeland,    American    journalist    and 
socialist,  editor  of  The  Public,  Chicago,  was  born 
at  Vienna,  N.  J.,   1849.     He  received  a  public 
school  education;     learned   the  printers'   trade; 
and  was  admitted  to  the  New  York  bar,  1870. 
He  was  assistant  United  States  attorney,  New 
York,   1874-75;    editorial  writer  on  New   York 
Daily  Truth,  1879-82;    returned  to  law  practice, 
1883,  and  abandoned  it,  1890.     He  became  inter- 
ested in  Henry  George  and  his  teaching!^  ^^^j 
and  has  since  advocated  single  tax   and  allied 
economic  reforms.     In  1891-92  he  was  editor  of 
the  New  York  Standard;  was  editor  of  the  Cleve- 
land Recorder,  1896-97 ;   and  founded  The  PvMic, 
1898.     Author:   The  Single  Tax;  Success  in  Life; 
Ethics  of  Democracy;    The  Prophet  of  San  Fran- 
cisco; Ethical  Principles  of  Marriage  and  Divorce, 
etc. 
Potter,  Cora  tJrquhart  (Mrs.  James  Brown  Potter), 
American   actress,   was   born   in    New   Orleans, 
daughter  of  Colonel  David  Urquhart.     She  mar- 
ried J.  B.  Potter,  United  States  army,  of  New 
York,   from  whom  she  was  divorced  in   1900. 
She  first  gained  fame  as  an  amateur  in  New  York, 
and  made  her  professional  ddbut  at  the  Hay- 
market  theater,  London,  as  Anne  Sylvester  in 
Man  and  Wife,    1887;    appeared  at  the   Fifth 
avenue  theater,  New  York,  in  Mile,  dc  Bremicr, 
1887;    and  since  then  has  appeared  in  varied 
repertory  and  played  during  three  tours  around 
the  world.     She  was  instrumental  in  obtaining 
many  thousands  of  pounds  for  the  various  funds 
in  aid  of  the  British  troops  in  South  Africa ;   and 
was  also  one  of  prominent  ladies  on  committee 
of  the  Maine  hospital  ship  presented  by  America 
to  the  British  government.     For  a  number  of 
years  she  has  appeared  continually  in  London  in 
various  theaters,  and  recited  the  "Antigone"  at 
Bristol  (England)  mvisical  festival,  1902.  Author: 
My   Recitations,     and    a    niunber    of    magazine 
articles. 
Potter,  Henry  Codman,  American  Protestant  Epis- 
copal prelate,  was  born  at  Schenectady,  N.  Y., 
1835.     He    was    graduated    at    the    theological 
seminary,  Virginia,  1857;    D.  D.,  1865;    LL.  D., 
Union,    1878;     Yale,    1901;     D.    D.,    Harvard, 
Trinity,  Oxford,  and  Cambridge.     He  was  pastor 
of  Christ  church,  Greensburg,  Pa.,  1857-58;    St. 
John's,    Troy,    1859-66;     was    rector    of    Grace 
church,  New  York,  until  his  death,  and    from 
1887  to  1908  was  bishop  of  New  York.     Author: 
Thirty  Years  Reviewed;    Our  Threefdd  Victory; 
The  Church  and  Her  Children;    The  Religion  for 
To-day;    The  Gates  of  the  East;    Sermons  of  the 
City;     Waymarks;     The   Scholar   and   the   State; 
The  East  of  To-day  and  To-morrow;    The  Indus- 
trial Situation;    Law  and  Loyalty,   etc.      Died. 
1908. 
Potter,  Paul,  celebrated  Dutch  animal-painter,  was 
bom,  a  painter's  son,  at  Enkhuizen  in  1625.     He 
mt  Amsterdam  and  established  himself  at  The 
Ha«ue  at  an  early  age,  where  he  studied  painting 
under  Jacob  de  Weth.     Here  he  resided  until 
1653,  when  he  returned  to  Amsterdam.     His  best 
pictures  are  pastoral  scenes  with  animal  figures, 
the    hfe-size    "Young    Bull"    being    especially 


celebrated.  His  "Dairy  Farm"  was  sold  in 
London  in  1890  for  £6,090.  The  Rijks  museum 
at  Amsterdam  possesses  the  "Bear-hunt"  and 
seven  other  pictures,  and  England  is  rich  in  liia 
works.  He  was  also  an  excellent  etcher.  He 
died,  1654. 
Pousslja  (p<}&'-«<iN'),  Nicholas,  French  painter,  was 
born  in  Normandy  in  1594.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Varin,  Lallemont,  and  others,  and  in  1624  went 
to  Rome  where  he  studied  with  Dufresnoy,  the 
sculptor.  He  returned  to  Paris  in  1640,  was 
patronized  by  Louis  XIII.,  and  finally  settled 
in  Rome  in  1642.  His  reputation  mainly  rests 
on  his  success  in  the  classic  style.  Upward  of 
two  hundred  prints  have  been  engraved  from 
his  works.  The  national  gallery  in  London  has 
several  of  Poussin's  pictures,  two  of  which  are 
particularly  praised,  "A  Bacchanalian  Dance" 
and  "A  Bacchanahan  Festival."  The  Louvre 
contains  "The  Deluge,"  "Moses,"  "Triumph  of 
Truth,"  etc.  He  died  in  1665. 
Powell,  Edward  Payson,  American  journalist  and 
author,  was  bom  at  CUnton,  N.  Y.,  1833.  He 
graduated  at  Hamilton  college,  1853,  and  from 
the  Union  theological  seminary,  1858.  He  was 
pastor  of  the  Congregational  church,  Adrian, 
Mich.,  1861-71 ;  Third  Congregational  church, 
St.  Louis,  1871-73;  and  of  the  Tliird  Unitarian 
church,  Chicago,  1874-77.  He  was  editorial 
writer  on  the  St.  Louis  Globe-Democrat  for  several 
years;  and  is  now  editorial  writer  of  The  Inde- 
pendent, New  York,  and  Christian  Re^ater, 
Boston;  and  associate  editor  of  Unity,  Chicago, 
and  of  AretM.  Boston.  Author:  Our  Heredity 
from  God;  Liberty  and  Life;  Nullification  and 
Secession  in  the  United  States;  Windbreaks, 
Hedges  and  Shelters;  The  Country  Home;  In 
the  Orchard  and  Fruit  Garden.  He  is  a  regular 
contributor  to  reviews  and  magazines. 
Powers,  Hiram,  American  sculptor,  was  bom  at 
Woodstock,  Vt.,  1805.  While  still  a  boy  he 
went  to  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  where  he  became  an 
apprentice  to  a  clockmaker,  and  about  the  same 
time  formed  the  acquaintance  of  a  German 
sculptor,  who  taught  him  to  model  in  plaster 
Subsequently  he  was  employed  for  several  years 
making  wax  figures  and  fitting  them  with 
machinery  for  the  Cincinnati  museum,  where  his 
"Infernal  Re^ons"  horrified  thousands  of  vis- 
itors. In  1835  he  went  to  Washington,  where 
he  executed  the  busts  of  the  most  distinguished 
persons  of  the  day.  In  1837  he  went  to  Italy 
to  study  his  art,  and  resided  in  Florence  until 
his  death.  In  1838  he  produced  his  statue  of 
"Eve,"  which  excited  the  admiration  of  Thor- 
waldsen,  and  in  1839  the  still  more  popular 
"Greek  Slave,"  of  which  six  copies  in  marble, 
with  many  cast  copies,  were  produced.  He  also 
produced  "The  Fisher  Boy,"  "Proserpine,"  and 
"The  Indian  Giri."  Died,  1873. 
Poynter,  Sir  Edward  John,  English  painter,  was 
bom  of  Huguenot  ancestry  in  Paris,  1836.  He 
was  the  son  of  an  architect;  was  educated  at 
Westminster  and  Ipswich;  studied,  1853-54,  at 
Rome  and,  1856-60,  in  Paris  and  elsewhere.  He 
made  designs  for  stained  glass,  and  drawings  on 
wood  for  Once  a  Week  and  other  periodicals,  and 
for  Dalziel's  projected  illustrated  Bible  This 
led  to  studies  m  Egj-ptian  art,  which  resulted  in 
his  "Israel  in  Egypt'  in  1867.  His  water  colors 
are  numerous,  and  he  was  elected  to  the  royal 
water  color  society  in  1883;  was  R.  A.  from 
1876.  In  1871  he  \>ecame  Blade  professor  of  art, 
university  of  London;  in  1876-81  was  director 
of  art  at  South  Kensington;  from  1894  to  1905 
was  director  of  the  national  gallery,  London: 
and  since  1896  has  been  president  of  the  royal 
academy.  Among  his  works  are:  "The  Cata- 
pult"; "The  Golden  Age";  "Zenobia";  "A 
Visit  to  .^Isculapiua";    "The  Ides  of  March"; 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


"A  Corner  in  the  Villa";  "The  Visit  of  the 
Queen  of  Sheba  to  Solomon";  "The  Ionian 
Dance";  "Skirt  Dance";  "Perseus  and  Androm- 
eda": "Dragon  of  Wantley";  "Atalanta's 
Race  ;  "Nausicaa  and  Her  Maidens";  "The 
Cave  of  the  Storm  Nymphs,"  etc.  In  1869-70 
he  designed  the  cartoons  for  a  mosaic  of  St. 
George  m  the  British  house  of  parliament.  He 
was  knighted,  1897,  and  created  a  baronet  in 
1902. 

Praxiteles  {pr&ksHf-i-lez),  famous  Grecian  sculptor, 
is  believed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Athens,  to 
have  flourished  early  in  the  fourth  century  B.  C, 
and  to  have  died  at  the  age  of  eighty.  Pliny 
gives  the  date  364  B.  C.  apparently  as  that  in 
which  Praxiteles  began  to  flourish.  He  executed 
statues  in  both  bronze  and  marble,  and  was 
unrivaled  in  the  exhibition  of  the  softer  beauties 
of  the  human  form,  especially  the  female  figure, 
his  most  celebrated  being  the  marble  one  of 
Aphrodite  at  Cnidus.  He  also  executed  statues 
of  Eros,  Apollo,  and  Hermes  as  well,  but  they 
have  all  perislied. 

Prentice,  George  D.,  American  journalist,  was  bom 
at  Preston,  Conn.,  1802,  and  graduated  at  Brown 
university  in  1823.  After  studying  law,  he 
edited  the  New  England  Review  for  two  years, 
and  in  1831  became  editor  of  the  Louisville 
Journal,  which  position  he  continued  to  hold 
until  his  death  in  1870.  The  Journal  became 
famous  under  his  editorship  as  an  organ  of  the 
whig  party;  and  during  the  civil  war  it  gave  an 
unflinching  support  to  the  cause  of  the  Union. 
Prentice's  short,  witty  paragraphs  also  consti- 
tuted a  new  feature  much  noted  and  admired. 
He  also  achieved  considerable  reputation  as  a 
public  lecturer,  and  was  the  author  of  a  number 
of  poems.  After  his  death,  the  Louisville  Journal 
was  consolidated  with  the  Courier  of  the  same 
city,  under  the  name  of  the  Courier-Journal. 

Prescott,  William  Hiclding,  Ainerican  historian, 
was  born  at  Salem,  Mass.,  1796.  During  his 
college  course  he  lost  the  sight  of  an  eye  by  a 
piece  of  bread  playfully  thrown  by  a  fellow 
student,  and  his  studies  so  affected  the  other 
that  he  became  nearly  blind.  He  was  then  sent 
abroad  for  his  health,  and  traveled  in  England, 
France,  and  Italy.  On  his  return  to  America 
he  turned  his  attention  to  literature,  and,  in  1825, 
selected  materials  for  his  History  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,  which  appeared  in  1837.  He  next 
devoted  six  years  to  the  History  of  the  Conquest 
of  Mexico,  and  four  years  to  the  Conquest  of  Peru. 
He  was  chosen  corresponding  member  of  the 
French  institute,  and  on  his  visit  to  Europe,  in 
1850,  was  received  with  the  highest  distinction. 
From  1855  to  1858  he  published  three  volumes 
of  his  History  of  Philip  II.,  but  left  it  unfinished. 
No  American  historian  has  ever  excelled  him  in 
the  power  of  vivid  description,  and  his  works 
are  regarded  as  the  best  extant  histories  of  the 
periods  with  which  they  deal.  He  was  made 
D.  C.  L.  at  Oxford  in  1850.     Died,  1859. 

Price,  Sterling,  American  general,  was  bom  in 
Virginia,  1809.  He  was  a  democratic  member 
of  congress,  184*5-46;  was  made  brigadier-general 
in  the  Mexican  war;  was  governor  of  Missouri, 
1853-57;  became  a  noted  leader  of  the  secession 
party;  was  appointed  major-general  in  the 
confederate  service  in  1862,  and  rendered  dis- 
tinguished service  to  the  confederacy  throughout 
the  civil  war,  in  the  Southwest.  He  entered  into 
a  combination  with  Vallandigham  and  others, 
and  founded  the  Knights  of  the  Golden  Circle, 
a  secret  political  society,  of  which  he  was  grand 
commander,  composed,  it  is  said,  of  nearly 
25,000  Missourians.     Died,  1867. 

Priestley,  Joseph,  eminent  English  clergyman  and 
experimental  philosopher,  was  bom  in  1733,  at 
Fieldhead,     in    Yorkshire,     England.     He    was 


educated  at  Daventry,  and  was  subeequently 
tutor  at  Warrington,  pastor  to  various  congre- 
gations, and  acquired  a  high  reputation  ia 
physics  and  chemistry.  In  1774  he  announced 
his  discovery  of  oxygen.  In  1772  he  had  become 
companion  to  the  earl  of  Shelburne,  and,  at  the 
end  of  a  seven  years'  residence  with  that  noble- 
man, he  received  a  pension,  and  settled,  in  1780, 
at  Birmingham.  There  he  proceeded  actively 
with  his  philosophical  and  theological  researches, 
became  tne  associate  of  Boulton,  Watt,  and  Dr. 
Darwin,  grandfather  of  Charles  Darwin,  and  was 
also  appointed  pastor  of  a  Unitarian  congrega- 
tion. In  1791,  however,  the  scene  changed. 
His  religious  principles  and  his  avowed  par- 
tiality to  the  French  revolution  excited  the 
hatred  of  the  high  church  and  tory  party,  and, 
in  the  riots  which  took  place  in  July,  his  house, 
library,  manuscripts,  and  apparatus  were  com- 
mitted to  the  flames  by  the  infuriated  mob,  and 
he  was  exposed  to  great  personal  danger.  Quit- 
ting Birmingham,  he  succeeded  Dr.  Price  at 
Hackney;  but,  in  1794,  conceiving  him.self  to  be 
insecure  from  popular  rage,  he  embarked  for 
America.  He  settled  at  Northumberland,  Penn- 
sylvania, at  which  place  he  died,  1804.  His 
works  include  between  seventy  and  eighty 
volumes.  Among  them  are :  Lectures  on  General 
History;  Theory  and  History  of  Language;  Prin- 
ciples of  Oratory  and  Criticism;  Charts  of  Biog- 
raphy and  History;  Disquisitions  Relating  to 
Af  alter  and  Spirit;  Hartleian  Theory  of  the  Human 
Mind;  History  of  the  Corruptions  of  Christianity; 
Letters  to  a  Philosophical  Unbeliever;  Institutes  of 
Naturcd  and  Revealed  Religion;  History  of  Elec- 
tricity; History  of  Vision,  lAght,  and  Colors;  and 
Experiments  and  Observations  on  Different  Kinds 
of  Air. 

Prim  (prem),  Juan,  Spanish  general  and  statesman, 
was  born,  1814.  He  entered  the  Spanish  army 
when  but  a  mere  boy ;  became  a  colonel  in  1837 ; 
aided  Narvaez,  1843,  in  the  overthrow  of  Espar- 
tero,  and  assisted  in  effecting  the  return  of  Queen 
Maria  Christina,  who  rewarded  him  by  bestowing 
various  honors  on  him,  and  making  him  governor 
of  Madrid.  In  1844  he  was  imprisoned  ton  an 
accusation  of  treason,  but  was  soon  pardoned, 
and  was  appointed  governor  of  Porto  Rico.  He 
was  subsequently  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army  against  Morocco,  and  was  made  marquis; 
in  1861  commanded  the  Spanish  contingent  in 
the  allied  intervention  of  France  and  Spain  in 
Mexico;  visited  the  army  of  the  Potomac  on 
his  way  back  to  Spain;  was  banished  from 
Madrid  in  1864,  but  on  the  overthrow  of  Isabella, 
in  which  he  aided,  was  welcomed  back  to  Spain 
with  open  arms,  and  filled  the  highest  posts  in 
the  realm.  He  is  said  to  have  furnished  the 
pretext  for  the  Franco-Prussian  war  by  his  offer 
of  the  Spanish  crown  to  Prince  Leopold.  He 
was  assassinated  in  1870  in  the  streets  of  Madrid 
for  having  procured  in  the  Cortes  the  election  of 
Amadeus  to  the  Spanish  throne. 

Pritchett,  Henry  Smith,  American  educator,  was 
born  at  Fayette,  Mo.,  1857.  He  graduated  at 
Pritchett  college,  Glasgow,  Mo.,  1875;  Ph.  D., 
Munich,  1894;  LL.  D.,  Hamilton,  1900,  Penn- 
sylvania, Harvard,  and  Yale,  1901,  Johns 
Ilopkins,  1902,  Williams,  Michigan,  1905;  8c.  D., 
Tufts,  1905.  He  was  a  student  assistant  in  the 
United  States  naval  observatory,  1876 ;  assistant 
astronomer  of  same,  1878;  astronomer  of  Morri- 
son observatory,  Glasgow,  Mo.,  1880;  astronomer 
Transit  of  Venus  expedition  to  New  Zealand, 
1882;  professor  of  astronomy  and  director  of 
observatory,  Washington  university,  St.  Louis, 
1883-97;  superintendent  of  United  States  coa.st 
and  geodetic  survey,  1897-1900;  president  of 
the  Massachusetts  institute  of  technology,  1900- 
06 ;  and  president  of  the  Carnegie  foundation  for 


934 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


advancement  of  teaching  sipce  1906.  He  is  the 
author  of  various  scientific  papers. 

Procter,  Bryan  Waller  ("Barry  Gornwall"),  Eng- 
lish poet,  was  born  at  Leeds,  1787.  Educated 
at  Harrow  with  Byron  and  Peel  for  schoolfellows, 
Bettled  in  London  when  about  twenty  years  of 
age,  and  soon  began  to  contribute  poetry  to  the 
Literary  Gazette.  A  few  years  later  he  published 
four  volumes  of  poems,  and  produced  a  tragedy 
at  Covent  Garden  theater,  whose  success  was 
largely  due  to  the  acting  of  Macready  and 
Kemble.  He  was  a  metropolitan  commissioner 
of  lunacy  from  1832  to  1861.  His  works,  issued 
under  his  pseudonym,  comprise:  Dramatic 
Scenes;  A  Sicilian  Story;  Marcian  Cdonna;  The 
Flood  of  Thessaly;  English  Songs;  besides  his 
memoirs  of  Kean  and  of  Charles  Lamb.  He 
wrote  "The  Lost  Chord."     Died  in  1874. 

Proctor,  Bedfleld,  American  statesman,  was  bom 
at  Proctorsville,  Vt.,  1831.  He  served  in  the 
civil  war  as  colonel  of  the  15th  Vermont  volun- 
teers, was  governor  of  that  state  in  1878,  1879, 
and  1880.  He  engaged  in  farming  on  a  large 
scale,  living  at  Proctor,  a  town  founded  by  him, 
and  situated  a  few  miles  from  Rutland,  and  was 
in  practical  control  of  the  whole  output  of  the 
Vermont  marble  quarries.  He  was  secretary  of 
war.  United  States,  1889-91;  United  States 
senator,  Vermont,  1891-1908;  visited  Cuba, 
1898,  and  his  speech  on  Cuban  reconcentrados 
in  the  United  States  senate  after  his  return  at- 
tracted wide  attention.     He  died  in  1908. 

Proctor,  Richard  Anthony,  English  astronomer  and 
mathematician,  was  born  at  Chelsea,  England, 
1837.  Pie  was  a  graduate  of  St.  John's  college, 
Cambridge,  in  1860.  Besides  his  fame  as  an 
author,  he  was  well  known  as  a  popular  lecturer 
in  England,  the  United  States,  and  Australia. 
About  1885  he  settled  in  St.  Louis,  and  later 
moved  to  Florida,  leaving  there  just  before  be 
was  seized  with  his  fatal  illness  in  New  York. 
His  principal  popular  books  were:  Saturn  and 
Its  System;  Gnomonic  Star  Atlas;  Half-hmira 
with  the  Telescope;  Half-hours  with  Stars;  Other 
Worlds  Than  Ours;  Light  Science  for  Leisure 
Hours;  Elementary  Astronomy;  Border  Land  of 
Science;  Transits  of  Venus,  Past,  Present,  and 
Future;  The  Expanse  of  Heaven;  Myths  and 
Marvels  of  Astronomy;  Chance  and  Luck;  First 
Steps  in  Geometry;  Easy  Lessons  in  Differential 
Calculus;  and  Old  and  New  Astronomy,  on 
which  he  was  at  work  at  the  time  of  his  death. 
He  was  at  this  time  also  editor  of  Krunoledge, 
a  monthly  journal  of  popular  science.  Died, 
1888. 

Protagoras  (pro-tOg'-o-ras),  the  first  of  the  Greek 
sophists,  was  born  about  480  B.  C,  and  died 
?bout  411  B.  C.  A  native  of  Abdera,  he  settled 
m  Athens,  and  gained  a  reputation  as  a  paid 
teacher  of  philosophy.  His  doctrine  was  a  form 
of  agnosticism;  his  favorite  saying  was  that 
Man  IS  the  measure  of  all  things."  He  was 
finally  banished  from  the  city.  He  devoted 
considerable  attention  to  grammar,  and  the  dis- 
tinction of  moods  and  genders  is  sometimes 
attnbuted  to  him. 

Prondhon  (pr<55'-ddN'),  Pierre  Joseph,  French 
swiahst,  was  bom  at  Besan^on,  1809.  By  his 
vigorous  advocacy  of  extreme  and  democratic 
opinions  he  became  one  of  the  leading  figures  of 
his  day.  As  the  editor  of  three  dailv  journals 
in  succession  he  did  much  to  form  the  public 
pinion  on  pohtical  questions.  His  economic 
^  -^I,^  expounded  in  his  Qu'est-ce  que  la 
d,-f  *"*^A,3l'^  Syst^me  des  contradictions 
f^^^Vt-,  ^l*^°»gh  he  framed  no  complete 
o^^f  +  ^^  ""^i  t'^  destructive  criticism  was 
nt  fr!n!.>r  "^'  ^^  ^^  '"^^^^  ^'^^  ^^  the  history 
lis  ^^^'^^"^'c  thought.     He  died  at  Passv, 


Ptolemy  I.  (tH'-f-ml),  king  of  Egypt,  known  by  his 
surname  Soter,  or  "the  preserver,"  was  bom,  367 
B.  C.  He  was  believed  by  some  to  be  the  son  of 
Philip  of  Macedon,  because  his  mother,  Arsinoe, 
had  been  a  concubine  of  that  king.  Ptolemy 
acted  as  one  of  Alexander's  generals  in  liis  Eastern 
campaigns;  and,  when  the  possessions  of  the 
latter  were  divided,  after  his  death  at  Babylon, 
323  B.  C,  Egypt  fell  to  him.  Troubles  soon 
followed  such  an  acquisition;  but  Ptolemy  was 
a  man  of  energy  and  valor,  and  not  only  warded 
off  danger  from  his  own  realm,  but  also  extended 
his  dominions  by  the  addition  of  Phoenicia, 
Coele-Syria,  and  Jerusalem.  Two  years  before 
his  death,  which  occurred  in  283  B.  C,  he 
abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son,  Ptolemy  Philadel- 
phus.     His  reign  extended  from  323  to  285  B.  C. 

Ptolemy  11^  sumamed  Philadelphus,  son  of 
Ptolemv  L,  was  bom,  309  B.  C,  m  the  island  of 
Cos.  II  is  reign  is  remarkable  for  the  succe^bful 
cultivation  of  the  arts  of  peace  rather  than  the 
practice  of  war.  He  enriched  the  library  of 
Alexandria  with  all  the  literary  treasures  of  his 
own  and  of  earlier  times,  and  the  museum  was 
crowded  with  the  learned  from  all  coimtries. 
Tradition  alleges  that  it  was  by  his  orders  that 
the  Hebrew  scriptures  were  translated  into 
Greek,  and  the  vcndon  called  the  septuagint  thus 
formed.  He  induced  Manetho  to  write,  in  Greek, 
a  political  history  of  Egypt,  and  an  account  oi 
the  religious  tenets  of  the  Egyptians.  He 
encouraged  the  study  of  natural  history,  and  to 
facilitate  the  pursuit  of  those  who  devoted  them- 
selves to  it  he  formed  a  collection  of  rare  and 
curious  animals  in  the  preserves,  which  may  be 
called  the  royal  zoological  gardens  of  Egypt. 
He  also  expendc>d  large  amounts  on  public  works; 
was  the  builder  of  the  famous  ligbtnouse  on  the 
island  of  Pharos;  and  constructed  a  royal 
mausoleum,  to  which  he  removed  the  remains  of 
Alexander  from  Memphis.  Altogether,  under 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus  Egypt  rose  to  a  high  rank 
among  the  nations  in  power  and  wealth.  He 
reigned  from  285  to  247  B.  C. 

Ptolemy,  celebrated  astronomer  and  geographer, 
whose  proper  name  is  Claudius  Ptolemaeus,  was 
a  native  of  Egj^pt,  though  it  is  uncertain  whether 
he  was  bom  at  Pelusium  or  at  Ptolemais  in  the 
Thebaid;  flourished  139-161.  His  writings  are 
Megale  Syntaxis  tea  Astronomaia  and  TetrabihUm 
Syntaxia.  Ptolemy,  both  as  an  astronomer  and 
geographer,  held  supreme  sway  over  the  minds 
of  almost  all  the  scientific  men  from  his  own 
time  down  until  about  the  fifteenth  century; 
and  in  astronomy  especially  he  seems  to  have 
been  not  so  much  an  independent  investigator 
as  a  corrector  and  improver  of  the  work  of  his 
predecessors.  The  Almageat  and  the  Geography 
were  the  standard  text-books  to  succeeuing 
ages;  the  first  until  the  time  of  Copernicus,  the 
second  until  the  great  maritime  discoveries  of 
the  fifteenth  centur\'  showed  its  deficiencies. 

Pugln  (pH'-jln),  Augustus  Welby,  English  architect, 
was  bom  in  London,  1812,  the  son  of  a  French 
architect,  Augustin  Pugin,  in  whose  office  he  was 
trained,  chiefly  by  making  drawings  for  his 
father's  books  on  Gothic  buildings.  He  was 
associated  with  Sir  Charles  Barrj-,  architect  of 
the  British  houses  of  parliament,  and  designed 
and  modeled  a  large  part  of  the  decorations  and 
sculpture  for  those  structures.  He  became  a 
convert  to  Catholicism,  designed  Killamey 
cathedral,  Adare  hall,  a  chapel  at  Douai,  and 
many  other  churches  and  buildings  for  that 
communion.  He  died  at  Ram^ate,  1852.  He 
wrote  Contrasts  between  the  Architecture  of  the 
\5th  and  IQth  Centuries;  Chancd  Screens;  and 
True  Principlea  of  Christian  Architecture. 

Pulaski  (pd^4ds'-k€),  Casirair,  Polish  count  and 
general,  who  fell  in  the  American  revolutionary 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


935 


war,  was  bom  in  Podolia,  1748.  On  account  of 
the  active  part  he  took  in  tlie  Polish  war  against 
Russia,  he  was  stripped  of  his  estates  and  out- 
lawed in  the  partition  of  Poland  in  1772.  In 
1777  he  offered  his  services  to  the  American 
colonies  in  their  contest  against  England,  and 
for  his  gallant  conduct  at  the  battle  of  Brandy- 
wine  was  given  a  brigade  of  cavalry,  which  he 
commanded  until  March,  1778.  In  Mav,  1779, 
he  entered  Charleston  at  the  head  of  "]?ulaski's 
legion,"  a  corps  of  lancers  and  light  infantry 
which  he  had  organized,  and  held  it  until  the 

Elace  was  relieved;    he  afterward  followed  and 
arassed  the  British  until  they  left  South  Carolina. 
At  the  siege  of  Savannah,  in  October,  1779,  he 
fell  in  an  assault  at  the  head  of  the  cavalry,  and 
died  on  board  the  brig  Wasp  two  days  later. 
Pulitzer  (pu'-lU-sir),  Joseph,  American  journalist, 

Eroprietor  of  New  York  TT'orZd,  1883-1911;  was 
orn  at  Budapest,  Hungary,  1847.  He  was 
educated  by  private  tutor;  came  to  United  States, 
1864 ;  served  until  end  of  civil  war  in  a  cavalry 
regiment;  went  to  St.  Louis,  became  reporter 
on  the  iVestliche  Post,  a  German  newspaper, 
1868,  and  later  became  its  managing  editor  and 
part  proprietor.  In  1878  he  bought  the  St. 
Louis  Dispatch  and  united  it  with  Tlie  Evening 
Post,  as  the  Post-Dispatch.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Missouri  legislature,  1869;  Missouri  state 
constitutional  convention,  1874;  was  elected  to 
congress  in  New  York  for  term  1885-87,  but 
resigned  after  a  few  months'  service ;  was  a  del- 
egate to  the  Cincinnati  liberal  republican  conven- 
tion, which  nominated  Horace  Greeley  for  pres- 
ident; and  advocated  the  gold-standard  demo- 
cratic ticket,  1896.  In  1903  he  endowed  with 
$1,000,000  Columbia  university  school  of  jour- 
nalism, with  agreement  to  give  an  additional 
$1,000,000  when  the  school  should  be  in  success- 
ful operation.     Died,  1911. 

PuUnaan,  George  M.,  American  inventor  and  busi- 
ness man,  was  bom  at  Brocton,  Chautauqua 
county,  N.  Y.,  1831.  At  the  age  of  twenty-two 
he  engaged  in  moving  buildings  out  of  the  way 
of  the  Erie  canal,  then  in  process  of  widening. 
He  made  his  home  in  Chicago  in  1859,  and  in  the 
same  year  prepared  models  of  sleeping  cars, 
which  became  the  foundation  of  his  fortune. 
He  made  a  success  of  raising  buildings  to  the  new 
level  of  the  city  by  means  of  a  great  many 
jackscrews,  operated  simultaneously.  In  1863 
he  began  building  the  coaches  that  are  called 
by  his  name  the  world  over.  A  few  years  later 
he  organized  the  Pullman  palace  car  company 
which  was  to  build  them.  In  1880  he  founded 
the  town  of  Pullman,  near  Chicago,  where  the 
coaches  were  built.  In  1887  he  added  the 
vestibule  to  his  cars,  which  greatly  increased 
their  comfort.  He  died  in  1897,  having  amassed  a 
large  fortune  from  his  inventions  and  his  various 
business  enterprises. 

Pupln  {pu-pen'),  Michael  Idvorsky,  physicist, 
electrician,  professor  of  electro-mechanics,  Colum- 
bia, since  1901,  was  bom  in  Idvor,  Banat,  Hun- 
gary, 1858.  He  graduated  at  Columbia  univer- 
sity, 1883;  studied  physics  and  mathematics 
under  Helmholtz,  at  the  university  of  Berlin; 
Ph.  D.,  Berlin.  His  researches  in  electrical 
resonance  and  wave  propagation  have  made 
possible  long-distance  telephony  and  multiplex 
telegraphy.  Wrote:  Osmotic  Pressure  and  Free 
Energy;  Electrical  Oscillation  of  Low  Frcqwency 
and  Their  Resonance;  Resonance  Analysis  of 
Alternating  Currents;  Electro-magnetic  Theory; 
Propagation  of  Long  Electrical  Waves;  Wave 
Propagation  Over  Noriruniform  Conductors,  etc. 

Pnrcell  {pHr'-sU),  Henry,  noted  English  composer, 
was  bom  at  Westminster  in  1658,  and  in  1664 
became  a  chorister  in  the  Chapel  Royal.  His 
compositions  at  an  early  age  gave  evidence  of 


talent;  and  In  1680  he  was  appointed  organi.it  of 
Westminster  abbey,  in  1682  of  the  Chapel  Royal. 
He  wrote  many  antnems  and  other  church  music, 
and  many  dramatic  and  chamber  compositions. 
Among  them  are  his  opera  Dido  and  Ainmif, 
written  at  seventeen,  his  music  to  the  Tempest, 
his  songs  in  Dryden's  King  Arthur,  his  music 
to  Howard's  and  Dryden's  Indian  Queen,  to 
D'Urfey's  Don  Quixote,  etc.  His  greatest  work 
is  the  Te  Deum  and  Jubilate.     In  1683  he  rom- 

fosed  twelve  sonatas  for  two  violins  and  a  bass, 
n  originality  and  vigor,  in  richness  of  harmony 
and  variety  of  expression,  he  far  surpassed  his 
predecessors  and  contemporaries,  lus  church 
music  was  edited  from  the  original  MSS.  by 
Vincent  Novello  in  1829-32,  with  an  essay  on  his 
life  and  works:  and  a  complete  edition  of  his 
works  was  undertaken  by  the  Purcell  society, 
instituted  in  1876.  Purcell  died,  1695,  and  was 
buried  in  Westminster  abbey. 

Pusey  (pu'-zi),  Edward  BouTcrle,  English  divine, 
was  born  at  Pusey,  in  Berkshire,  in  1800,  and 
graduated  at  Oxford  in  1822.  In  1828  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Oxford,  a 
position  he  held  until  his  death.  In  connection 
with  Keble  and  Newman,  Pusey  took  a  very 
active  part  in  the  "Tractarian  movement";  andf, 
in  1843,  was  suspended  from  preaching  at  Oxford 
for  three  years  on  account  of  a  sermon  on  the 
holy  eucharist.  But  he  remained  in  the  Anglican 
communion,  and  exerted  all  his  talents  and 
learning  to  sustain  evangelical  doctrines  and 
standards.  In  private  life,  Pusey  was  a  man  of 
warm  affection,  and  was  widely  known  for  his 
gentleness,  sincerity,  and  humility.  His  charity 
was  limited  only  by  his  income ;  besides  abundant 
gifts  to  the  poor,  he  spent  large  sums  in  helping 
to  provide  churches  in  East  London,  and  in 
founding  and  supporting  sisterhoods.  He  died 
at  Oxford,  1882. 

Pushkin  (pdosh'-kin),  Alexander  Sergeyevltch,  Rus- 
sian poet,  was  bom  in  1799.  He  was  the  son  of 
a  nobleman,  and  when  quite  young  became  a 
government  clerk,  but,  having  written  an  Ode  to 
Liberty  which  offended  the  emperor,  lost  the 
office.  In  1825  Emperor  Nicholas  reinstated 
him  and  appointed  him  to  write  a  history  of 
Peter  the  Great.  His  greatest  work,  Eugene 
Onegin,  is  a  romance  in  verse.  Among  his  other 
writings  are  the  poems:  Th^  Gypsies;  Poltava; 
Dubrovski;  and  The  Captain's  Daughter,  a  novel. 
Pushkin  was  killed  in  a  duel  at  St.  Petersburg 
when  thirty-seven  years  old,  1837. 

Putnam,  George  Haven,  publisher,  head  of  G.  P. 
Putnam's  Sons,  was  bom  in  London,  England, 
1844.  He  was  educated  at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris, 
and  university  of  Gottingen;  A.  M.,  Bowdoin 
college;  Litt.  D.,  Western  Pennsylvania.  He 
left  Gottingen  without  graduating  to  enter 
176th  New  York  volunteers,  1862;  served  from 
private  to  major,  until  1865.  He  was  a  prisoner 
at  Libby  and  Danville,  Va.,  in  the  winter  of 
1864-65.  He  received  the  cross  of  the  legion  of 
honor  from  France,  1891.  Author:  Authors  and 
Their  Public  in  Ancient  Times;  The  Artificial 
Mother;  Books  and  Their  Makers  in  the  Middle 
Ages;  The  Censorship  of  the  Church  of  Rome  and 
its  Influence  upon  the  Production  and  the  Distri- 
bution of  Literature,  etc. 

Putnam,  Herbert,  librarian  of  congress  since  1899, 
was  bom  at  New  York,  1861.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard,  1883:  Litt.  D.,  Bowdoin,  1898;  LL.  D., 
Columbian,  1903,  Illinois,  1903,  Wisconsin.  1904, 
Yale,  1907.  He  took  a  partial  course  at  Columbia 
law^  school,  and  was  admitted  to  the  Minnesota 
bar,  1886;  to  the  bar  of  Suffolk  county,  Mass., 
1892;  and  practiced  law,  Boston,  1892-95.  He 
was  librarian  at  Minneapolis  Athenaeum,  1884-87, 
Minneapolis  public  library-,  1887-91,  and  Boston 
public  library,    1895-99.     He  was  president  of 


936 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


the  American  library  association,  1898,  1904, 
and  overseer  of  Harvard,  1902-06.  He  has  pub- 
lished numerous  articles  in  reviews  and  profes- 
sional journals. 

Putnam,  Israel,  American  general,  bom  at  Danvers, 
Mass.,  1718.  In  1755  he  helped  as  a  captain  to 
repel  a  French  invasion  of  New  York,  and  was 
present  at  the  battle  of  Lake  George.  In  1758 
he  was  captured  by  the  savages,  tortured,  and 
about  to  be  burned  when  a  French  officer  rescued 
him.  In  1759  he  received  a  regiment,  in  1762 
went  on  the  West  India  campaign,  and  in  1764 
helped  to  relieve  Detroit,  then  besieged  bv 
Pontiac.  In  1775,  after  the  battle  of  Concord, 
he  was  given  command  of  the  forces  of  Connecti- 
cut, was  at  Bunker  Hill,  held  the  command 
at  New  York,  and  in  August,  1776,  at  Brooklyn 
Heights,  where  he  was  defeated  by  Howe.  In 
1777  he  was  appointed  to  the  defense  of  the 
Highlands  of  the  Hudson.     He  died,  1790. 

Pyle,  Howard,  American  artist,  author,  was  bom 
at  Wilmington,  Del.,  1853.  He  was  educated  in 
private  schools  and  at  the  art  students'  league, 
New  York.  Author  and  illustrator:  The  Merry 
Adventures  of  Robin  Hood;  Pepper  and  Salt,  or 
Seasoning  for  Young  Folks;  Within  the  Capes; 
The  Wonder  Clock;  The  Rose  of  Paradise;  Otto  of 
the  Silver  Hand;  A  Modem  Aladdin;  Men  of 
Iron;  Jack  BaUister's  Fortunes;  Twilight  Land; 
The  Garden  Behind  the  Moon;  Semper  Idem; 
Rejected  of  Men;  The  Story  of  King  Arthur  and 
His  Knights;  The  Story  of  the  Champions  of  the 
Round  Table;  The  Story  of  Sir  Launcelot  and 
His  Companions;  Stolen  Treasure;  and  many 
magazine  stories  and  articles.     Died,  1911. 

Pym  (plm),  John,  English  orator  and  statesman, 
was  bom  at  Brymore,  in  Somersetshire,  in 
1584.  He  was  for  many  years  member  of 
parliament  for  Tavistock,  having  been  in  the 
previous  reign  member  for  Calne,  and  was  one  of 
those  who,  in  1626,  conducted  the  impeachment 
of  the  duke  of  Buckingham.  Fifteen  years 
afterward  he  led  the  impeachment  of  the  earl  of 
Strafford;  and  in  the  following  year  1642,  ho 
was  one  of  the  "five  members  — Hollis, 
Haselrig,  Hampden,  Strode,  and  Pym  —  the 
attempt  to  seize  whom,  on  the  part  of  Charles  I., 
immediately  preceded  the  English  civil  war. 
The  title  of  "King  Pym,"  which  was  given  to  him 
in  ridicule,  sufficiently  indicates  the  power  he 
wielded  in  the  long  parliament.  Scarcely  had 
the  great  conflict  begun,  however,  when  toil  and 
anxiety  brought  his  career  to  a  close.  He  died 
at  Derby  House,  1643,  and  was  buried  in  state  in 
Westminster  abbey. 

Pyrrhus  (plr'-Os),  Greek  general,  king  of  Epirus, 
was  born  about  318  B.  C,  came  to  the  throne  in 
306  B.  C.  He  was  expelled  a  few  years  later,  but 
restored  by  the  help  of  Ptolemy  Soter  in  295  B.  C. ; 
held  the  kingdom  of  Macedonia  for  a  short  time, 
and,  in  281  B.  C,  went  to  Italy  to  help  Tarentum 
against  the  Romans.  He  was  at  first  successful, 
through  his  elephants  and  the  phalanx,  but  was 
finally  defeated  in  275  B.  C.  After  this  he  again 
mastered  Macedonia,  but  was  killed  in  a  night 
attack  on  Argos  in  272  B.  C. 
Pythagoras  (pi-th&g'-d-ras),  celebrated  Greek  phi- 
losopher, the  founder  of  the  Pythagorean  school 
also  called  the  Italic,  was  born  about  582  B.  C, 
at  Samos,  or,  according  to  some,  at  Sidon.  He 
began  to  travel  at  the  age  of  eighteen;  visited 
Phoenicia  and  Asia  Minor,  and,  it  is  said,  Persia 
and  India,  and  resided  for  twenty-five  years  in 
Egypt.  On  his  return  he  taught  geometry  at 
bamos,  after  which  he  settled  at  Crotona,  ih 
Magna  Graecia,  and  estabhshed  a  school  of 
philosophy,  which  became  famous.  Persecution 
at  length  drove  him  thence,  and  he  took  refuge  in 
the  temple  of  the  Muses  at  Metapontum,  where  he 
IS  said  to  have  been  starved  to  death,  about  500 


B.  C.  Besides  being  an  illustrious  metaphysical 
philosopher,  Pythagoras  was  a  great  geometrician 
and  astronomer,  discovered  the  imnierical  rela- 
tions in  music  and  propounded  the  theory  of  the 
"harmony  of  the  spheres."  He  left  no  writings, 
and  we  Icnow  of  his  philosophy  chiefly  from 
the  philosophy  of  his  disciples. 

Quackenbos,  John  Duncan,  physician,  author,  wa* 
bom  in  New  York,  1848.  He  was  graduated  at 
Columbia  university,  1868,  college  of  physicians 
and  surgeons,  1871;  has  since  practiced  in  New 
York,  latterly  making  a  specialty  of  mental  and 
moral  diseases.  He  was  adjunct  professor  of 
the  English  language  and  literature,  Columbia, 
1884-91,  professor  of  rhetoric  at  same,  1891-94; 
also  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Barnard  college 
for  women,  1891-93.  Author:  History  of  Uie 
World;  History  of  Ancient  Literature;  History  of 
the  English  Language;  Ph^neal  Geography;  Text- 
Book  on  Physvca;  Practical  Rhetoric;  Typhoid 
Fever;  Cause*  and  Recent  Treatment  of  Neuras- 
thenia; Tuberculosis;  Hypnotic  Suggestion  in  the 
Treatment  of  Sextud  Perversions;  Hypnotism  in 
Mental  and  Moral  Culture;  Enemies  and  Evi- 
dences of  Christianity,  etc. 

Quatrefaces  de  Brftau  {ka'-tr'-fdxh'  di  brif-d'),  Jeaa 
liouls  AmiaJid  de,  French  naturalist,  was  bom 
at  BerthexAme,  France,  1810.  In  1850  he  was 
elected  professor  in  the  Lyde  NapoUon  and  in 
1855  at  tlic  natural  history  muaeum,  Paris.  His 
chief  works  are:  Souvenirs  d'un  Naturalists; 
Units  de  I' Espies  Humaine;  L' Espies  Humaine; 
Crania  Ethmea;  Les  PygmSes;  Darvfin  el  ses 
Pricurseurs  Pranfais;  and  Theories  Transform- 
istes.     He  died  in  1892. 

Quay,  Matthew  Stanley,  United  States  senator  and 
repubUcan  fxilitician,  was  born  at  Dillsburg,  Pa., 
1^3.  He  was  graduated  at  JefTerson  college  in 
1850,  and  four  years  later  admitted  to  the  bar. 
In  the  civil  war  he  served  as  colonel  of  one  of  the 
Pennsylvania  volunteer  regiments,  was  military 
state  agent  at  Wasliington,  and  military  secretary 
to  the  governor  of  Pennsylvania.  He  entered 
the  state  legislature  in  1865,  was  twice  state 
secretary,  state  treasurer,  and  chairman  of  the 
repubUcan  national  committee  during  the  Harri- 
son campaign  of  1888.  In  1887  he  was  made 
United  States  senator  for  Pennsylvania,  reelected 
in  1893,  and  two  years  later  was  tried  tor  alleged 
misappropriation  of  public  funds,  but  was 
acquitted.  He  was  again  elected  in  1901,  but 
died  in  1904. 

Quesnay  {kif-^tVt'),  Francois,  French  economist  and 
physician,  was  bom  at  Mdr6,  France,  1694.  He 
studied  medicine  at  Paris,  and  at  his  death  was 
first  physician  to  the  king.  But  the  fame  of  the 
"European  Confucius"  depends  on  his  essays  in 
political  economy.  Arounid  him  and  his  friend, 
M.  de  Goumay,  gathered  the  famous  group  of 
the  economists,  called  the  phvsiocratic  school. 
His  views  were  set  forth  in  Tableau  Economiques. 
Quesnay's  principles  are  J^lso  well  known  from 
his  contributions  to  the  EncydopSdie,  and  from 
his  Maximes  du  Gouvemement  Economique,  Le 
Droit  Naturd,  etc.  He  died  in  1774.  Although 
he  wrote  in  the  infancy  of  science,  and  many  of 
his  opinions  are  not  now  maintained,  his  system 
is  described  by  Adam  Smith  as  being,  "with  all 
its  imp>erfections,  the  nearest  approximation  to 
the  truth  that  has  yet  been  puolished  on  the 
subject  of  political  economj'." 

Quesnel  (ki'-nil'),  Pasquler,  French  Roman  Cath- 
olic theologian,  was  bom  in  Paris,  1634.  He 
studied  at  the  Sorbonne,  became  in  1662  director 
of  the  Paris  oratory,  and  here  wrote  Reflexions 
Morales  sur  le  Nouveau  Testament.  In  1675  he 
pubhshed  the  works  of  Leo  the  Great,  which, 
lor  Gallicanism  in  the  notes,  was  plac«i  on  the 
Index.     Having  refused  to  condemn  Jansenism 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


937 


in  1684,  he  fled  to  Brussels,  where  his  Riflexiona 
were  published,  1687-94.  The  Jesuits  were  un- 
ceasing in  their  hostility,  and  Quesnel  was  flung 
into  prison  in  1703,  but  escaped  to  Amsterdam. 
His  book  was  condemned  in  the  bull  Unigenitua 
in  1713.  He  spent  his  last  years  at  Amsterdam, 
and  died  there  in  1719. 

Quigley,  James  JSdward,  Roman  Catholic  arch- 
bishop of  Chicago  since  1903,  was  born  at  Oshawa, 
Canada,  1854,  and  moved  with  his  parents  to 
Lima,  N.  Y.  He  was  educated  at  St.  Joseph's 
college,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  and  at  the  university  of 
Innspruck  and  the  college  Propaganda,  Rome. 
He  was  priest  at  St.  Vincent's  cliurch,  Attica, 
N.  Y.,  1879-84;  St.  Joseph's  cathedral,  Buffalo, 
1884-96:  St.  Bridget's  church,  1896-97;  bishop 
of  Buffalo,  1897-1903,  when  he  was  installed  in 
Chicago. 

Quiller-Couch,  Arthur  Thomas,  British  novelist 
and  essayist,  was  born  at  Cornwall,  1863.  He 
was  graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Oxford;  was 
lecturer  there  in  classics,  1886-87;  removed  to 
London;  was  connected  with  the  Speaker  from 
its  commencement  until  autumn  of  1899,  though 
in  1891  he  left  London  for  his  native  county, 
where  he  has  since  resided.  Author:  Dead 
Man' a  Rock;  The  Blue  Pavilions;  The  Warwick- 
shire Avon;  The  Delectable  Duchy;  Verses  and 
Parodies;  Wandering  Heath;  The  Golden  Pomp; 
Adventures  in  Criticism;  Poems  and  Ballads; 
The  Ship  of  Stars;  Old  Fires  and  Profitable 
Ghosts;  The  Oxford  Book  of  English  Verse;  The 
White  Wolf;  Two  Sides  of  the  Face;  Shakespeare's 
Christmas;  From  a  Cornish  Window,  etc.  In 
1897  he  was  commissioned  to  finish  R.  L.  Steven- 
son's uncompleted  novel,  St.  Ives. 

Quincy,  Josiah,  American  statesman,  was  bom  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  1772.  He  was  graduated  at  Har- 
vard, 1790,  and  adopted  the  law  as  a  profession. 
In  1805-13  he  was  a  member  of  congress.  He 
opposed  the  war  of  1812,  and  was  one  of  the 
first,  if  not  the  first,  among  northern  men  to 
denounce  the  slaveholding  interest  as  a  rising 
and  dangerous  tyranny.  In  1813  he  was  elected 
to  the  Massachusetts  state  senate,  and  joined  in 
the  protest  of  the  legislature  against  the  war  and 
the  admission  of  Louisiana.  He  remained  in  the 
senate  until  the  close  of  1820,  when  he  was 
elected  to  the  state  house  of  representatives,  of 
which  he  was  chosen  speaker.  In  1822  he 
became  judge  of  the  municipal  court  of  Boston. 
He  was  mayor  of  Boston,  1823-28,  and  president 
of  Harvard,  1829-45.  He  published  History  of 
Harvard  University;  The  Municipal  History  of 
the  Town  and  City  of  Boston  During  Two  Cen- 
turies; The  Life  of  John  Quincy  Adams;  and 
other  works.     Died,  1864. 

Quinet  (ke'-n^'),  Edgar,  French  philosopher  and 
author,  was  born  at  Bourg,  France,  1803,  and 
first  studied  at  Lyons  and  at  Paris.  He  then 
studied  at  Heidelberg,  and  on  his  return  to 
France  published  a  translation  of  Herder's  Ideen 
zur  Philosophie  der  Geschichte  der  Menschheit. 
From  this  early  period  he  formed  an  intimate 
friendship  with  Michelet.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  scientific  commission  sent  to  the  Morea  in 
1828,  and  while  there  gathered  materials  for  his 
Grice  Moderne  et  ses  Rapports  avee  I'AntiquitS. 
He  then  became  a  contributor  to  the  Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes,  in  which  Aliasverus,  perhaps  his 
finest  work,  first  appeared.  From  1839  to  1842 
he  held  the  chair  of  foreign  literature  at  Lyons, 
where  his  lectures  on  the  ancient  civilizations 
excited  a  profound  interest.  From  here  he 
passed  to  a  chair  at  the  College  de  France,  and 
assailed  the  Jesuits  with  a  keen,  earnest,  epi- 
grammatic eloquence  that  startled  the  chiefs  of 
that  body.  He  threw  himself  eagerly  into  the 
reform  agitation  that  brought  about  the  revo- 
lution of  1848,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the 


constitution  and  legislative  assemblies,  but  was 
expelled  from  France.  On  the  fall  of  the  empire 
he  returned  to  France,  and  was  reinstalled  in  his 
chair  at  the  College  de  France,  1870.  In  1871 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  assembly,  and 
died  in  1875. 
QuintlUan  (kvyin-tU'-i-an),  or  Marcus  Fabius  Quln- 
tlllanus,  Latin  rhetorician,  was  born  at  Cala- 
gurris,  now  Calahorra,  in  Spain,  about  35  A.  D. 
lie  went  to  Rome  in  the  train  of  Galba,  and 
began  to  practice  at  the  bar,  but  achieved  bis 
fame  more  as  teacher  in  rhetoric  than  a  practi- 
tioner at  the  bar,  a  function  he  discharged  with 
brilliant  success  for  twenty  years  under  the 
patronage  and  favor  of  the  emperor  Vespasian. 
The  work  by  which  he  is  known  is  entitled  De 
Institutione  Oratoria,  or  sometimes  Institutione* 
Oratoriae,  and  is  comprised  in  twelve  books. 
This  work,  which  contains  all  that  Quintilian 
considered  most  valuable  in  the  earlier  treatises, 
both  Greek  and  Latin,  on  the  subiect,  was  dis- 
covered by  Poggio  Bracciolini  in  the  monastery 
of  St.  Gall  in  1417.  Quintilian  died  probably  in 
Rome  about  95  A.  D. 

Babelais  (rd'-b'4ii'),  Francois,  the  great  French 
humorist,  was  born  at  Chinon,  in  Touraine,  about 
1490.  In  1530  he  settled  at  Montpellier,  and, 
taking  a  medical  degree  at  the  university,  was 
appointed  lecturer.  In  1532  he  went  as  hospital 
physician  to  Lyons,  where  he  published  several 
works  on  medical  science,  besides  other  miscel- 
laneous matter  bearing  on  archaeology,  juris- 
prudence, etc.  His  romance,  in  which  are  nar- 
rated the  wonderful  adventures  of  Gargantua 
and  Pantagruel,  continues  to  take  rank  as  one  of 
the  world's  masterpieces  of  humor  and  grotesque 
invention.  Gargantua  is  supposed  to  stand  for 
Francis  I.,   Pantagruel  for  Henry  II.,  Grande- 

i'ument  de  Gargantua  for  Diana  of  Poiters, 
'anurge  for  the  Cardinal  de  Lorraine,  and  other 
characters  for  various  celebrated  persons.  Lord 
Bacon  called  Rabelais  "the  great  jester  of 
France";  others  have  called  him  a  "comic 
Homer."  His  work  abounds  with  good  sense 
and  folly,  delicate  thoughts  and  gross  obsceni- 
ties; but  it  was  entirely  in  accordance  with  the 
prevailing  taste,  and  had  a  prodigious  success. 
Died  in  Paris,  1553. 

Rachel  (rd'-shW),  or  flllsa  Rachel  F^llx,  celebrated 
actress,  was  born  at  Munf,  in  the  canton  of 
Aargau,  Switzerland,  1821,  daughter  of  poor 
parents,  of  the  Jewish  race.  She  began  her 
career  by  singing  in  the  streets  of  Lyons,  and 
subsequently  of  Paris.  In  the  latter  city  her 
singing  attracted  attention,  and  she  was  enabled 
to  obtain  some  musical  education,  which  she 
used  to  such  advantage  that  she  secured,  when 
little  more  than  seventeen  years  of  age,  an 
appointment  in  the  Th^&tre  Francais  of  Paris, 
and  instantly  became  famous.  Although  her 
life  was  spent  chiefly  in  Paris,  she  visited  London, 
St.  Petersburg,  Amsterdam,  and  many  other 
European  cities,  and  in  all  of  them  her  genius 
for  tragedy  was  recognized  as  of  the  highest 
order.  During  a  visit  to  America  in  1855  she 
developed  consumption,  of  which  she  ultimately 
died,  near  Toulon,  France,  1858. 

Racine  (rd'-sen'),  Jean  Baptlste,  distinguished 
French  dramatist,  was  bom  at  La  Fert6  Milon, 
1639,  and  completed  his  education  at  the  semi- 
nary of  Port  Royal.  He  commenced  his  poetical 
career  by  an  ode  on  the  king's  marriage,  for 
which  he  was  magnificently  rewarded.  A  second 
ode  obtained  for  him  a  fresh  recompense,  and 
the  friendship  of  Boileau.  His  first  dramatic 
efforts.  The  Thebaid,  and  Alexander  the  Great, 
gave  but  faint  indications  of  superior  talent,  but 
his  tragedy  of  Andromache  placed  him  far  above 
all    his    contemporaries    except    Comeille.     He 


938 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


increased  his  fame  by  the  production  of  Britanni- 
eus,  Berenice,  Iphigenia,  and  other  tragedies,  and 
by  his  comedy,  The  Pleaders;  but  a  oase  cabal 
which  was  formed  against  his  Phaedra  induced 
him  to  desist  from  writing  for  the  stage.  After 
a  lapse  of  twelve  years,  he  wrote,  by  desire  of 
Madame  de  Maintenon  and  Louis  XIV.,  the 
dramas  of  Esther  and  Athalie,  to  be  performed 
at  the  seminary  of  St.  Cyr.  The  last  of  these 
pieces  was  cried  down  by  his  enemies,  and 
Racine  relinquished  his  pen  in  disgust.  The 
latter  is  now  considered,  very  generally,  to  be 
his  finest  play.  He  died  in  1699.  A  commen- 
tator upon  Racine,  says  Voltaire,  "has  only  to 
write  at  the  bottom  of  every  page,  beautiful, 
pathetic,  harmonious,  admirable,  sublime!" 

Badcllffe,  Ann  (n6e  Ward),  noted  English  novelist, 
was  bom  in  London,  1764.  In  her  twenty-third 
year  she  married  William  RadclifTe,  a  student  of 
law,  but  who  became  proprietor  and  editor  of  a 
weekly  newspaper,  the  English  Chronicle.  Among 
her  works  are :  The  Castles  of  Athlin  and  Dun- 
hayne;  A  Sicilian  Romance;  The  Romance  of  the 
Forest;  Mysteries  of  Udolpho,  etc.  Her  popu- 
larity increased  down  to  the  date  of  her  latest 
work,  when,  in  her  thirty-third  year,  "like  an 
actress  in  full  possession  of  her  applauded  pow- 
ers," as  Scott  remarked,  "she  chose  to  retreat 
from  the  stage  in  the  full  blaze  of  her  fame." 
She  died  in  1823. 

RadclifTe,  John,  English  physician  and  the  fovmdcr 
of  the  RadclifTe  library  at  Oxford,  was  bom  at 
Wakefield,  Yorkshire,  England  1650.  In  1680 
Princess  Anne  of  Denmark  made  him  her  physi- 
cian. To  University  college  he  left  his  estate  in 
Yorkshire,  in  trust  for  the  endowment  of  two 
traveling  fellowships  and  the  purchase  of  per- 
petual advowsons,  together  with  5,000  pounds 
for  the  enlargement  of  the  college  buildings.  He 
left  40,000  pounds  for  the  erection  of  a  public 
library  in  Oxford,  since  known  as  the  RadclifTe 
library,  which  he  endowed  with  150  pounds  per 
annum  for  a  librarian.  The  Radcliffe  infirmary 
and  Radcliffe  observatory,  at  Oxford,  were  both 
erected  out  of  this  fund;  and  from  the  same 
source,  in  1823,  the  Radcliffe  trustees  contributed 
the  sum  of  2,000  pounds  toward  the  erection  of 
the  college  of  physicians  in  Pall  Mall,  London. 
He  died  in  1714. 

Bae,  John,  British  author  and  journalist,  was  bom 
in  Wick,  Scotland,  1845.  He  was  graduated  at 
Edinburgh  imiversity;  M.  A.,  Edinburgh;  hon. 
LL.  D.,  Edinburgh.  He  has  written  largely  for 
the  leading  reviews,  especially  on  social  and 
economic  subjects,  and  is  the  author  of  Contem- 
porary Socialism,  Eight  Hours  for  Work,  Life 
of  Adam  Smith,  etc. 

Sae,  John,  English  Arctic  explorer,  was  bom 
in  the  Orkney  islands,  1813.  From  1846  he 
devoted  over  twenty  years  to  Arctic  exploration, 
walking  oyer  20,000  miles,  and  exhibiting  mar- 
velous activity  and  endurance.  He  mapped  out 
almost  one  thousand  miles  of  coast  line,  and 
gained  the  reward  of  £10,000  offered  for  the 
first  news  of  the  lost  Franklin  expedition,  Rae 
died  in  England,  1893. 

Raebiim,  Sir  Henry,  Scottish  portrait-painter,  was 
bom  at  Stockbridge,  near  Edinburgh,  1756.  He 
was  apprenticed  to  a  goldsmith,  but  adopted  art, 
producing  first  water-color  miniatures  and  then 
oils.  At  twenty-two  he  married  the  widow  of 
Coirnt  Leslie,  a  lady  of  means,  studied  two  years 
m  Rome,  1785-87,  then  settled  in  Edinburgh, 
and  soon  attained  preeminence  among  Scottish 
artists.  In  1814  he  was  elected  A.  R.  A.,  j'n 
i89o'  A  •'•  ^^  knighted  by  George  IV.  in 
liij2,  and  appointed  king's  painter  for  Scotland 
a  few  days  before  his  death,  1823.  His  stvle 
was  to  some  extent  founded  on  that  of  Reynolds. 
Among  his  sitters  were  Scott,  Hume,   Bos\^'ell 


"Christopher  North,"  Lord  Melville,  Sir  David 
Baird,  Henrj'  Mackenzie,  Neil  Gow,  Harry 
Ersldne,  Dugald  Stewart,  Principal  Robertson, 
Lord  Jeffrey,  and  Lord  Cockbum. 

Baff  (rfl/),  Joachim,  German  composer,  was  bom 
at  Lachen  on  the  lake  of  Ziirich,  1822.  In  1850- 
56  he  lived  near  Liszt  in  Weimar,  taught  music 
at  Wiesbaden  until  1877,  and  was  then  director 
of  the  conservatory  at  Frankfort-on-Main.  He 
wrote  over  200  symphonies,  overtures,  operas, 
quartets,  songs,  etc. ;  the  symphonies  Lenore  and 
Im  Walde  are  his  best  works.  In  Die  Wagner- 
fragc,  issued  in  1852,  he  championed  the  new 
German  musical  school.  Among  his  operas  the 
chief  are  Kdnig  Alfred  and  Dame  Kobold.  Died, 
1882. 

Banian  (rdg'-lan).  Lord  (Fitzroy  James  Henry 
Somerset),  British  general,  was  bom  in  1788. 
He  entered  the  army  in  his  sixteenth  year,  and 
after  serving  on  the  staff  of  the  duke  of  Welling- 
ton in  the  Copenhagen  expedition  and  the  Penin- 
sular war,  became  his  secretary'  in  1812.  He 
lost  his  right  arm  in  the  battle  of  Waterloo;  and 
for  his  brilliant  services  in  that  campaign  was 
made  a  K.  C  B.  In  1852  he  was  made  master- 
general  of  the  ordnance,  and  entered  the  house 
of  lords  as  Baron  Raglan.  When  war  was 
declared  against  liussia.  in  1854,  Lord  Raglan 
was  appointed  commanuer  of  the  English  forces 
in  the  Crimea,  and,  at  the  desperate  battle  of 
Inkerman,  he  won  the  baton  of  a  field-marshal. 
The  siege  of  Sebastopol  continued  into  June, 
1855.  when  a  general  assault  was  ordered,  at 
whicn  both  English  and  French  troops  suffered 
terrible  losses.  Raglan  died  a  few  days  later, 
1855. 

Bacroxin  (rd-g6'-zen)t  Zcnalde  Alexelevna,  Ameri- 
can author,  was  bom  in  Russia,  1835.  She 
traveled  extensively  in  Europe,  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1874,  and  became  a  naturalized 
citizen.  She  has  since  devoted  herself  to  his- 
torical and  oriental  literature.  Author:  Story 
of  Chaldea;  Story  of  Assyria;  Story  of  Media, 
Babylon  and  Persia;  Story  of  Vcdic  India;  Hit- 
lory  of  the  World;  Sieafried,  the  Hero  of  the 
Netherlands;  Beoundf,  the  Hero  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons;  Frithjof,  the  Viking  of  Norway;  Roland, 
the  Paladin  of  France;  Scuammbd.  the  Maid  of 
Carthage,  etc.  She  also  translatea  from  French 
Anatole  Lcroy  Beaulieu's  The  Empire  of  the 
Tsars  and  the  Russians. 

Baikes  (r&ks\  Bobert,  English  publisher  and 
philanthropist,  founder  of  the  modem  Sunday 
schools,  was  bom  at  Gloucester,  England,  1735. 
In  1757  he  succeeded  his  father  as  proprietor  of 
the  Gloucester  Journal.  He  early  interested  him- 
self in  the  pitiable  condition  of  prisoners  in  the 
jails;^  and  then  his  consideration  for  the  misery 
and  ignorance  of  many  children  in  his  native 
city  led  him  in  1780  to  start  a  Sunday  school 
where  they  might  learn  to  read  and  understand 
the  Bible.  He  lived  to  see  such  schools  spread 
over  England.     Died,  1811. 

Balelgh  {r6'-il;  rUl'-t),  or  Balegh,  Sir  Walter, 
English  courtier,  colonizer,  and  man  of  letters, 
was  bom  at  Budleigh,  in  Devonshire,  1552,  and 
was  educated  at  Oriel  college,  Oxford.  Betv.ecn 
1569  and  1581  he  served  with  distinction  in  the 
army  of  the  French  Protestants,  in  the  Nether- 
lands, and  in  Ireland,  and  accompam'ed  his  half- 
brother.  Sir  Humphry  Gilbert,  in  a  voyage  to 
America.  Shortly  after  his  return  he  seems  first 
to  have  attracted  the  attention  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, with  whom  he  speedily  rose  high  in  favor. 
In  1584,  a  patent  having  been  granted  him  to 
take  possession  of  lands  to  be  discovered  by  him 
on  the  continent  of  North  America,  he  fitted  out 
two  ships  at  his  o'wn  expense,  and  shortly 
achieved  the  discovery  and  occupation  of  the 
territory  known  as  Virginia,  a  name  chosen  as 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


containing  an  allusion  to  the  "virgin  queen" 
herself.  Elizabeth  also  conferred  on  Raleigh  the 
honor  of  knighthood.  It  was  through  him  that 
the  potato  and  tobacco  were  introduced  into 
England  at  tliis  time.  He  held  in  1596  the  post 
of  admiral  in  the  great  expedition  against  Cadiz, 
commanded  by  Howard  and  the  earl  of  Elssex, 
and  was  admittedly  the  main  instrument  of  its 
success.  With  the  death  of  Elizabeth  in  1603 
ends  the  brilliant  and  successful  portion  of  his 
career.  Her  successor,  James,  from  the  first 
regarded  him  with  a  suspicion  and  dislike  which 
he  was  at  no  pains  to  conceal.  He  was  accused 
of  complicity  in  a  plot  against  the  king.  Sen- 
tence of  death  was  passed,  but  James  did  not 
venture  to  execute  him,  and  he  was  sent  to  the 
Tower,  where  for  thirteen  years  he  remained  a 
prisoner,  his  estates  being  confiscated  and  made 
over  to  the  king's  favorite,  Carr,  subsequently 
earl  of  Somerset.  During  his  imprisonment  he 
devoted  himself  to  literary  and  scientific  pur- 
suits, and  wrote  his  History  of  the  World,  a  noble 
fragment,  still  notable  to  the  student  as  one  of 
the  finest  models  of  the  quaint  and  stately  old 
English  style.  In  1615  he  procured  his  release, 
ana  sailed  for  Guiana.  After  his  return,  in  1618, 
he  was  infamously  executed,  nominally  on  the 
.  sentence  passed  on  him  sixteen  years  before, 
but  really  there  is  reason  to  suppose  in  base 
compliance  on  James'  part  with  the  urgencies 
of  the  king  of  Spain,  who  resented  Raleigh's 
persistent  hostility. 

Sambaud  {raa'-bo'),  Alfred  Nicolas,  French  his- 
torian, was  bom  at  Besan5on,  1842.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  French  cabinet,  1879-80,  and  in 
1896  became  minister  of  public  instruction.  He 
was  appointed,  in  1883,  professor  of  history  in 
the  university  of  Paris,  and  became  a  member 
of  the  academy  of  moral  and  political  sciences 
in  1897.  He  wrote  works  on  Russia,  French 
civilization,  colonial  France,  etc.,  and,  with 
Lavisse,  Histoire  G&n&rale  du  Ivme  Siecle,  in  12 
vols.     Died,  1905. 

Barneses  I.  (rdm'-esez),  ruled  about  1355  B.  C, 
and  was  king  during  the  nineteenth  Egyptian 
dynasty,  formed  a  treaty  with  the  Hittites,  and 
maintained  the  conquests  of  Egypt  as  far  as 
Wady  Haifa.  His  grandson,  Rameses  II.,  usu- 
ally called  the  Great,  defeated  the  Hittites  at 
Katesh,  then  formed  a  peace  with  them,  and 
married  a  Hittite  princess.  He  subjected 
Ethiopia,  which  had  revolted,  established  a 
fleet  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  erected  some  of 
the  largest  of  the  Egyptian  edifices.  His  name 
and  reputation  formed  the  basis  of  the  legendary 
Sesostris.  Rameses  III.  warred  ^ith  the  Philis- 
tines and  maritime  tribes  of  Greece  and  Asia 
Minor,  and  repeated  the  conquest  of  Ethiopia. 
It  is  usual  to  identify  the  warrior  king  Rameses 
II.  with  the  Pharaoh  of  the  oppression,  and 
Merenptah,  his  son,  as  the  Pharaoh  of  the 
Exodus. 

Bamsay,  Sir  Wllliani,  British  chemist,  was  bom 
at  Glasgow,  1852.  He  was  educated  at  Glasgow 
university,  and  at  Tiibingen;  M.  D.,  Ph.  D., 
LL.  D.,  D.  Sc.  He  was  assistant  in  chemistry, 
Glasgow  university,  1874-80;  professor  of  chem- 
istry at  University  college,  Bristol,  1880-87 ;  prin- 
cipal from  1881  to  1887;  in  1887  accepted  the 
chemistry  chair  at  University  college,  London. 
In  conjunction  with  Lord  Rayleigh  he  discovered 
argon  in  1894,  and  in  1895  obtained  heUum  from 
cl6veite.  In  1904  he  was  awarded  the  Nobel 
prize  for  chemistry.  He  is  the  author  of  numer- 
ous papers,  the  most  important  of  which  are 
perhaps  Tfie  Molecular  Surface-Energy  of  Liquids; 
Argon,  A  New  Constituent  of  the  Atmosphere,  in 
conjunction  with  Lord  Rayleigh;  and  Helium, 
A  Constituent  of  Certain  Minerals;  also  Neon, 
Krypton,    and    Xenon,    three    new    atmospheric 


gases;  and  The  Discovery  of  the  Constittiente  of 
the  Air.  He  is  also  author  of  several  textbooks 
on  chemistry. 

Ramsay,  Sir  William  Mitchell,  professor  of  human- 
ity at  Aberdeen  university,  1886-1911;  was  bom 
at  Ghisgow,  1851.  He  was  educated  at  the 
universities  of  Aberdeen,  Oxford,  and  Gottingen : 
hon.  D.  C.  L.,  Oxford;  LL.  U.,  St.  Andrews  and 
Glasgow;  Litt.  D.,  Oambridgc.  Ho  traveled 
widely  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  1880-91;  was  pro- 
fessor of  classical  art  in  Oxford  university,  1885 ; 
Levering  lecturer  in  Johns  Hopkins  university, 
Baltimore,  1894.  Author:  The  Historical  Oeog- 
raphy  of  Asia  Minor;  The  Church  in  the  Roman 
Empire;  St.  Paul  the  Traveler  and  the  Roman 
Citizen;  Impressions  of  Turkey;  Was  Christ  Bom 
at  Bethlehem?  The  Education  of  Cfwiet;  Pauline 
and  other  Studies  in  Early  Cfirieiian  History; 
Studies  in  the  History  ana  Art  of  the  Eastern 
Provinces  of  the  Roman  Empire;  The  Cities  of 
St.  Paul;  Lucan  and  Pauline  Sttuties;  and 
numerous  articles  in  German,  Austrian,  French, 
American,  and  English  literary,  archaeological, 
and  geographical  journals. 

Bandall,  Samuel  J.,  American  statesman,  was  bom 
at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1828.  After  spending  a 
number  of  years  in  mercantile  business  in  his 
native  city,  he  was  elected  to  congress  as  a 
democrat  in  1862.  He  held  this  position  up  to 
the  time  of  his  death  at  Washington,  D.  C,  1890. 
He  was  elected  speaker  of  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives to  fill  an  unexpired  term  in  1876.  He 
was  also  chosen  speaker  of  the  house  in  1877  and 
again  in  1879.  He  was  a  democratic  protec- 
tionist, consistently  opposed  to  tariff  reform. 
Throughout  his  congressional  career,  his  ability 
and  integrity  were  conceded  by  men  of  all  parties, 
and  he  was  held  in  the  highest  esteem  by  his 
fellow-congressmen. 

Randolph,  Edmund  Jennings,  American  statesman, 
was  born  at  Williamsburg,  Va.,  1753,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  Virginia  bar.  In  1776  he  helped 
to  frame  the  constitution  of  Virginia,  and  became 
the  first  attorney-general  of  that  state;  was 
governor  of  Virginia  from  1786  to  1788,  and  a 
member  of  the  convention  which  framed  the 
constitution  of  the  United  States.  In  1789  he 
entered  Washington's  cabinet  as  attorney- 
general,  and  in  1794  was  appointed  secretary  of 
state,  to  succeed  Jefferson,  which  office  he 
resigned  in  the  following  year  on  account  of 
some  misunderstanding  with  the  president  and 
his  colleagues  in  reference  to  the  Jay  treaty.  He 
died  in  Virginia,  1813. 

Randolph,  John,  of  Roanoke,  American  orator  and 
statesman,  was  bom  in  Chesterfield  county,  Va., 
1773.  At  the  age  of  twenty-six  he  entered  upon 
public  life  as  a  member  of  congress,  and  at  once 
took  a  leading  position  in  politics.  He  was 
United  States  senator,  1825-27;  United  States 
minister  to  Rus.sia  in  1830;  and  again  elected 
to  congress  in  1832.  He  was  conspicuous  for  his 
many  odd  ways,  and  for  a  wit  so  sharp  as  to 
make  him  the  terror  of  all  who  opposed  him  in 
congress.  Randolph  prided  himself  on  his 
descent  from  Pocahontas,  and  his  marked  Indian 
features  bore  witness  to  his  origin.  He  died  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1833. 

Ranke  (r&ng'-ke),  licopold  von,  eminent  German 
historian,  was  bom  at  Wiehe,  Thuringia,  1795. 
He  was  educated  at  Leipzig,  and  at  twenty- 
three  became  head  master  of  the  gynuiasium  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  where  he  devoted  his 
leisure  to  historical  studies.  Six  years  later  he 
published  A  Critique  upon  the  Later  Historians, 
and  the  History  of  the  Roman  and  Germanic 
Peoples  from  1495  to  1535,  which  attracted  wide 
attention  and  won  him  the  chair  of  history  at 
Berlin  in  1825,  which  he  retained  until  1871. 
Not   long   after   be  was   sent   by   the   Prussian 


940 


BIASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


government  to  Vienna,  Rome,  and  especially  to 
Venice,  to  examine  the  historical  material  and 
MSS.  in  the  libraries  and  monasteries  of  those 
cities.  The  result  of  his  researches  was  the 
Princes  and  People  of  Southern  Europe  in  the 
Seventeenth  and  Eighteenth  Centuries,  and  the 
Conspiracy  against  Venice  in  1688.  These  were 
soon  followed  by  the  Popes  of  Rome:  Their  Church 
and  Their  State  in  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth 
Centuries.  His  most  complete  and  elaborate 
effort,  however,  is  his  German  History  in  the 
Time  of  the  Reformation.  He  published  besides 
Annals  of  the  German  Monarchy  under  the  House 
of  Saxony,  nine  books  of  Russian  history,  Civil 
Wars  and  Monarchy  in  the  Sixteenth  and  Seven- 
teenth Centuries;  History  of  France;  and  many 
other  works.  He  edited  the  Historical  and 
Political  Gazette,  but  was  obliged  to  discontinue 
it  on  account  of  its  liberal  tone,  which  had  given 
offense  to  the  government.  In  1880,  in  his 
eighty-fourth  year,  he  published  the  first  volume 
of  his  Weltijeschichte,  or  History  of  the  World, 
writing  a  volume  annually.  Probably  no  man 
of  his  time,  even  in  his  own  land,  toiled  more 
indefatigably  or  laid  up  greater  stores  of  knowl- 
edge.    He  died  in  1886. 

Raphael  (rdf'-a-Sl;  r&'-fa-ll),  or  Raffaello  Sanzio. 
See  page  134. 

Rauch  (roMK),  Christian  Daniel,  noted  German 
sculptor,  was  bom  at  Arolsen,  in  the  principality 
of  Waldeck,  1777.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Canova 
and  of  Thorwaldsen.  In  1811  he  was  called  by 
the  king  of  Prussia  to  Berlin  to  execute  a  statue 
of  Queen  Louise,  which  was  placed  in  the  mauso- 
leum of  the  queen  in  the  garden  of  Charlotten- 
burg.  He  was  not,  however,  quite  satisfied  with 
the  statue,  and  undertook  a  new  statue  of  the 
queen,  which  he  finished  eleven  years  afterward. 
The  latter  now  stands  in  the  palace  of  Sans 
Souci,  near  Potsdam.  His  greatest  effort  was 
the  colossal  monument  to  Frederick  the  Great, 
which  was  dedicated  in  the  city  of  Berlin  in 
1851.  His  last  work  was  a  model  of  "Moses 
Praying  on  Mount  Nebo  between  Aaron  and 
Hur."  The  greater  portion  of  his  long  life  was 
spent  in  Berlin,  but  he  died  at  Dresden,  1857. 

Rawlinson,  George,  English  historian  and  oriental- 
ist, brother  of  Henry  Rawlinson,  was  bom  at 
Chadlington,  Oxfordshire,  1812.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Oxford;  was  elected  a  fellow  and  tutor 
of  Exeter  college;  became  professor  of  ancient 
history  at  Oxford  in  1861 ;  canon  of  Canterbury 
cathedral  in  1872;  and  rector  of  All  Hallows, 
London,  1888.  In  1860  he  published  his  notable 
Bampton  lectures  on  the  Historic  Evidence  for 
the  Truth  of  the  Christian  Records.  His  historical 
works  cover  nearly  the  entire  history  of  the 
ancient  orient,  commencing  with  an  edition  of 
Herodotus,  in  which  many  of  his  brother's  dis- 
coveries are  incorporated.  This  was  followed  by 
The  Five  Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  Eastern 
World;  The  Sixth  and  Seventh  Great  Orierdal 
Monarchy;  A  Manual  of  Ancient  History;  A 
History  of  Ancient  Egypt,  and  others.  He  died 
at  Canterbury,  1902. 

Rav^nson,  Sir  Henry  Creswlcke,  English  oriental 
scholar  and  diplomat,  was  bom  at  Chadlington, 
Oxfordshire,  England,  1810.  He  was  educated 
m  Eahng,  Middlesex,  and  entered  the  East  India 
mihtary  service  in  1827;  served  in  the  Bombay 
presidency  until  1833,  and  was  then  appointed 
^  assist  m  reorganizing  the  army  of  the  shah  of 
Persia.  During  the  six  years  he  spent  in  that 
country  he  began  to  study  the  cuneiform  or 
wedg^shaped  inscriptions,  and  made  a  transla- 
tion of  the  famous  Behistun  inscription  of  Darius, 
which  he  pubhshed  in  the  Jmirnal  of  the  Asiatu: 
bocMty.  After  he  left  Persia  he  held  command 
of  Kandahar  during  1840-42,  and  in  1844  was 
appointed  pohtical  agent  at  Bagdad,  and  consul- 


general  there  in  1851.  He  then  returned  to 
England,  but  in  1859  was  sent  back  to  Persia  as 
British  minister.  In  1871-73  he  was  president 
of  the  royal  geographical  society,  and  in  1891 
was  made  a  baronet.  Died,  1895.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  books,  among  which  are :  England  and 
Russia  in  the  East;  The  Cuneiform  Inscriptions  of 
Western  Asia;    Outline  History  of  Assyria,  etc. 

Rayleigb  (rd'-ll),  John  William  Strutt,  Lord,  dis- 
tinguished English  phy.sicist,  was  bom  in  1842, 
graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  in  1865, 
and  became  a  fellow  in  the  following  year.  He 
succeeded  to  the  title  of  baron  in  1873,  was  pro- 
fessor of  experimental  physics  at  Cambridge, 
1879-84,  and  of  natural  philosophy  at  the  royal 
institution,  London,  1887-1905.  In  1894,  with 
Professor  Ramsay,  he  discovered  argon.  His 
experimental  work  in  phj'sics  is  characterised 
by  the  most  extreme  care,  and  has  extended  to 
almost  every  branch  of  the  science.  He  is  an 
officer  of  the  legion  of  honor,  received  the  Nobel 
prize  for  physics  in  1904,  and  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  royal  society  in  1905. 

Raymond,  Georee  Lansing,  American  educator  and 
author,  was  born  at  Chicago,  1839.  He  was 
graduated  at  Williams  college,  1862,  A.  M., 
L.  H.  D.;  A.  M.,  Princeton;  L.  H.  D.,  Rutgers; 
graduated  at  Princeton  theological  seminary, 
1865,  and  was  a  student  in  Europe,  1865-68. 
He  was  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  church.  Darby, 
Pa.,  1870-74;  professor  of  oratory,  Williams, 
1874-80;  professor  of  oratory  and  aesthetic 
criticism,  1880-93,  professor  of  aesthetics,  1893- 
1905.  Princeton;  professor  of  aesthetics,  George 
Washington,  since  1905.  Author:  Colony  Bal- 
lads; Ideals  Made  Real;  Orator's  Manual; 
Modem  Fishers  of  Men;  A  Life  in  Song;  Poetry 
as  a  Representative  Art;  Ballads  of  the  Revolution; 
Sketches  in.  Song;  The  Genesis  of  Art-Form; 
The  Speaker,  in  part;  The  Writer,  in  part;  Art 
in  Theory;  Pictures  in  Verse;  Rhythm  and  Har- 
mony in  Poetry  and  Music;  Painting,  Sculpture 
and  Architecture  as  Representative  Arts;  Propor- 
tion and  Harmony  of  Line  and  Color  in  Painting, 
Sculpture  and  Architecture;  The  Representative 
Significance  of  Form;  The  Aztec  God,  and  Other 
Dramas;   Ballads  and  Other  Poems,    etc. 

Raymond,  Henry  J^  Anaerican  journalist,  was  bom 
at  Lima,  N.  Y.,  1820.  He  was  graduated  at  the 
university  of  Vermont  in  1840,  and  after  serving 
for  a  number  of  years  on  the  staff  of  the  New 
York  Tribune  and  other  papers,  he  in  1851 
founded  the  New  York  Times,  which  speedily 
took  rank  among  the  leading  journals  of  the 
country.  He  was  elected  lieutenant-governor  of 
New  York  in  1854,  and  was  active  in  support  of 
Fremont  for  president  in  1856  and  of  Lincoln  in 
1860.  In  1864  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
congress  from  New  York  city,  but  declined  a 
reelection  two  years  later,  preferring  to  devote 
himself  to  the  duties  of  journalism.  He  was 
the  author  of  The  Life  and  Public  Services  of 
Abraham  Lincoln.     Died,  1869. 

Rayner,  Isidor,  lawyer.  United  States  senator,  was 
bom  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  1850.  He  was  educated 
at  the  university  of  Marj'land  and  at  the  univer- 
sity of  Virginia,  where  he  completed  the  academic 
and  law  courses.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1871 ;  elected  to  the  Mar\-land  legislature,  1878, 
state  senate,  1886;  member  of  congress,  1^7-89, 
1891-95,  and  attorney-general  of  Maryland, 
1899-1903.  He  was  counsel  for  Rear-admiral 
Schley  before  investigation  commission  in  1901, 
and  elected  United  States  senator  from  Maryland 
for  terms,  1905-11,  1911-17.  He  was  recognized 
as  one  of  the  leading  lawyers  of  the  senate,  a 
finished  orator,  and  an  authority  on  constitutional 
and  international  law.     Died,  1912. 

Read,  Thomas  Buchanan,  American  poet  and 
painter,  was  bom  in  Chester  county,  Pa.,  1822. 


GEORGE  RA^LINSON 

From  a  photograph 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


043 


He  entered  a  sculptor's  studio  in  Cincinnati, 
afterward  studied  painting,  and  in  1841  settled 
in  Boston,  wiiere  ne  began  to  paint  portraits. 
In  1846  he  returned  to  Philatfelphia,  and  in 
1850  went  to  Florence,  where  he  spent  most  of 
the  rest  of  his  life.  Among  his  works  are  Lays 
and  Ballads;  The  House  by  the  Sea;  The  Wagoner 
of  the  AUeghanies;  A  Summer  Story;  ajid  Poetical 
Works.  He  is  best  known  as  the  author  of 
Sheridan's  Ride,     He  died  at  New  York,  1872. 

Beade,  Charles,  distinguished  English  novelist, 
was  bom  in  Oxfordshire,  England,  1814.  He 
was  the  youngest  son  of  John  Reade,  Esq.,  of 
Ipsden  House,  Oxfordshire;  was  graduated  at 
Oxford,  secured  a  fellowship  there,  and  in  1847 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  as  a  member  of  Lincoln's 
Inn.  He  began  his  Uteraiy  career  by  play- 
writing;  studied  the  art  of  fiction  for  fifteen 
years,  and  first  made  his  mark  as  noveUst  in 
1852,  when  he  was  nearly  forty,  by  the  publica- 
tion of  Peg  Woffington.  This  was  followed  in 
1856  by  It  is  Never  too  Late  to  Mend,  and  in  1861 
by  The  Cloister  and  the  Hearth,  the  last  his  best 
and  the  most  popular.  Several  of  his  later 
novels  are  written  with  a  purpose,  and  include 
the  well-known  problem  novels.  Hard  Cash,  and 
Fold  Play.  His  most  popular  plays  are  Masks 
and  Faces  and  Drink.     He  died  m  London,  1884. 

B£aumur  (rd'-o'-miir'),  Ben£  Antoine  Ferchault  de, 
French  naturalist  and  physicist,  was  born  at  La 
Rochelle,  France,  1GS3.  He  was  educated  at 
Poitiers,  Bourges,  and  Paris,  and  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  academy  of  sciences  in  1708.  He 
subsequently  devoted  himself  to  biological  study; 
discovered  the  method  of  tinning  iron:  and 
invented  the  Reaumur  thermometer.  He  also 
succeeded  in  producing  an  opaque  glass  which 
was  equal  to  the  porcelain  of  Saxony  and  Japan. 
He  died  in  1757,  leaving  behind  him  a  volumi- 
nous array  of  works,  the  most  important  of 
which  is  the  M&moires  pour  servir  h  I'Histoire  des 
Insectes. 

B£camier  {ra'-kd'-mya'),  Mme.  (n^e  Jeanne  Fran- 
goise  Julie  Adelaidfe  Bernard),  French  woman  of 
society,  was  born  at  Lyons,  France,  1777.  Her 
father  was  a  banker  of  that  city,  and,  as  well  as 
her  mother,  was  distinguished  by  much  of  the 
personal  grace  and  charm  which,  in  the  daughter, 
seem  to  nave  culminated  in  a  form  of  almost 
typical  perfection.  She  was  beautiful,  and  in 
rare  measure  possessed  a  French  woman's 
indefinable  fascination  and  brilliance.  At  fifteen 
she  was  married  to  Jacques  R^camier,  and 
attracted  to  her  salon  at  Paris  a  brilliant  circle 
during  the  consulate  and  empire.  A  record  of 
the  splendid  social  triumphs  of  Mme.  R^camier 
would  involve  notice  of  nearly  all  that  was  dis- 
tinguished in  Paris  during  a  space  of  about  fifty 
years.  She  became  a  power  in  the  whole  of 
France,  and  so  continued  in  spite  of  changes  of 
fortune  which  ordinarily  would  have  involved 
the  extinction  of  even  more  solid  celebrity. 
Died,  1849. 

Beclus  (re'-klu'),  Jean  Jacques  £lis£e,  French 
geographer,  was.  bom  at  Ste-Foix-la-Grande, 
France,  1830.  He  was  educated  at  Montauban 
and  Berlin.  An  extreme  democrat,  he  left 
France  after  the  coup  d'itat  of  1851,  and  spent 
seven  years  in  England,  Ireland,  and  America. 
He  returned  in  1858,  and  published  Voyage  d. 
la  Sierra  Nevada  de  Ste  Marthe,  etc.  For  his 
share  in  the  commune  of  1871  he  was  banished. 
In  Switzerland  he  began  his  masterpiece,  Nou- 
veUe  GSographie  Universelle;  wrote  also  a  physical 

feography.   La   Terre;    Histoire  d'un  Ruisseau; 
,es  PMnom^nes  Terrestres;    and  Histoire  d'une 
Montagne.     In   1893  he  became  a  professor  at 
Brussels.     Died,  1905. 
Bed  Jacket,  or  Sa-go-ye-wat'-ha,  "He  keeps  them 
awake,"   a  noted   chief  of  the  Seneca  tribe  of 


Indians,  was  bom  at  Old  Castle,  on  Seneca  lake, 
New  York,  about  1761.  In  early  life  he  was 
noted  for  his  swift  nmning,  and  during  the 
revolution  the  British  officers  employed  him  as  a 
messenger.  One  of  them  gave  him  a  bright  red 
coat,  and  after  that  he  was  called  Red  Jacket. 
He  was  a  friend  of  the  whites,  though  he  wished 
to  have  the  Indians  keep  their  own  lands;  and, 
when  the  six  nations  made  a  treaty  to  sell  theirs, 
he  opposed  the  treaty  in  an  eloquent  speech. 
1784.  Some  years  after  this  he  visited  General 
Washington,  who  gave  him  a  silver  medal. 
During  the  war  of  1812  he  was  of  great  service 
to  the  American  army,  giving  important  infor- 
mation and  advice  before  the  battle  of  Chipf)ewa. 
In  later  life  he  visited  New  York  and  Washing- 
ton, and  the  speeches  that  he  made  there  are 
among  the  finest  specimens  of  Indian  eloquence. 
He  died  at  Seneca  village,  near  Buffalo,  N.  Y.. 
1830. 

Beed,  Thomas  Brackett,  American  lawyer  and 
legislator,  was  bom  at  Portland,  Me.,  1839,  and 
was  graduated  from  Bowdoin  college  in  1860. 
After  serving  a  short  time  as  assistant  pay- 
master in  the  navy,  he  studied  law,  and  com- 
menced legal  practice  in  1865.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Maine  legislature;  attorney-general 
of  the  state;  city  solicitor  of  Portland,  and  was 
elected  to  congress  in  1876.  His  ability  was  so 
clearly  recognized  that  he  soon  became  the 
acknowledged  leader  of  the  republican  party  on 
the  floor;  and,  when  his  party  secured  a  majority 
of  the  house  of  representatives  in  the  fifty-first 
congress,  Reed  was  chosen  speaker.  He  served 
in  congress  until  1899,  and  was  elected  speaker 
of  the  fifty-fourth  and  fifty-fifth  congresses.  He 
was  reelected  in  1899,  but  resigned  his  seat  and 
took  up  the  practice  of  law  in  New  York  city. 
His  ruling,  as  speaker,  that  all  members  present, 
though  not  voting  should  be  counted  toward  a 
quorum,  attracted  national  attention  and  ap- 
proval. He  published  Reed's  Rules  in  1894,  and 
edited  Modem  Eloquence  in  1901.     Died,  1902. 

Beed,  Walter,  American  surgeon  and  bacteriologist, 
was  born  in  Virginiaj  1851.  Received  his  medi- 
cal education  at  umversity  of  Virginia  and  at 
Bellevue  hospital  in  New  York.  Entered  the 
army  as  assistant  surgeon  in  1875;  studied  bac- 
teriology during  1890  at  Johns  Hopkins,  and 
established  bacteriological  laboratoiy  at  the 
army  medical  school,  Washington.  Reed  dem- 
onstrated that  typhoid  fever  is  spread  in  camps 
through  flies  and  personal  contact,  rather  than 
by  infected  water,  and  that  yellow  fever  is 
caused  only  by  the  bite  of  a  certain  kind  of 
mosquito.  By  means  of  the  precautions  he 
urged  after  the  Spanish  war,  the  yellow  fever 
plague  W£is  practically  exterminated  in  Cuba. 
He  died,  1902. 

Beeves,  John  Sims,  English  tenor,  was  bom  at 
Shooter's  Hill,  Kent,  1822.  At  fourteen  he  was 
a  clever  performer  on  various  instnunents,  and 
was  appointed  organist  and  director  of  the  choir 
in  the  church  of  North  Cray,  in  Kent.  He  went 
to  Paris,  1843,  in  order  to  perfect  his  voice  and 
style,  and  on  his  return  to  England,  1847,  was 
recognized  as  the  first  tenor  in  that  country,  a 
position  which  he  maintained  for  a  number  of 
years.  In  1892  he  became  professor  in  the 
Guildhall  school  of  music,  London,  and  retired 
from  the  stage,  returning  to  concert  work,  how- 
ever, in  1896.  His  voice  was  one  of  wide  range, 
and  of  great  natural  sweetness  and  purity.  He 
died  at  Worthing,  Suasex,  1900. 

Begtomontanus  (re'-jX-d-mdn-td'-niis),  the  name 
given  from  his  birthplace  at  Konigsberg  (Mans 
Regitis)  to  the  mathematician  and  astronomer 
Jobaim  Miiller.  He  was  bom  in  1436,  studied 
at  Vienna,  and  in  1461  accompanied  Cardinal 
Bessarion  to  Italy  to  learn  Greek.     In  1471  he 


944 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


settled   in   Nuremberg,   where,    with    Bernhard 
Walther,  he  labored  at  the  ♦' Alphonsine  .tabl^, 
and  published  Ephemerides  1475-1306  in  1473, 
of  which  Columbus  made  much  use.     He  estab- 
lished the  study  of  algebra  and  trigonometry  in 
Germany,  and  wrote  on  water-works,  burmng- 
glasses,  weights  and  measures,  the  quadrature  of 
the  circle,  etc.     He  was  summoned  to  Rome  in 
1474  by  Sixtus  IV.  to  help  to  reform  the  calendar, 
and  died  there,  1476. 
Bernard  (r^-nydr'),  Jean  Francois,  French  drama- 
tist, was  born  at  Paris,  France,  1655.     He  was  a 
scion  of  wealth,  and  received  an  excellent  educa- 
tion.    After  a  roving  and  adventurous  life  in 
various  countries,  he  returned  to  PVance  about 
1683,  and  became  prominently  connected  with 
the  ministry  of  finance.     Regnard  was  one  of 
the  best  followers  of  Molifere,  and  is  regarded  as 
second  only  to  that  great  master  as  an  exponent 
of  French  comedy.     His  Le  Joueur,  published 
in  1696,  is  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  the  French 
stage.     He  also  wrote  Le  Divorce,  Le  Distrait, 
Les  folies   amoureuses,   etc.     He    excelled    as   a 
satirical  poet,  and  his  house  was  a  resort  of  wits. 
He  died  at  his  estate  of  Grillon,  near  Dourdan, 
1709. 
Begnault  (rg'-nj/o'),  Henri,  French  figure  and  genre 
painter,  was  born  in  Paris,    1843.     He  studied 
there  and  at  Rome,   later  making  a  study  of 
Velasquez  in  Madrid.     Among  his  best  works 
are       La    dame    en    rouge,"    "Judith,"    "Sa- 
lome,"    a    symphonic    incarnation    of    sensual 
cruelty,  in  yellow,  and  "The  Moorish  Headsman," 
a  symphony  in  red.     His  equestrian  portrait  of 
Marshal  Prim  was  one  of  the  finest  of  the  cen- 
tury.    Regnault  enlisted  in  the  army  during  the 
Franco-Prussian  war  and  was  killed  at  Buzevenal, 
1871. 
Regnault,  Henri  Victor,  French  chemist  and  phy- 
sicist, was  born  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,   1810.     He 
worked    as  a  draper  to  support,  himself    and 
sister,  while  he  studied  at  the  Ecole  Polytech- 
nique,  where  he  became  a  professor  in   1840: 
in   1841   he  succeeded    Dulong  as  professor  of 
physics  in  the  College  de  France;    in  1847  he 
became  chief  engineer  of  mines,   and  in   1854 
director  of  the  porcelain  factory  at  Sevres.     He 
rendered  distinguished  service  to  science  by  his 
exact    determination    of    physico-chemical    con- 
stants,  his  numerical  data  on  the  working  of 
steam-engines,  and  his  criticism  of   the  law  of 
Boyle  and  Mariotte.     Died,  1878. 
Begnier   (ra'-nyd'),  Matharin,    French   poet,   was 
bom  at  Chartres,  1573.     After  a  life  of  dissipa- 
tion he  became  in  1609  canon  of  the  cathedral 
of  Chartres,  and  was  called  "the  good  R^gnier," 
on  account  of  his  amiability.     Boileau  called  him 
the  best  satirical  poet  before  Moli^re.     His  col- 
lected works  appeared  in  a  new  edition  in  1875. 
He  died  at  Rouen,  1613. 
Begulus  (rgg'-u-Zus),  Slarcus  Atillus,  Roman  gen- 
eral, was  consul  in  267  B.  C.,  when  he  took 
Brundusium,  and  received  a  triumph.     In  266 
B.  C.  he  was  a  second  time  consul,  and  in  con- 
junction with  his  colleague,  ManUus,  defeated  the 
Carthaginian  fleet  of  350  sail  under  Hanno  and 
Hamilcar,  landed  at  Clypea,   and  ravaged  the 
enemy's  territory.     Manlius  returned  to  Rome, 
and   Regulus  defeated  the   three   Carthaginian 
generals  in  a  great  battle  and  captured  town 
after  town,  including  Tunis.     The  Carthaginians 
at  last  defeated  him   and  took  him  prisoner. 
After  five  years'  captivity  he  was  sent  in  250 
B.  C.  to  Rome,  alone  with  an  embassy,  on  con- 
dition that  he  would  return  if  the  negotiations 
were  unsuccessful.     He  persuaded  the  senate  to 
refuse  to  make  peace,  and  returned  to  Carthage, 
where  he  was  put  to  death  about  250  B.  C. 
Rehan  (re'-an;   Ta'-an\  Ada,  actress,  was  bom  in 
Limenck,    Ireland,     1860.     She    came    to    the 


United  States  in  childhood,  made  her  first 
appearance  on  the  stage  at  fourteen,  in  Newark, 
N.  J.,  and  played  in  Philadelphia,  Baltimore, 
Albany,  and  Louisville  stock  companies.  In 
1879  she  was  engaged  by  Augustin  Daly  to  fill 
leading  positions  m  Daly's  theater,  and  continued 
with  him  until  his  death,  in  1899.  She  played 
characters  in  Shakespearean  and  old  comedies 
such  as  Rosalind,  Katherine,  Viola,  Beatrice, 
Portia,  Lady  Teazle,  Peggy  in  the  Country  Girl, 
and  many  high-class  modem  comedy  parts. 

Reich  (rlK),  Dr.  Emll,  Austrian  author  and  lecturer, 
was  born  in  Eperjes,  Hungary,  1854.  He  was 
educated  at  Prague,  Budapest,  and  Vienna 
university;  J.  U.  D.,  Vierma.  He  spent  five 
years  in  the  United  States,  four  in  France,  and, 
with  interruptions,  about  tlxirteen  years  in  Eng- 
land* lectured  frei^uently  at  Oxford,  Cambridge, 
and  London  universities;  and  was  employed  oy 
British  government  in  the  preparation  ^of  the 
British  case  in  the  Venezuela  boundary  matter. 
Author:  Hilary  of  Civilization;  Graco-Roman 
Inatitutiona,  Ox/ord  lectures;  Hungarian  Litera- 
ture;  Foundations  of  Modern  Europe;  Succesa 
among  Nations;  Select  Documents  lUuatrating 
Mediaeval  and  Modem  History;  Atlas  of  Modem 
History;  The  Fundamental  Principles  of  Evidence; 
Imparialism;  The  Failure  of  the  Higher  Criticism 
of  the  Bible;  Plato,  as  an  Introduction  to  Modem 
Life;  Success  in  Life;  General  History  of  Western 
Nations,  etc     Died,  1910. 

Reld,  Sir  James,  British  physician,  physician-in- 
ordinary  to  the  king,  was  bom  in  Scotland,  1849. 
He  was  graduated  at  Aberdeen  university,  M.  A., 
1869.  M.  D.,  1875,  LL.  D.,  1895 ;  hon.  LL.  D,  Glas- 
gow, 1901.  He  studied  at  Vienna.  1876-77; 
practiced  in  Scotland,  1877-81;  resiaent  physi- 
cian to  Queen  Victoria,  1881-1901 ;  physician 
extraordinary,  1887-89;  physician-in-ordinary, 
1889-1901.  He  is  the  author  of  numerous  papers 
in  medical  journals,  etc.  Fellow  of  royal  society 
of  medicine.     Created  baronet,  1897. 

Reld,  Robert  Gillespie,  Canadian  railway  builder 
and  capitalist,  was  bom  in  Scotland,  1840.  In 
1871  he  came  to  America  and  had  charge  of  the 
construction  of  the  international  railway  bridge 
at  Niagara  Falls,  the  international  bridge  over 
the  Rio  Grande,  and  the  Lachine  bridge  over  the 
St.  Lawrence.  In  1893  he  made  a  contract  with 
the  Newfoundland  government  to  construct  a 
railway  from  St.  John's  to  Port  au  Basc^ues,  and 
operate  it  for  ten  years  for  S15,000  a  mile  and  a 
grant  of  5,000  acres  of  laud,  in  alternate  blocks, 
for  each  mile  of  railway  constructed.  A  further 
contract  in  1898  to  operate  all  railways  in  the 
island  for  fifty  years,  seven  steamers  and  a 
street  railway  m  St.  John's,  for  which  he  was  to 
receive  2,500,000  acres  of  laud,  and  the  owner- 
ship of  the  railways  and  government  telegraph 
lines,  was  broken  by  the  liberal  government  on 
the  ground  that  it  practically  sold  Newfoundland 
to  Reid,  who  then  transferred  his  interests  to 
the  Reid  Newfoundland  company,  which  under- 
took the  operation  of  the  lines  under  a  new 
contract.      Died,  1908. 

Reld,  Thomas,  Scottish  philosopher,  was  bom  at 
Strachan,  Scotland,  1710.  He  took  his  degree 
of  M.  A.  at  Aberdeen  in  1726,  and  continued  to 
act  as  librarian  there  for  a  number  of  years.  In 
1737  he  was  appointed  minister  to  the  parish 
church  of  New  Machar,  where  he  remained  until 
1752,  when  he  was  appointed  professor  of  phi- 
losophy in  King's  college,  Aberdeen.  In  1763 
he  was  chosen  to  succeed  Adam  Smith  as  pro- 
fessor of  moral  philosophy  in  the  university  of 
Glasgow,  and  henceforth  devoted  himself  to 
mental  and  metaphysical  speculation,  resigning 
his  chair  in  1781.  In  1764  he  pubUshed  his 
Inquiry  into  the  Human  Mind;  in  1785,  his 
Essays  on  the  Intellectual  Powers;    and  in  1788, 


JOSEPH  ERNEST  RENAN 

From  a  photograph 


THROUGHOUT  THE   WORLD 


M7 


hi3  Active  Pvwers  of  the  Human  Mind.     Died, 
1796. 

Beld,  Whitelaw,  American  diplomat  and  journalist 
was  born  at  Xeniaj  Ohio,  1837.  He  was  grad 
uated  at  Miami  university,  Oxford,  Ohio,  1856 
LL.  D.,  Miami,  1890,  Princeton,  1899,  Yale,  1901 
Cambridge,  1902,  St.  Andrews,  1905:  D.  C.  L. 
Oxford,  1907.  He  edited  the  Xenia  News,  1858 
59;  was  legislative  correspondent,  1860-61,  war 
correspondent,  1861-62,  Washington  correspond- 
ent, 1862-68,  Cincinnati  Gazette;  aide-de-camp 
on  the  staff  of  Generals  Thomas  A.  Morris  and 
W.  S.  Rosecrans  in  West  Virginia;  clerk  of  the 
military  committee  of  the  thirty-seventh  con- 
gress, 1862-63;  librarian  house  of  representa- 
tives, 1863-66;  and  cotton  planter,  Concordia 
parish,  La.,  1866-67.  In  1868  he  was  attached 
to  the  editorial  staff  of  New  York  Tribune; 
managing  editor,  1869,  editor-in-chief,  and  chief 
proprietor,  1872-1905.  He  declined  appoint- 
ment as  United  States  minister  to  Germany, 
1877,  and  again  in  1881 ;  was  United  States 
minister  to  France,  1889-92 ;  republican  nominee 
for  vice-president  of  United  States,  1892 ;  special 
ambassador  of  the  United  States  to  Queen 
Victoria's  jubilee,  1897;  member  of  peace  com- 
mission to  Paris,  1898;  special  ambassador  for 
coronation  of  Edward  VII.,  1902,  and  United 
States  ambassador  to  England,  1905-12.  Author: 
After  the  War,  a  Southern  Tour;  Ohio  in  the 
War;  Schools  of  Journalism;  Newspaper  Ten- 
dencies; Toxvn  HaU  Suggestions;  Two  Speeches 
at  the  Queen's  Jubilee;  Some  Consequences  of  the 
Last  Treaty  of  Paris;  Our  New  Duties;  Later 
Aspects  of  our  New  Duties;  A  Continental  Union; 
Our  Nev)  Interests;  Problems  of  Expansion; 
Carnegie  Institute  Address;  Monroe  Doctrine; 
Greatest  Fact  in  Modern  History;  How  America 
Faced  its  Educational  Problem,  etc.     Died,  1912. 

Belnsch  {rlnsh),  Paul  Samuel,  American  educator 
and  author,  professor  of  political  science,  uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin,  since  1901,  was  born  at 
Milwaukee,  Wis.,  1869;  was  graduated  at  the 
university  of  Wisconsin,  1892,  in  law  depart- 
ment of  same,  1894;  Ph.  D.,  1898,  and  studied 
at  the  university  of  Berlin,  at  Rome  and  at 
Paris.  He  was  United  States  delegate  to  the 
third  Pan-American  conference  at  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
1906.  Author:  The  Common  Law  in  the  Early 
American  Colonies;  World  Politics  at  the  End  oj 
the  Nineteenth  Century  as  Influenced  by  the 
Oriental  Situation;  Colonial  Government;  Colonial 
Administration;  American  Legislatures  and  Legis- 
lative Methods;  and  contributor  to  reviews,  to 
historical  and  economic  journals.  His  books 
have  been  translated  into  Japanese,  Chinese, 
Spanish,  German. 

B^Jane  {ra'-zhan'),  Madame  (Gabrielle  R^ju), 
French  actress,  was  born  in  Paris,  1857.  She 
married  M.  Porel,  director  of  the  Vaudeville 
theater,  Paris,  from  whom  she  was  divorced  in 
1905.  She  was  educated  at  the  Paris  conserva- 
toire, under  Regnier,  and  made  her  debut  at  the 
Vaudeville  theater  in  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes, 
1875;  left  the  Vaudeville  for  Th^dtre  des 
Vari6t6s,  1882;  .passed  to  L'Ambigu  in  order 
to  create  la  Glu  in  1882;  afterward  created 
Ma  Camarade,  Palais  Royal;  Clara  Soleil, 
Vaudeville;  Les  Dem.  Clochard,  Vari^t^s-  Ger- 
minie  Lacerteux,  I'Od^on ;  Marquise,  Vaudeville ; 
Ma  Cousine,  Vari^t^s;  Amoureuse,  I'Od^on; 
Lysistrata,  Grand  thMtre;  Madame  Sans  Gene, 
Vaudeville,  1893;  and  Maison  de  Poup6e,  1894. 
She  toured  in  America  in  1895,  and  obtained  an 
enormous  success.  One  of  her  later  successes  at 
the  Vaudeville  was  La  Passerelle.  She  manages 
her  own  theater  in  Paris,  Th64tre  R6jane. 

Rembrandt  (rSm'-brant).     See  page  154. 

Remington,  Frederic,  American  artist,  illustrator, 
sculptor,  and  author,  was  bom  in  St.  Lawrence 


county,  N.  Y.,  1861.  He  early  studied  at  Yale 
art  school,  and  at  the  art  students'  league  of 
New  York,  after  which  he  led  the  life  of  a  cow- 
boy and  stockman  on  a  ranch  in  Montana  and 
Wyoming,  where  he  became  notable  aa  an 
animal  painter  and  illustrator  of  western  scenes 
and  modes  of  life  on  the  plains.  He  subsequently 
came  into  note  as  an  illustrator  for  magazines, 
treating  of  military  subjects  and  of  ranching  life, 
and  after  the  Spanish-American  war  of  Cubaa 
scenes  and  characteristics.  His  chief  canvases 
and  best-known  paintings  are:  "A  Dash  for  the 
Timber";  "The  Last  Stand":  "Past  all  Sur- 
gery"; "The  Last  Lull  in  the  Fight";  and 
Conjuring  the  Buffalo  Back."  Among  his 
leading  works  in  sculpture  are  "The  Broncho 
Buster"  and  "The  Wounded  Bunkie."  He  is 
the  author  of  the  following  works :  Pony  Tracks; 
Crooked  Trails;  The  Way  of  an  Indian;  Frontier 
Sketches;  John  Ermine  of  the  Yeliowstone,  etc. 
Died,  1909. 

Remsen,  Ira,  American  chemist  and  educator, 
president,  1901-12,  and  professor  of  chemistry 
since  1876,  Johns  Hopkins  university;  was  bom 
in  New  York,  1846.  He  was  graduated  at  the 
college  of  the  city  of  New  York,  1865;  M.  D., 
college  of  physicians  and  surgeons,  New  York; 
Ph.  D.,  Gottingen;  LL.  D.,  Columbia,  1893, 
Princeton,  1896,  Yale,  1901,  Toronto,  1902.  He 
was  professor  of  chemistry,  Williams  college, 
1872-76;  founder,  1879,  and  since  editor  of  the 
American  Chemical  Journal;  president  of  national 
academy  of  sciences,  1907-08,  etc.  Author: 
The  Principles  of  Theoretical  Chemistry;  An 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Compounds  of 
Carbon,  or  Organic  Chemistry;  The  Elements  of 
Chemistry;  Inorganic  Chemistry;  A  Laboratory 
Manual;  Chemical  Experiments;  and  many 
scientific  articles  and  addresses. 

Renan  (re-noN'),  Joseph  Ernest,  FrenchphHologist, 
historian,  and  critic,  was  born  at  Tr6guier,  in 
Brittany,  1823.  He  began  to  study  for  the 
church  at  Paris,  but,  as  the  result  of  the  study 
of  Hebrew  and  of  German  criticism,  renounced 
traditional  Christianity,  and  in  1845  abandoned 
all  thoughts  of  the  church  as  a  profession.  By 
his  elder  sister  Henrietta's  assistance  and  counsel 
he  was  enabled  to  follow  out  his  purpose,  a  life 
of  study  untrammeled  by  creeds  or  formularies. 
At  twenty-five  he  received  his  doctorate  at  the 
university  of  Paris,  and  in  1850  obtained  a  post 
in  the  Bibliothfique  Nationale.  In  1860  he  was 
made  one  of  a  commission  sent  by  the  govern- 
ment to  study  the  remains  of  Phoenician  civili- 
zation. In  1862  he  was  chosen  professor  of 
Hebrew  in  the  College  de  France;  but  the 
emperor,  inspired  by  the  clerical  party,  refused 
to  ratify  the  appointment;  and  it  was  not  until 
1870  that  he  was  established  in  the  chair.  In 
1878  he  was  elected  to  the  academy.  His  first 
work  of  importance  was  published  in  1854,  but 
his  European  reputation  dates  from  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Life  of  Jesus,  in  1863,  first  in  the 
series  which  its  author  regarded  as  the  special 
work  of  his  life.  History  of  the  Origin  of  Chris- 
tianity. None  of  the  other  volumes  excited  the 
extraordinary  interest  of  the  first.  Of  the  volumes 
that  followed,  those  on  St.  Paul,  1869,  and 
Marcus  Aurelius,  1882,  are  specially  noteworthy. 
In  completion  of  his  life's  task  Renan  undertook 
a  History  of  the  People  of  Israd,  in  5  vols.  He 
also  wrote  many  other  works  of  a  more  general 
character,  including  The  History  of  the  Semitic 
Languages;  The  Future  of  Science;  Brother  and 
Sister;  Studies  in  the  History  of  Religion,  etc. 
Whatever  may  be  the  judgment  of  time  on  the 
intrinsic  value  of  Renan's  contribution  to  the 
sum  of  knowledge,  he  can  never  lose  his  place 
among  the  few  great  names  in  the  history  of 
letters.     In   London   he   delivered   the   Hibbert 


948 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


lectures,  1880,  on  The  Influence  of  Rome  on 
Christianity.     He  died  in  1892. 

Bennle  (ren'-I),  John,  British  civil  engineer,  was 
bom  at  Phantassie  farm,  East  Lothian,  Scotland, 
1761.  After  working  as  a  millwright  he  studied 
at  Edinburgh  university.  In  1780  he  entered 
the  employ  of  Boulton  and  Watt,  and  in  1791 
started  in  London  on  his  own  account  as  an 
engineer  and  bridge-builder.  He  erected  the 
bridges  at  Leeds,  Musselburgh.  Newton-Stewart, 
Boston,  New  Galloway,  and  the  Southwark  and 
Waterloo  bridges  over  the  Thames,  and  formu- 
lated the  plans  for  London  bridge.  He  made 
many  important  canals;  drained  fens;  assisted 
in  the  Bell  Rock  lighthouse;  designed  the  Lon- 
don docks,  and  others  at  Blackwall,  Hull,  Liver- 
pool, Dublin.  Greenock,  and  Leith;  and  im- 
proved the  narbors  and  dockyards  at  Ports- 
mouth, Chatham,  Sheemess.  and  Plymouth, 
where  he  constructed  the  celebrated  breakwater 
in  1811-14.  He  died  in  1821  and  waa  buried  in 
St.  Paul's. 

Beuter  (roi'-tSr),  Baron  Paul  Julius,  German  jour- 
nalist, was  born  in  Cassel  in  1821.  In  1849  he 
established  an  office  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  for  supply- 
ing news  by  telegraph,  and  thereby  revolutionized 
the  press  of  Europe.  In  1851  he  transferred  his 
business  to  London,  became  a  naturalized  citizen 
of  Great  Britain,  and  founded  Renter's  news 
service.  He  laid  several  important  telegraphic 
cables.     Died,  1899. 

Bevere  (rS-ver'),  Paul,  American  patriot,  was  bom 
in  Boston.  Mass.,  1735,  and  learned  the  business 
of  a  goldsmith.  He  was  conspicuous  for  his 
zeal  against  the  mother  country,  and  one  of  the 
first  actors  in  the  revolt.  He  became  famous  in 
history  and  song  for  his  ride  from  Boston  to 
Lexington  to  arouse  the  minute-men,  April  18- 
19,  1775.     He  died  at  Boston,  1818. 

Beynolds,  John  Fulton,  American  general,  was 
bom  in  Lancaster,  Pa.,  1820.  He  was  graduated 
at  West  Point,  1841,  and  entered  the  artillery; 
served  in  the  Mexican  war  and  on  the  frontier; 
in  1861  took  command  of  &  brigade  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania reserve  corps,  and  led  them  in  McClel- 
lan's  peninsular  campaign  in  1862  until  he  was 
taken  prisoner  at  Glendale,  June  30th.  When 
Lee  invaded  Maryland,  Governor  Curtin,  of  Penn- 
sylvania, selected  General  Reynolds  to  command 
the  militia  of  that  state,  and  soon  after  the  first 
corps  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac  was  assigned 
to  his  command.  He  fought  at  Fredericksburg 
in  1862.  Encountering  the  van  of  the  confed- 
erate army  at  Gettysburg,  he  had  already 
selected  the  ground  for  the  impending  battle, 
when  at  the  opening  of  the  fight  he  was  killed 
by  a  rifle-shot,  July  1,'1863.  A  monument  was 
erected  to  him  at  Gettysburg,  and  a  bronze 
equestrian  statue  of  him  by  Rogers  stands  in 
Philadelphia  in  front  of  the  city  hall. 

Beynolds,  Sir  Joshua,  eminent  English  pmnter, 
was  bom  at  Plympton,  in  Devonshire,  1723.  He 
studied  under  Thomas  Hudson,  a  portrait  painter, 
and  when  about  twenty  years  old  began  his 
career  as  a  portrait-painter,  at  Plymouth  Dock, 
now  Devenport.  Three  years  later  he  estab- 
lished himself  in  London,  where,  except  three 
years  spent  in  Italy  —  from  1749  to  1752  —  he 
passed  the  rest  of  his  life.  On  the  institution  of 
the  royal  academy  in  1769,  he  became  president 
and  was  knighted  by  George  III.  His  works  are 
very  numerous.  He  was  especially  famous  for 
bis  portraits,  though  his  historical  paintings,  of 
which  upward  of  sixty  are  catalogued,  show 
him  to  have  been  qualified  to  excel  in  both 
departments  of  his  art.  He  was  the  friend  of 
Johnson,  Burke,  Goldsmith,  and  the  most  emi- 
nent literary  men  of  his  time.  His  Uterary 
reputation  rests  on  his  Discourses  on  Painting, 
which  were  delivered  by  him  in  the  academy 


during  the  successive  years  of  his  presidency. 
He  died  at  London,  1792,  and  was  buried  m 
St.  Paul's  cathedral. 

Bhees,  Bush,  American  educator,  president  of 
university  of  Rochester  since  1900.  was  bom  at 
Chicago,  1860.  He  was  graduated  at  Amhenst, 
1883,  LL.  D.,  1900;  Hartford  theological  semi- 
nary, 1888;  D.  D.,  Colgate  university,  1901. 
He  was  instructor  in  mathematics  at  Amherst, 
1883-85;  was  pastor  of  Middle  Street  Baptist 
church,  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  1889-92;  associate 
professor  of  new  testament  interpretation,  New- 
ton theological  institution,  Newton  Centre,  Mass., 
1892-94,  and  professor  in  the  same,  1894-1900. 
Author :  The  Life  of  Jetua  of  Nazareth,  a  Study; 
St.  Paul's  Experience  as  a  Factor  in  His  Theology; 
and  various  articles  in  theological  and  educa- 
tional journals  and  periodicals. 

Bhodes,  Cecil  John,  South  African  statesman,  was 
bom  at  Bishop  Stortford^  England,  1853.  He 
was  sent  for  his  health  to  Natal,  and  subsequently 
made  a  fortune  at  the  Kimberley  diamond  mines. 
He  then  returned  to  England  and  entered  Oriel 
college,  Oxford,  and.  though  his  residence  waa 
cut  short  by  ill  health,  he  ultimately  took  his 
degree.  He  entered  the  Cape  Colony  house  of 
assembly  as  member  for  Barkly,  and  in  1884 
occupied  a  place  in  the  Cape  Colony  cabinet. 
He  sent  10,000  pounds  in  1888  to  forward  the 
cause  of  Irish  home  rule.  In  1890  be  became 
prime-minister  of  Cape  Colony ;  but  even  before 
this  he  had  become  a  ruling  spirit  in  the  exten- 
sion of  British  territory,  and  secured,  in  1889, 
the  charter  for  the  British  South  Africa  company, 
of  which  until  1896  he  waa  managing  director. 
This  territory  is  now  known  as  Rhodesia.  His 
policy  was  the  ultimate  establishment  of  a  federal 
South  African  dominion  under  the  British  flax. 
In  1895  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  British 
privy  council.  In  1896  he  resigned  the  Cape 
premiership  in  consequence  of  complications 
arising  from  the  raid  of  Dr.  Jameson,  the  chartered 
company's  administrator,  into  the  Transvaal, 
in  aid  of  the  Uitlanders'  claims.  In  1899  he  waa 
made  D.  C.  L.  at  Oxford.  He  was  a  conspicuoua 
figure  during  the  war  of  1899-1902,  died  1902, 
and  was  buried  in  the  Matoppo  hills,  leaving  a 
remarkable  will  which,  besides  making  great 
benefactions  to  Cape  Colony,  founded  rich 
scholarships  at  Oxford. 

Bhodes,  James  Ford,  American  historian  and 
essayist,  waa  born  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  1848.  He 
was  educated  in  the  public  schools,  at  the  uni- 
versity of  New  York,  and  the  university  of 
Chicago,  but  was  not  graduated;  LL.  D.,  West- 
em  Reserve  university,  1893,  Harvard,  1901, 
Yale,  1901,  Wisconsin^  1904;  Litt.  D.,  Kenyon, 
1903.  He  engaged  in  coal  mining  and  the 
manufacture  of  pig-iron,  1870-85,  and  since 
1885  has  devoted  himself  to  the  study  and  to 
the  writing  of  history.  He  received  the  Loubet 
prize  of  the  Berlin  academy  of  science  in  1901. 
Author:  History  of  the  United  States  from  the 
Compromise  of  1850,  in  7  vols.,  Historical 
Essays,  etc. 

Blcardo  (ri-kar'-dd),  David,  British  political  econo- 
mist, of  Jewish  extraction,  was  bom  in  London, 
1772,  and  entered  upon  a  mercantile  life,  after 
having  received  a  common  school  education. 
He  gained  a  large  fortune  by  commerce,  obtained 
a  seat  in  parliament  for  Portarlington,  1819,  and 
acquired  a  high  reputation  as  an  economist  and 
writer.  He  wrote  Principlea  of  Political  Economy 
and  Taxation;  On  the  Depreciation  of  the  Cur- 
rency; Essay  on  Rent;  Funding  System;  and 
other  works  of  a  similar  nature.     Dial,  1823. 

Bicciarelll  (ref-cha-rd'-le),  Daniele,  knoi^-n  also  by 
the  name  of  Daniele  da  Volterra,  Italian  painter, 
was  bom  at  Volterra,  1509.  He  studied  painting 
at  Siena,  and  afterward  repaired  to  Rome,  where 


CARDINAL   RICHELIEU 

From  the  painting  i>y  Champaigne 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


051 


he  i»as  much  indebted  to  the  friendship  of 
Michaelangelo,  who  not  only  instructed  him,  but 
gave  him  designs  for  some  of  his  most  celebrated 
works.  His  fame  rests  chiefiy  on  a  series  of 
frescoes  in  the  church  of  La  IrinitA,  de'  Monti, 
Rome;  and  of  these  the  "Descent  from  tlie 
Cross"  is  well  known  by  Toschi's  admirable 
engraving.  Ricciarelli  was  employed  by  Paul  IV. 
to  partially  drape  the  nude  hgures  in  Michael- 
angelo's  "Last  Judgment"  in  the  Sistine  chapel 
of  the  Vatican.  By  this  act  he  earned  for  him- 
self the  soubriquet  of  II  Braghettone,  "the 
Breeches-maker.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life 
he  applied  himself  also  to  sculpture.  He  died  at 
Rome  in  1566  or  1567. 

Bice,  Alice  Hegan,  American  author,  was  born  at 
Shelby ville,  Ky.,  1870,  daughter  of  Samuel  W. 
Hegan.  She  was  educated  at  Hampton  college, 
Louisville,  and  in  1902  married  Cale  Young  Rice. 
Author:  Mrs.  Wiggs  of  the  Cabbage  Patch; 
Lovey  Mary;  Sandy;  Captain  Juiie,  etc.,  and  a 
number  of  short  magazine  stories. 

Richard  I.,  surnamed  Coeur  de  Lion,  king  of  Eng- 
land from  1189  to  1199,  was  born  at  Oxford, 
1157.  He  was  the  third  son  and  successor  of 
Henry  II.  He  spent  his  early  years  in  Poitou 
and  Aquitaine,  where  he  engaged  in  quarrels 
with  his  father;  after  his  accession  to  the  throne 
he  flung  himself  with  characteristic  ardor  into 
the  crusade  movement;  in  1190  joined  his  forces 
with  Philip  Augustus  of  France  in  the  third 
crusade;  upheld  the  claims  of  Tancred  in  Sicily; 
captured  Cyprus,  and  won  great  renown  in  the 
holy  land,  particularly  by  his  defeat  of  Saladin. 
After  shipwreck  on  the  coast,  on  his  way  home, 
he  was  captured  by  the  archduke  of  Austria, 
and  handed  over  to  the  emperor  Henry  VI. 
in  1193.  He  was  ransomed  at  a  heavy  price 
by  his  subjects,  and  landed  in  England  in  1194. 
His  later  years  were  spent  in  his  French  pos- 
sessions warring  against  Philip.  He  died  of  an 
arrow  wound  at  the  siege  of  Chalus  in  1199. 
Not  more  than  a  year  of  his  life  was  spent  in 
England,  and  his  reign  is  barren  of  constitu- 
tional change. 

Slchard  II.,  king  of  England,  was  born  at  Bor- 
deaux,   France,    in    1367.     He  was   the  son   of 

,  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  and  the  grandson  of 
Edward  III.,  whom  he  succeeded.  Being  only 
eleven  years  old  at  his  accession,  a  council  of 
regency  was  appointed  to  govern  the  kingdom 
during  his  minority.  In  1381  the  insurrection 
of  the  peasantry  under  Wat  Tyler  broke  out  and 
was  put  dowTi,  the  young  king  himself  taking 
part  in  its  suppression.  Meantime,  the  war  with 
France  continued,  and  intolerable  burdens  were 
placed  upon  the  shoulders  of  the  people.  Quar- 
rels with  his  uncles,  W'ith  the  commons,  and 
with  his  parliaments,  on  behalf  of  worthless 
favorites  with  whom  he  was  surrounded,  fill  up 
the  years  of  Richard's  reign.  The  noted  John 
of  Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancaster,  and  Thomas,  duke 
of  Gloucester,  tried  to  bend  their  royal  nephew 
to  their  own  purposes.  He  resisted  them  suc- 
cessfully; but  the  murder  of  Gloucester,  who 
was  arrested  nfear  London,  and  slain  at  Calais 
in  1397,  fixes  an  indelible  stain  upon  his  mem- 
ory. Two  years  afterward  he  was  defeated  and 
deposed  by  his  cousin,  Henry  of  Bolingbroke, 
duke  of  Hereford,  who  succeeded  him.  He  is 
believed  to  have  been  murdered  in  Pontefract 
castle,  Yorkshire,  in  the  following  year.  To  this 
reign  belong  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
English  by  WyclifFe. 

Blchard  III.,  king  of  England  1483-85,  surnamed 
Crookback,  was  bom  at  Fotheringay  castle,  1452, 
youngest  son  of  Richard,  duke  of  York,  a  brother 
of  Edward  IV.,  and  uncle  of  Edward  V.,  whom 
he  murdered.  Scarcely  had  he  placed  himself, 
securely  as  he  thought,  upon  the  throne,  than  a 


plot  broke  out,  in  which  the  duke  of  Buckingham 
took  a  leading  share,  in  favor  of  Henry  'ludor. 
earl  of  Richmond.  The  plot  disastrously  failea 
so  far  as  Buckingham  was  concerned,  for  he  was 
apprehended,  condemned,  and  executed  at  Salis- 
bury, 1483;  but  in  1485  the  earl  of  Richmond 
lauded  at  Milfurd  Haven  with  a  force  of  a  few 
thousand  men,  and  a  few  days  later  defeated 
the  king  in  the  battle  of  Bo.sworth  field,  in 
Leicestershire.  In  this  battle  Richard  was  killed, 
lie  was  buried  in  Grey  Friars'  church,  Leicester. 
The  house  of  York  and  the  Plantagenet  line  of 
kings  ended  with  the  death  of  Richard,  who  waa 
succeeded  by  Henry  VII.,  the  first  of  the  Tudor 
line. 

Richardson,  Harry  Alden,  United  States  senator, 
was  born  in  Camden,  Del.,  1853.  He  attendeo 
school  at  East  Greenwich,  R.  I.,  and  at  the  age 
of  sixteen  returned  to  Delaware,  where  he 
learned  the  trade  of  canner  and  packer,  going 
into  his  father's  establishment  at  Dover,  and 
working  his  way  up  from  the  lowest  position. 
In  1876  he  was  taken  into  partnership  by  his 
father,  and  after  the  latter's  death,  in  1894, 
assumed  entire  control  of  the  canning  establish- 
ment, which  he,  with  his  sons,  has  since  managed. 
He  was  elected  to  the  United  States  senate  in 
1907  for  the  term  1907-13. 

Richardson,  Samuel,  English  novelist,  was  bom  in 
Derbyshire,  1689.  He  was  early  apprenticed  to 
a  printer  in  London;  some  years  after  became 
a  master  printer,  and  was  successively  printer 
to  the  house  of  commons,  master  of  the  Station- 
ers' company,  and  law  printer  to  the  king.  It 
was  not  until  he  was  more  than  fifty  years  of  age 
that  he  published  his  first  novel,  Pamela,  or 
Virtue  Rewarded.  In  1749  appeared  his  second 
work,  The  History  of  Clarissa  Harlowe,  which 
greatly  increased  his  reputation:  and  in  1753  he 
published  The  History  of  Sir  Charles  Grandison. 
in  which  he  attempted  the  description  of  a  model 
Christian  gentleman.  All  his  novels  are  in  the 
epistolary  style.  He  may  be  said  to  be  the 
originator,  after  De  Foe,  of  the  English  novel, 
and  was  the  first  to  write  a  novel  of  high  life. 
He  died  in  1761. 

Richelieu  (re'-shi-lyd'),  Armand  Jean  Duplessls, 
Due  de,  celebrated  French  statesman  and  car- 
dinal, was  born  of  a  noble  family  at  Paris,  1585. 
He  was  educated  for  the  military  profession  at 
the  College  de  Navarre.  He  then  pursued  eccle- 
siastical studies,  and  underwent  the  preliminary 
examination  for  his  degree  at  the  Sorbonne. 
In  1607  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  LuQon  at 
Rome  in  the  presence  of  Pope  Paul  V.,  and  for 
some  time  devoted  himself  zealously  to  the  dis- 
charge of  his  duties  in  his  diocese.  At  the  states- 
general  in  1614,  being  appointed  one  of  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  clergy,  he  attracted  the  notice  of 
the  queen-mother  by  an  address  which  he  deliv- 
ercdmthe  presence  of  the  youngking,  LouisXIII. : 
and,  by  his  appointment  in  1616  as  secretary  of 
war  and  foreign  affairs,  the  way  seemed  opened 
to  his  success  in  political  life.  In  1622  he  became 
a  cardinal,  and  from  1624  to  1642  was  the  prin- 
cipal minister  of  Louis  XIII.  The  administra- 
tion of  Richelieu  forms  an  epoch  in  the  history 
of  France  and  her  relations  with  other  countries. 
It  is  memorable  for  several  great  measures,  or 
series  of  measures,  through  which  the  posture  of 
affairs  underwent  a  complete  and  permanent 
change.  Of  these  the  first  and  most  lasting  in 
its  results  was  that  by  which  the  absolute 
authority  of  the  sovereign  was  established. 
From  the  mediaeval  period  the  power  of  the 
French  kings  had  been  controlled,  and  in  many 
cases  overridden,  by  the  feudal  privileges  of  the 
nobles;  and  in  the  stormy  conflicts  of  the  six- 
teenth and  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century  the  j)ower  of  the  crown  had  often  been 


952 


MAisTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


reduced  to  a  cipher.  By  a  succession  of  vigorous 
and  energetic,  and,  it  must  be  added,  not  unfre- 
quently  unscrupulous  measures,  Richelieu  suc- 
ceeded in  breaking  down  the  political  power  and 
subduing  the  arrogant  assumptions  of  the  great 
families,  the  heads  of  several  among  which 
were  brought  to  the  scaffold,  while  not  a  few 
were  condemned  to  life  imprisonment  Among 
his  most  inveterate  and  most  powerful  adver- 
saries was  Gaston,  duke  of  Orleans,  brother  of 
the  king;  but  Richelieu  triumphed  over  him, 
and  even  the  queen-mother,  Marie  de'  Medici, 
was  obliged  to  bow  before  his  unbending  spirit, 
and  to  withdraw  into  exile  at  Cologne  Thus 
Richelieu,  at  the  close  of  his  career,  delivered  up 
the  royal  authority,  which  he  had  wielded  for 
eighteen  years,  almost  without  a  single  constitu- 
tional check  upon  its  absolute  exercise.  Another 
of  the  great  enterprises  of  this  minister  was  the 
overthrow  of  the  Huguenot  party  as  a  political 
power  and  a  rival  of  the  throne  in  France.  The 
siege  and  capture  of  Rochelle,  which  he  con- 
ducted in  person  in  1628,  was  followed  by  the 
submission  of  the  other  Huguenot  strongholds. 
In  the  external  relations  of  France  the  great 
object  of  all  his  measures  was  the  overthrow  of 
the  preponderance  of  Austria.  He  died  at  Paris 
in  1642. 

Bichter  {rlm'-tSr),  Johann  Paul  Frledrlch,  or  "Jean 
Paul,"  German  humorist  and  sentimentalist,  was 
born  at  Wunsiedel,  in  Bavaria,  17C3.  He  studied 
at  Leipzig,  and  began  his  literary  career  in  1783 
with  The  Greenland  Lawsuits.  In  1784  he  fled 
from  the  city  to  avoid  incarceration  for  debt, 
and  in  1786  accepted  a  tutorship  at  Topen  in 
the  family  of  Herr  von  Oerthel.  In  1790,  at  the 
request  of  several  families  of  Schwarzenbach,  he 
removed  thither  to  take  charge  of  the  education 
of  their  children,  and  lived  in  this  way  as  a  pri- 
vate school-master  for  some  years.  In  1789 
appeared  Selections  from  the  Papers  of  the  Dernl, 
and,  in  1793,  The  Invisible  Lodge.  This  was 
followed  by  Hesperus,  the  work  by  which  he  is 
perhaps  best  known  outside  of  Germany;  Qvin- 
tus  Fixlein;  The  Valley  of  Campan;  The 
Awkward  Age,  which  is  probably  his  best  work ; 
Dr.  Latzenberger's  Journey  to  the  Watering-place; 
Preparatory  Course  in  Esthetics,  etc.,  and  a 
number  of  essays.  He  died  at  Bayreuth, 
1825. 

Bidder,  Herman,  American  journalist,  was  bom  in 
New  York,  1851,  of  German  parentage.  He 
attended  the  New  York  schools,  and  b^an 
business  life  at  eleven  as  errand  boy.  He  was 
an  insurance  agent  at  twenty;  in  1878  estab- 
lished the  Katholisches  Volksblatt,  and  in  1886 
the  Catholic  News;  became  trustee,  treasurer 
and  manager,  1890,  president,  1907,  of  the  New 
York  Staats-Zeitung.  As  an  independent  demo- 
crat he  was  active  in  Cleveland  campaigns  and 
reform  movements,  especially  in  German-Ameri- 
can reform  union.  He  is  a  trustee  of  the 
Mutual  life  insurance  company.  Emigrant  indus- 
trial savings  bank;  member  of  the  Charity 
organization  society,  the  Isabella  Beimath, 
German  society,  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  society. 
Legal  aid  society,  chamber  of  commerce,  American 
museum  of  natural  history,  Metropolitan  museum 
of  art ;  director  of  the  associated  press  and  New 
York  publishers'  association. 

Ridley,  Nicholas,  English  reformer,  was  bom  in 
Northumberland,  about  1500;  studied  at  Cam- 
bridge, Paris,  and  Louvain;  returned  to  Cam- 
t>"aKe  in  1529,  became  chaplain  to  Cranmer  in 
1537,  and  about  1640  master  of  Pembroke  hall. 
He  was  appointed  bishop  of  Rochester  in  1547, 
and  of  London  in  1560;  took  a  leading  part  in 
composing  the  liturgy  and  drawing  up  the 
thirty-nine  articles;  favored  the  attempt  to 
place  Lady  Jane  Grey  on  the  throne,  and  was 


imprisoned  in  the  Tower.  He  was  condemned 
to  death  for  heresy,  and  burned,  with  Latimer, 
at  Oxford,  1555. 

Bldpsth  {rid'-pdth),  John  Clark,  American  his- 
torian and  educator,  was  bom  in  Putnam  county, 
Indiana,  1840.  He  was  graduated  at  Asbury, 
now  De  Pauw,  university,  1863,  and  in  1869  was 
appointed  professor  of  hterature  at  Asbur\',  and 
ten  years  later  became  vice-president  of  that 
university.  For  his  alma  mater  he  was  instru- 
mental in  procuring  the  endowment  from  Mr. 
De  Pauw,  wliich  subsequently  resulted  in  its 
change  of  name.  He  was  editor  of  The  Arena, 
1897-98,  and  from  his  industrious  pen  came 
histories,  cyclopaedias,  and  biograpliies.  Among 
the  latter  are  lives  of  Alexander  Hamilton, 
Garfield,  W.  E.  Gladstone,  together  with  a 
history  of  Texas;  an  academic  history  and  a 
popular  historj'  of  the  United  States;  A  Cyclo- 
jtcMia  of  Universal  History,  and  a  compendious 
treatise  on  The  Great  Races  of  Mankind.  Died 
at  New  York,  1900. 

Rlenxl  (rl-in'-U),  Nicola  Gahrlnl,  Italian  patriot, 
commonly  called  "the  last  of  the  Roman  trib- 
unes," was  bom  in  Rome  about  1313.  He  was 
well  educated,  and  was  a  noted  orator.  At  that 
time  the  noted  schism  obtained  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  church.  Rome  was  almost  without 
government,  ana  the  citizens  were  robbed  and 
ul-treated  by  nobles  who  lived  in  fortified  houses. 
At  last  the  people  made  an  attempt  to  free 
themselves,  and  chose  RIena  tribune,  1347.  He 
proved  an  excellent  leader  at  first,  but  soon 
oecame  elated  by  success,  caused  himself  to  be 
cro'wned  with  seven  crowns,  and  lived  in  great 
splendor  and  extravagance.  In  a  few  months 
tne  people  became  tired  of  him,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  escape  from  the  city  in  the  dress  of  a 
monk.  He  was  afterward  recalled  to  Rome, 
and  was  assassinated  in  1354,  while  making  a 
speech  to  the  people. 

Biggs,  Mrs.  GeofRe  C.     See  WigKin,  Kate  Douglas. 

Biis  (ris)f  Jacob  Ausust,  American  journalist, 
author,  was  bom  inRibej  Denmark,  1849.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Latin  school  there;  came 
to  New  York,  became  p>olice  reporter  for  the 
New  York  Sun,  and  was  subsequently  active  in 
the  small  parks  and  play-grounds  movement, 
and  in  tenement  house  and  school  reform.  He 
was  secretary  of  the  New  York  small  parks 
commission,  1897,  and  executive  officer  of  Good 
Government  clubs,  1896-97.  Author:  How  the 
Other  Half  Lives;  The  Children  of  the  Poor;  The 
Making  of  an  American;  The  Battle  unth  the 
Slum;  Children  of  the  Tenements;  The  Peril  and 
the  Preservation  of  the  Home;  Theodore  Roosevelt, 
the  Citizen;  and  magazine  articles  on  social  and 
economic  subjects. 

Biiey,  James  Whltcomb,  American  poet,  writer, 
and  lecturer,  was  bom  at  Greenfiela,  Ind.,  1853. 
He  received  a  public  school  education;  M.  A., 
Yale,  1902;  Litt.  D.,  Pemnsylvania,  1904;  LL.D., 
Indiana,  1907.  He  began  contributing  poems 
to  Indiana  papers,  1873.  His  earlier  Hoosier 
dialect  verse  and  his  first  book  appeared  under 
the  pen-name,  "Benj.  F.  Johnson,  of  Boone." 
For  a  number  of  years  he  appeared  on  the  lecture 
platform  throughout  the  country  and  gave  read- 
ings from  his  works.  Author:  The  Old  Swim- 
min'  Hole  and  'Leven  More  Poems;  The  Boss 
Girl  and  Other  Sketches;  Afterwhiles;  Old-Fash- 
ioned  Roses;  Pipes  o'  Pan  at  Zekesbury;  Rhymes 
of  Childhood;  The  Flying  Islands  of  the  Night; 
Green  Fields  and  Running  Brooks;  Armazindy; 
A  Child-World;  Neighborly  Poems;  Home  Folks; 
Poems  Here  at  Home;  The  Rubaiyat  of  Doc. 
Sifers;  The  Book  of  Joyous  Children;  An  Old 
Sweetheart  of  Mine;  Out  to  Old  Aunt  Mary's; 
A  Defective  Santa  Claus;  While  the  Heart  Beats 
Young;   Raggedy  Man;   Morning,    etc. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


M8 


Blnetaart,  William  Henry,  American  sculptor,  was 
born  in  Carroll  county,  Md.,  1825.  He  received 
a  common  school  education,  and  at  the  age  of 
twenty-one  began  his  career  as  a  marble  worker 
in  Baltimore.  In  1855  he  went  to  Italy,  and 
after  a  two  years'  course  of  instruction  and 
practice  in  Florence,  brought  back  two  bas- 
reliefs  of  unquestioned  merit.  After  remaining 
in  Baltimore  about  a  year,  he  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  continued  to  work  until  his  death.  He 
completed  Crawford's  bronze  doors  for  the 
capitol  at  Washington;  executed  a  bronze 
statue  of  the  late  Chief-Justice  Taney,  under  a 
commission  from  the  state  of  Maryland,  unveiled 
in  Annapolis  in  1872;  "Love  Reconciled  with 
Death";  "Latona  and  Her  Children";  "Angel 
of  the  Resurrection";  "Woman  of  Samaria"; 
"Clytie,"  etc.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1874, 
leaving  his  property  as  a  fund  for  the  aid  of 
indigent  students  of  art. 

BIpley,  George,  American  scholar  and  critic,  was 
born  at  Greenfield,  Mass.,  1802.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  college,  1823,  studied  theology  there 
and  was  ordained  to  the  pastorate  of  a  Unitarian 
church  at  Boston.  This  he  held  until  1841.  In 
the  meantime  he  had  become  one  of  the  leading 
spirits  in  the  transcendental  movement,  the 
first  meeting  of  the  club  being  held  at  his  house 
in  1836;  and  on  leaving  the  pulpit  he  started 
the  Brook  Farm  experiment.  This  came  to  an 
end  in  1847,  when  Ripley  removed  to  New  York 
and  engaged  in  literary  and  journalistic  work. 
He  was  co-editor  of  the  New  American  Cyclo- 
pedia.    Died,  1880. 

Ripon,  Bishop  of.  See  Carpenter,  Bt*  Bev. 
William  Boyd. 

Bistort  {res-td'-re\  Adelaide,  Italian  actress,  was 
born  in  1821,  the  child  of  strolling  players.  She 
married  the  Marquis  Capranica  del  Grillo,  1847, 
but  afterward  returned  to  the  stage.  Having 
established  her  reputation  in  Italy,  she  visited 
Paris,  1855,  London,  1858,  and  other  European 
capitals,  as  well  as  the  United  States  and  South 
America.  In  America  she  played  with  Edwin 
Booth.  Her  leading  parts  were:  Francesca  da 
Rimini,  Marie  Stuart,  Phaedra,  Lady  Macbeth, 
Judith,  etc.  She  retired  from  the  stage  in  1885 
and  died  in  1906. 

Bitter,  Karl,  German  geographer,  was  bom  at 
Quedlinburg,  Prussia,  1779.  He  studied  at 
Halle,  became  professor  of  geography  at  Berlin 
in  1820,  and  afterward  member  of^  the  academy 
and  director  of  studies  in  the  military  school. 
With  Ritter  as  the  founder  of  comparative 
geography,  began  a  new  epoch  in  the  history  of 
geographical  science.  His  chief  work  was 
Geography  in  Its  Relation  to  Nature  and  the 
History  of  Men.  His  lectures  were  published  in 
three  volumes.  History  of  Geography,  General 
History,  and  Europe.  He  died  at  Berlin,  1859, 
and  his  name  is  perpetuated  in  two  geographical 
institutions  at  Berlin  and  at  Leipzig. 

Bives  (rerz),  Amelia,  Princess  Am^lie  Troubetzkoy, 
American  novelist,  was  bom  at  Richmond,  Va., 
1863.  She  early  manifested  a  strong  predilection 
for  literature.  Her  earliest  production  was  a 
series  of  stories  entitled  A  Brother  to  Dragons. 
This  was  followed  by  a  sensational  work  called 
The  Quick  or  the  Deadf  which  met  with  con- 
siderable popularity.  Her  later  work  embraces 
Virginia  of  Virginia;  Herod  and  Mariamne; 
According  to  St.  John;  Barbara  Dering;  Athel- 
wdd;  Tanis;  Augustine  the  Man;  The  Golden 
Rose;  and  a  number  of  magazine  articles.  In 
1896,  after  being  divorced  from  her  first  hus- 
band, J.  A.  Chanler,  she  married  ,a  Russian 
prince,  Pierre  Troubetzkoy. 

Blvi^re  {re'-vy&r'\  Briton,  English  painter,  was 
bom  in  London,  1840,  of  Huguenot  ancestry. 
He  was  graduated  at  Oxford  in   1867,   M.   A., 


p.  C.  L.  He  had  exhibit nl  at  the  roval  academy 
in  1868.  and  from  the  appearanre  of  "The 
Poacher's  Nurse,"  1866,  he  has  been  regularly 
represented  there  and  at  various  int«mational 
exhibitions.  He  became  A.  R.  A.  in  1878, 
R.  A.  in  1881.  Among  his  works  are,  "Daniel 
in  the  Lions'  Den";  'TPersepolis";  "A  Roman 
Holiday";  "Giants  at  Play"-  "Actaeon"; 
"Vae  Victis";  "Rizpah";  "A  Mighty  Hunter 
Before  the  Lord";  ''Lady  Wantage";  "Dead 
Hector";  "King's  Libation";  "Beyond  Man's 
Footstep";  "Ganymede";  "Apollo";  "The 
Last  Arrow"-  "The  Temptation  in  the  Wildei^ 
ness";  "Lady  Tennyson  and  the  Poet's  Old 
Wolf  Hound";  "Ker^nina";  "St.  George  and 
The  Heron";  "To  the  Hills";  "Aphrodite," 
etc. 
Bixey,  Presley  Marlon,  surgeon-general  of  United 
States  navy,  was  bom  at  Culpeper,  Va.,  1862. 
He  was  graduated  in  medicine  at  the  university 
of  Virginia,  1873;  entered  United  States  navy 
as  assistant  surgeon,  1874,  and  was  made  sur- 
geon-general with  rank  of  rear-admiral.  1902. 
He  was  decorated  by  Alphonso  XIII.,  king  of 
Spain,  for  services  rendered  officers  and  men  on 
the  Santa  Maria  following  an  explosion  on  that 
vessel.  He  spent  eleven  years  at  sea,  and  on 
shore  was  attached  successively  to  the  naval 
hospital,  Philadelphia,  navy  yard,  Norfolk,  and 
naval  dispensary,  Washington.  He  was  official 
physician  to  President  McKinley  from  1898  to 
the  time  of  his  death,  and  thereafter  was  con- 
tinued as  physician  by  President  Roosevelt  in 
addition  to  his  official  duties.  Retired,  1910. 
Robbia  {roh'-byH),  Lucca  della,  Italian  sculptor, 
was  born  at  Florence,  about  14r00.  He  decorated 
the  campanile  of  the  cathedral  at  Florence; 
made  a  bronze  door  for  the  sacristy  of  the  same; 
and  was  famous  for  his  work  in  enameled  terra- 
cotta, since  known  as  "della  Robbia"  ware. 
Died,  1482. 
Robert  I.,  king  of  Scotland.  See  Bruce,  Bobert, 
Boberts,  Charles  George  Douglas,  Canadian  author, 
was  born  at  Douglas,  N.  B.,  Canada,  1860.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  university  of  New  Bruns- 
wick, 1879;  was  editor  of  the  Week,  Toronto, 
1883-84;  professor  of  English  and  French  litera- 
ture. King's  college,  Windsor,  N.  S.,  1885-87, 
professor  of  English  and  economics,  same,  1887- 
95;  associate  editor  of  the  Illustrated  American, 
in  New  York,  1897.  Author:  Orion  and  Other 
Poems;  In  Divers  Tones;  Ave — An  Ode  for  the 
Shelley  Centenary;  Songs  of  the  Common  Day;  The 
Book  of  the  Native;  New  York  Nocturnes;  The 
Book  of  the  Rose;  The  Canadians  of  Old;  Earth' » 
Enigmas;  The  Raid  from  Beausijour;  A  History 
of  Canada;  The  Forge  in  the  Forest;  Around  the 
Campfire;  Reube  Dare's  Shad  Boat;  A  Sister  to 
Evangeline;  Appleton's  Canadian  Guidebook;  By 
the  Marshes  of  Minos;  The  Heart  of  the  Ancient 
Wood.  The  Kindred  of  the  Wild:  Barbara  Ladd; 
The  Prisoner  of  Mademoiselle;  The  Little  Pecmle 
of  the  Sycamore;  The  Return  to  the  Trails;  Red 
Fox;  The  Heart  that  Knows;  In  the  Deep  of  the 
Snow;  The  Young  Acadian,  etc. 
Boberts,  Frederick  Sleigh,  baron  of  Kandahar  and 
Waterford,  distinguished  liritish  general,  wa» 
bom  at  Cawnpore.  India,  1832.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Eton  college,  at  Addiscombe,  and  at 
Sandhurst;  D.  C.  L.,  Oxford,  etc.;  LL.  D., 
Cambridge,  etc.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he 
joined  the  Bengal  artillery  and  served  through 
the  Indian  mutiny:  was  present  at  the  sieee 
and  capture  of  Delni,  where  he  was  wounded; 
was  at  the  relief  of  Lucknow,  and  in  the  battle 
of  Cawnpore  and  other  actions  of  the  period- 
For  his  heroism  he  received  the  Victoria  cross. 
In  1868  he  took  part  in  the  Abyssinian  war,  and 
was  made  a  C.  B.  In  the  Afghan  war  of  1878 
he  commanded  the  Kuram  field  force,   and  in 


954 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


this  affair  he  made  his  famous  march  from 
Kabul  to  Kandahar,  effecting  the  relief  of  the 
latter  place.  For  his  great  military  feat  in  this 
war  he  was  created  a  baronet,  and  earned  from 
his  soldiers  the  familiar  sobriquet  of  "Little 
Bobs"  or  Bobs  Bahadur.  In  1892  he  was  raised 
to  the  peerage,  having  meanwhile  served  in 
South  Africa  and  been  given  conmiand  of  the 
British  forces  in  India.  He  also  received  the 
thanks  of  both  houses  of  the  British  parliament. 
In  1895  he  was  made  field-marshal  and  com- 
mander of  the  forces  in  Ireland.  In  1899  he 
proceeded  to  South  Africa  to  take  supreme  com- 
mand during  the  Boer  war,  where  ne  invaded 
the  Orange  Free  State  and  the  Transvaal  and 
turned  the  fortunes  of  that  struggle  in  favor  of 
the  British.  In  the  autumn  of  1900  he  returned 
to  England  to  succeed  Lord  Wolseley  as  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  army,  retiring  in  1904. 
He  is  the  author  of  the  Rise  of  Wellington,  and 
Forty-one  Years  in  India. 

Roberts,  Morley,  English  novelist  and  ioumalist, 
was  born  in  London,  1857.  He  was  educated  st 
Owens  college,  served  before  the  mast,  on  Austra- 
lian sheefHruns,  on  Texan  ranches,  on  California 
railways,  and  British  Ck>lumbian  saw-mills,  and 
multiplied  his  experiences  in  the  South  seas,  the 
Transvaal,  Rhodesia,  and  Corsica.  Since 
1887  he  has  published  more  than  forty  works, 
mostly  novels,  including:  The  Purification  ojT 
Dolores  SUva;  The  Colossus;  A  Son  of  Empire; 
Immortal  Youth;  Lady  Pendope;  Captain 
Baalaam;  The  Idlers;  The  Prey  of  the  Strongest; 
The  Blue  Peter;  The  Flying  Cloud;  Lady  Anne; 
Captain  Spink,  etc. 

Robertson,  Frederick  William,  English  pulpit 
orator  and  writer,  was  bom  in  London,  1816. 
He  was  educated  for  the  army  at  Tours  and 
Edinburgh,  but  subsequently  studied  at  Oxford, 
1837—40,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  church. 
In  1842  he  was  settled  at  Cheltenham;  in  1847 
became  incumbent  of  Trinity  chapel,  Brighton, 
where  his  earnestness,  originaUty,  and  wide 
sympathy  arrested  attention,  but  provoked 
suspicion.  He  was  especially  devotea  to  the 
laboring  classes.  He  resigned  in  1853  because 
his  vicar  had  refused  to  confirm  his  nomination 
of  a  curate,  and  died  the  same  year.  His  Ser- 
mons were  pubUshed  complete  in  1870.  Another 
volume.  The  Human  Race,  etc.,  was  issued  in 
1880.  His  other  works  are :  Expository  Lectures 
on  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Corirxthians;  Lectures 
and  Addresses;  An  Analysis  of  "In  Memoriatn  "; 
and  Notes  on  Cenesis. 

Robertson,  William,  British  historian,  was  bom  in 
Borthwick,  Midlothian,  1721.  He  was  educated 
in  Edinburgh;  entered  the  church,  and  became 
minister  of  Gladsmuir.  He  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  general  assembly  of  the  church,  and 
became  leader  of  the  moderate  party.  He  was 
one  of  the  ministers  of  Greyfriars  church,  Edin- 
burgh, and  principal  of  the  university  from  1762. 
He  wrote  History  of  Scotland  During  the  Reigns 
of  Mary  and  James  VI.;  History  of  the  Reign  of 
th^  Emperor  Charles  V.;  and  History  of  America. 
He  died  near  Edinburgh  when  nearly  seventy-one 
years  old,  1793. 

Robespierre  {ro'-bes-py&r'),  Maximlllen  Marie  Isi- 
dore, noted  French  revolutionist,  was  bom  at 
r^ft'  ^'■f'^ce,  1758.  He  distinguished  himself 
at  the  college  of  his  native  place,  entered  the 
states-general  in  1789,  and  was  elected  a  deputy 
of  the  tiers-aat,  in  which  capacity  he  immediately 
repaired  to  Versailles.  It  was,  however,  as  a 
popular  leader  in  the  famous  Jacobin  club  that 
his  chief  activity  was  exerted;  and  in  this  field 
his  influence  became  immense.  After  the  death 
of  Mirabeau  his  importance  became  more  and 
more  recogmzed;  and  from  this  time  forward 
until  his  death  his  biography  is  in  effect  the 


history  of  the  revolution.  He  was  elected  to  the 
national  convention  as  head  of  the  Paris  deputies, 
and  as  recognized  chief  of  the  extreme  party  ha 
was  one  of  the  main  agents  in  procuring  the 
execution  of  the  king,  which  took  place  in  Decem- 
ber, 1792.  In  the  following  year  occurred  the 
final  struggle  with  the  Girondists,  who  had  twice 
before  attacked  him  with  a  view  to  compass  his 
destruction,  the  chief  men  among  whom  he 
now  triumphantly  sent  to  the  scaffold.  A  period 
of  terror  followed:  Marie  Antoinette  and  the 
infamous  duke  of  Orleans  were  the  first  victims; 
Pdtion,  Danton,  and  Camille  Dcsmoulins  were 
next  immolated,  on  a  suspicion  of  having  favored 
a  reactionary  (>olicy;  and  for  months,  under  the 
so-called  committee  of  public  safety,  Paris 
became  the  scene  of  an  indiscriminate  quasi- 
judicial  slaughter,  in  which  some  thousands  of 
lives  were  sacrificed.  With  these  enormous 
atrocities  the  name  of  Robespierre,  together  with 
those  of  his  friends,  Coutnon  and  St.  Just, 
remains  peculiarly  associated.  A  conspiracy  was 
organised  against  "the  tyrant,"  and  after  a  scene 
of  fierce  tumult  in  the  convention  his  arrest  was 
accomplished.  A  rescue  by  the  populace  fol- 
lowed, but  be  lacked  the  courage  and  prompti- 
tude to  turn  the  opportunity  to  account;  while 
he  hesitated  his  enemies  acted,  and  in  July,  1794, 
he  closed  his  career  on  the  sca^old. 

Robinson,  James  Harvey,  American  historian  and 
educator,  professor  of  history,  Columbia  univer- 
sity, since  1805,  was  bom  at  Bloomington,  III., 
1863.  He  was  gnwluated  at  Harvard,  1887; 
pursued  poet-eraduate  counea  at  Harvard  and 
in  Germany;  Ph.  D.,  Freiburg,  1890.  He  was 
lecturer  on  European  history,  university  of 
Pennsylvania,  1891 ;  associate  professor  1892-95. 
Columbia  university;  acting  dean,  Barnard 
college,  1900-01.  Author:  The  German  Bundes- 
rath;  Petrarch,  the  First  Modem  Scholar  and  Man 
of  Letters,  with  H.  W.  Rolfe;  Introduction  to  the 
Hiiiory  of  Western  Europe;  Readings  in  European 
History  (2  vols.);  The  Development  of  Modem 
Europe  (2  vols.);  and  a  number  of  articles  and 
historical  texts. 

Robinson,  William  CaUyhan,  American  educator 
and  legal  writer,  dean  of  law  school.  Catholic 
university  of  America,  1895-1911;  was  bom  at 
Norwich,  Conn.,  1834.  He  was  graduated  at 
Dartmouth  college,  1854 ;  graduated  in  divinity. 
General  Theological  seminary,  Protestant  Epis- 
copal church,  1857;  studied  law,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1864;  LL.  D.,  Dartmouth, 
1879;  M.  A..  Yale,  1881.  He  was  ordained  to 
the  Episcopal  ministrj',  1857,  in  New  York ;  was 
Episcopal  missionary,  Pittston,  Pa.,  1857-58,  and 
rector  of  St.  Luke's,  Scranton,  Pa.,  1859-62. 
He  practiced  law  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1865- 
95;  was  lecturer  and  professor  of  law,  Yale 
university,  1869-95;  judge  of  city  court.  New 
Haven^  Conn.,  1869-71 ;  judge  of  court  of  com- 
mon pleas.  New  Haven  county,  Conn.,  1874-76; 
member  of  the  legislature  of  Connecticut,  1874. 
Author:  Notes  of  Elementary  Law;  Elementary 
Law;  Clavis  Rerum;  Law  of  Patents;  Forensic 
Oratory;  Elements  of  American  Jurisprudence; 
and  has  contributed  various  articles  to  the 
Catholic  World,  and  Catholic  University  Bulletin. 
Edited  Mirror  of  Justices,  1903.     Died,  1911. 

Robson.  Eleanor  Ellse,  American  actress,  was  bom 
at  Wigan,  Lancashire,  England,  daughter  of 
Charles  Robson.  She  was  graduated  at  St. 
Peter's  academy,  Staten  island,  New  York,  1897, 
and  made  her  professional  d^but  at  California 
theater,  1897.  She  played  in  stock  companies 
in  San  Francisco,  Denver  and  Milwaukee,  1897- 
99;  was  a  great  success  as  Bonita  in  Arizona; 
created  r61e  of  Constance  in  In  a  Balcony,  Flossie 
Williams  in  Unleavened  Bread,  M'lle  de  la  Vire 
in  A  Gentleman  of  France,    Audrey   in   Audrey; 


THROUGHOUT  THE   WORLD 


955 


played  Juliet  to  the  Romeo  of  Kyrle  Bellew. 
1903 ;  starred  in  Merely  Mary  Ann,  1903-05,  and 
headed  an  "  all-star  "  cast  in  She  Stoops  to  Conqtter, 
at  the  New  Amsterdam  theater,  New  York,  1905. 
Early  in  1906  she  created  the  part  of  Sylvia 
Lang  in  Clyde  Fitch's  play,  The  Girl  Who  Haa 
Everything,  and  that  of  Susan  Gambett  in 
Jerome's  play,  Susan  in  Search  of  a  Husband. 
both  specially  written  for  her.  She  later  played 
in  repertoire  at  Liberty  theater.  New  York,  in- 
cluding Salomy  Jane,  and  other  successes.  She 
married  August  Belmont,  1910,  and  retired  from 
the  stage. 

Rochambeau  (rd'-shdN'-bd'),  Jean  Baptlste  Dona- 
tlen  de  Vimeur  Comte  de,  marshal  of  France, 
was  born  in  1725.  He  served  in  the  war  of  the 
Austrian  succession;  distinguished  himself  in 
the  Seven  Years'  war,  cooperated  with  Washing- 
ton at  the  siege  and  capture  of  Yorktown,  during 
the  American  war  of  independence.  In  1791  he 
became  commander  of  the  French  army  of  the 
north,  but  resigned  in  1792,  and  narrowly 
escaped  execution  during  the  reign  of  terror. 
Died,  1807. 

Rochefoucauld.  See  La  Rochefoucauld,  Francois, 
Due  de. 

Rockefeller,  John  Davison,  American  capitalist  and 
philanthropist,  was  born  at  Richford,  N.  Y., 
1839,  and  moved  to  Cleveland,  Ohio,  1853.  He 
received  a  pubUc  school  education;  was  clerk  in 
a  forwarding  and  commission  house,  and  at 
nineteen  a  partner  in  the  firm  of  Clark  and 
Rockefeller,  commission  merchants.  Subse- 
quently the  firm  became  Andrews,  Clark  and 
Company,  and  engaged  in  the  oil  business.  In 
1865  the  firm,  then  William  Rockefeller  and 
Company,  built  the  Standard  oil  works  at 
Cleveland,  and  this  was  consolidated  with  others 
in  the  Standard  oil  company,  1870.  Other 
interests  were  later  acquired  and  the  Standard 
oil  trust  was  formed,  1882,  but  dissolved,  1892, 
the  various  Standard  oil  companies  being  operated 
separately,  with  Rockefeller  at  the  head  until 
1911  when  he  retired.  He  has  given  a  total  of 
$43,000,000  to  the  general  education  board; 
over  $23,000,000  to  the  university  of  Chicago; 
a  $100,000  building,  3,000  volumes  on  Greek  art 
and  Uterature,  and  money  donations  to  Vassar; 
$1,375,000  to  Barnard  college;  $250,000  to 
American  Baptist  missionary  union  and  home 
missionary  society ;  $1,000,000  to  Yale;  endowed 
Rockefeller  institution  for  medical  research,  New 
York,  with  $1,825,000;  Southern  educational 
fund,  $1,126,000;  Harvard,  $1,000,000;  Teachers 
college,  $500,000,  and  made  numerous  other 
donations  to  colleges,  churches,  missions,  etc., 
making  a  total  of  more  than  $85,000,000  to 
philanthropies. 

Rockefeller,  John  Davison,  Jr.,  capitalist,  son  of 
preceding,  was  born  in  1874.  He  was  graduated 
at  Brown  university,  and  married,  in  1901,  Abby 
Green  Aldrich,  daughter  of  Nelson  W.  Aldrich, 
United  States  senator  from  Rhode  Island.  He 
is  associated  with  his  father  in  his  various  busi- 
ness enterprises^  He  devotes  much  time  to  relig- 
ious and  philanthropic  work. 

Rockefeller,  William,  capitalist,  brother  of  John 
Davison,  was  bom  at  Richford,  N.  Y.,  1841.  He 
was  educated  at  Owego,  N.  Y.,  and  Cleveland, 
Ohio;  was  bookkeeper  and  later  partner  in 
produce  conunission  trade;  [soon  after  joined 
his  brother,  John  Davison,  in  oil  business, 
and  from  1865  to  1911  was  at  the  head  of  the 
business  in  New  York.  He  was  president  of  the 
Standard  oil  company  of  New  York  until  1911; 
was  vice-president  and  director  of  Standard  oil 
company  of  New  Jersey;  trustee  of  Anaconda 
copp>er  mining  company,  Consolidated  gas  com- 
pany, United  States  trust  company,  and  numerous 
other  railroad,  industrial,  and  financial  coacems. 


Rodin  (r6'-ddn'),  Aususto,  French  sculptor  wu 
born  at  Paris,  1840.  He  studied  under  Barye, 
and  began  to  exhibit  in  the  salon  in  1875.  Ha 
has  produced  a  number  of  great  scriptural  and 
symbolical  groups,  including  "Eve,"  'Lea  Boux^ 
geois  de  Calais,  "Le  Porte  de  I'Enfer,"  "L« 
Guerre,"  "The  Kiss,"  "The  Age  of  Bronze,"  etc., 
but  is  best  known  by  his  nortrait  busts  and 
statues,  notably  the  bust  ana  the  monument  of 
Victor  Hugo.  Rodin  is  so  keen  a  realist  in 
execution  that  he  was  charged  with  having  cast 
his  "Age  of  Bronze"  upon  a  living  model.  He 
is  generally  acknowledged  to  be  the  greatest  of 
living  sculptors. 

Rodney,  George  Brydges,  Lord,  English  admiral, 
was  bom  in  1719.  In  1759,  after  twenty-eight 
years  of  active  service,  he  was  made  rear  admiral. 
In  1761  he  took  Martinique,  Grenada,  and  Santa 
Lucia.  In  1762  he  became  vice  admiral,  and  in 
1764  was  made  a  baronet.  During  the  Seven 
Years'  war  he  accomplished  the  relief  of  Gib- 
raltar and  Minorca;  defeated,  near  Martinique, 
the  French  fleet,  under  Count  de  Guichen;  took 
Eustatia  from  the  Dutch,  with  250  ships  and 
other  booty,  estimated  at  three  millions  sterling; 
captured  Demerara  and  Essequibo,  and  encoun- 
tered the  French  fleet,  under  De  Grasse,  oflf 
Dominica,  in  April,  1782.  De  Grasse  was  totally 
defeated.  Rodney's  victory  saved  Jamaica, 
ruined  the  naval  power  of  France  and  Spain, 
and  gave  the  finishing  blow  to  the  war.  He  was 
elevated  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Rodney,  and 
received  a  pension  of  2,000  pounds  per  annum 
for  himself  and  his  successors.     Died,  1792. 

Roebling  (roh'-lKng),  John  Augustus,  American  civil 
engineer,  was  bom  in  Miihlhausen,  Prussia,  1806. 
He  emigrated  to  the  United  States  in  1831,  and 
in  course  of  years  became  the  designer  and  con- 
structor of  many  great  public  works,  among  them 
the  canal  aqueduct  across  the  Allegheny  river, 
and  the  Monongahela  suspension  bridge,  both  at 
Pittsburgh;  the  suspension  bridge  at  Niagara; 
the  Ohio  bridge  at  Cincinnati,  etc.  He  died  in 
1869,  having  just  before  projected  the  bridge 
over  the  East  river,  to  connect  the  cities  of  New 
York  and  Brooklyn,  completed  by  his  son  and 
opened  to  travel  in  1883. 

Roebling,  Washington  Augustus,  American  engi- 
neer, was  born  at  Saxonburg,  Pa.,  1837.  He 
was  graduated  as  civil  engineer  at  Rensselaer 
polytechnic  institute,  1857;  joined  his  father 
in  construction  of  Pittsburgh  suspension  bridge 
across  Allegheny  river.  Served  in  union  army, 
1861-65,  from  private  to  brevet  colonel;  re- 
signed in  1865  to  assist  his  father  in  building 
the  Cincinnati  and  Covington  suspension  bridge. 
The  Brooklyn  bridge  was  undertaken  by  the 
father,  but  his  death  in  1869  left  the  entire 
construction  to  his  son,  who  directed  it  to 
completion.  He  was  president  and  director  of 
the  John  A.  Roebling's  Sons  company,  manufac- 
turers of  iron  and  steel  wire  and  wire  rope, 
Trenton,  N.  J.  Author:  Military  Suspension 
Bridge,  etc.  Lost  his  life  on  board  the  ul-fated 
Titanic,   1912. 

Roentgen  (rUnf-gin),  Wilhelm  Konrad,  eminent 
German  scientist,  distinguished  investigator  of 
physical  problems,  and  discoverer  of  the  "X" 
or  Roentgen  rays^  was  bom  in  the  province  of 
Diisseldorf.  Prussia,  1845.  He  was  educated  at 
Ziirich  and  Utrecht ;  became  professor  of  physics 
and  director  of  the  laboratory  at  the  university 
of  Wiirzburg,  Bavaria.  He  also  taught  at 
Strassburg,  and  at  Giessen.  In  December,  1895, 
he  communicated  to  the  Wiirzburg  physico- 
medical  society  his  remarkable  discovery  of  the 
new  and  powerful  "X-rays,"  since  known  by  his 
name,  and  in  the  following  month  he  described 
his  discovery  at  the  celebration  of  the  semJ- 
centennial  of  the  founding  of  the  Berlin  physicsJ 


966 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


eociety.  Later  he  demonstrated  the  rays  in  the 
presence  of  the  emperor  of  Germany,  who  deco- 
rated him,  and  Prince  Ludwig  of  Havana  created 
him  a  baron.  In  1901  he  received  the  Nobel 
prize  for  physics.  ,  r 

Rogers,  Henry  Wade,  American  educator,  dean  of 
the  law  department  of  Yale  university  since 
1903,  was  born  at  Holland  Patent,  N.  Y.,  1853. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  university  of  Michigan, 
1874;  LL.  D.,  Wesleyan  university,  Conn.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  1877 ;  was  professor  of 
law,  university  of  Michigan,  1883-90;  dean  of 
same,  1885-1900;  president  of  Northwestern  uni- 
versity, 1890-1900,  and  professor  of  law  at  Yale 
since  1901.  He  was  chairman  of  the  World's 
congress  on  jurisprudence  and  law  reform, 
World's  Columbian  exposition,  Chicago,  1893; 
general  chairman  of  Saratoga  conference  on  the 
foreign  policy  of  the  United  States,  1898;  presi- 
dent of  the  association  of  American  law  schools, 
1906,  and  chairman  of  the  American  bar  asso- 
ciation's committee  on  legal  education  and 
admission  to  the  bar  since  1906.  Author: 
lUiruris  Citations;  Expert  Testimony.  Joint 
author:  Two  Centuries  of  American  Law;  and 
numerous  articles  for  law  journals  and  reviews. 
Rogers,  Randolph,  American  sculptor,  was  bom  at 
Waterloo,  N,  Y.,  1825.  After  following  mer- 
cantile pursuits  for  a  number  of  years  in  early 
life,  he  went  to  Rome  to  study  the  sculptor's  art. 
Among  the  works  for  which  he  is  distinguished 
are  the  designs  for  the  Washington  monument 
at  Richmond,  Va.,  a  statue  of  John  Adams  in 
Mt.  Auburn  cemetery,  a  memorial  monument  for 
the  state  of  Rhode  Island  at  Providence,  and  a 
still  larger  one  for  the  state  of  Michigan  at 
Detroit,  and  the  bronze  statue  of  Abraham 
Lincoln  at  Philadelphia.  He  also  designed  and 
partially  executed  the  bronze  doors  in  the  capitol 
at  Washington.  Died  at  Rome,  1892. 
Rohlfs  (rolfs),  Anna  Katharine  Green.     See  Green, 

Anna  Katharine. 
Roland    (ro'-laN'),    Marie    Jeanne,    wife    of    Jean 
Marie  Roland  de  la  Plati^re,  daughter  of  Pierre 
Gratien   Philipon,   was   born    at    Paris,    France, 
1754.     She    delighted    in    scientific    and    philo- 
sophic studies,  and  from  1791  to  1793  her  salon 
in  Paris  was  the  headquarters  of  the  republicans 
and  Girondists,  preceding  and  during  the  French 
revolution.     Her   husband  was   obliged    to   flee 
from  Paris,  May  31,   1793,  and  the  same  night 
she  was  arrested  and  imprisoned  in  the  Abbaye. 
A    more    dauntless    and    intrepid    spirit    never 
entered  its  walls.     Summoned  before  the  revo- 
lutionary tribunal  in  the  beginning  of  Novem- 
ber, she  was  condemned,   and  on  the  9th  was 
guillotined  amid  the  shoutings  of  an  insensate 
mob.     It    is   said    that   while    standing   on    the 
scaffold  she  asked  for  a  pen  and  paper  that  she 
might  "write  down  the  strange  thoughts  that 
were  passing  through  her  head."     Only  a  genuine 
child  of  the  French  republic  could  have  been  so 
ostentatiously   speculative   at   such   a   moment. 
Still  more  celebrated  is  her  apostrophe  to  the 
statue    of    Liberty,    at    the    foot    of   which    the 
scaffold  was  erected:    "O  Liberty,  what  crimes 
are  committed  in  thy  name!" 
Rollin   (ro'-Z^N'),   Charles,   French  historian,  was 
born  at  Paris,  1661.     He  studied  at  the  college 
of   Duplessis;     acquired    there    a   knowledge   of 
languages  and  philosophy,  and  studied  theology 
for  three  years  at  the  Sorbonne.     Between  1683 
^?M  ^^^^  ^^  ^^'^  *^^  chairs  of  languages  and 
philosophy,  and  studied  theology  for  three  years 
at  the  Sorbonne.     Between   1683   and   1693   he 
tilled  the  chairs  of  rhetoric  and  of  eloquence  at 
\    lan}^^^  °^  Duplessis  and  the  royal  college. 
Jn  1694  he  was  appointed  rector  of  the  university 
of    Pans  and,  in  1696,  coadjutor  of  the  college 
of  Beauvais;    but  was  at  length  driven  from  it 


by  the  intrigues  of  the  Jesuits.  Thenceforth  he 
gave  his  time  wholly  to  literature.  His  principal 
works  are:  Ancient  History,  Roman  History,  and 
Treatise  on  the  Mode  of  Studying.     Died,  1741. 

Romanes  {ro-miX'-n£s),  George  John,  naturalist,  was 
born  at  Kingston,  Canada,  1848,  and  was  grad- 
uated in  1870  from  CaiuB  college,  Cainbndge, 
While  still  at  the  university  he  formed  a  friend- 
ship with  Darwin,  and  he  powerfully  reinforced 
his  master's  argument«  in  his  Croonian,  Fullerian, 
and  other  lectures.  He  wrote:  Animal  Intelli- 
gence; Scientific  Evidences  of  Organic  Evolution; 
Mental  Evolution  in  Anirruds;  Jelly-fish,  Star- 
fish, and  Sea~uTchins-  Mental  Evolution  in  Man, 
etc.  He  wa«  elected  an  F.  R.  8.  in  1879,  later 
removed  in  1890  to  Oxford,  and  died  there  in 
1894.  Originally  a  defiant  agnostic  or  sceptic, 
he  was  latterly  a  devout,  if  not  wholly  orthodox. 
Christian.  Posthumous  works  by  him  were 
Thoughts  on  Religion;  Mind  and  Monism;  Darwin 
and  after  Darwin;   and  selections  from  his  Poems. 

Romllly  (rdm'-Wl),  Sir  Samuel,  English  lawyer  and 
law  reformer,  wan  born  in  London  in  1757.  At 
twenty-one  he  entered  Gray's  Inn,  and  found  his 
chief  employment  in  chancery  practice.  In 
1790  he  published  an  able  pamphlet  on  the 
French  revolution;  appointed  aolicitor-eeneral  of 
England  in  1806.  He  devoted  himself  to  miti- 
gating the  severity  of  the  criminal  law.  His  bills 
were  session  after  session  rejected,  but  he  never- 
theless persevered;  shared  in  the  anti-slavery 
agitation,  and  opposed  the  suspension  of  the 
habeas  corpus  act  and  the  spy  system.  His  wife 
died  October  29,  1818,  and  the  shock  so  preyed 
upon  his  mind  that,  on  November  2d,  he  cut 
his  throat. 

Romney  (riim'-nO,  George,  English  painter,  vaa 
bom  at  Dalton,  in  Lancashire,  1734.  After 
receiving  some  lessons  from  a  country  artist,  he 
studied  art  in  London  in  1762;  visited  France  in 
1764,  and  Italy,  1773-75;  and  on  his  return  to 
England  became  the  rival  of  Reynolds  as  a 
portrait  painter.  He  also  gained  custinction  as 
a  painter  of  historical  pictures,  and  assisted  in 
preparing  the  Bovdell  Shakespeare  gallery. 
Died  at  Kendal,  1802. 

Ronsard  (r<5N'-«dr'),  Pierre  de,  French  poet,  was 
bom  at  the  Ch&teau  de  la  Poissonni^re  in  Ven- 
dAme,  1524,  served  the  dauphin  and  the  due' 
d'Orleans,  and  accompanied  James  V.  with  his 
bride,  Marie  de  Lorraine,  to  Scotland,  where  he 
stayed  three  years.  Becoming  deaf,  he  aban- 
doned arms  for  letters,  and  at'the  College  Coqueret 
studied  with  Du  Bellay  and  other  members  of 
the  famous  Pldiade.  His  seven  years  of  study 
bore  its  first  fruit  in  his  Odes,  1550,  which  excited 
violent  opposition  from  the  older  national  school. 
In  1552  appeared  his  Amours  and  the  fifth  book 
of  his  Odes,  his  Hymns  in  1555,  the  conclusion  of 
the  Amours  in  1556,  in  1560,  Complete  Works, 
and  in  1572,  twenty  days  after  the  massacre  of 
St.  Bartholomew,  La  Franciade,  a  fragment  of  an 
epic.  Charles  IX.,  like  his  predecessors,  heaped 
favors  upon  the  lucky  poet,  who  s{>ent  his  later 
vears  in  lettered  ease  at  the  abbey  of  Croix-Val 
In  Vend6me.  He  died  at  his  priory  of  St.  Cosme 
at  Tours,  in  1585. 

Roosa,  Daniel  Bennett  Si.  John.  American  physi- 
cian, was  bom  at  Bethel,  N.  Y.,  1838.  He  was 
graduated,  M.  D.,  university  medical  college. 
New  York,  1860,  after  an  academic  education  in 
Boston  and  New  York;  M.  A.,  Yale;  LL.  D., 
university  of  Vermont.  He  was  assistant  sur- 
geon of  5th  New  York  volunteers,  among  the 
three  months'  troops  called  out  by  President 
Lincoln;  professor  in  the  university  of  the  city 
of  New  York,  and  university  of  Vermont;  was 
president  of  the  New  York  post-graduate  medical 
school  and  professor  of  diseases  of  the  eve  and 
ear.     Author:      The    Old    Hospital    and'  Other 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


WT 


Papers;  A  Pocket  Medical  Lexicon;  Treaiiae  on 
the  Ear;  Treatise  on  the  Eye;  A  Doctor's  Sugges- 
tions; On  the  Necessity  of  Wearing  Glasses; 
Defective  Eye-Sight;  The  Ear,  Nose  and  Pharynx, 
with  Dr.  Beaman  Douglass,  etc.  Died,  1908. 
Roosevelt  [roz'-vUt),  Theodore,  American  soldier, 
writer,  statesman,  twentv-sixth  president  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  New  York  city,  1868, 
son  of  Theodore  and  Martha  (Bullock)  Roosevelt. 
Though  physically  delicate  in  youth,  he  entered 
Harvard  university  at  eighteen,  and  was  grad- 
uated in  1880;  LL.  D.,  Harvard,  Yale,  etc. 
The  year  following  he  began  the  study  of  law, 
but  in  the  same  year  was  elected  to  the  New 
York  legislature.  He  was  twice  reelected,  and 
became  the  candidate  of  the  minority  party  for 
speaker  in  the  second  term.  In  1884  he  was 
chosen  a  delegate  to  the  republican  national 
convention  and  later  in  the  year  went  to  North 
Dakota,  where  he  spent  two  years  on  a  ranch, 
raising  cattle.  In  1886  he  was  the  unsuccessful 
candidate  for  maj'or  of  New  York.  President 
Harrison  appointed  him  a  member  of  the  United 
States  civil  service  commission  in  1889,  in  which 
capacity  he  served  until  1895,  when  he  resigned 
to  accept  the  presidency  of  the  police  commission 
of  New  York  city,  under  Mayor  Strong.  Presi- 
dent McKinley  appointed  him  assistant  secretary 
of  the  navy  in  April,  1897,  and  upon  the  out- 
break of  the  Spanish-American  war,  in  1898,  he 
resigned  the  post  to  assist  in  organizing  the  1st 
United  States  volunteer  cavalry,  afterward  known 
as  Roosevelt's  rough  riders,  of  which  he  became 
lieutenant-colonel,  and  later  colonel,  for  gallantry 
in  the  battles  of  Las  Guasimas  and  San  Juan 
Cuba.  In  Septerhber,  1898,  he  was  mustered 
out,  with  his  regiment,  at  Montauk,  L.  I.  Shortly 
following  he  was  nominated  for  governor  of  New 
York,  and  elected  November,  1898.  Two  years 
later  he  was  unanimously  nominated  for  vice- 
president  of  the  United  States  by  the  republican 
national  convention,  at  Philadelphia,  and  elected. 
He  succeeded  to  the  presidency  September  14, 
1901,  upon  the  death  of  President  McKinley,  and 
at  the  close  of  the  term  was  unanimously  nomi- 
nated by  his  party  to  succeed  himself,  and  elected 
for  the'  term  1905-09.  His  efforts  in  bringing 
about  the  treaty  of  peace  between  Japan  and 
Russia  in  1905  were  important  and  effective; 
and,  in  1906,  he  was  awarded  the  Nobel  peace 
prize  of  $40,000,  with  which  he  endowed  the 
foundation  for  the  promotion  of  industrial  peace. 
He  is  an  enthusiastic  hunter  of  big  game,  and  after 
his  retirement  from  the  presidency  on  March  4, 

1909,  he  led  an  expedition  to  East  Africa  for  the 
Smithsonian  and  national  museums  at  Washing- 
ton. In  1910  he  returned  through  Europe,  enjoy- 
ing a  magnificent  triumph.  After  a  strenuous 
campaign  in  favor  of  republican   candidates  in 

1910,  he  retired  to  private  life  and  editorial  work 
on  The  Outlook.  In  1912  he  was  presidential 
candidate  of  the  progressive  party  which  he  had 
organized.  During  the  campaign  he  was  shot  at 
Milwaukee,  but  was  not  fatally  wounded.  He 
has  long  been  an  advocate  of  administrative, 
political,  and  sbcial  reforms,  and  has  contributed 
widely  to  periodicals  and  general  literature. 
Among  his  important  publications  are :  The  Win- 
ning of  the  West;  History  of  the  Naval  War  o/1812; 
Hunting  Trips  of  a  Ranchman;  Life  of  Thomas 
Hart  Benton;  Life  of  Gouvemeur  Morris;  Ranch 
Life  and  Hunting  Trail;  History  of  New  York; 
American  Ideals  and  Other  Essays;  The  Wilderness 
Hunter;  The  Rough  Riders;  Life  of  Oliver  Crom- 
well; The  Strenuous  Life.  Part  author:  Hero 
Tales  from  American  History;  The  Deer  Family; 
Outdoor  Pastimes  of  an  American  Hunter;  African 
Game  Trails. 

Root  (r<JoO»  Elihu,  American  statesman  and  lawyer, 
was  bom  in  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  1845.     He  was  grad- 


uated at  Hamilton  college  in  1864;  taught  at 
Rome  academy,  1865;  was  graduated  at  the  law 
school  of  Now  York  university,  1867;  LL.  I)., 
Hanailton,  1894,  Yale,  1900,  Columbia,  1904, 
New  York,  1904,  Williams,  1905,  Princeton,  IWKJ, 
university  of  Buenos  Ayres,  1906,  Harvard,  1907. 
He  was  appointed  by  "President  Arthur  United 
States  attorney  for  the  southern  district  of  New 
York,  1883-85;  waa  a  delegate-at-large  to  the 
state  constitutional  convention,  1894,  and  chair- 
man of  the  judiciary  committee.  On  August  1, 
1899,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  war  by 
President  McKinley,  and  on  March  6,  1901,  was 
reappointed.  After  the  Spanish-American  war, 
he  represented  the  United  States  government  in 
all  official  communications  with  Cuba,  Porto 
Rico,  and  the  Philippine  islands.  In  August, 
1903,  he  resigned  the  office  of  secretary  of  war, 
his  resignation  to  take  effect  in  January,  1904; 
during  1903  he  was  a  member  of  the  Alaskan 
boundary  tribunal.  In  1905  President  Roosevelt 
appointed  him  secretary  of  state,  and  while  dis- 
charging the  duties  of  that  office  he  did  much  to 
unify  the  Pan-American  countries.  In  1907  he 
visited  Mexico  in  the  interest  of  a  closer  relation- 
ship between  that  country  and  the  United  Statt^s. 
In  1908  he  was  elected  United  States  senator 
from  New  York  for  the  term  1909-15.  In  the 
practice  of  his  profession.  Root  was  probably 
the  ablest  lawyer  before  the  American  bar. 

Root,  George  Frederick,  American  musical  com- 
poser, was  born  at  Sheffield,  Mass.,  1820.  After 
studying  music  a  year  in  Paris,  he  returned  to 
write  numerous  popular  songs,  amongwhich  are : 
"  Music  in  the  Air  ;  "  Battle  Cry  of  Freedom  " ; 
"  Just  Before  the  Battle,  Mother "  ;  "  Tramp, 
Tramp,  Tramp,  the  Boys  are  Marching."  He 
also  produced  a  Te  Deum,  and  other  more 
pretentious  pieces,  and  received  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  music  from  Chicago  university  in  1872. 
He  died  in  1895. 

Rosa  (ro'-zd),  Salvator,  Italian  painter,  was  bom  at 
Arenella  near  Naples,  1615.  He  spent  most  of 
his  youth  wandering  among  the  wild  scenery  of 
southern  Italy  and  copying  from  nature,  but 
went  to  Rome  in  1635.  He  leaped  into  fame 
with  a  picture,  "Titjyus  Tortured  by  the  Vul- 
ture." At  Rome  his  social  talents  and  his 
princely  generosity  rendered  him  a  great  favorite. 
But  he  made  powerful  enemies  by  his  satires,  and 
withdrew  to  Florence  for  nine  years.  He  then 
returned  to  Rome,  and  died  in  1673.  Salvator 
owes  his  reputation  mainly  to  his  landscapes  of 
wild  and  savage  scenes,  though  his  masterpiece 
is  considered  to  be  the  "Conspiracy  of  Cati- 
line." 

Rosas  (ro'-sas),  Juan  Manuel  de,  Argentine  dic- 
tator, was  born  in  Buenos  Ayres,  in  1793.  He 
became  commander-in-chief  in  1826,  and  was 
governor  of  the  province  in  1829-32.  From  1835 
to  1852  he  governed  as  dictator.  Refugees  found 
an  asylum  in  Uruguay,  where  Rosas  supported 
his  partisan.  General  Oribe.  After  Oribe's  fall 
Rosas,  in  1839,  invaded  Uruguay,  but  was  de- 
feated; in  1843  he  sent  Oribe  back  to  attack 
Montevideo.  The  siege  which  followed  led  to 
the  intervention  of  England  and  France  and  the 
blockade  of  Buenos  Ayres,  1845-47.  In  1849 
Rosas  secured  for  Buenos  Ayres  the  entire  navi- 
gation of  the  Platte,  the  Uruguay,  and  the  Parana. 
This  roused  the  other  river  provinces,  and  in 
1851  Urquiza,  governor  of  Entre  Rios,  sup)- 
ported  by  Brazil,  defeated  Oribe  in  Uruguay, 
then  marched  against  Rosas,  and  in  February, 
1852,  routed  him  at  Monte  Caserop,  near  Buenos 
Ayres.     Rosas  died  in  England,  1877. 

Roscoe,  Sir  Henry  Enfield,  noted  English  chemist, 
was  bom  at  London,  1833.  He  was  graduatea 
at  University  college,  London,  and  received  hia 
Ph.   D.  from  Heidelberg  university,   1853.     He 


958 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


was  professor  of  chemistry  at  Owens  college, 
Manchester,  1857-87;  member  of  parliament  for 
Manchester,  1885-95;  royal  medallist,  1874,  for 
researches  on  the  chemical  action  of  light,  and 
on  the  metal  vanadium ;  president  of  the  society 
of  chemical  industry,  1881;  president  of  the 
chemical  society,  1882;  vice-chancellor  of  the 
university  of  London,  1896-1902;  officer  of  the 
legion  of  honor;  correspondent  of  the  academy 
of  sciences,  France,  etc.  Author:  Lessons  in 
Elementary  Chemistry;  Treatise  on  Chemistry; 
Primer  of  Chemistry;  New  View  of  the  Genesis 
of  the  Atomic  Tfieory  of  Chemistry,  etc. 

Bose,  John  Holland,  EngUsh  educator  and  his- 
torian, was  born  at  Bedford,  1855.  He  was 
educated  at  Owens  college,  Manchester,  and  at 
Christ's  college,  Cambridge;  Litt.  D.,  Cambridge. 
For  many  years  he  was  lecturer  on  modem 
history  to  the  Cambridge  university  local  lec- 
tures syndicate,  and  to  the  London  university's 
board  for  the  extension  of  university  teaching. 
Author:  A  Century  of  Continental  History;  The 
Revolutionary  and  Napoleonic  Era;  The  ttise  of 
Dem,ocracy;  The  Life  of  Napoleon  I.;  an  edition 
of  Carlyle's  French  Revolution  with  critical  and 
explanatory  notes;  chapters  in  the  Cambridge 
Modern  History;  Napoleonic  Studies;  Despatches 
Relating  to  the  Third  Coalition;  The  Development 
of  the  European  Nations,  etc.;  and  numerous 
articles  in  the  English  Historical  Review,  MorUtdy 
Review,  etc. 

Bosebery,  Archibald  Philip  Primrose,  fifth  Earl  of, 
was  bom  in  1847.  He  was  graduated  from 
Oxford;  was  rector  of  Aberdeen  university, 
1878-81,  of  Edinburgh  university,  1882-83: 
under-secretary  for  home  affairs,  1881-83;  lord 
privy  seal,  1885;  chief  commissioner  of  works, 
1885;  secretary  for  foreign  affairs,  1886  and 
1892-94;  chairman  of  London  county  council, 
1889-90  and  1892-  prime  minister  and  lord 
president  of  council,  1894-95,  and  lord  rector  of 
Glasgow  university,  1899.  He  retired  from  the 
leadership  of  the  liberal  party,  1896,  and  since 
then  has  been  prominent  on  several  important 
occasions,  notably  during  the  Fashoda  cnsis  and 
the  Transvaal  negotiations,  in  both  of  which 
he  supported  Lord  Salisbury;  and  has  delivered 
many  notable  speeches  on  literary  and  social 
subjects.  Author:  Appreciations  and  Addresses; 
Sir  Robert  Peel;  Napoleon;  The  Last  Phase; 
Oliver  Cromwell,  etc. 

Bosecrans,  William  Starke,  American  general,  was 
born  at  Kingston,  Ohio,  1819.  He  was  trained 
as  an  engineer,  and  had  settled  down  to  coal- 
mining when  the  civil  war  broke  out;  joined  the 
army  in  1861;  highly  distinguished  himself 
during  the  campaigns  of  1862-63,  winning 
battles  at  luka,  Corinth,  and  Stone  river;  but 
being  defeated  at  Chickamauga,  he  lost  his 
command.  He  was  reinstated  in  1864,  and 
drove  Price  out  of  Missouri.  He  was  afterward 
minister  to  Mexico,  a  member  of  congress,  and, 
1885-93,  registrar  of  the  United  States  treasury. 
He  died  near  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  1898. 

Boss,  James  Clark,  English  Arctic  and  Antarctic 
explorer,  was  born  in  1800.  He  made  five  suc- 
cessive voyages  to  the  Arctic  regions,  made  him- 
self famous  by  his  sledge  journeys,  and  deter- 
mmed  the  position  of  the  north  magnetic  pole, 
1831.  From  1839  to  1843  he  commanded  the 
Antarctic  expedition  of  the  Erebus  and  the 
Terror,  reached  latitude  78°  10'  south,  and 
discovered  Victoria  Land  and  two  volcanoes, 
'^  1  o  ^  A  '^^'^ed  after  his  ships.  He  was  knighted 
in  1844,  comnianded  an  expedition  in  search  of 
bir  John  Frankhn  in  1848,  and  was  made  rear- 
admiral  in  1856.     Died,  1862 

Boss,  George  WUUam,  Canadian  educator,  was 
bom  near  Nairn,  Middlesex  county,  Ontario  1841 
He  was  educated  at  the  normal  school,  Tmonto 


and  at  the  law  department  of  the  Albert  univer- 
sity. LL.  B.,  1883;  LL.  D.,  St.  Andrews,  Scot- 
land, Toronto,  Victoria,  McMaster,  and  Queen's 
universities.  Ue  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1887;  was  member  of  parliament  for  West 
Middlesex,  1872-74-78-82;  minister  of  educa- 
tion, 1883-99;  premier  and  treasurer  of  the 
province  of  Ontario,  1899-1905,  and  a  member 
of  the  senate  of  Canada  since  1907.  He  has 
edited  the  Strathroy  Age,  the  Huron  Expositor, 
and  the  Ontario  Teacher.  F.  R.  S.,  Canada. 
Author:  The  Life  and  Times  of  t/ie  Hon.  Alex. 
Mackenzie;  The  Universities  of  Canada,  Their 
History  arid  Origin,  etc. 

BossettI  (rd-sW-e),  Dante  Gabriel,  British  painter 
and  poet,  was  bom  in  London  in  1828.  His 
name  was  first  brought  prominently  forward  by 
his  association  with  Millais  and  Uohiian  Hunt  in 
the  pre-Iiaphaelite  brotherhood.  His  chief  paint- 
ings include:  "Girlhood  of  Marj',  Virgin"; 
"Boat  of  Love";  "Dante's  Dream";  "Proser- 
pina," etc.  As  an  author  he  is  well  known  by 
nis  Early  Italian  Poets,  Ballads  and  Sonnets,  The 
Blessed  Damotel,  etc.  He  played  a  distinguished 
part  in  the  resuscitation  of  Gotliic  art  in  England. 
Died,  1882. 

Bossinl  (rOs-ai'-nl),  Gloacchino  Antonio,  celebrated 
Italian  composer,  was  bum  at  Pesuro,  Italy, 
1792.  He  was  the  son  of  a  strolling  musician, 
and  at  twelve  years  of  age  sans  in  tlie  churches 
of  Bologna,  where  he  attracted  so  much  atten- 
tion that  he  was  sent,  when  fifteen,  to  the  lyceum 
at  Bologna,  to  aoauJre  a  knowledge  of  his  art. 
When  little  more  tnan  twenty-one,  he  produced 
his  opera  of  Tancrcdi,  which  was  performed  for 
the  first  time  in  Venice.  Three  years  later  he 
produced  II  Barbiire  di  Seviglia,  "The  Barber  of 
Seville";  and  this  was  followed  by  La  Ceneren- 
tola;  Otdlo;  Mosi  in  Egitto'  La  Donna  del  Logo; 
Semiramide;  GuHlaume  Tell,  his  last  opera,  ana 
several  other  works.  After  Guillaume  Tell, 
which  appeared  in  1829,  he  published  only  his 
Stabat  Mater.  His  last  years  were  spent  in 
Paris,  where  he  had  been  formerly  for  some 
time,  until  1830,  director  of  the  Italian  opera. 
He  died  in  1868. 

Bostand  irda'-tAK')^  Edmond,  French  noet  and 
dramatist,  member  of  the  Acaddmie  FranQaise 
since  1901,  was  bom  at  Marseilles,  1868.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Lyc<£e  de  Marseilles,  and  at 
the  College  Stanlslara.  Early  in  his  career  he 
settled  in  Paris  and  began  to  write  verse.  His 
first  successful  drama  was  Les  Romanesques, 
which  was  produced  in  1894.  It  was  followed 
by  La  Prtncesse  Lointaine;  La  Samaritaine; 
Cyrano  de  Bergerac;  L'Ai^on,  etc.  His  poetical 
works  include:  Les  Musardises;  Pour  la  Grice; 
Un  Soir  d  Hemani;  Les  Mots,  etc.  He  is  one 
of  the  ablest  of  modem  dramatists. 

Bothschild  (rdths' -child'),  the  name  of  a  celebrated 
Jewish  family  of  bankers  and  financiers.  The 
founder  of  the  family,  Mayer  Anselm,  named 
from  his  father's  signboard,  the  "Red  Shield," 
was  bom  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  1743.  He 
was  educated  for  a  Jewish  rabbi,  but  founded  a 
business  as  a  money-lender  and  became  the 
financial  adviser  of  the  landgrave  of  Hesse. 
The  house  got  a  heavy  commission  for  trans- 
mitting money  from  the  English  government  to 
Wellington  in  Spain,  paid  the  British  subsidies 
to  continental  princes,  and  negotiated  loans  for 
Denmark  between  1804  and  1812.  At  his  death, 
in  1812,  the  founder  left  five  sons,  all  of  whom 
were  made  barons  of  the  Austrian  empire  in 
1822.  Mayer  Ansehn  1773-1855,  eldest  son, 
succeeded  as  head  of  the  firm  at  Frankfort. 
Salomon,  1774-1855,  established  a  branch  at 
Vienna;  Nathan,  1777-1836,  one  in  1803  at 
London;  Karl,  1788-1855,  one  at  Naples,  which 
was  discontinued  about   1861;    and  Jacob,   or 


».  •  •  • 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


961 


James,  1792-1868,  one  at  Paria  They  nego- 
tiated many  of  the  great  government  loans  of 
Europe  in  the  nineteenth  century,  and  Nathan 
raisca  the  house  to  be  first  among  the  banking- 
houses  of  the  world.  He  staked  his  fortunes  on 
the  success  of  Great  Britain  in  her  duel  with 
Napoleon,  and,  receiving  the  first  news  of 
Waterloo,  bought  and  sold  stock  which  brought 
him  a  million  pounds  profit.  His  son  Lionel. 
1808-79,  did  much  for  the  civil  and  political 
emancipation  of  the  Jews  in  Great  Britain. 
Lionel's  son,  Nathan,  born  in  1840,  succeeded 
to  the  baronetcy  conferred  in  1847  on  his  uncle 
Anthony,  and  was  made  Baron  Rothschild  in 
1885.  His  niece  Hannah,  1851-90,  in  1878 
married  the  earl  of  Rcsebery. 

Bouget  de  Lisle  {roo'-zhH'  de  lei'),  Claude  Joseph, 
French  soldier  and  poet,  was  born  at  Lons-le- 
Saunier,  France,  1760,  and  wrote  the  Marseillaise 
when  stationed  in  1792  as  captain  of  engineers 
at  Strassburg.  He  was  a  royalist,  and  refused 
to  take  the  oath  of  the  constitution  abolishing 
the  crown ;  consequently  he  was  stripped  of  his 
rank  and  imprisoned.  He  was  released  after  the 
death  of  Robespierre,  and  rejoined  the  army. 
Wounded  at  Quiberon,  1795,  he  quitted  the 
army,  and  lived  poorly  in  Paris  until  Louis 
Philippe  in  1830  awarded  him  a  small  pension. 
In  1796  he  published  a  volume  of  Essais  en  Vers 
et  en  Prose.  The  Marseillaise,  by  its  author 
called  Chant  de  VArmee  du  Rhin,  was  made  known 
in  Paris  by  troops  from  Marseilles.  He  died  at 
Choisy-le-Roi,  near  Paris,  1836. 

Bousseau  (roo'-so'),  Jean  Jacques,  French  philoso- 
pher and  prose  writer,  was  born  in  1712,  son  of 
a  watchmaker  at  Geneva.  He  was  apprenticed 
to  an  engraver,  but  made  his  escape  into  Savoy 
in  1728,  where  he  was  found  by  a  priest,  who 
intrusted  him  to  the  care  of  Madame  de  Warens 
at  Annecy.  During  the  ensuing  years  the 
greater  part  of  his  time  was  spent  in  her  house, 
but  he  finally  quarreled  with  her  and  went  to 
Paris  in  1741,  whence  in  1742  he  accompanied 
the  French  ambassador  to  Venice  as  secretary. 
In  1750  he  gained  a  prize,  offered  by  the  academy 
of  Dijon,  for  an  essay  attacking  the  influence  of 
the  arts  and  sciences  on  society.  Later  he 
moved  to  Montmorency,  to  Switzerland,  to 
England  to  visit  Hume,  with  whom  he  quar- 
reled, and  back  to  France  to  remain  until  his 
death.  The  main  significance  of  Rousseau  was 
as  a  renewer  of  the  force  of  the  imagination  and 
the  feelings  in  an  artificial  time.  He  loved 
nature,  and  praised  its  beauties;  he  broke  with 
the  arid  traditions  of  the  past,  and  formed  a 
new  ideal  of  the  future  with  an  eloquence  and  a 
warmth  that  had  great  influence  on  the  French 
revolution.  He  wrote  on  education  and  modified 
its  narrowing  tendencies,  and  in  mere  literature 
led  the  way  to  the  romantic  reaction  against  the 
cold  copying  of  classicism.  The  most  famous 
of  his  productions  are:  Discourse  sur  I'Origine 
et  les  Fondements  de  V  Inegalite  parmi  les  Hommes; 
Jvlie,  ou  la  Nouvelle  HUoise;  Du  Contrat  Social, 
ou  Principes  du  Droit  Politique;  Emile,  ou  de 
I' Education;  Les  Confessions;  and  Reveries  d'un 
Promeneur  Solitaire.  His  personal  character  is  a 
puzzle  to  moralists.  There  is  no  denying  the 
vices  and  meannesses  which  stained  it;  these 
rest  on  the  most  unimpeachable  testimony  — 
his  own.  They  are  set  forth  with  copious  and 
melancholy  sincerity  in  his  Confessions.  Died, 
1778. 

Bowe,  Leo  S.,  American  economist,  educator,  was 
bom  at  McGregor,  Iowa,  1871.  He  was  grad- 
uated from  the  university  of  Pennsylvania,  1890 , 
LL.  B.,  1895;  Ph.  D.,  vmiversity  of  Halle; 
LL.  D.,  National  university  of  La  Plata,  Argen- 
tine, 1906.  He  was  instructor  in  public  law, 
1S95-07,  assistant  professor  of  political  science, 


1897-1003,  and  head  professor  of  political 
science,  since  1903,  in  the  university  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. In  1900-01  he  was  a  member  of  the 
commission  to  revise  and  compile  the  laws  of 
Porto  Rico,  and,  1901-02,  was  chairman  of  the 
insular  code  commission,  reporting  codes  which 
were,  with  some  modifications,  adopted  as  the 
law  under  which  the  island  is  now  governed.  In 
1906  he  was  United  States  delegate  to  the  third 
international  conference  of  American  states,  Rio 
Janeiro.  Author:  Report  of  the  United  State* 
Commission  to  Revise  the  Laws  of  Porto  Rico,  in 
2  vols.,  with  Judge  Daly  and  Hon.  Juan  Her- 
nandez-Lopez; Report  of  the  Insular  Code  Com- 
mission, in  8  vols.,  with  Hon.  J.  M.  Keedy; 
The  United  States  and  Porto  Rico;  and  many 
reports,  monographs,  and  articles  in  economic 
journals,  reviews,  and  Annals  of  the  American 
Academy  Political  and  Social  Science. 

Boyce,  Josiah,  American  philosophical  writer,  pro- 
fessor of  the  history  of  philosophy  at  Harvard 
since  1892,  was  bom  at  Grass  Valley,  Cal.,  1855. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  university  of  California, 
1875;  Ph.  D.,  Johns  Hopkins,  1878;  LL.  D., 
university  of  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  1900;  LL.  D., 
Johns  Hopkins,  1902.  He  was  instructor  in 
English  literature  and  logic,  university  of  Cali- 
fornia, 1878-82;  instructor  and  assistant  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  Harvard,  1882-92. 
Author:  Religious  Aspect  of  Philosophy;  The 
Feud  of  Oak  field  Creek,  a  novel;  The  Spirit  of 
Modem  Philosophy;  The  Conception  of  immor- 
tality; Studies  of  Good  and  Evil;  Outlines  of 
Psychology;  Herbert  Spencer,  An  Estimate  and  a 
Review;  The  Relation  of  the  Principles  of  Logio 
to  the  Foundations  of  Geometry,  etc. 

Bubens  {rSd'-hinz),  Peter  Paul.     See  page  144. 

Bublnsteln  (ro5'-6ln-sttn),  Anton  Gregor,  Russian 
composer  and  pianist,  was  bom  at  Wechwoty- 
netz,  near  Jassy,  in  Russian  Bessarabia,  1829. 
He  made  his  first  appearance  in  public  when 
only  eight  years  old.  At  Berlin  he  studied 
composition  under  Dehn.  He  then  returned  to 
his  native  country,  where  he  was  appointed 
pianist  to  Grand  Duchess  Helena,  and  subse- 
quently director  of  the  concerts  of  the  Russian 
musical  society.  In  1872-73  he  visited  America, 
and  after  1867  he  spent  his  time  in  traveling  ana 
composing.  As  a  pianist  he  was  the  only  rival, 
technically,  that  Liszt  ever  had,  and  as  a  com- 
poser his  works  are  characterized  by  the  most 
wonderful  fertility  of  imagination,  and  many  of 
them  by  a  gorgeous  oriental  coloring.  His 
works  include  six  symphonies,  five  piano-forte 
concertos;  the  operas,  Ivan  the  Terrible,  Ferck- 
mors  Nero,  and  The  Demon;  the  oratorios, 
Paradise  Lost,  The  Tower  of  Babd;  half  a  dozen 
orchestral  works,  fantasies,  suites  of  dances  like 
the  Bal  Costume,  The  Vine,  etc. ;  a  large  amount 
of  chamber  music  of  all  descriptions,  songs,  and 
smaller  piano-forte  works.     Died,  1894. 

Budolf,  or  Budolph  I.,  founder  of  the  Hapsburg 
imperial  dynasty,  was  bom  at  Schloss  Limburg 
in  the  Breisgau,  1218,  and,  becoming  a  warm 
partisan  of  Frederick  II.,  increased  his  posses- 
sions by  inheritance  and  marriage,  until  he  was 
the  most  powerful  prince  in  Swabia.  In  1273 
the  electors  chose  him  German  king;  because 
never  crowned  by  the  pope,  he  was  not  entitled 
to  be  called  kaiser  or  emperor.  Ottocar  of 
Bohemia  refused  to  tender  his  allegiance,  and  in 
1278  was  defeated  and  slain  at  Marchfeld. 
Rudolf  did  much  to  suppress  the  robber  knights. 
He  died  at  Spires  in  1291.  Austria,  Styria,  and 
Caraiola  had  been  given,  in  1278,  to  his  son 
Albert  and  to  his  brother  Rudolf.  The  former 
succeeded  him  as  German  king. 

Budolf,  or  Budolph  II.,  bom  at  Vienna,  1552, 
eldesit  son  of  the  emperor,  Maximilian  II., 
became    king    of    Hungary    in    1572;     king    of 


962 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Bohemia,  with  the  title  "king  of  the  RomaM," 
in  1675;  and  emperor  on  his  father's  death  in 
1576.  Gloomyj  taciturn,  bigoted,  and  indolent, 
he  left  the  empire  to  govern  itself.  His  taste  for 
astrology  and  the  occult  sciences  made  him 
extend  his  patronage  to  Kepler  and  Tycho  Brahe ; 
and  their  Rudolpnine  Tables  were  called  after 
him.  Meanwhile  the  Turks  invaded  Hungary 
and  defeated  the  archduke  Maximilian  in  1596; 
Transylvania  and  Hungary  revolted ;  and  at  last 
Rudolf's  brother  Matthias  wrested  from  him 
Hungary,  Bohemia,  Austria,  and  Moravia.  He 
died  in  1612. 

Buneberg  (r^'-ne-bSr'-y'),  Johan  Ludvlg,  national 
poet  of  Finland,  was  born  at  Jacobstad,  1804. 
He  was  educated  at  the  university  of  Abo, 
where  he  afterward  lectured.  He  published  his 
first  volume,  Lyric  Poems,  in  1830;  edited  a  bi- 
weekly paper,  and  for  forty  years,  until  his 
death,  was  reader  of  Roman  literature  in  the 
college  of  Borga.  His  epic  idylls,  Th^  Elk 
Hunters,  Christmas  Eve,  his  epic  King  Fjalar, 
F&nrik  Stals  Sagner,  etc.,  are  the  finest  poems  in 
the  Swedish  language,  and  are  charaoteriiod  by 
repose,  simplicity,  artistic  finish,  and  the  warmth 
of  national  life.     He  died  in  1877. 

Buoff  (r(J5'-<5jf),  Henry  Woldmar,  American  jour- 
nalist and  author,  was  born  in  Germantown,  Pa., 
1867.  He  was  graduated  at  Indiana  university 
in  1890,  and  subsequently  studied  at  Harvartl, 
at  Columbian,  now  George  Washington,  univer- 
sity, and  in  Europe;  D.  C.  L.,  Columbian,  1901; 
George  Washington,  1907.  He  was  lecturer  in 
philosophy  and  history,  Pennsylvania  state  col- 
lege, 1892-93;  engaged  in  literary  work,  1895- 
1904;  associate  editor  of  the  American  Spec- 
tator, Ridgway's  Illustrated  Weekly,  and  the 
Nashville  Tennessean,  1904-08.  He  has  traveled 
extensively  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  and  is  a 
member  of  the  national  geographical  society, 
American  academy  of  political  and  social  science, 
etc.  Author  and  editor:  Th^  Century  Book  of 
Facts;  Leaders  of  M en;  TheCapUalsof  the  World; 
Syllabus  of  American  Politics;  The  Standard 
Dictionary  of  Facts;  Masters  of  Achievement,  etc., 
the  combined  sale  of  which  during  the  last 
decade  has  reached  more  than  three  quarters  of 
a  million  volumes.  He  has  also  been  a  prolific 
contributor  to  popular  educational  literature. 

Bupert,  Prince,  British  general,  third  son  of  the 
elector  palatine  Frederick  V.,  and  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  James  I.  of  England,  was  bom  at 
Prague,  1619.  After  a  year  and  a  half  at  the 
English  court,  he  served  in  1637-38,  during  the 
thirty  years'  war,  against  the  imperialists,  until 
he  was  taken  prisoner,  and  confined  for  nearly 
three  years  at  Linz.  In  1642  he  returned  to 
England,  and  for  the  next  three  years  the  "mad 
cavalier"  was  the  life  and  soul  of  the  royalist 
<»use,  winning  many  a  battle  by  his  resistless 
charges,  to  lose  it  as  often  by  a  too  headlong 
pursuit.  He  fought  at  Worcester,  Edgehill, 
Brentford,  Chalgrove,  Newbury,  Bolton,  Marston 
Moor,  Newbury  again,  and  Naseby,  and  in  1645 
his  surrender  of  Bristol  so  irritated  Charles,  who 
in  1644  had  created  him  duke  of  Cumberland 
and  generalissimo,  that  he  dismissed  him.  A 
court-martial,  however,  cleared  him,  and  he 
resumed  his  duties  only  to  surrender  at  Oxford 
to  Fairfax  in  1646.  He  now  took  service  with 
l-rajice,  but  in  1648  accepted  the  command  of 
that  portion  of  the  English  fleet  which  had 
espoused  the  king's  cause,  and  acquitted  himself 
with  all  his  old  daring  and  somewhat  more 
caution  In  1653  he  returned  to  France,  residing 
chiefly  there  ajid  in  Germany  until  the  restora- 
uon.  1  hereafter  he  served  under  the  duke  of 
York,  and,  in  concert  with  the  duke  of  Albe- 
marle, in  naval  operations  against  the  Dutch. 
He  died  in  1682. 


Bush,  Benjamin,  American  physician,  was  bom 
near  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1745.  He  was  graduated 
at  Princeton  in  1760,  studied  medicine  at  Edin- 
burgh and  at  Paris,  and  became  professor  of  chem- 
istry in  the  Philadelphia  medical  college.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  continental  congress  and  a 
signer  of  the  declaration  of  independence.  The 
next  year  he  became  physician-general  of  the 
army,  but  resigned  in  1778,  because  he  could  not 
prevent  frauds  on  soldiers  in  the  hospital  stores. 
He  was  a  founder  of  the  Philadelphia  dispensary, 
the  first  in  America,  and  of  the  collece  of  physi- 
cians, and  was  given  several  medic^  professor- 
ships besides  the  one  he  already  held  at  Phila- 
delphia. During  the  yellow  fever  epidemic  of 
1793,  he  was  a  devoted  worker  and  successful 
in  his  treatment.  In  1799  he  was  made  treas- 
urer of  the  United  States  mint.  Among  his 
mrxlical  writings  are:  Medical  Inquiries  and 
Observations;  Essays;  and  Diataset  of  the  Mind. 
He  died  at  Philadelphia.  1813. 

Buskin,  John,  distinguished ,  £Qglish  critic  and 
writer  on  art,  was  bom  in  London,  1819.  He 
studied  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he 
eained  the  Newdigate  prize  for  English  pK)etry 
in  1839,  and  took  his  degree  in  1842.  The  year 
following  api)eared  the  firwt  volume  of  his  M(>dern 
Painters,  the  primary  design  of  which  was  to 
prove  ths  infinite  superiority  of  modem  land- 
scape painters,  especially  Turner,  to  the  old 
manters.  In  1849  appeared  T/te  Seven  Lamps  q) 
Architecture,  and  in  1851  to  1853  The  Stones  oj 
Venice,  both  being  efforts  to  introduce  a  neyl 
and  loftier  conception  of  the  significance  of 
domestic  architecture.  They  were  exquisitely 
illustrated  by  the  author  himself.  About  this 
time  pre-Raphaeliam  began  to  develop  itself  80 
a  distinctive  phase  of  modern  art,  and  Ruskin 
warmly  espoused  its  cause.  About  1860  he 
became  deeply  interested  in  the  social  problems 
of  the  age,  and  published  Unto  this  Last  and 
Munera  Pulveris.  Among  his  later  works  are: 
Sesame  and  Lilies;  The  Ethics  of  the  Dust;  The 
Crown  of  Wild  Olive;  and  Praterita,  a  charming 
autobiography,  completed  in  1888.  He  was 
appointed  Kede  lecturer,  at  Cambridge,  in  1867, 
and  the  senate  conferred  the  degree  of  LL.  D. 
upon  him.  May  15th.  He  was  selected  Slade 
professor  of  fine  arts  at  Oxford,  being  thrice 
reelected.  He  was  obliged  to  resign  the  post  in 
1884  on  account  of  failing  health.  For  sevend 
years  prior  to  his  death  he  lived  in  retirement  at 
Brantwood,  on  Lake  Coniston.     Died,  1900. 

Bussell,  Annie,  actress,  was  bom  in  Liverpool, 
England,  1869,  and  made  her  first  stage  appear- 
ance at  Montreal  when  seven.  She  afterward 
appeared  at  New  York  in  Pinafore,  went  to 
South  America  and  West  Indies  in  varied 
repertory;  returned  to  the  United  States  and 
iomed  the  Madison  Square  theater  company; 
became  famous  in  Esmeralda  and  Elaine.  She 
retired  for  several  years  on  account  of  ill  health, 
and  made  her  first  appearance  in  London  in 
1898.  She  has  since  appeared  as  a  star  in 
Miss  Hobbs;  A  Royal  Family;  The  Girl  and  the 
Judge;  Mice  and  Men;  Jinny  the  Carrier;  Brother 
Jacques;  Major  Barbara;  Midsummer  Nights 
Dream,  eto.  She  married  Oswald  Yorke,  an 
English  actor,  1904. 

Bussell,  James  Earl,  American  educator,  dean  of 
Teachers  college,  Columbia  universitv,  since 
1898,  was  born  at  Hamden,  N.  Y.,  1864.  He 
was  graduated  at  Cornell  in  1887;  studied  at 
the  universities  of  Jena,  Leipzig,  and  Berlin, 
1893-95;  Ph.  D.,  Leipzig,  1894.  He  was  prin- 
cipal of  Cascadilla  school,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  1890- 
93;  professor  of  philosophy  and  pedagogy,  uni- 
vereity  of  Colorado,  1895-97;  professor  of  edu- 
cation. Teachers  college,  since  1897 ;  and  Barnard 
professor   of   education,    Colimibia,    since    1904. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


963 


Author:  The  Extension  of  University  Teaching 
in  England  and  America  (translation  of  same  into 
German  by  Dr.  O.  W.  Beyer,  LeipziK) ;  German 
Higher  Schools;  The  History,  Organization  and 
Methods  of  Secondary  EdtuxUion  in  Germany,  etc. 
Editor  of  the  American  Teachers  series  and  a 
frequent  contributor  to  educational  journals. 

Russell,  John,  Earl,  British  statesman,  third  son 
of  the  sixth  duke  of  Bedford,  was  born  in  1792. 
He  was  educated  at  Westminster  and  Edinburgh ; 
entered  parliament  as  a  whig  in  1813;  became 
an  advocate  of  parliamentary  reform ;  was  instru- 
mental in  the  repeal  of  the  test  and  corporation 
acta  in  1828,  and  the  passing  of  the  Catholic 
relief  act  in  1829.  He  was  paymaster-general 
under  Lord  Grey,  1830-34,  and  drew  up  the 
government  reform  bill,  1832;  was  home  secre- 
tary, 1835-39,  and  colonial  secretary,  1839-41, 
under  Lord  Melbourne;  led  the  opposition, 
1841-46;  was  prime  minister,  1846-52;  went  as 
British  plenipotentiary  to  the  Vienna  conference, 
1855;  was  foreign  secretary  under  Lord  Palmer- 
ston,  1859-65;  again  became  prime  minister  in 
1865,  but  resigned  on  the  defeat  of  his  reform 
bill  in  1866.  He  published  Essay  on  the  History 
of  the  English  GoverninerU  and  Constitution, 
Life  and  Times  of  Fox,  and  other  works.  Died, 
1878. 

Ruyter  (roi'-ter;  rl'-t^),  Michael  Adriaanszoon 
de,  Dutch  admiral,  was  born  at  VUssingen  in 
1607,  of  poor  parents,  who  sent  him  to  sea  as  a 
cabin-boy  when  only  eleven  years  old.  He 
became  a  warrant  officer,  and  in  1637  rose  to  be 
captain  in  the  Dutch  navy.  After  serving 
several  years  in  the,  Indian  seas  he  was,  in  1641, 
made  rear  admiral.  He  had  his  legs  shattered 
in  an  engagement  off  the  coast  of  Sicily,  and 
died  of  his  wounds  in  1676.  Europe  did  justice 
to  his  bravery,  and  Louis  XIV.  said  he  could  not 
help  regretting  the  loss  of  a  great  man,  although 
an  enemy. 

Ryan,  Patrick  John,  American  prelate,  Roman 
Catholic  archbishop,  was  born  at  Thurles,  County 
Tipperary,  Ireland,  1831.  He  was  graduated  at 
Carlow  college,  1852;  LL.  D.,  university  of  New 
York  and  university  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was 
ordained  sub-deacon  in  Ireland;  came  to  the 
United  States;  became  professor  of  English 
literature,  Carondelet  theological  seminary,  St. 
Louis;  was  ordained  deacon  there,  and,  in  1853, 
priest ;  served  at  the  cathedral,  where  he  became 
rector  in  1856.  He  was  chaplain  of  the  Gratiot 
state  military  prison  and  hospital,  St.  Louis, 
during  the  civil  war;  and  while  rector  of  the 
Annunciation  church,  delivered  lenten  lectures 
in  English  at  Rome,  1868,  on  invitation  of  Pope 
Pius  IX.  He  was  consecrated,  1872,  titular 
bishop  of  Tricomia  in  Palestine  and  made  coad- 
jutor bishop  of  St.  Louis;  was  promoted  to  arch- 
bishop, 1883,  and  in  June,  1884,  was  transferred 
to  the  see  of  Philadelphia.  Author:  What 
Catholics  Do  Not  Believe;  The  Causes  of  Modern 
Rdigiotis  Skepticism,  etc.     Died,  1911. 

Ryan,  Thomas  Fortune,  American  financier,  was 
born  in  Nelson  covmty,  Va.,  1851.  He  began 
business  life,  1868,  in  a  Baltimore  dry  goods 
house;  entered  Wall  street,  1870,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  New  York  stock  exchange,  1874. 
He  was  afterward  interested  in  the  consolidation 
and  extension  of  street  railway  and  lighting 
systems  in  New  York,  Chicago,  and  other  cities, 
and  in  the  reorganization  of  various  railways  in 
the  South,  coal  properties  in  Ohio  and  West 
Virginia,  and  railways  in  Ohio.  He  purchased  a 
controlling  interest  of  the  stock  of  the  Equitable 
life  assurance  society  of  the  United  States  in  1905. 
In  1908  he  retired  as  officer  or  director  of  more 
than  thirty  corporations  in  which  he  was  the  con- 
trolling factor.  He  gave  $1,000,000  for  Roman 
Catholic  church  in  New  York  city  in  1912.    He 


is  a  resident  of  Virginia,  Mid  wm  »  delegate 
from  that  state  to  the  national  democratic  con- 
vention, 1904. 

Sachs  (z<lK«),  Hans,  noted  German  poet,  was  bom 
at  Niirnberg,  1494.  He  was  the  son  of  a  tailor, 
and  by  trade  a  shoemaker.  He  learned  "the 
mystery  of  song"  from  a  weaver.  In  1568,  on 
examining  his  stock  for  publication,  he  found 
that  he  had  written  over  6,000  pieces,  among 
them  208  tragedies  and  cometlies,  and  this 
besides  having  all  along  kept  house,  like  an 
honest  Niirnberg  burgher,  by  assiduous  shoe- 
making.  Among  his  works  are:  Lucretia;  Vir- 
ginia; Julian  the  Apostate;  The  Unlike  Children 
of  Eve;  and  Narrenschnetden,  a  piece  in  which 
the  doctor  cures  a  bloated  and  lethargic  patient 
by  ''cutting  out  half  a  dozen  fools  from  his 
interior."  He  sank  into  oblivion  during  the 
seventeenth  century,  but  his  memory  was 
revived  by  Goethe  in  the  eighteenth.  He  died 
in  1576. 

Sachs,  Julius  von,  botanist,  was  born  at  Breslau, 
1832.  In  1867  he  became  professor  of  botany 
at  Freiburg,  and  in  1868  at  Wiirzburg.  There 
he  carried  on  important  experiments,  especially 
as  to  the  influence  of  light  and  heat  upon  plants, 
and  the  organic  activities  of  vegetable  growth. 
He  wrote  extensively  on  botany,  and  is  con- 
sidered the  founder  of  experimental  vegetable 
physiology.     Died  at  Wiirzburg,  1897. 

Sacy  (sd'-se'),  Antolne  Isaac,  Baron  Sllvestre  de, 
French  orientalist,  was  bom  at  Paris,  1758.  At 
twenty-three  he  was  a  master  of  classic,  oriental, 
and  modem  European  languages;  was  appointed 
in  1795  professor  of  Arabic  in  the  scnool  of 
oriental  languages,  and  in  1806  of  Persian  in  the 
College  de  France,  besides  which  he  held  various 
other  appointments.  He  founded  the  Aeiatis 
society  in  1822;  was  created  a  baron  by  Napoleon 
I.,  and  entered  the  chamber  of  peers  in  1832. 
His  writings  include:  Biographies  of  Persian 
Poets,  Arabic  Grammar,  etc.  His  writings  gave 
a  stimulus  to  oriental  research  throughout 
Esrope.     He  died  in  1838. 

Sadi-Camot.     See  Camot. 

Sadl  (sa-de'),  Persian  poet,  was  bom  at  Shiraz, 
about  1184.  He  studied  science  and  theology 
at  Bagdad,  and  from  there  made  the  first  of 
fourteen  pilgrimages  to  Mecca.  He  traveled  for 
many  years  in  parts  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe. 
Near  Jerusalem  he  was  captured  by  the  crusaders, 
but  was  ransomed  by  an  Aleppo  merchant,  who 
recognized  him,  and  gave  him  his  daughter  in 
marriage.  He  is  called  the  "nightingale  of  a 
thousand  songs,"  and  the  catalogue  of  nis  works 
contains  twenty-two  different  kinds  of  writing 
in  prose  and  poetry,  in  Arabic  and  Persian. 
The  finest  of  his  works  is  Gulistan,  or  "Rose 
Garden."  Two  others  are  Bustan,  or  "Fruit 
Garden,"  and  Pand-Namah,  or  "Book  of  Coun- 
sels."    Died,  1291. 

Sagasta  {sa-gas'-ta),  Praxedes  Mateo,  Spanish 
statesman,  was  bom  in  1827.  He  was  obliged 
to  leave  the  country  for  his  share  in  the  rising 
of  1856,  and  again,  ten  years  later,  to  seek  refuge 
in  France.  On  his  return  he  changed  his  views, 
joined  General  Prim,  and  held  the  portfolio  of 
the  interior  for  several  years.  After  the  acces- 
sion of  Alfonso  XII.,  he  became  president  of  the 
Cortes,  formed  a  liberal  constitutionalist  party, 
and  having,  in  1880,  joined  a  new  liberal  combi- 
nation, formed  a  coalition  with  Campos,  which 
lasted  until  1883.  He  was  again  the  head  of  the 
ministry  in  1885-90,  1893-95,  1897-99,  and 
1901-02.     Died,  1903. 

Sage,  Russell,  Ajnerican  capitalist,  was  bom  in 
Oneida  county.  New  York,  1816.  Educated  in 
the  public  schools,  he  became  a  grocer's  clerk, 
and  established  himself  as  a  wholesale  grocer  in 


964 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Troy,  1839.  He  was  a  member  of  congress, 
1852-56,  removed  to  New  York  in  1863,  pur- 
chased a  seat  on  the  stock  exchange  and  asso- 
ciated himself  with  Jay  Gould  in  extensive  rail- 
way operations,  gaining  a  wide  reputation  by 
his  close  bargaining  and  successful  speculation. 
His  fortune  was  variously  estimated  at  from 
$60,000,000  to  $100,000,000.     Died,  1906. 

Sage,  Margaret  Olivia  Siocum,  philanthropist,  was 
bom  at  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  1828,  daughter  of  Joseph 
Siocum.  She  was  graduated  at  Troy  female 
seminary,  1847,  and  in  1869  married  Russell 
Sage,  at  Watervliet,  N.  Y.  She  is  president  of 
the  Emma  Willard  association,  and  member  of 
the  society  of  Mayflower  descendants.  During 
1907  she  gave  $1,000,000  to  the  Emma  Willard 
seminary,  Troy,  N.  Y.;  $1,000,000  to  Rensselaer 
polytechnic  institute;  $115,000  to  a  public  school 
at  Sag  Harbor,  L.  I.;  $10,000,000  to  be  known 
as  the  Sage  foundation,  for  social  betterment; 
$350,000  to  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  New  York;  $150,000 
to  American  seaman's  friend  society;  $150,000 
to  Northfield  seminary;  $300,000  to  Sage 
institute  of  pathology,  Blackwell's  island ;  $250,- 
000  to  a  home  for  indigent  women ;  $100,000  to 
Syracuse  university,  and  various  other  donations 
to  charitable  and  educational  institutions. 

Saint  Ambrose.     See  Ambrose. 

Saint  Augustine.     See  page  212. 

Saint  Basil.     See  Basil. 

Saint  Benedict.     See  Benedict. 

Saint  Bernard.     See  Bernard. 

Saint  Ciair,  Artliur,  American  general,  was  bom  in 
Scotland,  1734.  After  serving  in  the  British 
army,  he  resigned,  emigrated  to  America,  became 
a  citizen  of  Pennsylvania,  and  a  brigadier-general 
in  the  revolutionary  army,  serving  with  distinc- 
tion at  the  battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton.  In 
1777  he  became  major-general,  and  entered  con- 
gress in  1785,  of  which  body  he  was  elected 
president  two  years  later.  In  1789  he  was  made 
governor  of  the  Northwest  territory,  and  two 
years  afterward  suflFered  a  defeat  with  heavy 
loss,  at  the  hands  of  the  Miami  Indians.  Died, 
1818. 

Saint  Columba.     See  Columba. 

Sainte-Beuve  (sdNt'-bHv'),  Charles  Augustln,  French 
literary  critic,  was  bom  at  Boulogne-sur-Mer, 
1804.  He  adopted  medicine  as  a  profession  and 
for  some  years  studied  at  Paris.  In  1827  he 
became  acquainted  with  Victor  Hugo,  whose 
commanding  influence  drew  him  into  the  roman- 
tic movement,  and  determined  for  him  a  literary 
career.  He  published  a  critical  work  on  French 
poetry  of  the  sixteenth  century,  in  1828,  two 
volumes  of  poetry,  1829-1830,  and  a  psychological 
novel,  VolupU,  in  1834.  In  1837  he  lectured  at 
Lausanne  on  Port-Royal,  and  these  lectures  con- 
tain some  of  his  finest  writings.  In  1840  he 
received  an  appointment  in  the  Mazarin  library, 
Paris ;  contributed  to  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes; 
was  elected  in  1845  to  the  academy;  and  three 
years  later  lectured  for  a  session  at  Lifege  univer- 
sity. During  1849-69  he  contributed  to  the 
Constitviionnel.  These  contributions  form  his 
famous  Causeries  du  Lundi  and  Nauveaux  Lundis, 
which,  for  variety  of  human  interest,  critical 
insight,  and  breadth  of  sympathy,  remain  imsur- 
passed.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  Latin  in 
the  College  de  France,  1854;  but  his  unpopu- 
larity with  the  students,  owing  to  his  support  of 
Napoleon  III.,  led  to  his  resignation.  He  was 
elected  a  senator  in  1865,  and  his  popularity 
revived  by  his  eloquent  advocacy  of  freedom  of 
thought.  In  precision,  in  subtlety,  and  in  deli- 
cacy, his  works,  fifty-three  volxmies  in  all,  stand 
alone  m  the  literature  of  criticism.     Died,  1869 

Saint  Francis  of  Assist.     See  page  227. 

Saint  Gaudens  {sunt  g6'-dhfiz\  Augustus,  American 
sculptor,  was  bora  in  Ireland  in  1848,  and  was 


brought  to  the  United  States  in  infancy.  During 
1861-66  he  was  a  student  at  Cooper  institute, 
and  at  the  academy  of  desigp,  New  York ;  went 
to  Paris  and  studied  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts 
under  Joufifroy.  After  a  year  spent  at  Rome, 
where  his  first  work,  "  Hiawatha'  was  produced, 
he  returned  to  New  York  in  1872.  He  executed 
a  number  of  notable  works,  of  which  the  most 
important  are:  "The  Puritan";  "Farragut"; 
"Lincoln":  "Adoration  of  the  Cross/'  in  St. 
Thomas'  church.  New  York;  "The  Puritan," 
"Diana,"  on  tower  of  Madison  Square  garden. 
New  York;  "Peter  Cooper,"  New  York;  "Colonel 
R.  G.  Shaw,"  Boston;  monument  to  General 
Sherman,  New  York,  and  niunerous  other  statues, 
busts,  etc.  He  was  awarded  medals  at  the  Paris, 
Buffalo  and  St.  Louis  expositions,  and  made  an 
officer  of  the  French  legion  of  honor.     Died,  1907. 

Saint  Jerome.     See  Jerome. 

Saint  Louis  IX.     See  Louis  IX. 

Saint  Paul.     See  page  206. 

Saint  IMerre  («Sn'  pydr'),  Jacques  Henri  Bemardln 
de,  French  writer,  was  born  in  Havre,  France, 
1737.  He  became  an  engineer  and  entered  the 
army,  but  was  dismissed,  and  for  many  years  led 
an  adventurous  life  in  different  countries  of 
Europe.  In  1766  he  went  to  Madagascar,  and 
afterward  to  Mauritius,  where  he  spent  many 
years.  On  his  return  to  France  in  1771,  he 
published  an  account  of  his  voyage,  and  several 
other  works.  He  is  best  known  for  his  beautiful 
story,  Paul  and  Virginia,  which  has  been  trans- 
lated into  many  languages.  Saint  Pierre's  two 
children,  like  the  hero  and  heroine  of  the  story, 
were  named  Paul  and  Virginia.  He  died  at 
Eragny-eur-Oise,  1814. 

Salnt-Safos  (sOn'  a&na'),  Charles  Camllle,  French 
composer  and  pianist,  was  bom  at  Paris,  1835. 
He  wrote  his  first  symphony  at  the  age  of  sixteen, 
and  studied  at  the  Paris  conservatoire  under 
Benoit,  Hal^vy^^  and  Gounod;  LL.  D.,  Cam- 
bridge; Mu8.  £).,  Oxford.  His  works  include 
the  operas:  La  Princesse  Jaune,  Le  Timbre 
d'Argent,  Etienne  Marcd,  Henry  VIII.,  Lea 
Barbares,  Parysatis,  HiUne,  and  L'Ancetre; 
the  sacred  drama,  Samson  and  Dalilah;  four 
widely  known  symphonic  poems  modeled  on 
Liszt,  Le  Rouit  d'Omphale,  PhaHon,  La  Danae 
Macabre,  and  La  Jeunesse  d'Hercule;  sympho- 
nies, church  music,  chamber  music,  and  consid- 
erable piano-forte  and  vocal  music.  From 
1858  to  1877  he  was  organist  of  the  Madeleine 
church  in  Paris.  The  strongest  originality, 
sometimes  becoming  downright  eccentricity, 
pervades  his  music,  which  is  of  the  most  modern 
school. 

Saintsbury  («dnte'-6«r-t),  George  Edward  Bateman« 
English  critic,  was  born  at  Southampton.  1845. 
He  was  educated  at  Merton  college,  Oxford. 
In  1868-76  he  was  a  schoolmaster  at  Manchester^ 
Guernsey,  and  Elgin,  but  soon  after  established 
himself  as  one  of  the  most  active  critics  of  the 
day;  in  1895  he  became  professor  of  English 
literature  at  Edinburgh.  Among  his  books  are: 
Short  History  of  French  Literature;  Dryden; 
Marlborough;  History  of  Elizabethan  Literature; 
Essays  in  English  Literature,  1780-1860;  Essays 
on.  French  Novelists;  Corrected  Impressions; 
History  of  Nineteenth-Century  Literature;  The 
Flourishing  of  Romance  and  Rise  of  Allegory; 
A  Short  History  of  English  Literature;  Histdry  of 
Criticism;  The  Earlier  Renaissance;  Minor 
Caroline  Poets;  A  History  of  English  Prosody; 
The  Later  Nineteenth  Century,  etc. 

Saint  Simon,  Claude  Henri,  C-omte  de,  French  social 
philosopher,  was  bom  at  Paris,  1760.  At  sixteen 
he  entered  the  army,  served  in  America,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself.  Captured  by  the  British  on 
his  return  home,  he  was  taken  to  Jamaica,  where 
he  remained  until  the  peace  in  1783  restored  him 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


965 


to  liberty  and  France.  After  the  restoration  he 
began  a  socialistic  propaganda  which  gained 
him  many  followers.  Of  these  the  most  dis- 
tinguished was  Augustin  Thierry,  who  assisted 
him  in  the  redaction  of  his  Reorganisation  de  la 
SodMt  Europienne.  In  1817-18  he  published 
L' Industrie  ou  Discussions  Politiques,  Morales,  et 
PhUosophiques.  The  third  volume  is  the  work 
of  Auguste  Comte.  The  last  and  by  far  the 
most  remarkable  work  of  Simon  is  his  Nouveau 
Christianisme,  which  contains  his  final  and 
matured  convictions.     Died,  1825. 

Saint  Thomas  Aquinas.     See  page  274. 

Saionji  (si'-dn-;e).  Marquis,  Japanese  statesman, 
was  born  at  Kioto  m  1849.  At  the  age  of 
eighteen  he  gathered  volunteers  and  fought  for 
the  emperor  in  the  revolution  of  1868.  He  then 
went  to  Paris,  was  a  student  in  the  Latin 
quarter,  and  returned  to  Japan  in  his  thirty- 
tnird  year.  He  at  once  startetl  a  daily  paper  at 
Tokio,  and  proclaimed  himself  a  liberal  of  the 
European  type.  Subsequently  he  became  min- 
ister to  Austria-Hungary  and  then  to  Germany. 
On  his  return  to  Japan  he  joined  the  first  Ito 
cabinet  as  minister  of  education,  a  post  which 
he  again]  occupied  in  the  second  Ito  cabinet, 
having  been  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  the 
interval.  He  assisted  Ito  in  forming  the  consti- 
tutional association  of  1900,  and  became  its 
leader  in  1903.  At  four  difficult  crises  the 
mikado^called  him  to  be  prime-minister,  his  last 
term  of  office  being  from  1911  to  1912. 

Saladin  {sSl'-d-dln)  or  Salah-ed-Din,  celebrated 
sultan  of  Egypt,  flourished  between  1137  and 
1193.  He  was  on^  of  the  great  conquerors  of  his 
time;  and  in  1187  defeated  the  Christians  in  a 
great  battle  near  Tiberias,  afterward  storming 
and  capturing  Jerusalem.  He  was,  however, 
defeated  by  Richard  Coeur-de-Lion  in  1191,  and 
died,  broken  down  by  disease  and  toil,  in  the 
spring  of  1193.  A  story,  probably  fictitious,  is 
told  of  Saladin,  that  in  his  last  illness  he  ordered 
a  winding-sheet  which  was  to  encircle  his  remains 
to  be  unfurled  before  his  army,  while  a  herald 
proclaimed  aloud,  "This  is  all  which  Saladin,  the 
conqueror  of  the  East,  tan  retain  of  all  his  con- 
quests." The  valor,  justice,  and  magnanimity 
which  shone  conspicuous  in  the  life  and  actions 
of  Saladin  are  the  subject  of  panegyric,  not  only 
by  eastern  writers,  but  in  the  Christian  chronicles 
of  the  crusades. 

Salisbury  {s6l^-ber-l),  Robert  Arthur  Talbot  Gas- 
coyne-Cecil,  Marquis  of,  British  statesman,  was 
born  at  Hatfield,  1830.  He  was  graduated  from 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  1849,  and  sat  in  parlia- 
ment for  Stamford,  1853-68.  He  was  secretary 
for  India,  1866-67,  and  again  1874-76.  In  the 
latter  year  he  was  special  ambassador  to  the 
porte,  and  was  practically  the  leader  of  the 
conference  of  Constantinople.  In  1878  he  was 
appointed  foreign  secretary,  and,  with  Lord 
Beaconsfield,  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  con- 
gress of  BerUn.  After  the  latter's  death  he 
became  the  principal  leader  of  the  conservatives 
in  the  house  of  lords,  and  was  prime  minister  in 
1885-1886,  1886-1892,  and  1895-1902.  Died, 
1903. 

Sallust  (sdl'-Ust)  or  Sallustius,  Calus  Crispus, 
Roman  historian,  of  equal  talents  and  profligacy, 
was  bom  at  Amiternum,  86  B.  C.  He  rose  from 
a  plebeian  to  a  senator,  but  was  expelled  in  50 
B.  C.  Cffisar  restored  him  to  his  seat,  and  suc- 
cessively made  him  quaestor  and  praetor,  and 
governor  of  Numidia.  In  the  last  of  these 
offices  he  amassed  an  enormous  fortune  by  acts 
of  rapine.  On  his  return  to  Rome  he  built  for 
himself  a  splendid  palace,  on  a  site  still  known  as 
Sallust's  garden,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in 
luxury.  In  style  he  imitated  Thucydides.  His 
History  of  the  Roman  Republic  is  lost,  with  the 


exception  of  some  fragments:  but  his  masterly 
Histories  of  the  Jugurthine  War,  and  the  Cor^ 
spiracy  of  Catiline  are  extant,  and  bear  ample 
testimony  to  his  genius.     Died,  34  B.  C. 

Salmon  {sa'-miin),  Qeorge,  British  mathematician 
and  theological  writer,  was  bom  in  Dublin,  1819. 
He  was  graduated  at  Trinity  college  in  1839, 
and  became  a  fellow  in  1841,  regius  professor  of 
divinity  in  1866.  and  provost  in  1888,  being  also 
F.  R.  S.,  D.  D..  LL.  D.  and  D.  C.  L.  His  contri- 
butions  to  mathematical  learning  include  treatises 
on  Analytic  Geometry;  Modern  Higher  Geometry; 
Conic  Sections;  The  Higher  Plane  Curves;  and 
Geometry  of  Three  Dimensions.  His  theological 
writings  comprise  College  Sermons;  The  Reiqn  of 
Law;  Non-Miraculous  Christianity;  Gnosticism 
and  Agnosticism;  Introduction  to  tfie  New  Testa- 
ment; asid  Infallibility  of  the  Church.     Died,  1904. 

Sampson,  William  Thomas,  rear  admiral  of  United 
States  navy,  was  born  at  Palmyra,  N.  Y.,  1840. 
He  was  graduated  at  Annapolis  in  1861,  and  was 
aboard  the  Patapsco  when  that  vessel  was 
destroyed  by  a  torpedo  in  Charleston  harbor, 
1865.  He  served  six  years  as  instructor  at 
Annapolis  and  commanded  successively  the 
Swatara,  Iowa,  and  San  Francisco,  then  became 
chief  of  bureau  of  ordinance  and  gained  an 
international  reputation  by  his  work  in  building 
up  the  new  navy.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  war 
with  Spain  he  was  appointed  acting  rear  admiral, 
1898,  and  placed  in  command  of  the  North 
Atlantic  squadron  operating  against  Spain  in 
Cuban  waters.  When  the  Spanish  fleet  under 
Cervera  took  refuge  in  the  harbor  of  Santiago  de 
Cuba,  Sampson  established  a  close  blockade  of 
that  port,  resulting  in  the  destruction  of  the 
Spanish  fleet  when  it  attempted  to  escape  from 
the  harbor,  July  3,  1898.  At  the  close  of  the  war 
he  was  made  rear  admiral.     Died,  1902. 

Sand,  George,  pseudonym  of  Amantine  Lucile 
Aurore  Dudevant,  French  author,  was  bom  at 
Paris,  1804.  She  was  descended  on  her  father's 
side  from  the  famous  Marshal  Saxe,  and  her 
maiden  name  was  Dupin.  After  receiving  a 
strict  conventual  education,  she  married  M. 
Dudevant  in  1822,  but  separated  from  him  in 
1831.  She  then  settled  in  Paris  and  began  a 
literary  career  that  brought  her  both  fame  and 
fortune.  She  occupied  herself  with  the  educa- 
tion of  her  two  children,  mingled  freely  in  p>olitics, 
and  spent  her  time  sometimes  in  Paris,  some- 
times at  her  estate  in  Berri,  where  she  had  passed 
her  childhood,  or  in  journeys  into  Switzerland 
and  Italy.  Her  best  known  works  are :  Indiana; 
Valentine;  Rose  et  Blanche,  written  in  conjunc- 
tion with  her  friend  Jules  Sandeau;  Lelia;  La 
Comtesse  de  Rudolstadt;  Consul;  Jacqxies;  Mau- 
prat,  etc.  She  also  wrote  some  successful 
dramatic  works.     Died,  1876. 

Sankey,  Ira  David,  American  evangehst  and  singer, 
was  bom  at  Edinburgh,  Pa.,  1840.  He  united 
with  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church  at  fifteen; 
became  choir  leader,  Sunday  school  superintend- 
ent, and  president  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  at  New 
Castle,  Pa.  In  1870  he  met  Dwight  L.  Moody, 
and  became  associated  with  him  as  a  solo  singer 
in  evangelistic  work  in  the  United  States  and 
abroad.  Subsequently  he  also  became  a  lecturer, 
and  gave  to  New  Castle,  as  a  free  gift,  a  Y.  M. 
C.  A.  and  public  library  building.  He  also  gave 
a  building  site  to  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church 
there.  (S)mpiler:  Gospel  Hymns; ^  Sacred  Songs 
and  Solos;  Winnowed  Songs;  Young  People's 
Songs  of  Praise,  etc.,  of  which  over  50,000,000 
copies  have  been  sold.  He  composed  many 
of  the  most  popular  gospel  songs  of  his  day, 
including  "The  Ninety  and  Nine,"  and  "When 
the  Mists  Have  Rolled  Away."  Author:  Tfie 
Gospel  Choir;  The  Male  Choir;  Christian  En- 
deavor Hymn-Book;   Sankey' s  Story  of  the  Goapd 


966 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Hymns;  My  Life  and  Sacred  Songs.  He  lost  his 
sight  in  1903.     Died,  1908. 

Santa  Anna  {siXn'-ta  d'-nd),  Antonio  Liopes  de, 
Mexican  general,  was  bom  in  Jaiapa,  1795.  He 
eerved  in  the  Spanish  army  from  1810;  assisted 
Iturbide  in  1821  but  overthrew  him  in  the 
following  year;  was  elected  governor  of  the  city 
and  province  of  Vera  Cruz  in  1822;  and  pro- 
claimed in  the  same  year  a  Mexican  republic, 
which  was  recognized  by  every  foreign  state 
except  Spain.  In  1829  he  engaged  and  captured 
a  division  of  Spanish  troops  which  invaded 
Mexico.  The  separation  of  Texas  from  the 
Mexican  union  was  vigorously  but  unavailinsly 
opposed  by  him,  but  he  recognized  the  inde- 
pendence of  Texas,  and  defended  Vera  Cruz 
against  the  French  in  1838.  After  having  been 
dictator  from  1841  to  1844,  he  was  banished. 
In  1847,  war  having  been  declared  by  Mexico 
against  the  United  States,  he  took  command  of 
the  Mexican  forces,  and  when  the  war  came  to  an 
end,  he  retired  from  Mexico.  In  1853  Mexico, 
torn  by  civil  dissensions,  and  fallen  into  anarchy, 
again  recalled  him.  In  1855  he  was  driven  from 
the  country.  He  was  condemned  to  death  some 
years  later,  but  pardoned  bj"^  Juarez  on  condition 
of  his  leaving  Mexico.  He  afterward  resided  on 
Staten  island,  N.  Y.  After  the  death  of  Juarez 
in  1872,  he  returned  to  Mexico,  where  he  died  in 
1876. 

Sappho  {s&f'-o),  celebrated  lyric  poetess  of  Greece, 
was  a  native,  probably,  of  Mitylene,  in  Lesbos. 
She  flourished  about  600  B.  C,  and  was  ft  con- 
temporary and  friend  of  Alca;u8.  The  ftncient 
writers  agree  in  expressing  the  most  unbounded 
admiration  for  her  poetry;  but,  except  some 
fragments,  only  two  of  her  compositions  have 
come  down  to  us,  the  Ode  to  a  Young  Female, 
and  Hymn  to  Venus.  Her  poems  are  usually 
printed  along  with  those  ascribed  to  Anacreon. 

Sardou  (sar'-<fe&'),  Vlctorlen,  French  dramatist, 
was  bom  in  Paris,  1831.  He  studied  medicine 
at  the  College  Henri  IV.,  but  subsequently 
turned  to  literature.  His  first  comedy,  produced 
at  the  Od6on  in  1854,  was  a  failure.  He  then 
won  a  reputation  by  M.  Garat,  and  other  pieces, 
produced  at  the  D^jazet  theater,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  academy  in  1877.  Among  his  best 
known  plays  are:  Les  Pattes  du  Mouche,  the 
original  of  "A  Scrap  of  Paper";  La  Taveme; 
Les  gens  Nerveux;  Nos  Intimes;  Candide;  La 
Famille  Benoiton;  Daniel  Rochat;  Divor^ons; 
Theodora;  La  Tosca;  Belle-Maman;  CliopAtra; 
Thermidor;  Pamela;  Robespierre;  Dante;  Madame 
Sans-Gene,  etc.     Died,  1908. 

Sargent  (sar'-jent),  Dudley  Allen,  director  Hemen- 
way  gymnasium,  Harvard,  was  bom  at  Belfast, 
Me.,  1849.  He  was  graduated  at  Bowdoin,  1875, 
A.  M.,  1887,  Sc.  D.,  1894;  M.  D.,  Yale,  1878. 
He  is  the  inventor  of  the  modem  system  of 
gymnasium  apparatus;  director  of  the  normal 
school  of  physical  training,  Cambridge,  Mass., 
since  1881  and  president  of  the  American  associa- 
tion for  the  promotion  of  phvsical  education, 
1890-95.  Author:  Universal  Test  for  Strength, 
Speed  and  Endurance;  Health,  Strength  and 
Power;  Physical  Education;  and  numerous  arti- 
cles and  papers  on  physical  training. 

Sargent,  John  Singer,  American  artist,  was  bom  in 
Florence,  Italy,  1856,  of  American  parents.  He 
was  educated  in  Italy  and   Germany;     studied 

?ainting  at  the  academy  of  fine  arts,  Florence, 
taly,  and  in  Paris  under  Carolus  Duran.  He 
exiubited  a  portrait  of  Carolus  Duran  in  Paris 
salon  of  1877;  traveled  in  Spain,  1879,  and  on 
hJS  return  opened  studio  in  Paris;  removed  to 
London  m  1884,  and  has  since  resided  there. 
K.  A.,  1897;  officer  of  legion  of  honor.  He  has 
pamted  many  portraits,  English  and  American, 
one  of  recent  note  being  that  of  ex-President 


Roosevelt,  painted  in  1903;  alao  various  other 
pictures,  of  which  his  Japanese  dancing  girl  was 
awarded  a  grand  medal  at  the  Paris  exposition, 
1889. 

Sarto  {sd.r'-Ui),  Andrea  deU  Italian  painter,  was 
born  in  Florence,  Italy,  1487.  His  family  name 
was  Vannucchi,  but  he  was  nicknamed  Del  Sarto 
—  the  "tailor's  son  " —  from  his  father's  business. 
He  painted  two  series  of  frescoes  in  Florence,  the 
best  of  the  first  series  being  "Nativity  of  the 
Virgin"  and  "Journey  of  the  Three  Kings."  He 
spent  a  year  in  Paris  at  the  invitation  of  Francis 
I.,  and  was  very  popular  among  the  French. 
The  most  celebrated  of  his  (single  pictures  are 
the  "Last  Supper,"  the  "Madonna  with  the 
Harpies,"  and  Vftthers  of  the  Church  Disput- 
ing. He  was  a  rapid  worker,  and  excelled  in 
accurate  drawing.     He  died  at  Florence  in  1531. 

Saul,  the  first  king  of  Israel,  was  the  son  of  Kish,  • 
wealthy  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  and  began 
to  reign  about  1050  B.  C.  The  deliverance  of 
the  men  of  Jabp«h-(iilead,  above  all,  his  victories 
over  the  Philixtines,  the  Moabites,  Ammonites, 
Edomites,  and  Amalekites  were  unmistakable 
proofs  of  his  vigorous  miUtary  capacity;  but 
gradually  there  snowed  itself  in  the  nature  of  the 
man  a  wild  perversity  — "an  evil  spirit  of  God," 
as  it  is  called  —  ciuminating  in  paroxyms  of 
insane  rage,  which  led  him  to  commit  frightful 
deeds,  as  tne  massacre  of  the  priests  of  Nob. 
Nothing  availed  to  stay  his  downward  career, 
and  at  last  he  fell  in  a  disastrous  and  bloody 
battle  with  the  Philistines  on  Mount  Gilboa. 
He  was  succeeded  by  David. 

Savace,  Mlnot  Judson*  Unitarian  clerg>'man  and 
author,  was  bom  in  Norridgewock,  Me.,  1841. 
He  was  graduated  from  Bangor  theological  seml- 
narv,  1864;  D.  D.,  Harvard,  1896;  was  Congre- 
gational home  missionary  In  California,  1864-67; 
pastor  at  Framingham,  Haas.,  1867-60,  and  at 
Hannibal,  Mo..  1M9-73.  In  the  latter  year  he 
became  a  Unitarian  and  served  as  pastor  of 
Third  Unitarian  church,  Chicago,  1873-74. 
church  of  the  Unity,  Boston,  1874-96.  and 
church  of  the  Messiah,  New  York,  1896-1906. 
Author:  Chriatianitu,  the  Science  of  Manhood; 
The  Religion  of  EvMiUion;  Light  on  the  Cloud; 
Bluff  ton,  a  Story  of  To-day;  Life  Questions;  The 
Morals  of  Evolution;  Talks  About  Jesus;  Poems; 
Belief  in  God;  Beliefs  About  Man;  Beliefs  About 
the  Bible;  The  Modem  Sphinx;  Man,  Woman, 
and  Child;  The  Religious  Life;  Social  Problems; 
These  Degenerate  Days;  My  Creed;  Religious 
Reconstruction;  Signs  of  the  Times;  Helps  for 
Daily  Living;  Life;  Four  Great  Questions  Con- 
cemxngGod;  The  Irrepressible  Conflict  Betu>een 
Tvoo  World-Theories;  The  Evolution  of  Chris- 
tianity; Is  This  a  Good  Worldf  Jesus  and  Modem 
Life;  A  Man;  Rdigionfor  To-day;  Our  Unitarian 
Gospd;  Hymns;  This  Miniver's  Hand-book; 
Psychics,  Facts,  and  Theories;  Life  Beyond  Death; 
Life's  Dark  Problems,  etc. 

Savlgny  (aei'-t)*n'-t/e'),  Friederiek  Karl  von,  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  of  modem  European 
jurists,  the  founder  of  the  modem  historical 
school  of  jurisprudence,  was  bom  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Main,  1779.  He  was  professor  of  law  at 
Landshut,  1808,  and  at  Berlin,  1810-42.  He 
then  entered  the  Prussian  ministry,  taking  charge 
of  the  revision  of  the  law.  His  great  works  are 
Das  Recht  des  Besitzes,  Beruf  unserer  Zeit  fur 
Gesetzgebung  und  Rechtswissensehaft,  System  des 
heutigen  RSmischen  Rechts.  Savigny  retired  to 
private  life  in  1848,  and  died  in  1861. 

Savonarola  {sdv'-6-rui-r6'4d),  Glrolamo,  Italian 
monk  and  reformer,  was  bom  at  Ferrara,  1452. 
He  became  a  Dominican  monk  in  1475,  and  in 
1482  removed  to  Florence,  where  he  became 
prior  of  St.  Mark's  in  1491.  He  headed  the 
democratic  party  in  Florence  toward  the  close 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


967 


of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  was  remarkable  both 
for  bis  eloquence  as  a  preacher  and  for  his  zeal  as 
a  reformer.  He  held  that  the  mortal  enemy  of 
Christ's  gospel  in  all  ages  of  the  world  has  been 
mammon,  that  simony  is  the  sin  against  the 
Holy  Ghost,  that  the  interests  of  religion  are 
naturally  allied  with  those  of  liberty,  and  that 
the  arts  are  the  handmaids  of  both.  He  in- 
veighed accordingly  against  the  corruptions  of 
the  church,  and  drew  down  upon  himself  a 
vengeance  of  excommunication  In  1497;  was 
arrested  at  Florence  in  1498  and  put  to  death  in 
the  same  year.  His  death  preceded  by  but  a 
few  years  the  death  of  the  Italian  republic.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  number  of  works  in  Latin 
and  Italian,  most  of  which  have  been  translated 
into  other  European  languages. 

Saxe,  Maurice,  French  marshal,  natural  son  of 
Augustus  II.,  elector  of  Saxony  and  king  of 
Poland,  was  bom  at  Goslar,  1696.  At  twelve  he 
ran  off  to  join  the  army  of  Prince  Eugene  in 
Flanders,  and  next  the  Russo-Polish  army  in 
1711.  He  fought  against  the  Turks  in  Hungary 
under  Prince  Eugene,  and  studied  the  art  of  war 
in  France.  In  1726,  elected  duke  of  Courland, 
he  maintained  himself  against  Russians  and 
Poles,  but  was  compelled  to  retire  in  1727.  He 
took  a  brilliant  part  in  the  siege  of  Philippsburg, 
1734,  and  in  the  war  of  the  Austrian  succession 
he  invaded  Bohemia  and  took  Prague  by  storm. 
In  1744,  now  marshal  of  France,  he  commanded 
the  French  army  in  Flanders,  showed  splendid 
tactical  skill,  and  took  several  fortresses.  In 
1745  he  defeated  the  duke  of  Cumberland  at 
Fontenoy.  In  1746  he  gained  the  victory  of 
Raucoux,  and  was '  made  marshal-general.  For 
the  third  time,  at  Laffeld,  1747,  he  defeated  Cum- 
berland and  captured  Bergen-op-zoom.  He  then 
retired  to  his  estate  of  Chambord,  and  died  in 
1750.  His  work  on  the  art  of  war,  Mes  Reveries, 
was  published  in  1751. 

Say,  Jean  Baptlste,  eminent  French  economist,  was 
bom  at  Lyons,  1767.  He  took  up  journalism  as 
a  profession,  and  in  1794  became  editor  of  the 
Dicade  philosophique  litteraire  et  "politique.  In 
1799  he  entered  the  tribunate  but  was  retired 
later  by  Napoleon.  In  1819  he  became  professor 
of  industrial  economy  at  the  Conservatoire  des 
Arts  et  Metiers,  and  in  1830  professor  of  political 
economy  at  the  College  de  France.  His  chief 
work  was  his  Traite  d'economie  politique.  He 
was  a  disciple  of  Adam  Smith  and  a  popularizer 
of  his  theories.     Say  died  in  1832. 

Sayce  (sas),  Archibald  Henry,  English  philologist, 
was  bom  at  Shirehampton,  near  Bristol,  1846. 
He  was  graduated  from  Queen's  college,  Oxford, 
1869,  and  became  a  clerical  fellow  and  tutor. 
He  was  deputy-professor  of  comparative  philol- 
ogy, 1876-90,  and  from  1891  professor  of  Assyri- 
ology.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Old  Testament 
Revision  company,  and  is  D.  D.  and  LL.  D. 
Among  bis  works  are  Comparative  Philology; 
The  Science  of  Language;  The  Ancient  Empires 
of  the  East;  Hibbert  lectures  on  the  Babylonian 
religion;  The  HiUites;  Races  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment; Egyptof  the  Hebrews;  The  Higher  Criticism 
and  the  Verdict  of  the  Alonuments;  Herodotus; 
Patriarchal  Palestine;  Assyrian  Grammar;  Israel 
and  the  Surrounding  Nations;  Babylonians  and 
Assyrians;  Genesis  in  Temple  Bible;  Egyptian 
and  Babylonian  Religion;  The  Archceology  of 
Cuneiform,  Inscriptions,  etc. 

Scallger  {skdl'-l-jer),  Joseph  Justus,  French  scholar, 
was  born  in  Guienne,  1540,  and  educated  at 
Bordeaux.  In  large  part,  however,  he  educated 
himself,  mastering  Latin,  Greek,  Syrian,  Hebrew, 
Persian  and  most  of  the  modem  European  lan- 
gu£iges,  and  at  his  death  in  1609  was  recognized 
as  the  greatest  scholar  of  his  time.  From  1793 
until  his  death  he  was  professor  of  literature  at 


Leyden.  In  his  treatise  De  Emendation*  Ttmpo- 
rum  he  laid  down  for  the  first  time  a  oompleto 
system  of  chronolo^  formed  upon  fixed  princi- 
ples. He  also  criticised  and  annotated  editions  of 
the  Roman  pocta. 

ScIiaetTcr,  Nathan  C,  American  educator,  state 
sui)crintendent  of  public  instruction,  Pennsyl- 
vania, since  1893,  was  born  in  Berks  county,  Pa., 
1849.  He  was  graduated  at  Franklin  and  Mar- 
shall college,  Lancaster,  Pa. ;  studied  divinity  at 
the  theological  seminary  of  tlie  Reformed  church, 
and  finished  his  education  at  the  universities  of 
Berlin,  Tubingen,  and  Leipzig;  Ph.  D.,  D.  D.. 
LL.  D.  He  was  professor  at  Franklin  ana 
Marshall  college,  1875-77,  and  principal  of  Key- 
stone state  normal  school,  1877-93;  president 
of  national  educational  association,  1905-07. 
Author :  Thinking  and  Learning  to  Think;  History 
of  Education  in  Pennsylvania,  etc.,  and  etlitor  of 
the  Pennsylvania  School  Journal  since  1893. 

Schaff  (sh&f),  Pliilip,  Presbyterian  theologian,  was 
born  at  Chur  in  Switzerland,  1819.  He  was 
privat-docent  in  Berlin;  was  called  to  a  chair  at 
the  German  Reformed  seminary  at  Mercerburg, 
Pa.,  1844,  and  in  1870  became  professor  in 
the  Union  seminary.  New  York.  He  was  founder 
of  the  American  branch  of  the  evangelical 
alliance,  and  was  president  of  the  American  old 
testament  revision  committee.  Among  his  works 
are  a  History  of  the  Christian  Church;  The 
Creeds  of  Christendom;  The  Person  of  Christ; 
and  a  Bible  Dictionary.  He  also  edited  Ttie 
Religious  Encyclopaedia,  based  on  Herzog.  Died, 
1893. 

Scheele  {sha'-U),  Carl  William,  Swedish  chemist, 
was  born  at  Stralsund,  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Pomerania,  1742.  Although  by  profession 
only  an  apothecary,  and  to  a  large  extent  self- 
taught,  he  made  many  important  chemical  dis- 
coveries, with  which  his  name  will  always  be 
associated.  He  discovered  oxygen  gas  inde- 
pendently of  Priestley  in  1774,  and  in  the  same 
year  discovered  the  element  chlorine.  He  also 
first  recognized  the  existence  of  baryta  as  distinct 
from  lime,  discovered  prussic  acid,  and  many 
other  organic  acids,  and  glycerine;  indeed,  he 
may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  foremost  pioneers 
in  organic  chemistry.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
treatise  on  Air  and  Fire,  and  of  many  memoirs 
which  he  contributed  to  the  transactions  of  the 
academy  of  Stockholm,  of  which  he  was  an 
associate.     Died,  1786. 

Scheffer  {shif-ir),  Ary,  French  painter,  was  bom  at 
Dordrecht,  Holland,  1795,  and  studied  under 
Gudrin  of  Paris.  He  first  made  a  reputation  as  a 
painter  of  genre  pieces,  such  as  "La  Veuve  du 
Soldat " ;  " Le  Retour  du  Consent " ;  "La  Soeur 
de  Charity";  "La  Scfene  d'Invasion,"  etc., 
which  have  been  popularized  in  France  by 
engravings.  It  was  not  until  the  romantic 
movement  reached  art,  however,  that  he  began 
to  feel  conscious  of  his  peculiar  power.  The 
influence  of  Goethe  and  Byron  became  con- 
spicuous in  his  choice  of  subjects.  The  public 
admired  his  new  style  greatly,  and  lavished 
eulogy  with  a  liberal  hand  on  his  "Marguerite  k 
son  Rouet";  "Faust  tourment^  par  la  Doute"; 
"Marguerite  h.  I'Eglise";  "Marguerite  au  Jar- 
din";  "Les  Mignons";  "Le  Lamoyeur"; 
"Francesca  da  Rimini,"  etc.  Toward  the  vear 
1836  his  art  underwent  its  third  and  final  p!iase 
— the  religious.  To  this  class  belong  his  "Le 
Christ  Consolateur " ;  "Le  Christ  R^mun6ra- 
teur";  "Les  Bergers  conduits  par  I'Ange"; 
"Les  Rois  Mages  ddposant  leurs  Tresors";  "Le 
Christ  au  Jardin  des  Oliviers";  "Le  Christ 
portant  sa  Croix";  and  "Saint  Augxistin  et  sa 
M6re  Sainte  Monique."  He  also  executed  some 
remarkable  portraits;  among  others  those  of 
Lafayette,  B^ranger,  and  Lanmrtine.  Died,  1S5S. 


968 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Schelllng    {8hM'-\ng\    Frledrich    WUhehn   Joseph, 

German  philosopher,  was  bom  at  Wiirtemburg, 
1775.  He  studied  theology  and  philosophy  at 
Tubingen  and  science  and  mathematics  at  Leipzig. 
He  succeeded  Fichte  as  teacher  of  philosophy  in 
the  university  of  Jena  in  1798.  From  1803  to 
1808  he  was  professor  at  Wiirzburg;  until  1820, 
secretary  of  the  royal  academy  of  arts  at  Munich ; 
professor  at  Erlangen  until  1827,  when  he 
returned  to  Munich  to  a  position  in  the  new 
imiversity  there,  and  finally  was  called  to  Berlin 
by  King  William  IV.  in  1841.  He  began  as  a 
follower  in  philosophy  of  Fichte  and  Hegel,  with 
whom  he  ranks  among  German  philosophers,  but 
later  was  influenced  by  Spinoza  and  Boehme. 
The  large  number  of  his  philosophical  works 
include  the  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  of  Human 
Freedom;  On  the  Possibility  of  Any  Form  of 
Philosophy;  Philosophy  of  Nature;  and  The 
World  Soul.     He  died  in  Switzerland,  1854. 

ScUff  {shlf),  Jacob  Henry,  American  banker,  was 
born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Germany,  1847. 
He  was  educated  in  the  schools  of  Frapkfort: 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1865,  and  settled 
in  New  York.  He  is  senior  member  of  the  firm 
Kuhn,  Loeb  and  Co.,  bankers;  was  director  of 
National  city  bank,  Columbia  bank,  Morton 
trust  company.  Bond  and  Mortgage  guarantee 
company.  Title  guarantee  and  trust  company, 
Fifth  Avenue  trust  company.  Industrial  trust 
company.  Providence,  National  bank  of  com- 
merce, Newport  trust  company;  is  director  of 
Western  Union  telegraph  company.  Woodbine 
land  and  improvement  company;  president  of 
Montefiore  home  for  chronic  invalids ;  vice-presi- 
dent and  trustee  of  Baron  De  Hirsch  fund ;  vice- 
president  New  York  chamber  of  commerce; 
founded  Jewish  theological  seminary,  the  Semitic 
museum,  Harvard,  nurses'  settlement.  New  York ; 
gave  $50,000  to  Hebrew  sheltering  home.  New 
York,  a  like  sum  to  aid  in  the  training  of  Jewish 
teachers,  and  many  other  donations. 

Schiller  {shU'-^\  Johann  Chrlstoph  Frledrich  von. 
See  page  84. 

Schlegel  {shla'-gd),  August  Wllhelm  von,  German 
critic,  poet,  and  scholar,  was  bom  at  Hanover, 
1767.  He  studied  at  Gottingen  for  the  church, 
but  turned  to  literature,  and  settled  as  a  lecturer 
at  Jena  in  1798.  In  conjunction  with  Treck  he 
completed  the  best  German  translation  of  Shakes- 
peare that  has  yet  appeared.  In  1800  he  pub- 
ushed  his  first  volume  of  poems;  and,  in  com- 
pany with  his  brother,  the  Charakteristiken  und 
Kritiken.  In  1801  he  left  Jena  for  Berlin,  where 
he  gave  a  series  of  lectures  on  literature,  art,  and 
the  spirit  of  the  time.  In  1803  appeared  his  Ion, 
an  antique  tragedy  of  considerable  merit,  and  in 
the  next  year  his  Blumenstrdusse  der  italienischen, 
spanischen,  und  portugiesisch^n  Poesie.  His  most 
valuable  and  most  widely  popular  work  was 
his  Lectures  on  Dramatic  Art  and  Literature, 
originally  delivered  at  Vierma,  in  the  spring  of 
1808,  and  translated  into  most  European  lan- 
guages. During  1811-15  he  published  a  new 
collection  of  his  poems,  which  contains  his  master- 
pieces, Arion,  Pygmalion,  St.  Lucas,  etc.  In 
1818  Schlegel,  now  ennobled,  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  history  in  the  university  of  Bonn,  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  history  of  the  fine  arts 
and  to  philological  research.  He  was  one  of  the 
first  students  of  Sanskrit  in  Germany,  established 
a  Sanskrit  printing  office  at  Bonn,  and  an  Indische 
Bibliothek.     Died,  1845. 

Schlegel,  Karl  wahehn  Frledrich,  German  critic 
and  author,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  bom 
at  Hanover  in  1772.  He  studied  at  Gottingen 
and  Leipzig,  and  in  1797  published  his  first  work, 
The  Greeks  and  Romans,  followed  in  the  course  of 
a  year  by  his  History  of  Greek  and  Roman  Poetry. 
Froceedmg  to  Jena,  he  started  there  as  a  priva't- 


docent,  holding  lectures  on  philosophy,  editing 
the  Athenaeum,  to  which  he  also  began  to  con- 
tribute poems  of  a  superior  quality.  In  1802 
appearea  his  Alarcos,  a  tragedy.  From  Jen* 
he  soon  went  to  Dresden,  and  thence  to  Paris, 
where  he  edited  the  Europa,  a  monthly  journal, 
and  applied  himself  assiduously  to  the  languages 
of  southern  Europe,  and  still  more  assiduously 
to  Sanskrit.  In  1808  he  went  to  Vienna,  Where, 
in  1811,  appeared  his  Lecture*  on  Modern  History, 
and  in  1815  his  History  of  Ancient  and  Modem 
Literature.     Died.  1829. 

Schlelermacher  («Wi'-*r-ma'-K*r),  Frledrich  Ernst 
Daniel,  German  philosopher  and  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Brcslau,  1768.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Moravian  schools  of  Niesky  and  Barby,  1783-87; 
next,  having  broken  from  the  dogmatic  narrow- 
ness of  the  Drethren,  he  studied  philosophy  and 
theology  at  Halle.  In  1794  be  became  assistant 
clergj'man  at  Landsberg-on-the-Warthe,  where 
he  remained  for  two  years.  The  first  work  that 
won  for  him  general  celebrity  was  his  Discouraea 
on  Religion,  which  startled  Germany  from  ita 
spiritual  torpor.  Two  years  later  he  was  ap- 
pointed preacher  at  the  charity  house  in  Berlin, 
and  in  1799  published  his  famous  Diaeouraea  of 
Religion,  in  the  following  year  his  Monologue  and 
his  Lettera  of  a  Preacher  reaiding  out  of  Berlin. 
He  was  professor  at  Halle  1804-06,  and  in  1810 
was  called  to  a  theological  chair  in  the  new  uni- 
versity of  Berlin.  Between  1804  and  1828  he 
published  a  translation  of  Plato  into  German  — 
a  translation  considered  the  most  correct  that  has 
appeared  in  any  European  language.  In  1811 
appeared  his  Bnef  Outline  of  the  Study  of  Theology; 
in  1817  his  Critical  Eaaay  on  the  Writings  of  Luke; 
and  in  1821-22  his  greatest  work,  An  Exhibition 
of  the  Christian  Faith,  according  to  the  Principlea 
of  the  Evangelical  Church.  His  Lectures  on  the 
Life  of  Christ  was  not  published  until  many 
years  after  his  death.  Tne  influence  which  he 
exerted  upon  the  philosophic  theology  of  hi* 
time  was  almost  unique,  and  his  eloquence  in  the 
pulpit  is  said  to  have  been  quite  equal  to  his 
intellectual  jwwer.     Died,  1834. 

Schley  («Wt),  Winfleld  Scott,  American  admiral, 
was  bom  near  Frederick,  Md.,  1839.  He  was 
graduated  from  the  United  States  naval  academy, 
1860;  served  in  West  Gulf  blockading  squadron 
1862-63;  was  in  engagements  leading  to  the 
capture  of  Port  Hudson,  La.,  1863,  and  re- 
mained in  southern  waters  until  1864.  He  sup- 
pressed an  insurrection  among  the  Chinese 
coolies  on  Chinchi  islands.  1864,  and  in  1865^ 
landed  100  men  at  San  Salvador  to  protect  the 
United  States  consulate  and  custom  house  during 
the  revolution.  In  1872  he  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  department  of  modem  languages  at 
Annapolis;  served  in  Europe,  west  coast  of 
Africa  and  the  South  Atlantic  states,  and  in 
1884  took  command  of  Greeley  relief  expedition 
and  rescued  Lieutenant  Greeley  and  six  sur- 
vivors at  Cape  Sabine.  He  commanded  the 
Baltimore,  and  settled  trouble  at  Valparaiso, 
Chile,  1891,  when  several  American  sailors  were 
stoned  by  a  mob.  He  carried  Ericsson's  body 
to  Sweden,  1891,  for  which  he  received  a  gold 
medal  from  the  king  of  Sweden.  He  was  placed 
in  command  of  the  "flying  squadron"  on  duty 
in  Cuban  waters  in  war  with  Spain;  was  in 
immediate  command  at  the  destruction  of 
Cervera's  fleet  off  Santiago,  July  3,  1898.  Pro- 
moted to  rear-admiral,  1899 ;  was  presented  with 
a  gold  sword  by  the  people  of  Pennsylvania;  a 
silver  sword  by  the  Royal  Arcanum;  a  gold  and 
jeweled  medal,  with  the  thanks  of  the  Marj'Jand 
legislature;  a  silver  service,  etc.,  for  services  at 
battle  of  Santiago.  He  retired  at  the  age  limit 
in  1901.  Author:  Rescue  of  Greeley,  Forty-fif 
Years  Under  the  Flag,  etc.     Died,  1911. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


Schllemann  (shli'-m&n\  Helnrlcb,  German  traveler 
and  archaeologist,  was  born  at  Mechlenburg- 
Schwerin,  1822.  While  in  business  in  St.  Peters- 
burg he  mastered  Greek  and  the  modern  lan- 
guages of  Europe.  Becoming  convinced  that 
the  heaps  of  Hissarlik  in  Asia  Minor  covered  the 
site  of  ancient  Troy,  when  he  possessed  an  inde- 
pendent fortune,  he  began  in  1870  to  excavate 
it  at  his  own  cost,  carrying  on  the  work  for 
twelve  years.  He  had  to  pay  the  Turkish  gov- 
ernment $10,000  for  carrying  off  all  the  treasures 
he  unearthed,  contrary  to  agreement.  His  col- 
lection is  now  in  the  ethnological  museum  at 
Berlin.  In  1876  he  began  excavations  on  the 
site  of  the  ancient  city  of  MycenjE,  in  Greece, 
and  the  treasures  found  there  are  now  pre- 
served at  Atiiens.  He  wrote  an  account  of  his 
work  in  Mycence,  Tiryns,  Ilios,  Troja,  and  other 
volumes.  He  died  at  Naples,  1890,  and  was 
buried  at  Athens. 

Schmidt  {shmit),  Nathaniel,  professor  of  Semitic 
languages  and  literature  at  Cornell  since  1896, 
was  born  at  Hudiksvall,  Sweden,  1862,  and 
educated  in  the  university  of  Stockholm,  Colgate 
university,  and  at  Berlin.  He  was  professor  of 
Semitic  literature  at  Colgate,  1888-96,  and  has 
gained  an  international  reputation  as  a  student 
and  critic  of  Semitic  and  biblical  literature. 
Author:  Biblical  Criticism  and  Theological 
Belief;  Syllabus  of  Oriental  History;  The  Repub- 
lic of  Man;  The  Prophet  of  Nazareth;  and  his- 
tories of  Egypt,  India  and  Syria,  besides  over 
200  contributions  to  the  New  International 
Encyclopedia  and  the  Jewish  Encyclopedia. 

Schofleld  (sko'-feld),  John  McAllister,  American 
general,  was  bom  in  Gerry,  N.  Y.,  1831.  He 
was  graduated  at  West  Point,  1853,  and  was 
made  a  professor  there  in  1855 ;  LL.  D.,  Chicago 
university.  When  the  civil  war  broke  out,  he 
entered  the  army  as  major  of  the  1st  Missouri 
volunteers,  and  was  on  General  Lyon's  staff 
when  the  latter  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Wil- 
son's Creek.  He  was  in  command  in  Missouri 
until  February,  1864,  and  then  of  the  army  of 
the  Ohio.  He  shared  Sherman's  southern  cam- 
paign, and  was  in  most  of  the  battles  which 
ended  with  the  taking  of  Atlanta,  when  he 
returned  to  Tennessee,  defeating  Hood  at  Frank- 
lin, and  was  with  General  Thomas  at  the  battle 
of  Nashville.  Entering  North  Carolina,  he  took 
Wilmington,  and  again  joined  Sherman,  for 
whom  he  drew  up  the  supplementary  articles  of 
surrender  of  Johnston's  army,  which  were  after- 
ward approved  by  the  government.  In  1868  he 
became  secretary  of  war,  and  major-general  in 
the  regular  army.  Upon  the  death  of  General 
Sheridan,  1888,  he  succeeded  to  the  command 
of  the  United  States  army.  Previous  to  his 
retirement,  he  was,  by  act  of  congress,  made 
lieutenant-general,  1895.  He  published  a  bio- 
graphical narrative  entitled  Forty-six  Years  in 
the  Army.     Died,  1906. 

Schoolcraft,  Henry  Rowe,  American  ethnolopst 
and  explorer,  was  born  at  Watervliet,  N.  Y., 
1793.  After  studying  at  Union  college,  he  visited 
the  mining  region  west  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
also  acted  as  geologist  in  an  exploring  expedition 
to  Lake  Superior  and  the  upper  Mississippi  under 
General  Cass.  In  1822  he  was  Indian  agent  for 
the  tribes  about  the  lakes,  and  married  in  1823 
the  granddaughter  of  an  Ojibway  chief  who  had 
been  educated  in  Europe.  While  Indian  agent 
he  made  treaties  that  gave  the  United  States 
16,000,000  acres.  As  a  member  of  the  legisla- 
ture of  Michigan  territory,  from  1828-32,  he 
founded  its  historical  society.  An  expedition 
which  he  commanded  in  1832  discovered  the 
sources  of  the  Mississippi.  After  collecting  the 
statistics  of  the  Six  Nations,  he  was  employed 
by  congress  in  1847  to  gather  all  the  information 


possible  about  the  Indian  tribes,  the  result  being 
published  in  five  volumes,  costing  the  govern- 
ment $30,000  a  volume.  He  added  a  sixth  vol- 
ume to  the  collection  in  1857.  Uis  works  include 
narratives  of  his  journeys:  Notes  on  the  Iro^uoia; 
The  Red  Race  of  America;  Thirty  Years  wtth  the 
Indian  Tribes;  and  The  Indian  tn  His  Wigwam. 
He  died  at  Washington,  D.  C,  1864. 

Schopenliauer  (sho'-p&n-hou'-ir),  Arthur,  German 
philosopher,  was  bom  at  Dantsic,  Germany,  1788. 
He  studied  first  at  Gottingen  and  afterward  at 
Berlin  and  Jena.  He  spent  the  winter  of  1813 
at  Weimar,  where  he  enjoyed  the  society  of 
Goethe  ana  of  the  orientalist  Friedrich  l^taier, 
who  first  turned  his  attention  to  the  ancient 
Indian  literature  and  philosophy.  He  then  pro- 
ceeded to  Dresden,  where  he  published  a  treatise 
Sight  and  Color,  which  was  followed  three  years 
later  by  his  great  work,  The  World  as  WiU  and 
Idea.  In  1831  lie  removed  to  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  devoting  himself  uninterruptedly  to  the 
elaboration  of  his  system.  The  fruits  of  his 
studies  were  On  the  Will  in  Nature;  The  Funded- 
mental  Problems  of  Ethics,  etc.     Died,  1860. 

Schouler  (sk<Sd'-lSr),  James,  American  lawyer  and 
historian,  was  bom  at  Arlington,  Mass.,  1839. 
He  was  graduated  at  Harvard,  1859;  LL.  D., 
National  university,  1891,  Johns  Hopkins,  1902. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  Massachusetts  bar,  1862, 
and  to  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States, 
1867;  was  professor  of  law,  National  university 
Washington;  professor  of  law,  Boston  university, 
1882-1902,  and  lecturer,  Johns  Hopkins,  Balti- 
more. Author:  The  Law  of  Domestic  Relations; 
The  Law  of  Bailments;  2'he  Law  of  Personal 
Property;  The  Law  of  Husband  and  Wife;  Law 
of  Executors  and  Administrators;  Law  of  Wills; 
Life  of  Thomas  Jefferson;  Historical  Briefs; 
History  of  the  United  States  Under  the  Constitution; 
Alexander  Hamilton;  EigfUy  Years  of  Union; 
Americans  of  1776;  and  various  magazine  articles. 

Schubert  {sh<X>'-birt),  Franz  Peter,  Austrian  com- 
poser, was  born  at  Vienna,  1797.  At  eleven  he 
was  one  of  the  leading  choristers  in  the  court 
chapel,  and  later  became  leading  violinist  in  the 
school  band.  His  talent  for  composition  soon 
revealed  itself,  and  by  1813  his  supreme  gift 
of  lyric  melody  showed  itself  in  the  song  "The 
Erlking,"  the  Mass  in  F,  etc.  His  brief  life,  spent 
chiefly  in  the  drudgery  of  teaching,  was  harassed 
by  pecuniary  embarrassment,  and  embittered 
by  tne  slow  recognition  his  work  won,  though  he 
was  cheered  by  the  friendly  encouragement  of 
Beethoven.  His  output  of  work  was  remarkable 
for  its  variety  and  quantity,  embracing  some 
500  songs,  ten  symphonies,  six  masses,  operas, 
sonatas,  etc.;  but  his  fame  rests  on  his  songs, 
which  are  infused  by  an  intensity  of  poetic 
feeling,  called  by  Beethoven  "divine  fire."  He 
died  in  1828. 

Schumann  (shoQ'-m^n),  Robert,  German  composer, 
was  bom  in  Zwickau,  1810.  He  studied  at 
Heidelberg,  1828-30,  and  than  at  Leipzig  under 
Wieck.  In  1834  he  founded  the  Neue  Zeit- 
schrift  far  Musik,  which  he  lon^  conducted.  Up 
to  1840  nearly  all  his  compositions  had  been  for 
the  piano,  but  he  subsefiuently  produced  138 
songs,  many  of  which  have  become  classic. 
Between  1840  and  1854  appeared  his  symphonies, 
his  quintet  and  quartet.  Paradise  and  the  Peri, 
The  Pilgrimage  of  the  Rose,  and  many  other  ^^at 
works.  In  1850-53  he  was  director  of  music  at 
Diisseldorf.  Before  this  time  he  had  shown 
symptoms  of  mental  derangement,  and  in  1854 
threw  himself  into  the  Rhine.  He  was  rescued, 
but  never  recovered  his  reason.     Died,  1856. 

Schumann -Heink  {sh/Sb'-m&n  hingk'),  Ernestine,  n6e 
Koessler,  German  dramatic  contralto,  was  bom 
at  Lieben,  1861.  She  studied  at  Gratz,  and 
made  her  d^but  at  Dresden,  1878,  as  Axuoena 


970 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


in  II  Trovatore.  In  1883  she  went  to  Hamburg, 
in  1896  sang  at  Bayreuth  as  Erda,  Waltraute, 
and  the  first  Norn,  in  Der  Ring  des  Nibdungen. 
She  married  Heink  in  1883,  Paul  Schumann  in 
1^93,  and  William  Rapp  Jr.  of  Chicago,  1905. 
She  made  her  American  d<?but  in  1898,  since 
when  she  has  devoted  herself  largely  to  concert 
work.  In  1905  she  bought  a  large  estate  at 
Montclair,  N.  J. 

Schurman  (shddr'-man),  Jacob  Gould,  American 
educator,  president  of  Cornell  university  since 
1892,  was  born  at  Freetown,  Prince  Edward 
island,  1854.  He  was  graduated  at  the  univer- 
sity of  London,  1877;  studied  at  Paris  and  the 
university  of  Edinburgh,  1877-78,  and  two 
years  at  Heidelbeig,  Berlin  and  Giittingen,  and 
m  Italy;  D.  Sc,  Edinburgh;  LL.  D.,  Columbia 
university,  1892,  Yale  university,  1901,  univer- 
sity of  Edinburi^h,  1902.  In  1880-82  he  was 
professor  of  English  literature,  political  economy 
and  psychology,  Acadia  colleije;  1882-86  pro- 
fessor of  metaphysics  and  English  literature, 
Dalhousie  college;  and  1886-92  Sa^ge  professor 
of  philosophy,  and  latter  part  of  time  dean  of 
Sage  school  of  philosophy,  Cornell.  He  waa 
appointed,  1899,  by  the  president,  chairman  of 
the  United  States  Philippine  commission,  and 
spent  most  of  1899  in  the  PhiUppines.  Author: 
Kantian  Ethics  and  the  Ethics  of  Evolution;  The 
Ethical  Import  of  Darwinism;  Belie/  in  God; 
Agnosticism,  and  Religion;  A  Generation  of 
Cornell;  Report  of  the  Philippine  Commistion 
(joint  author) ;  Philippine  Affairs  —  A  Retroapect 
and  Outlook,  etc.  He  was  appointed  life  member 
of  the  American  academy  in  Rome,  1905. 
Appointed  United  States  minister  to  Greece,  1912. 

Srhiirz  (shoorts),  Carl,  American  publicist,  was  bom 
in  Liblar,  near  Cologne,  Germany,  1829.  He 
was  educated  at  the  gymnasium,  Cologne,  and 
university  of  Bonn;  LL.  D.,  Harvard,  university 
of  Missouri,  and  Columbia  university.  He  pub- 
lished a  liberal  newspaper  at  Bonn;  took  part 
in  a  revolutiohary  movement  in  1848-49;  joined 
the  revolutionary  army,  but  finally  had  to  flee 
to  Switzerland.  He  was  newspaper  correspond- 
ent in  Paris,  1851 ;  teacher  in  London :  came  to 
the  United  States,  1852;  settled  in  Watertown, 
Wis.;  was  defeated  as  republican  candidate  for 
lieutenant-governor  of  Wisconsin,  1857;  United 
States  minister  to  Spain,  1861;  resigned  to 
enter  the  Union  army;  appointed  brigadier- 
general,  1862;  major-general,  1863;  and  com- 
manded a  division  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull 
Run  and  at  Chancellorsville,  and  a  corps  at 
Gettysburg.  After  the  war  he  was  Washington 
correspondent  of  the  New  York  Tribune,  1865-66 ; 
founded  the  Detroit  Post,  1866 ;  was  editor  of  the 
St  Louis  WesUiche  Post,  1867 ;  temporary  chair- 
man of  republican  national  convention,  Chicago, 
1868;  and  United  States  senator  from  Missouri, 
1869-75.  He  was  one  of  the  organizers  of  the 
Uberal  party,  1872;  presided  over  the  conven- 
tion at  Cincinnati  which  nominated  Greeley  for 
president ;  supported  Hayes,  1876 ;  was  secretarj' 
of  the  interior,  1877-81,  and  was  editor  of  the 
New  York  Evening  Post,  1881-84.  Author: 
Speeches;  Life  of  Henry  Clay;  Abraham  Lincoln, 
an  Essay,  and  an  autobiography  pubUshed  in 
McClure's  Magazine,  interrupted  by  his  death  in 
1906. 

Schuyler,  Philip  John,  American  general,  was  bom 
at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  1733.  He  served  in  the  French 
and  Indian  war,  was  a  member  of  the  colonial 
congress  from  1768,  and  of  the  continental-  con- 
gress of  1775,  and  one  of  the  first  four  major- 
generals  of  the  revolutionary  army.  He  was 
reheved  of  the  command  of  the  armv  of  the  North 
by  Gates,  but  remained  with  it  rendering  valuable 
service,  and  in  1778  was  acquitted  with  the 
highest  honor  of  the  charges  against  him      He 


made  treaties  with  the  Six  Nations,  was  state 
senator  for  thirteen  years,  United  States  senator 
for  two  terms,  and  surveyor-general  of  the  state 
from  1782.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
federal  party  in  New  York,  and  helped  to  prepare 
the  state  code  of  laws.     He  died  at  Albany,  1804. 

Schwab  (shw/ib),  Charles  M,,  American  capitalist, 
ex-presidcnt  of  the  United  Stattss  steel  corpora- 
tion, was  bom  in  Williamsburg,  Pa.,  1862.  He 
wail  educated  in  the  village  school  and  at  St. 
Francis  college ;  aa  a  boy  drove  stage  from  Loretto 
to  Crcsson,  Pa.;  entered  service  of  Carnegie 
company  as  stake-driver  in  engineering  corps  of 
Edgar  Thompson  steel  works;  became  superin- 
tendent of  Homestead  works  and  finally  president 
of  Carnegie  steel  company,  limited.  He  was  presi- 
dent, 1901-03,  of  the  United  States  steel  corpo- 
ration; general  manager  of  the  Bethlehem 
steel  corporation:  director  of  Bethlehem  steel 
company,  Carnegie  steel  company.  Empire  trust 
company,  H.  C.  Frick  coke  coiiii>any,  Minnesota 
iron  company,  National  bank  of  North  America, 
National  tube  company,  National  tube  works 
company,  United  States  realty  and  improvement 
company,  Chicago  pneumatic  tool  company, 
Clyde  steamship  company,  Elgin,  Joliet  and 
Eastern  railway  company,  etc.  He  built  the 
new  Catholic  church,  costing  $150,000,  at 
Loretto,  Pa. ;  establisned  an  industrial  school 
at  Homestead,  Pa.,  etc. 

Sohwanthaler  (ehvAn'-tO-Ur),  Ludwig  von,  German 
sculptor,  was  bom  at  Munich,  1802.  He  studied 
under  his  father,  and  after  a  visit  to  Rome  was 
charged  by  King  Louis  of  Bavaria  to  execute 
bas-reliefs  and  figures  for  the  public  buildings  of 
Munich.  In  1835  he  became  professor  at  the 
Munich  aeademv.  Among  his  works  are  the 
coloflsal  statue  of  "Bavaria " ;  statues  of  Goethe, 
Jean  Paul  Richter,  Mosart,  etc.     He  died  in  1848. 

Sdplo  (Hj/-Ui),  idnlUanus  Publlus,  sumamed 
Africanua  Minor,  was  bom  about  185  B.  C.  He 
was  the  son  of  Paulus  vGmiliu.s,  and  was  adopted 
by  the  son  of  Scipio  Africanus.  After  distinguish- 
ing himself  in  Spain,  he  proceeded  to  Africa  to 
take  part  in  the  third  Punic  war.  Here  he  laid 
siege  to  Carthage,  took  it  by  storm,  and  leveled 
it  with  the  ground  in  146  B.C.  He  was  afterward 
sent  to  Spam,  where  he  captured  Numantia  after 
a  stubborn  resistance,  to  the  extension  of  the 
sway  of  Rome.  He  was  an  upright  and  magnani- 
mous man,  but  his  character  was  not  proof  against 
assault,  and  he  died  by  the  hand  of  an  assassin, 
about  129  B.  C. 

Sriplo,  Publlus  Cornelius,  sumamed  Africanus 
Major,  celebrated  Roman  general,  was  bom  about 
237  B.  C.  In  212  B.  C.  he  was  elected  sedile, 
and  in  the  following  year  proconsul,  with  com- 
mand of  the  Roman  forces  in  Spain.  His  ap- 
pearance there  restored  fortune  to  the  Roman 
arms.  He  defeated  Hasdrubal  at  Baesula,  with 
heavy  loss.  In  205  B.  C.  he  returned  to  Rome, 
where  he  was  elected  consul,  and  in  the  following 
year  sailed  from  Lilyba^um,  in  Sicily,  at  the  head 
of  a  large  army,  for  the  invasion  of  Africa.  His 
success  compelled  the  Carthaginian  senate  to 
recall  Hannibal  from  Italy.  Tlie  great  struggle 
between  Rome  and  Carthage  was  terminated  by 
the  battle  fought  at  Naragra,  on  the  Bagradas, 
near  Zama,  202  B.  C,  in  which  the  Carthaginian 
troops  were  routed  with  immense  slaughter. 
Peace  was  concluded  the  following  year,  when 
Scipio  returned  to  Rome,  and  enjoyed  a  triumph. 
He  was  made  a  Roman  consul  in  194  B.  C,  and 
accompanied  his  brother  Lucius  in  the  campaign 
against  Antiochus  in  190  B.  C.  His  laurels, 
however,  did  not  protect  him  from  the  intrigues 
of  his  enemies  in  Rome.  V^arious  charges  were 
brought  against  him,  and  he  at  length  retired  in 
disgust  to  his  country  seat  at  Litemum,  where 
he  died,  183  or  185  B.  C. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


971 


Scott,   Sir   Gcorjre   Gilbert,    British   architect,   was 

born  at  Gawcott,  near  Buckingham,  England, 
1811.  He  was  indentured  to  a  London  arcliitect, 
1827-30,  and  eventually  became  the  leading 
architect  of  the  Gothic  restoration  in  England, 
and  as  such  built  or  restored  26  cathedrals,  9 
abbey  and  2  priory  churches,  1  minster,  474 
churches,  26  schools,  5  almshouses,  23  parson- 
ages, 57  monumental  works,  10  college  chapels 
and  16  colleges,  27  public  buildings,  42  man- 
sions, etc.  The  martyrs'  memorial  at  Oxford, 
St.  Nicholas'  at  Hamburg,  St.  George's  at  Don- 
caster,  the  new  government  offices,  Albert  memo- 
rial, and  Midland  terminus  in  London,  Preston 
town-hall,  Glajsgow  university,  the  chapels  of 
Exeter  and  St.  John's  colleges,  Oxford,  and  the 
Episcopal  cathedral  at  Edinburgh  are  speci- 
mens of  his  work.  He  was  elected  A.  R.  A. 
in  1855,  R.  A.  in  1861 ;  held  the  professorship  of 
architecture  at  the  London  academy;  and  was 
knighted  in  1872.  He  died  in  1878,  and  was 
buried  in  Westminster  abbey.  He  published 
several  works  on  architecture. 

Scott,  James  Brown,  American  lawyer  and  educator, 
lecturer  on  international  law,  Johns  Hopkins 
university,  since  1909;  was  born  at  Kincardine, 
Ontario,  1866.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard, 
and  studied  international  law,  1891-94,  in  Berlin, 
Heidelberg,  and  Paris;  J.  U.  D.,  Heidelberg, 
1894.  He  practiced  law  at  Los  Angeles,  Cal., 
1894-99 ;  organized  Los  Angeles  law  school,  now 
law  department  university  of  soutliern  California, 
1896,  and  was  its  dean,  189()-99;  dean  of  the 
college  of  law,  university  of  Illinois,  1899-1903 ; 
professor  of  law,  Columbia  law  school,  1903-06 ; 
professor  of  law,  1905-06,  and  of  international 
law,  1906-11,  George  Washington  university. 
He  was  solicitor  for  the  department  of  state, 
1906-11.  He  was  delegate  and  expert  in  inter- 
national law  of  United  States  to  second  peace 
conference  at  The  Hague,  1907.  Editor-in-chief 
of  the  American  Journal  of  International  Law. 
Author:  Cases  on  International  Law;  Cases  on 
Quasi-Contracts;  Cases  on  Equity  Jurisdiction; 
Cases  on  Equity  Pleading;  many  contributions  to 
legal  and  educational  reviews  on  matters  of 
international  law  and  legal  education. 

Scott,  Nathan  Bay,  ex-United  States  senator,  was 
born  in  Ohio,  1842.  He  received  his  education 
in  the  common  schools,  Quaker  City,  Ohio.  He 
subsequently  clerked  in  a  store;  served  in  the 
Union  army,  1862-65;  located  at  Wheeling,  W. 
Va.,  after  the  war,  and  became  a  glass  manufac- 
turer. He  was  president  of  the  city  council, 
1880-82;  state  senator,  1882-90;  member  of 
national  republican  committee  since  1886;  com- 
missioner of  internal  revenue,  1898-99,  and  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  senate  for  the 
period  of  1899-1911. 

Scott,  Richard  William,  Canadian  senator  and 
Dominion  secretary  of  state,  1896-1908;  was  born 
at  Prescott,  Canada,  1825.  He  was  educated 
at  Prescott;  was  member  of  parliament  for 
Ottawa,  1857-63;  speaker  of  the  house  of  com- 
mons, 1871 ;  wa^  commissioner  of  crown  lands, 
1872-73;  appointed  to  senate,  1873;  secretary 
of  state,  1873-78;  and  leader  of  the  opposition 
in  the  senate,  1879-96.  He  carried  through 
parliament  the  school  bill  giving  the  Roman 
Catholics  right  to  establish  separate  schools, 
1863,  and  the  Canada  temperance  (local  option) 
act,  known  as  Scott  act,  1875. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter.     See  page  88. 

Scott,  Winfleid,  American  general,  was  bom  near 
Petersburg,  Va.,  1786.  He  studied  at  WilUam 
and  Mary  college,  and  first  became  a  lawyer,  but 
in  1808  entered  the  army  as  captain.  In  the 
war  of  1812  he  was  sent  to  the  Canadian  border, 
where  he  fought  at  Queenston  and  at  Lundy's 
Lane,  being  taken  prisoner  at  Queenston,  but ' 


wa«  Boon  exchanged.  He  wa«  woxinded  In  both 
the  battles,  having  two  horaes  shot  under  him 
at    Lundy's    Lane.     He    was    made    a    major- 

f;eneral  for  his  services,  commanded  the  federal 
orces  at  Charleston  harbor,  during  the  nullifira- 
tion  troubles,  and  also  in  the  disputes  about  the 
border  of  Maine  in  1839.  As  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  United  States  army  1841-47,  he 
took  command  of  the  invasion  of^  Mexico.  He 
captured  Vera  Cruz,  and  defeated  Santa  Anna 
at  Cerro  Gordo,  taking  Jalapa  and  Puebla;  took 
the  castle  of  Chapultepec  by  storm,  and  Septem- 
ber 14,  1847,  marched  into  the  city  of  Mexico, 
where  he  commanded  until  the  treaty  of  peace 
was  signed  in  J'ebruary,  1848.  He  was  a  candi- 
date for  the  presidency  in  1852,  but  failed  of 
election.  At  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war  he 
was  in  charge  of  the  army,  but  soon  yielded  his 
position  to  younger  men.  He  died  at  West 
Point,  1866. 

Seaman,  Owen,  English  humorist  and  editor  of 
Punch  since  1906,  was  bom  in  1861.  He  was 
educated  at  Shrewsbury  and  at  Clare  college, 
Cambridge;  was  professor  of  literature  at  Dur- 
ham college  of  science  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
1890;  began  writing  for  Punch  1894.  He 
was  made  a  barrister  of  Inner  lemple,  1897, 
joined  the  staff  of  Punch  in  the  same  year,  and 
was  assistant  editor  in  1902.  Author:  CEdiput 
the  Wreck;  With  Double  Pipe;  Horace  at  Cam- 
bridge; Tillers  of  the  Sand;  The  Battle  of  the 
Bays;  In  Cap  and  Bells;  Borrowed  Plumes;  A 
Harvest  of  Chaff,  etc. 

Seawell,  MoUy  Elliot,  American  author,  was  bom 
in  Gloucester  county,  Va.,  1860,  daughter  of 
John  Tyler  Seawell.  She  was  educated  privately, 
and  began  writing  sketches  and  stories  in  1886. 
In  1890  her  Little  Jarvis  took  a  prize  of  f500 
offered  bv  the  Youth's  Companion  for  the  best 
story  for  boys,  and  in  1895  her  Sprightly  Romance 
of  Marsac  took  a  prize  of  $3,000  offered  by  the 
New  York  Herald.  Author:  Little  Jartds;  Mid- 
shipman Paulding;  Paid  Jones;  Maid  Marian; 
Decatur  and  Somers;  A  Strange,  Sad  Comedy; 
The  Sprightly  Romance  of  Marsac;  A  Virginia 
Cavalier;  The  Rock  of  the  Lion;  Gavin  Hamilton; 
The  House  of  Egremont;  Papa  Bouchard;  Fran- 
cezka;  Children  of  Destiny;  The  Chateau  of 
Monplaisir;  The  Victory;  The  Secret  of  Toni, 
etc. ;  and  the  plays,  Maid  Marian  and  Sprightly 
Romance  of  Marsac. 

Sedgwick,  John,  American  general,  was  bom  at 
Cornwall,  Conn.,  1813.  He  was  graduated  at 
West  Point;  served  in  Florida  when  the  Chero- 
kees  were  removed ;  served  through  the  Mexican 
war,  gaining  promotion  at  the  battles  of  Con- 
treras,  Churubusco,  and  Chapultepec;  and 
achieved  a  brilliant  record  in  the  civil  war.  By 
the  spring  of  1862  he  was  in  conmiand  of  a 
division,  and  in  July  of  that  year  was  made 
major-general  of  volunteers.  As  commander  of 
the  6th,  or  Sedgwick's  corps,  he  made  a  forced 
march  of  thirty-five  miles  to  Gettysburg,  and 
commanded  there  the  left  wing  in  the  battle  of 
July  2  and  3,  1863.  Three  davs  after  the  battle* 
of  the  Wilderness,  1864,  in  which  he  had  taken 
part,  he  was  shot  by  a  sharp-shooter  while  order- 
ing a  battery  to  be  brought  into  position  at 
Spottsylvania.  A  monument  made  from  the 
metal  of  cannon  captured  by  his  corps  waa 
erected  in  his  honor  at  West  Point  in  1868. 

Seeley,  Sir  John  Bobert,  English  historian,  was 
bom  in  London,  1834,  son  of  the  publisher, 
Robert  Benton  Seeley.  He  was  educated  at 
Christ's  college,  Cambridge,  and  was  elected  a 
fellow  of  his  college  in  1858.  In  1863  he  became 
professor  of  Latin  in  University  college,  London, 
and  in  1869  of  modem  history  at  Cambridge. 
His  Ecce  Homo  appeared  anonymously  in  1865, 
and  excited  an  extraordinary  commotion  in  the 


972 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


religious  world.  It  was  followed  by  Natural 
Religion,  1882.  His  other  works  are:  Life  and 
Times  of  Stein;  The  Expansion  of  England;  A 
Short  Ld/e  of  Napoleon  the  First;  Growth  of 
British  Policy;  Goethe  Reviewed  after  Sixty  Years; 
and  Introdtiction  to  Political  Science.  He  was 
created  a  K.  C.  M.  G.  in  1894,  and  died,  1895. 

Selden,  John,  English  scholar  and  lawyer,  was  bom 
in  Sussex,  England,  1584.  He  studied  at  Oxford 
three  years,  and  then  removed  to  London  for  the 
pursuit  of  law.  It  was  here  that  his  great  learn- 
ing began  to  attract  attention.  He  wrote  his 
first  treatise,  entitled  Anaiecton  Anglo- BrUanni- 
con,  1606,  when  only  twenty-two  years  of  age. 
In  1610  appeared  his  Janus  Anglorum  Fades 
Altera,  and  in  1614  was  published  his  Titles  of 
Honor,  a  work  still  regarded  as  of  bigh  authority 
on  the  subject  of  which  it  treats.  Three  years 
later  appeared  an  erudite  work  on  the  Syrian 
gods.  Next  year,  however,  he  excited  ^reat 
indignation  among  the  clergy  by  his  Treatise  of 
Tythes.  In  1623  he  was  elected  to  parliament 
for  Lancaster.  In  1630  he  was  committed  to  the 
Tower  for  his  activity  in  opposing  the  policy  of 
the  court,  and  remained  a  prisoner  for  four  years. 
In  1640  he  was  chosen  member  for  the  university 
of  Oxford;  and,  when  the  struggle  between  the 
king  and  the  nation  bep;an  to  grow  earnest,  he 
was  suspected  of  not  bemg  zealous  enough.  He 
sided  against  the  bishops  when  the  Question  came 
up  as  to  their  tenure  of  seats  in  parliament ;  and 
he  helped  to  draw  up  the  articles  of  impeachment 
against  Laud.  After  the  execution  of  Charles 
he  took  little  share  in  public  matters.  His 
Table-Talk  is  well  known.     He  died  in  Kent,  1654. 

Sellgman  (sW-lg-man),  Edwin  Robert  Anderson, 
American  economist,  McVickar  professor  of  politi- 
cal economy,  Columbia  university,  since  1904;  was 
bom  in  New  York,  1861.  He  was  graduated  at 
Columbia,  1879;  LL.  B.,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.;  and 
studied  three  years  at  the  universities  of  Berlin, 
Heidelberg,  Geneva,  and  Paris.  He  was  adjunct 
professor  political  economy,  1888-91,  professor 
political  economy  and  finance,  1891-1904,  Col- 
umbia university;  president  of  the  American 
economic  association,  1902-04.  He  is  editor  of 
the  Political  ScienceQuarterly.  Author:  Railway 
Tariffs;  Finance  Statistics  of  American  Common- 
wealth; The  Shifting  and  Incidence  of  Taxation; 
Progressive  Taxation  in  Theory  and  Practice; 
Essays  in  Taxation;  Two  Chapters  on  Mediaeval 
Guilds  of  England;  Economic  Interpretation  of 
History;  Principles  of  Economics,  etc. 

Selous  {se4ods',  or  l^')j  Frederick  Courtenay, 
English  traveler  and  writer,  was  bom  in  London, 
1851,  and  was  educated  at  Rugby,  in  Switzerland 
and  in  Germany.  He  first  visited  South  Africa  in 
1871,  and  since  has  published  A  Hunter's  Wan- 
derings in  Africa;  Travel  and  Adventure  in  South- 
east Africa;  Sunshine  and  Storm  in  Rhodesia; 
Sport  and  Travel,  East  and  West;  Recent  Hunting 
Trips  in  British  North  America;  African  Nature 
Notes  and  Reminiscences,  etc.  He  fought  in 
Matabeleland  during  the  Matabele  war  of  1893. 

Sembrlch  {zSm'-briK\  Marcella,  Austrian  soprano, 
was  bom  in  1858.  She  studied  under  Stengel, 
whom  she  afterward  married,  Epstein,  and 
Rokitansky  in  Vienna,  and  made  her  d^but  at 
Athens  in  1877,  in  /  Puritani.  In  1879  she  sang 
m  Dresden,  and  afterward  at  Vienna,  Dresden, 
London,  and  New  York,  her  favorite  parts  being 
Susanna,  Martha,  Zerlina,  Rosina,  Lucia,  and 
Leonora.  Besides  possessing  a  voice  of  high 
quality,  she  is  also  an  excellent  actress. 

Semmes  (sSmz),  Raphael,  American  naval  officer, 
was  bom  in  Maryland,  1809.  He  served  in  the 
Mexican  war,  in  1861  joined  the  naval  service  of 
the  confederate  states,  and  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  war  steamer  Sumter.  He  also 
commanded    the    famoxis    Alabama    during    her 


destructive  cruise.  After  the  war  he  practiced 
law  at  Mobile,  Ala.  He  published  the  Cruise  of 
the  Alabama  and  the  Sumter;  Memoirs  of  Service 
Afloat;  Campaigns  of  General  Scott,  etc.  Died, 
1877. 

Seneca,  Lucius  Annaeus,  Roman  stoic  philosopher, 
was  born  at  Corduba,  Spain,  about  4  B.  C.  Ho 
was  educated  in  Rome,  and  became  for  a  time 
an  advocate  in  the  courts  of  justice,  where  he 
attained  a  considerable  reputation.  On  the 
accession  of  Emi>eror  Claudius,  A.  D.  41,  he  was 
banialied  to  the  island  of  Corsica,  where  be 
remained  for  eight  years,  consoling  himself  as 
well  as  he  was  able  with  the  maxims  of  philosophy, 
but  all  the  time  making  abject  petitions  to  the 
emperor  for  pardon.  On  the  marriage  of  Clau- 
dius to  his  second  wife,  Agrippina,  Seneca  was 
through  her  influence  recalled,  and  was  appointed 
tutor  to  her  son  Domitius,  afterward  the  emperor 
Nero.  Five  years  later  his  pupil  ascended  the 
throne,  and  Seneca  became  one  of  the  chief 
advisers  of  the  young  emperor,  attaining  great 
power  and  immense  wealth.  All  his  influence 
failed,  however,  to  restrain  the  vicious  pro- 
pensities of  Nero;  and,  after  the  murder  of 
Agrippina  by  the  latter,  A.  D.  59,  Seneca  asked 
penniasion  to  retire  from  court,  and  offered  to 
relinquish  all  he  had  to  the  emperor.  This  was 
at  the  time  refused,  and  he  sent  the  philosopher 
away  with  many  protestations  of  respect  and 
gratitude.  He  now  wholly  avoided  public  life, 
and  devoted  himself  to  his  philosophical  studies* 
but  the  emperor,  who  both  disliked  and  feared 
him,  followixl  him  into  hi.s  retirement,  and  is  said 
to  have  sought  to  compass  his  death  by  poison. 
After  the  conspiracy  of  Piso,  A.  D.  65,  Seneca 
was  mentioned  by  one  of  the  conspirators  as 
having  shartnl  in  the  plot,  and,  without  further 
proof,  was  ordered  to  put  himself  to  death.  He 
died  with  all  the  courage  of  a  stoic,  and  his  wife, 
Pompeia  Paulina,  attempted,  though  vainly,  to 
die  with  him.  Of  Seneca's  writings  which  nave 
come  down  to  us,  the  greater  part  are  on  moral 
and  philosophical  subjects. 

Sennacherib  (sf-ndk'-ir-lb),  celebrated  king  of 
ancient  Assyria,  reigned  from  705  to  681  B.  C. 
He  seems  to  have  been  the  first  who  fixed  the  seat 
of  government  permanentlv  at  Nineveh,  which 
he  adorned  with  splendid  buildings.  The  chief 
biblical  event  in  his  hi.story  is  the  destruction  of 
his  army,  in  a  single  night,  while  threatening  the 
Egyptian  frontier  of  Palestine.  During  this 
night  185,000  men  are  said  to  have  been  de- 
stroyed. This  event  is  the  subject  of  Lord 
Byron's  powerful  poem.  The  Destruction  of 
Sennacherib.  Of  the  death  of  Sennacherib 
nothing  is  known  beyond  the  brief  statement  of 
scripture,  that  "as  he  was  worshiping  in  the 
house  of  Nisroch,  his  god,  Adranunelech  and 
Sharezer^  his  sons,  smote  nim  with  the  sword,  and 
escaped  into  the  land  of  Armenia." 

Septlmlus  Severus.     See  Severus. 

Sergei  (sir'-gel),  Jolin  Tobias,  eminent  Swedish 
sculptor,  was  bom  at  Stockholm,  1740.  He  waa 
a  pupil  of  L'Archevficque,  and  subsequently 
completed  his  studies  at  Rome;  rose  to  great 
eminence,  and  was  ennobled  after  his  return  to 
Sweden.  Among  his  most  admired  productions 
are:  "Othryades";  a  recumbent  faun;  "Venus 
Callipyges";  "Diomedes  bearing  away  the 
Palladium";  "Venus  and  Mars";  "Cupid  and 
Psyche";  and  the  great  historical  group,  "Oxen- 
stiema  Relating  to  History  the  Exploits  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus."     He  died  in  1814. 

Servetus  (sir-ve'-tOs),  Michael,  Spanish  physician 
and  controversialist,  was  bom  in  Spain,  about 
1511.  He  studied  law  at  Saragossa  and  Toulouse, 
was  graduated  in  medicine  at  Paris,  and  after- 
ward studied  theology  at  Louvain.  He  practiced 
medicine  first   in   the  village  of  Charlieu,   near  " 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


VTZ 


Lyons,  and  afterward  at  Vienne,  in  Dauphiny; 
was  an  earnest  supporter  of  the  reformation,  but 
published,  in  1531,  an  essay  against  the  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity.  He  maintained  a  vigorous  cor- 
respondence with  Calvin,  who  endeavored  for 
sixteen  years  to  convince  him  of  his  errors;  and 
the  failure  of  the  endeavor  irritated  Calvin, 
whose  anger  was  doubtless  increased  by  the 
trenchant  style  in  which  Servetus  replied  to  his 
arguments.  In  1553  he  published  his  book 
called  C hristianisnii  Restitutio,  of  which,  though 
he  avoided  putting  his  name  to  it,  the  authorship 
was  discovered ;  and,  on  the  complaint  of  Calvin, 
he  was  imprisoned  at  Vienne.  He  now  proposed 
to  retire  to  Naples,  but  was  so  imprudent  as  to 
pass  through  Geneva,  where  Calvin  obtained 
intelligence  of  his  arrival,  and  gave  information 
of  it  to  the  magistrates.  He  was  thereupon 
seized,  once  more  imprisoned,  tried  for  heresy, 
and  ultimately  burned  by  a  slow  fire,  1553. 

Seton  (se'-tiin),  Ernest  Thompson,  artist,  author, 
lectxirer,  was  bom  at  South  Shields,  England, 
1860.  He  lived  in  the  backwootls  of  Canada, 
1866-70,  on  western  plains,  1882-87.  He  was 
educated  at  Toronto  collegiate  institute  and  the 
royal  academy,  London,  England,  and  studied 
art  in  Paris,  1890-96.  He  became  official  natur- 
alist to  the  government  of  Manitoba;  published 
Mammals  of  Manitoba,  1886,  and  Birds  of  Mani- 
toba, 1891.  He  was  one  of  the  chief  illustrators 
of  The  Century  Dictionary,  has  illustrated  many 
books  about  birds  and  mammals,  and  has  deliv- 
ered over  2,000  lectures.  Author  and  illustrator: 
Art  Anatomy  of  Animals;  Wild  Animals  I  Have 
Knotim;  The  Trail  of  the  Sandhill  Stag;  The 
Biography  of  a  Grizzly;  Wild  Animal  Play  for 
ChUdren;  Lobo,  Rag  and  Vixen;  Lives  of  the 
Hunted;  Pictures  of  Wild  Animals;  Krag  and 
Johnny  Bear;  Two  Little  Savages;  Monarch,  the 
Big  Bear;  Woodmyth  and  Fable;  Animal  Heroes; 
The  Birchbark  Roil;  Natural  History  of  the  Ten 
Commandments,  etc. 

Severus  {se-ve'-rOs),  Lucius  Septimlus,  Romsm 
emperor,  was  born  near  Leptis  Magna  in  Africa, 
146.  He  rose  to  be  prsetor  in  178,  and  com- 
naander  of  the  army  in  Pannonia  and  lUyria. 
After  the  murder  of  Pertinax  in  193,  he  was 
proclaimed  emperor,  marched  upon  Rome, 
utterly  defeated  his  two  rivals  in  195  and  197, 
and  between  these  dates  made  a  splendid  cam- 

Eaign  in  the  East,  and  took  Byzantium.  In  198 
e  met  with  the  most  brilliant  success  in  his 
campaign  against  the  Parthians.  At  Rome  in 
202  he  displayed  unparalleled  magnificence,  and 
distributed  extravagant  largess.  A  rebellion  in 
Britain  drew  him  thither  in  208,  when  he  marched, 
it  is  said,  to  the  extreme  north  of  the  island.  To 
check  south  Britain  from  the  Caledonian  inva- 
sions, he  repaired  Hadrian's  wall,  sometimes 
called  after  Severus,  and  died  soon  after  at 
Eboracum  (York),  211. 

S^vignfi  (sd'-ven'-yd'),  Madame  de,  n^e  Marie  de 
BabutliL-Chantal,  one  of  the  most  charming  of 
letter  writers,  was  bom  at  Paris,  1626.  At 
eighteen  she  married  the  dissolute  Marquis  de 
S6vign6,  who  left  her  a  widow  at  twenty-five. 
Her  beauty  and  rare  charms  attracted  many 
suitors,  to  one  and  all  of  whom,  however,  she 
turned  a  deaf  ear,  devoting  herself  with  touching 
fidelity  to  her  son  and  daughter,  and  finding  all 
her  happiness  in  their  affection  and  in  the  social 
intercourse  of  a  wide  circle  of  friends.  Her 
fame  rests  on  her  Letters,  written  chiefly  to  her 
daughter  in  Provence,  which  reflect  the  brightest 
and  purest  side  of  Parisian  life,  and  contain  the 
tender  outpourings  of  her  mother's  heart  in 
language  of  unstudied  grace.     She  died  in  1696. 

Seward,  William  Henry,  American  statesman,  was 
bom  in  Florida,  N.  Y.,  1801.  He  was  graduated 
at  Union  college  in  1820,  was  admitted  to  the 


bar  in  1822,  and  settled  at  Auburn,  N.  Y.  H« 
was  elected  to  the  state  senate  in  1830;  waa 
elected  governor  of  New  York  in  1838,  and  in 
1849  was  elected  to  the  United  States  senate, 
where  he  became  the  acknowledged  leader  of  hia 
party.  In  the  debate  on  the  admission  of 
Cahfomia  he  promulgated  what  was  called  hia 
"liigher-law"  doctrine,  in  saying  that  there  waa 
"a  higher  law  than  the  constitution,  which 
regulated  the  authority  of  congress  over  the 
national  domain  —  the  law  of  Uod  and  the 
interests  of  humanity."  In  1860  he  was  the 
most  prominent  candidate  of  the  republican 
party  for  nomination  for  the  presidency,  but 
personal  and  local  interests  finally  secured  the 
election  of  Abraham  Lincoln.  Seward  afterward 
accepted  the  impwrtant  post  of  secretary  of 
state,  in  Lincoln's  cabinet,  in  which  he  guided 
the  diplomacy  of  the  federal  government  through 
the  perils  of  the  civil  war.  On  April  14,  1865, 
as  the  war  approached  its  termination,  and  while 
Seward  was  confined  to  his  room  by  a  fall  from 
his  carriage.  President  Lincoln  was  assassinated 
at  a  theater  in  Washington.  At  the  same  time 
another  assassin  penetrated  Seward's  room,  and 
with  a  poignard  inflicted  wounds  upon  him  which 
were  at  first  believed  to  be  fatal.  He  recovered 
and  continued  as  secretary  of  state  throughout 
the  presidency  of  Lincoln's  successor,  Andrew 
Johnson,  when  he  conducted  the  negotiations  for 
the  Alaskan  purchase.  He  resigned  in  1869,  on 
the  accession  of  U.  S.  Grant.  He  published 
Speeches  and  Orations,  in  4  vols..  Life  of  John 
Quincy  Adams,  and  Life  of  De  Witt  Clinton. 
Died,  1872. 

Seymour,  Sir  Edward  Hobart,  English  admiral, 
was  bom  in  1840.  He  was  educated  at  Radley. 
and  entered  the  British  navy  in  1852.  He  servea 
through  the  Crimean  war  in  the  Black  sea;  the 
China  war,  1857-62;  operations  against  Chinese 
rebels,  and  in  the  Egyptian  war  of  1882,  taking 
part  in  most  of  the  naval  fighting  in  connection 
with  those  wars.  As  commander  he  was  badly 
wounded  in  action  on  the  river  Congo,  ae 
became  captain  in  1873,  rear-admiral,  1889,  and 
vice-admiral,  1895,  and  was  commander-in-chief 
of  the  China  station,  1898-1901.  From  1894  to 
1897  he  served  in  the  British  admiralty  as 
superintendent  of  naval  reserves.  He  com- 
manded the  naval  brigade  of  the  allied  forces 
near  Tientsin  in  1900,  and  was,  in  October,  1902, 
appointed  her  majesty's  first  and  principal  naval 
aide-de-camp.  He  was  commander-in-chief  at 
Devonport,  1903-05;  admiral  of  the  fleet,  1905-10; 
accompanied  Prince  Arthur  in  his  mission  to 
Japan,  1906. 

Sejrmour,  Horatio,  American  statesman,  was  bom 
at  Pompey,  N.  Y.,  1810.  He  studied  at  a 
military  school;  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  1832; 
entered  New  York  legislature,  1841;  and  was 
chosen  sjjeaker,  1845.  He  was  elected  governor 
in  1852  and  1863,  and  came  into  great  prominence 
as  one  of  New  York's  "war  governors."  He  pre- 
sided over  the  democratic  national  convention  of 
1868^  which  was  held  in  New  York,  and  was 
nominated  for  the  presidency  by  a  sudden  wave 
of  enthusiasm,  in  spite  of  his  loudly  spoken 
protestations.  He,  however,  received  but  eighty 
electoral  votes.     He  died  at  Utica,  N.  Y.,  1886. 

Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  Earl  of, 
British  statesman,  was  bom  at  Winbome,  in 
Dorsetshire,  1621.  He  was  educated  at  Exeter 
college,  Oxford,  and  studied  law  at  Lincoln's  Inn. 
He  entered  parliament  in  1640;  changed  from 
the  royalist  to  the  parliamentary  side  during  the 
civil  war,  and  was  a  member  of  Cromwell's 
cotmcil  of  state,  but  latterly  attacked  the  pro- 
tector's government,  and  was  one  of  the  cnief 
promoters  of  the  restoration.  He  was  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer  in  1661,  and  in  1672  was  created 


974 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


an  earl  and  lord  chancellor,  but,  hoodwinked  by 
Charles  in  the  secret  treaty  of  Dover,  he  went 
over  to  the  opposition  and  lost  his  chancellor- 
ship.    He     then     supported     an     anti-Catholic 
poUcy,    and   came   into   power   again   after   the 
''popish   plot,"    as   the  champion  of   toleration 
and    Protestantism.     He    subsequently    became 
president  of  the  council,  which  passed  the  habeas 
corpus  act.     His  virulent  attacks  on  James  and 
espousal  of  Monmouth's  cause  brought  about  his 
arrest  on  a  charge  of  high  treason  in  1681,  and 
although  released  he  retired  to  Holland,  where 
he  died  in  1G83.     He  was  one  of  the  ablest  men 
of  his  age,  but  of  somewhat  inscrutable  character, 
whose  shifting  policy  seems  to  have  been  chiefly 
dominated    bv    a    regard    for    self.     He    is    the 
"Achitophel     of  Dryden's  great  satire. 
Shaftesbury,    Anthony    Ashley    Cooper,    Earl    of, 
English  philosopher,  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  London,  1071.     He  was  an  ardent 
student  in  his  youth,  made  a  tour  of  the  conti- 
nent, and  entered  parliament  in  1095.     He  was 
elevated  to  the  house  of  lords  on  the  death  of 
his  father  in  1699,  where,  as  a  staunch  whig,  he 
cave  steady  support  to  William  HI.     He  with- 
drew from  poUtics,  never  a  congenial  sphere  to 
him,  on  the  accession  of  Anne,  and  followed  in 
bis  bent  for  literature  and  philosophy.     In  1711 
his  collected  writings  appeared  under  the  title 
Characteristics,    in  which    he   expounds,    in    the 
pohte  style  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  phi- 
losophy of  optimism.     He  died  in  1713. 
Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  seventh  Earl 
of,   English  statesman  and   philanthropist,   was 
born  in  London,    1801.     He  waa  graduated  at 
Oxford,  and  entered  parliament  as  a  conserva- 
tive in  1826;    took  office  under  WelUngton  in 
1828;    was  a  lord  of   the   admiralty   in   Peel's 
ministry  of  1834,  and  succeeded  to  the  earldom 
in  1851.     His  name  lives,  however,  by  virtue  of 
his  noble  and  lifelong  philanthropy,  which  took 
shape  in  numerous  acts  of  parliament,  such  as 
the  mines  and  collieries   act  of    1842,  excluding 
women    and    boys    under    thirteen   working    in 
mines;    the  better    treatment  of    lunatics   act, 
1845,   called  the  magna  charta  of  the  insane; 
the  factory  acts,  1867,  and  the  workshop  regu- 
lation act,  1878;  while  outside  of  parhament  he 
worked  w  ith  rare  devotion  in  behalf  of  benevolent 
and  religious  movements  of  all  sorts,  notably  the 
ragged  school  movement  and  the  better  housing 
of  the  London  poor.     He  died  in  1885. 
Shaban,  Thomas  Joseph,  American  educator,  rec- 
tor of  the  Catholic  university  of  America  since 
1909,  was  bom  at  Manchester,  N.  H.,  1857.     He 
was  educated  at  Montreal  college,  Canada,  1872, 
American  college,  Rome,  1878-82;    8.  T.  D.,  col- 
lege of  the  Propaganda,  Rome,   1882;    J.  U.  L., 
Roman  seminary,  1889;    was  a  student  of  his- 
tory at  the  university  of  BerUn,  1889-91,  in  1891 
at  the  New  Sorbonne   and   Institut   Catholique, 
Paris.    He  was  ordained  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
priesthood  in  the  cathedral  of  St.  John  Lateran, 
Rome,  1882 ;  was  chancellor  and  secretary  of  the 
diocese  of  Hartford,  1883-88;   lecturer  on  historj' 
of  education  in  CathoUc  university  institute   of 
pedagogy.    New    York,    1902-03;     professor    of 
church  history  and  patrology,  Cathohc  universitv 
of  America,    1891-1909.     Author:     T?ie  Blessed 
Virgin  in  the  Catacombs;    Giovanni  Battista  de 
■  Rossi;     The    Beginnings    of    Christianity;      The 
M-Mle    Ages;     The    House    of  God,    and    Other 
Addresses  and  Studies,  etc. 
Shab-Jehan    (sha'    je-han'),    fifth    of    the    Mogul 
emperors  of  Delhi,  was  born  about   1592,   and 
succeeded  his  father  in  1627.     He  was  a  man  of 
great  administrative  ability  and  a  skilled  warrior- 
conquered  the  Deccan  and  the  kingdom  of  Gol- 
conda,  and  generally  raised  the  Mogul  empire  to 
Its  zenith.     His  court  was  truly  Eastern  in  its 


sumptuous  magnificence.  He  founded  the  mod- 
ern citv  of  Delhi ;  built  the  Taj  Mahal  and  other 
magnificent  buildings  at  Agra;  and  ordered  the 
construction  of  the  peacock  throne,  which  alone 
cost  $35,000,000.  Died  in  prison  in  IGGG,  a 
victim  to  the  perfidy  of  his  usurping  son,  Aurung- 
zebe. 

Shakespeare,  William.     See  page  40. 

Sbaler  (shd'-iir),  Nathaniel  Soutbgate,  American 
scientist,  author,  was  born  in  Newywrt,  Ky., 
1841.  He  was  graduated  at  Lawrence  scientific 
school.  Harvard,  18G2;  Sc.  D.^  1865;  served  two 
years  as  artillery  officer  in  Lnion  army  during 
the  civil  war.  He  waa  instructor  in  zoology  and 
geology,  Lawrence  scientific  school,  1808-72; 
professor  of  yjala>ontology,  1808-87,  and  after- 
ward professor  of  geology,  Harvard;  director  of 
Kentucky  geological  survey,  1873-80,  devoting 
part  of  each  year  to  that  work,  and  from  1884 
to  1906  waa  geologist  in  charge  of  the  Atlantic 
division  of  the  United  States  geological  survey. 
Author:  A  First  Book  in  Geology;  Kentucky,  a 
Fiomer  Commonwealth;  The  Nature  of  Intellectual 
Property;  The  Story  of  Our  Continent;  The  Inter- 
pretation of  Nature;  Illustrations  of  the  Earth'a 
Surface;  Sea  and  Land;  Ttie  United  States  of 
America;  A  Study  of  the  American  Commonwealth; 
American  Highways;  Features  of  Coasts  and 
Oceans;  Domesticated  Animals:  Their  Relation 
to  Man;  The  Individual:  Study  of  Life  and 
Death;  The  Neighbor;  The  Citiien,  etc.  Died, 
1906. 

Sharpless,  Isaac,  American  educator,  president  of 
Haverford  college  since  1887,  was  bom  in  Chester 
county.  Pa.,  1848.  He  waa  graduated  at  the 
Lawrence  scientific  school,  Har\-ard,  1873; 
8c.  D.,  university  of  Pennsvlvania;  LL.  D., 
Swarthmore  college;  L.  H.  l5.,  Hobart  college. 
He  was  instructor  In  mathematics,  1875-79, 
professor  of  mathematics  and  astronomy,  1879- 
84,  and  dean,  1884-87,  of  Haverford  college. 
Author:  Astronomy;  Geometry;  English  Educa- 
tion;  A  Quaker  Experiment  in  Government;  Two 
Centuries  of  Pennsylvania  History;  Quakerism 
and  Politics,  etc. 

Sbaughnessy,  Sir  Thomas  Geonce,  Canadian  rail- 
way president,  waa  bom  at  Milwaukee, Wis.,  1853. 
He  received  a  common  school  education;  entered 
the  railway  service  in  1809,  in  the  purchasing 
department  of  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St. 
Paul  railroad.  He  was  general  storekeeper  of 
the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  railway, 
1879-82;  general  purchasing  agent,  1882-84. 
assistant  to  general  manager,  1884-85 ;  assistant 
general  manager,  1885-89;  assistant  to  presi- 
dent, 1889-91;  vice-president  and  director, 
1891-98,  and  president  since  1898  of  the  Canadian 
Pacific  railway.  He  is  also  vice-president  and 
director  of  the  Duluth,  South  Shore  and  Atlantic 
railway,  Toronto,  Hamilton  and  Buffalo  railway, 
British  Columbia  Southern  railway;  president 
of  the  Montreal  and  Western  railway;  director 
of  the  Accident  insurance  company.  Guarantee 
company  of  North  America,  Northwest  land 
company,  etc.  He  was  knighted  by  Queen 
Victoria,  1901. 

Shaw,  Albert,  editor  of  the  American  Review  of 
Reviews,  was  born  in  Shandon,  Ohio,  1857.  He 
was  graduated  at  Iowa  college,  Grinnell,  la., 
1879;  Ph.  D.,  Johns  Hopkins,  1884;  LL.  D., 
universitv  of  Wisconsin,  1904.  He  was  editorial 
writer  with  the  Minneapolis  Tribune,  1883-88, 
1889-90;  studied  in  Europe,  1888-89;  established 
in  1891,  and  has  since  conducted,  the  American 
Review  of  Reviews.  He  is  a  member  of  numerous 
learned  societies,  and  has  lectured  in  many 
universities  and  colleges.  Author:  Icaria  —  A 
Chapter  in  the  History  of  Communism;  Local 
Government  in  Illinois;  Cooperation  in  the  North- 
teest;    Municipal  Government  in  Great   Britain; 


SHERIDAN'S   RIDE 
From  the  painting  by  Read 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


977 


Municipal  Government  in  Continental  Europe, 
etc.;  and  many  articles  on  political  science, 
economics,  anci  municipal  govermnente,  in 
magazines,  etc. 

8baw,  Georfre  Bernard,  British  dramatist,  critic, 
and  novelist,  was  born  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  1856, 
and  went  to  London  in  1876.  where  he  engaged 
in  newspaper  work.  He  published  a  few  novels, 
Cashel  Byron's  Profession,  etc^  wliich  attracted 
little  attention;  joined  the  Fabian  society  in 
1884;  wrote  musical  critiques  in  the  London 
Star,  1888-90,  and  in  the  World,  1890-94;  and,  in 
1895,  began  his  work  as  a  dramatic  critic,  writing 
in  the  Saturday  Rcmew.  In  1898  he  published 
Plays,  Pleasant  and  Unpleasant  including.  You 
Never  Can  Tell;  Arms  and  the  Man;  Candida; 
The  Man  of  Destiny;  Widowers'  Houses;  and 
Mrs.  Warren's  Profession.  Since  then  his  chief 
literary  work  has  been  writing  for  the  stage.  His 
plays  include  Man  and  Superman;  John  Bull's 
Other  Island;  Major  Barbara;  The  Doctor's 
Dilemma;  Ccesar  arid  Cleopatra;  Getting  Married, 
etc. 

Shaw,  Henry  Wheeler,  American  humorist,  was 
bom  in  Lanesborough,  Mass.,  1818.  In  1859  he 
began  to  write,  and,  in  1860,  sent  "An  Essa  on  the 
Muel,  bi  Josh  Billings"  to  a  New  York  paper. 
It  was  reprinted  in  several  comic  journals,  and 
extensively  copied.  His  most  successful  literary 
venture,  however,  was  his  Farmer's  AUminax  a 
travesty  on  the  Old  Farmers'  Almanac,  127,000 
copies  of  which  were  sold  in  its  second  year.  He 
began  to  lecture  in  1863,  and,  for  twenty  years 
previous  to  his  death,  contributed  regularly  to 
the  New  York  World.  His  complete  works  were 
published  in  1877.     Died  in  Monterej',  Cal.,  1885. 

Shaw,  Leslie  Mortimer,  American  financier  and 
lecturer,  was  bom  at  Morristown,  Vt.,  1848.  He 
was  graduated  at  Cornell  college,  Mt.  Vernon,  la., 
M.  S.,  1874;  Iowa  college  of  law,  1876;  LL.  D., 
Simpson  college,  1898,  Cornell  college,  la.,  1899, 
Wesleyan  university,  1904.  He  was  admitted 
to  the  Iowa  bar  in  1876,  and  began  practice  at 
Denison,  la. ;  subsequently  engaged  in  banking 
at  Denison,  Manilla,  and  Charter  Oak,  la.  He 
occasionally  took  part  in  political  campaigns  as 
a  republican  speaker,  and  gained  prominence  as 
a  McKinley  advocate  in  1896;  was  twice  elected 
governor  of  Iowa,  1898-1900,  190O-O2;  secretary 
of  the  treasury,  1902-07,  and  president  of  the 
Carnegie  trust  company.  New  York,  1907-08. 
His  time  is  now  largely  given  to  the  lecture  plat- 
form. 

Shays,  Daniel,  American  insurgent,  was  bom  in 
Hopkinton,  Mass.,  1747.  He  served  as  ensign 
at  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill;  attained  the  rank 
of  captain  in  the  continental  army,  and  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  popular  movement  in  western 
Massachusetts  for  the  redress  of  alleged  griev- 
ances due  to  misgovemment.  In  1786  he 
appeared  before  Springfield,  Mass.,  at  the  head 
of  1,000  men,  to  prevent  the  session  of  the 
supreme  court  at  that  place,  and  afterward  com- 
manded the  rpbel  party  at  Pelham  and  at  the 
engagement  with  the  militia  at  Petersham. 
After  the  rebellion  was  put  down,  however,  he 
was  pardoned  by  the  government,  and  later,  in 
his  old  age,  was  allowed  a  pension  for  his  services 
during  the  revolutionary  war.  He  died  in  Sparta, 
N.  Y.,  1825. 

Shelley,  Percy  Bysshe,  famous  English  poet,  was 
bom  at  Field  Place,  near  Horsham,  England, 
1792.  In  1808  he  left  school,  and  after  two  years 
passed  at  home  was  sent  to  Oxford.  A  pamphlet 
entitled  The  Necessity  of  Atheism,  which  circu- 
lated during  the  second  year  of  his  college  course, 
led  to  his  expulsion  from  Oxford.  In  1811  he 
married  Harriet  Westbrook,  daughter  of  a 
retired  innkeeper,  but  in  1814  a  separation  took 
place  between  ium   and   his  wife.     His  second 


wife  waa  Mary  Godwin.  In  1813  appeared  his 
poem  Queen  Mab,  which  was  printed  only  for 
private  circulation.  In  1815  he  wrote  his 
Alaator,  one  of  the  moet  finished  and  character- 
istic of  his  works,  which  was  followed  by  TKt 
Revolt  of  Islam.  In  1818  he  left  England  for 
Italy,  and  during  that  and  the  followmg  vesr, 
chiefly  while  a  resident  at  Jiome,  he  protuiced 
what  may  rank  as  his  two  finest  poems  —  the 
grand  lyncal  drama  of  Prometheu*  Unbound  and 
the  tragedy  of  The  Cenci.  While  at  Venice  with 
Lord  Byron  in  1820  he  wrote  Julian  and  Maddalo, 
a  record  in  verse  of  conversations  between  the 
poet  and  himself.  His  other  works  of  chief 
uniwrtance  are  Rosalind  and  Helen,  The  Witch 
of  Atlas,  written  in  1819;  Epipsychidion,  Adonait. 
on  the  death  of  Keats,  and  HeUas  —  all  producea 
in  1821.  He  perished  in  1822  by  the  capsizing 
of  his  boat,  while  sailing  in  the  gulf  of  Leghorn. 

Shelley,  Mary  Wollstonecraft  Uodwin,  wife  of  the 
poet,  was  born  in  London  in  1798,  and  married 
Shelley  in  1816.  In  1818  she  produced  a  re- 
markable novel  entitled  Frankenstein.  Other 
novels  of  hers  are  Valperga,  The  Last  Man, 
Lodore,  and  The  Fortunes  of  Perkin  Warbeck. 
She  likewise  wrote  Rambles  in  Germany  and 
Italy,  etc.,  and  carefully  edited  her  husband's 
poems.     Died  in  London,  1861. 

Shcpard,  Edward  Morse,  American  lawyer  and 
pubUcist,  was  born  in  New  York,  1850.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  college  of  the  city  of  New  York, 
1869,  studied  law  and  was  atlmitted  to  the  bar. 
He  was  civil  service  commissioner  of  Brooklyn, 
1883-85;  New  York  state  forestry  commis- 
sioner, 1884-85,  and  democratic  candidate  for 
mayor  of  Greater  New  York,  1901.  Besides 
attaining  high  rank  as  a  lawyer,  he  was  director  in 
numerous  railway  and  other  corporations;  was 
chairman  of  the  board  of  trustees  of  the  college 
of  the  city  of  New  York,  trustee  of  Packer 
collegiate  institute,  etc.,  and  a  member  of  the 
Cobden  club,  England.  Author:  Martin  Van 
Buren  in  American  Statesmen  series;  Memoirs 
of  Dugdale;  and  many  review,  magazine  and 
other  articles  and  addn>8se8  on  political,  indus- 
trial and  educational  topics.     Died,  1911. 

Shepherd,  F.  J^  Canadian  physician,  professor  of 
anatomy  and  dean  of  the  me<lical  faculty,  McGill 
university,  Montreal,  since  1883 ;  was  bom  at  Cav- 
agnol,  province  of  Quebec,  1851.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  McGill  university,  M.  D.,  1873,  and 
spent  several  years  in  study  abroad  in  England, 
Germany,  Austria,  and  France;  LL.  D.,  Edin- 
burgh and  Harvard.  He  was  demonstrator  of 
anatomy  in  McGill  university,  1875;  president 
of  the  Montreal  medico-chirurgical  society,  and 
vice-president  of  the  international  dermatologi- 
cal  congress,  1894  and  1907;  was  president  of 
Canadian  medical  a-ssooiation;  senior  surgeon  to 
the  Montreal  general  hospital  since  1883.  Author: 
American  Text-Book  of  Surgery;  Retrospect  of 
Surgery,  1881-94,  etc. 

Sheridan,  Philip  Henry,  American  general,  was 
born  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  1831.  He  was  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1853.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
civil  war  he  was  a  captain  in  the  r3th  infantry, 
was  made  quartermaster  of  the  federal  army  in 
Missouri,  and  rapidly  passed  up  through  the 
various  grades  to  major-general  in  18<i3  for 
brilliant  service  in  the  battles  of  Perrj'ville  and 
Stone  river.  He  subseouentlv  distinguished 
himself  at  Mis.sionary  Ricige,  Murfreesborough, 
Chickamauga,  Chattanooga,  Fisher's  Hill,  Cedar 
Creek,  Five  Forks,  Winchester,  and  Appomattox 
Court  House.  After  the  battle  of  Eisner's  Hill 
the  confederate  general.  Early,  received  lar^ 
reenforcements  from  General  Lee,  and  a^ain 
advanced  into  the  Shenandoah  valley,  surprised 
the  federal  army  at  Cedar  Creek  in  the  early 
moming  of  October  19,  1864,  and  drove  it  back 


978 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


in  confusion.  Sheridan,  who  had  been  called  to 
headquarters  at  Washington,  had  reached  Win- 
chester on  his  return,  when  he  heard  the  guns 
twenty  miles  away.  Hurrying  forward,  he 
reached  the  field  and  met  his  troops  retreating 
in  confusion  before  the  enemy.  Speedily  form- 
ing a  line  to  stop  stragglers,  he  rode  forward 
waving  his  hat  and  shouting,  "Face  the  other 
way,  boys;  we  are  going  back."  Confidence 
was  restored,  the  lines  were  reformed,  and  at  3 
p.  m.  they  moved  back  upon  the  enemy.  The 
result  was  the  total  rout  of  Early's  army,  which 
was  pursued  up  the  valley  for  thirty  iniles.  For 
this  victory  he  was  promoted  to  major-general 
in  the  regular  army,  and  received  the  thanks  of 
congress.  Returning  to  the  army  of  the  Poto- 
mac, in  1865,  he  was  conspicuous  under  Grant  in 
the  operations  before  Petersburg,  and  in  the 
final  battles  preceding  Lee's  surrender.  After 
the  close  of  the  war,  Sheridan  was  placed  in 
command  at  New  Orleans,  and  later  of  the 
department  of  the  Missouri,  with  headquarters 
at  Chicago.  When  Sherman  was  made  general, 
Sheridan  was  made  lieutenant-general,  and,  when 
Sherman  was  retired,  a  special  act  of  congress 
conferred  the  further  rank  of  general  upon 
Sheridan,  who  became  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army.     He  died  at  Nonquitt,  Mass.,  1888. 

Sheridan,  Bichard  Brinsley,  British  dramatist  and 
politician,  was  bom  in  Dublin,  1751.  He  was 
educated  at  Harrow,  and  became  a  student  of 
the  Middle  Temple,  London,  though  he  was 
never  called  to  the  bar.  In  1773  he  married, 
and  devoted  himself  for  a  time  to  literature  for 
a  living,  and,  in  1775,  produced  The  Rivals 
successfully  at  Covent  Garden.  In  1777  he 
became  part  proprietor  of  Drury  Lane  theater, 
for  which  he  produced  The  School  for  Scandal, 
and  also  The  Critic,  one  of  the  wittiest  farces  in 
the  language.  In  1780  he  was  returned  to  par- 
liament for  the  borough  of  Stafford,  and  soon 
became  distinguished  as  a  powerful  speaker  on 
the  side  of  the  opposition,  occupying  afterward 
the  position  of  secretary  to  the  treasury  in  the 
coahtion  ministry  of  1783.  During  the  whole 
time  of  Pitt's  ascendancy  the  talents  of  Sheridan 
were  displayed  in  combating  that  great  states- 
man, by  whom,  however,  his  eloquence  was 
acknowledged,  and  especially  his  eloquence  on 
the  occasion  of  the  Warren  Hastings'  trial.  On 
the  death  of  Pitt,  in  1806,  he  became  treasurer 
to  the  navy,  but  held  that  office  for  only  a  short 
time;  and  all  through  his  career  he  had  to 
struggle  with  difficulties,  the  result  mainly  of 
extravagance  and  dissipation.  He  retired  from 
parliament  some  time  before  his  death.  Besides 
the  dramatic  works  above  mentioned,  Sheridan 
was  the  author  of  The  Stranger  and  of  Pizarro. 
He  died  in  1816,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster 
abbey. 

Sherman,  James  Schoolcraft,  lawyer,  banker,  was 
born  in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  1855.  He  was  graduated 
from  Hamilton  college  in  1878,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1880;  LL.  D.,  Hamilton,  1903. 
He  was  president  of  the  Utica  trust  and  deposit 
company,  and  of  the  New  Hartford  canning 
company;  was  mayor  of  Utica,  1884-85;  dele- 
f  cQo  *°  *^®  republican  national  convention  in 
•  ,oi.,.'^^^'"^^^  °^  republican  state  convention 
in  1895,  1900  and  1908;  chairman  of  the  repub- 
lican national  congressional  committee  in  1906 
He  wa«  a  member  of  congress,  1887-91,  1893-^ 
1903,  and  1903-09.  Was  elected  vice-president 
2  1  on?'"'^*^  ®*^*®^'  ^^8'  **k»^g  1^«  seat  March 
'  i  J  •  J  ^^  y^^  renominated  in  August.  1912. 
and  died  October  30th  following 

®**Wrnf«''r;  T.^'  ^«"can  statesman,  brother  of 
1^'"'^  T^<="mseh,  was  bom  at  Lancaster,  Ohio, 
K  T  c  u  ^^  employed  for  a  time  at  surveying 
but  finally  enterecT  the  law  office  of  his  brSthfr 


Charles  at  Mansfield,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1844,  entering  into  partnership  with  his 
brother.  He  became  an  anti-slavery  whi^,  and 
as  such  entered  congress  in  1855.  He  imm^ 
diately  took  an  active  part,  and  soon  a  promi- 
nent one,  in  the  proceedings  of  the  house;  waa 
one  of  the  committee  of  inquiry  sent  to  Kansas; 
entered  heartily  into  the  movement  for  the 
formation  of  the  republican  party;  and  ardently 
supported  Fremont  in  1856.  He  was  reelected 
to  congress  that  year  and  continued  in  the  house 
until  1861,  the  recognized  leader  of  the  republi- 
cans. He  waa  then  United  States  senator, 
1861-77,  and  1881-97;  secretary  of  the  treasury 
under  President  Hayes,  1877-81;  and  secretary 
of  state  under  President  McKinley,  1897-98.  la 
the  senate  he  was  prominently  identified  with 
the  support  of  all  measures  for  the  prosecution 
of  the  war,  taking  a  leading  part  in  financial 
debates  and  committee  work.  He  sun{>orted 
the  reconstruction  measures,  defended  the  pro- 
tective tariff,  and  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
legislation  for  the  restoration  of  specie  paymenta 
and  the  refunding  of  the  national  debt,  and  was 
author  of  the  famous  Sherman  anti-trust  law. 
He  waa  a  candidate  for  the  presidential  nomina- 
tion in  1880,  1884  and  1S88.  Died  at  Washing- 
ton, 1900. 

Sherman,  Boger,  American  statesnuui.  waa  born  at 
Newton,  Mass.,  1721.  He  was  a  snoemaker  by 
trade,  then  a  surveyor  of  lands,  and  finally  a 
lawyer  and  judge;  served  in  both  the  continental 
and  the  United  States  congresses  from  1774 
to  1791;  was  one  of  the  conunittee  that  drafted 
the  declaration  of  independence,  one  of  the 
signers  of  it,  and  was  infiuential  in  having  it 
ratified  bv  the  state  convention  of  Connecticut, 
where  he  had  resided  since  17G1.  He  was  Unitea 
States  senator  1791-93.  From  1784  until  hia 
death  in  1793  he  was  mayor  of  New  Haven,  Conn. 

Sherman,  William  Terumseb,  American  general, 
waa  born  in  Lanca,ster,  Ohio,  1820.  He  waa 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1840,  and  received  a 
commission  as  first  lieutenant  in  the  United 
States  army  in  1841.  During  the  war  with 
Mexico  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  captain, 
resigning  in  1853.  In  1861,  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  civil  war,  he  offered  liis  services  to 
the  federal  government,  and  was  appointed 
colonel  of  infantry.  Raised  to  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general,  he  succeeded  General  Ander- 
son in  the  department  of  Ohio,  from  which  he 
was  removed  for  declaring  that  it  would  require 
200,000  men  to  end  the  war  in  the  West.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh, 
and  as  major-general  in  the  siege  of  Vicksburg. 
Raised  to  an  independent  command,  he  marched 
across  the  state  oi  Mississippi,  took  command  of 
the  army  of  Georgia,  forced  General  Hood  to 
evacuate  Atlanta,  and  captured  Savannah  and 
Charleston,  from  which  point  he  moved  north, 
and,  bv  cutting  off  the  resources  of  General  Loe, 
compelled  the  evacuation  of  Richmond,  and  the 
surrender  of  General  Lee  to  General  Grant, 
April  9,  1865.  The  surrender  of  the  army  of 
General  Johnston  to  General  Sherman  in  North 
Carolina  a  few  days  later,  and  that  of  General 
Kirby  Smith,  west  of  Mississippi,  closed  the  war. 
No  Northern  general  acquired  greater  popularity 
than  Sherman.  He  was  appointed  lieutenant- 
general  in  1866,  and  in  1869  became  general  and 
commander-in-chief.  In  point  of  daring  origi- 
nality of  design,  fertility  of  resource,  brilliant 
strat^y,  and  untiring  energy.  General  Grant 
pronounced  him  "the  best  field  officer  the  war 
had  produced."  He  retired  from  the  command 
of  the  army  of  the  United  States,  1884.  Died, 
1891. 

Shlvely,  Benjamin  F^  lawyer,  United  States  sen- 
ator, waa  bom  in  St.  Joseph  county,  Ind.,  1857. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


979 


He  was  educated  at  the  Northern  Indiana  normal 
school,  and  was  graduated  from  the  law  depart- 
ment of  the  university  of  Michigan,  1886.  Ho 
taught  school,  1874-80;  engaged  in  journalism; 
practiced  law;  he  was  elected  to  the  48th 
congress  to  fill  a  vacancy,  and  reelected  to  the 
50th,  51st,  and  52d  congresses.  In  1896  he  was 
the  democratic  nominee  for  governor  of  Indiana ; 
received  the  democratic  vote  of  the  Indiana 
legislature  for  United  States  senator,  1903  and 
1905,  and  was  elected  United  States  senator  for 
the  term  1909-15.  He  is  president  of  the  board 
of  trustees  of  Indiana  university. 

Shonts  (sh^ytUs),  Theodore  Perry,  American  railway 
official,  was  bom  in  Crawford  county.  Pa.,  1856. 
He  was  graduated  at  Monmouth  college,  1876, 
and  in  the  same  year  went  into  the  banking  busi- 
ness at  Centerville,  Iowa.  He  later  studied  law, 
was  admitted  to  the  Iowa  bar  and  practiced  four 
years  as  a  member  of  the  law  firm  of  Drake, 
Baker  and  Shonts.  In  1882  he  engaged  in  rail- 
way construction,  building  two  Unes  of  railroad, 
from  Albia  to  Centerville,  one  line  now  a  part  of 
the  Iowa  Central  system,  and  the  other  now  a 
part  of  the  Burlington  system;  later  engaged  in 
completing  the  construction  of  the  Indiana, 
Illinois  and  Iowa  railroad,  of  which  he  was  chief 
owner  until  the  road  was  absorbed  by  the  Lake 
Shore  and  Michigan  Southern  railroad.  He  is 
president  of  Toledo,  St.  Louis,  and  Western  rail- 
road, Iowa  Central  railroad  company,  Minneapolis 
and  St.  Louis  railroad  company,  etc.  He  was 
appointed  chairman  of  the  isthmian  canal  com- 
mission by  President  Roosevelt,  1905;  resigned 
after  having  completed  the  organization  of  that 
work  in  1907,  and  has  since  been  president  of 
the  Interborough-Metropolitan  company.  New 
York. 

Sickles,  Daniel  Edgar,  American  general,  was  bom 
at  New  York,  1825,  and  was  iadmitted  to  the  bar 
in  1846.  In  1847  he  was  sent  to  the  state  legis- 
lature; in  1853  went  to  England  as  secretary  of 
legation;  was  a  member  of  congress  1857-61. 
When  the  civil  war  broke  out,  he  was  made 
colonel  of  a  regiment  he  had  raised  in  New  York, 
and  as  brigadier-general  commanded  in  the 
battles  of  Chickahominy.  At  Antietam  and 
Fredericksburg  he  conunanded  Hooker's  division 
of  the  3d  corps,  and  with  the  rank  of  major- 
general  served  at  the  head  of  the  3d  corps  at  the 
battles  of  Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg, 
losing  a  leg  in  the  fight.  After  the  war  he  was 
commander  of  the  military  district  of  North  and 
South  Carolina  until  1867;  appointed  United 
States  minister  to  Holland,  1866,  to'Mexico,  1869, 
declined;  from  1869  to  1873  was  United  States 
minister  to  Spain.  He  was  a  member  of  congress 
from  New  York  city,  1892-94,  and  was  president 
of  the  New  York  State  board  of  civil  service 
commissioners,  1888-89. 

Siddons,  Sarah,  noted  English  tragic  actress,  was 
bom  at  Brecon,  1755,  daughter  of  Roger  Kemble, 
manager  of  a  company  of  itinerant  players.  In 
her  eighteenth  year  she  married  William  Siddons, 
an  actor,  and  in  1775  made  her  first  appearance 
in  London  as  Portia,  but  was  unsuccessful. 
Time,  however,  matured  her  powers,  and,  after 
an  absence  of  seven  years,  partly  spent  at  Bath, 
where  she  was  much  admired,  she  reappeared  at 
Drury  Lane,  1782,  in  the  character  of  Isabella 
in  The  Fatal  Marriage.  In  1785  she  appeared 
as  Lady  Macbeth,  her  greatest  r6le,  and  in  1788 
as  Queen  Catharine.  Thenceforth  her  course 
was  a  continual  triumph.  In  1812,  having 
acquired  an  ample  fortune,  she  withdrew  to 
private  life.  She  died  in  1831.  In  1783  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds  painted  her  as  "The  Tragic 
Muse." 

Sldgwick,  Henry,  English  moralist  and  economist, 
was  bom  in  Yorkshire,   1838,  and  educated  at 


Trinity  colleger,  Cambridge,  where  he  leetured 
from  1859  to  1875,  IxM'oining  profeaeor  of  morml 
and  political  philosophy  in  the  latter  ye»r,  and 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  1883.  Uo  took 
a  leading  part  in  the  movement  for  the  higher 
education  of  women.  His  chief  works  compriae 
The  Methods  of  EUiica;  The  I^ncipUa  of  I'oliti- 
col  Economy;  History  of  Elhica,  and  The  EU- 
ments  of  Politics.  He  was  a  co-«diU>r  of  Mind, 
resigning  in  1900.  Died,  1901. 
Sidney,  Sir  Ptiiilp,  English  writer  and  soldier,  waa 
bom  in  Kent,  1554.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
traveled  throughout  Europe,  and  returned  to 
become  a  favorite  at  the  court  of  Elizabeth,  who 
called  him  "the  jewel  of  her  dominions."  For 
her  entertainment  he  wrote  his  celebrated 
Arcadia  and  several  minor  poems.  Among  hie 
works  are  also  his  Apologie  for  Poetrie  and 
Defense  of  Poetrie.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle 
of  Zutphen,  1586,  when,  dying,  ho  handed  Ida 
bottle  of  water  to  common  soldiers  wounded 
nearby,  saying  "Thy  necessity  is  greater  than 
mine.  '  He  was  a  rare  and  finished  type  of 
English  character. 
Siegel,  Henry,  American  merchant,  was  bora  in 
Eubigheim,  Germany,  1862.  He  was  educated 
in  Germany,  and  in  night  school,  Washington. 
He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1807;  moved 
to  Chicago  in  1876,  established  the  cloak  manu- 
facturing firm  of  Siegel,  Hartsfeld  and  Company, 
later  Siegel  Brothers,  and  finally  established 
Siegel,  Cooper  and  Company,  department  store, 
Chicago.  In  1896  he  established  the  store  of 
Siegel-Coojjer  company.  New  York;  purchased 
the  Simpson-Crawford  company  store.  New  York, 
1902,  and  now  has  six  large  department  stores 
under  his  personal  management. 
Siemens,  Ernst  Werner  von,  German  engineer  and 
electrician,  was  bom  at  Lenthe  in  Hanover,  1816. 
In  1838  he  entered  the  Prussian  artillery,  and  in 
1844  took  charge  of  the  artillery  workshops  at 
Berlin.  He  developed  the  telegraphic  system  in 
Prussia,  and  discovered  the  insulating  property 
of  gutta-percha,  and  was  the  first  to  explode  a 
submarine  mine  by  electricity.  Leaving  the 
public  service,  he  devoted  himself  to  making 
telegraphic  and  electrical  apparatus.  In  1847 
the  firm  of  Siemens  and  Halske  was  established 
at  Berlin,  which,  after  1867,  became  Siemens 
Brothers;  and  branches  were  formed  in  St. 
Petersburg,  London,  Vienna,  and  Tiflis.  Besides 
devising  numerous  forms  of  galvanometers  and 
other  electrical  instruments,  Siemens  was  one  of 
the  discoverers  of  the  self-acting  dynamo.  He 
determined  the  electrical  resistance  of  different 
substances,  the  Siemens  unit  being  called  after 
him.  In  1886  he  gave  500,000  marks  to  found  a 
technical  institute,  and  in  1888  was  ennobled. 
He  died  at  Beriin  in  1892. 
Siemens,  Sir  William  (Karl  Wilhelm),  German 
scientist,  was  bom  at  Lenthe,  Hanover,  1823, 
brother  of  the  preceding.  He  studied  at  Gottin- 
gen,  g;iving  special  attention  to  science.  After 
two  visits  to  England  in  the  interests  of  his 
brother's  inventions,  he  made  England  his  home 
in  1844,  and  became  a  British  subject  in  1859. 
As  manager  of  the  house  of  Siemens  Brothers,  he 
was  engaged  in  constructing  telegraph  lines,  the 
steamship  Faraday  being  designed  by  him  for 
cable  la3dng.  He  also  built  electric  railroads. 
The  principle  of  his  "regenerative"  furnace  has 
been  applied  in  many  ways,  but  especially  by 
himself  in  the  manufacture  of  steel.  He  invented 
a  water  meter,  a  bathometer  for  measuring  ocean 
depths,  an  electrical  thermometer,  and  a  process 
of  hastening  the  gro\*'th  of  plants  by  electnc  light. 
In  1874  the  royal  Albert  medal,  and  in  1875  the 
Bessemer  medal  were  given  him  in  recognition 
of  his  inventions.  He  was  president  of  the  three 
principal  telegraphic  societies  of  Great  Britain, 


980 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


and  of  the  British  association,  and  in  1883  was 
knighted.     He  died  at  London,  1883. 

Slenkiewlcz  (sMn-kya'-vich),  Henryk,  Polish  novelist, 
was  born  at  Wola  Okrzejska,  in  Lithuania,  1846, 
and  was  educated  at  the  university  of  Warsaw. 
Early  in  his  career  he  devoted  himself  to  litera- 
ture, and  soon  won  a  high  position  as  a  novelist 
and  short  story  writer.  In  1876  he  came  to  the 
United  States,  and  for  a  time,  in  company  with 
Madame  Modieska,  his  countrywoman,  he 
resided  in  California,  where  he  designed  to 
establish  a  Polish  colony.  He  returned  to 
Poland  and  in  1880  wrote  a  work  on  Tartar 
Slavery,  following  this,  a  few  years  later,  by  his 
masterly  novel.  With  Fire  and  Sword.  To  this 
succeeded  The  Deluge,  Pan  Michael,  Without 
Dogma  and  Children  of  the  Soil  —  all  of  them 
remarkable  for  their  vigor  of  characterization 
historical  truth,  and  power  of  psychological 
analysis.  In  1896  appeared  his  masterpiece, 
Quo  Vadist  —  a  tale  oi  the  time  of  Nero,  written 
with  remarkable  vigor  and  powerful  effect.  His 
later  works  include  The  Knights  of  the  Cross, 
Monte  Carlo,  etc.  In  1905  he  received  the  Nobel 
prize  for  literature. 

Sigsbee,  Charles  Dwlght,  American  naval  officer, 
was  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  1845.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  naval  academy,  1863;  served  in 
West  Gulf  squadron,  1863-04,  and  was  present  at 
the  battle  of  Mobile  bay;  in  North  Atlantic 
squadron,  1865,  and  at  both  attacks  on  Fort 
Fisher  and  final  assault  on  same.  After  tiie 
civil  war  he  was  attached  to  the  Asiatic  squadron, 
1865-69,  and  in  1874-78,  sounded  and  explored 
the  gulf  of  Mexico.  He  introduced  numerous 
inventions  and  new  methods  in  deep  sea  explora- 
tion, for  which  he  later  received  the  decoration 
of  the  red  eagle  of  Prussia  from  Emperor 
William  I.,  and  received  gold  medal  from  abroad. 
He  took  command  in  1897  of  the  battleshi]) 
Maine,  which  was  blown  up  and  destroyed  in 
Havana  harbor,  February  15,  1898;  com- 
manded the  battleship  Texas,  1898-1900;  was 
made  rear-admiral,  1903;  became  a  member  of 
the  naval  construction  board  and  naval  general 
board,  and  retired  in  1907.  Author:  Deep  Sea 
Sounding  and  Dredging;  Personal  Narrative  of 
the  Battleship  Maine,  etc.     Died,  1909. 

Sllliman,  Benjamin,  Americian  physicist,  was  born 
at  Trumbull,  Conn.,  1779.  He  was  educated  at 
Yale  college,  and  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1802, 
but  soon  after  received  from  the  college  the 
appointment  of  professor  of  chemistrv,  and  held 
that  chair  over  half  a  century.  Uniting  miner- 
alogy and  geology  to  chemistry,  he  made  a 
general  survey  of  Connecticut,  and  observed  the 
fall  of  a  meteorite;  constructed,  with  the  aid  of 
Professor  Hare,  a  compound  blowpipe;  and 
repeated  the  experiments  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy. 
In  1818  he  founded  the  American  Journal  of 
Science,  better  known  as  Silliman's  Journal,  of 
which  he  was  for  twentjr  years  editor.  He  pub- 
lished Elements  of  Chemistry;  Travels  in  England, 
etc.;  Narrative  of  a  Visit  to  Europe.     Died,  1864. 

Sley*8  {sya'-ySs'),  Emmanuel  Joseph,  better  Icnown 
as  the  Abb6  Sifiyes,  French  revolutionist,  was 
born  m  Frejus,  France,  1748.  He  studied  for 
the  church  at  Paris;  during  the  reign  of  terror 
he  withdrew  into  the  country;  but  after  Robes- 
pierre s  downfall  returned  to  the  convention 
took  Ml  active  part  in  afifairs,  and  became  presi- 
dent of  the  national  assembly  in  1790.  In  1799 
on  his  return  from  a  mission  to  BerUn.  by  which 
he  secured  the  neutrality  of  Prussia,  he  became  a' 
member  of  the  directory.  He  subsequently 
suppressed  the  Jacobin  club,  and  was  active  in 
«n-??lf^c*wv*  the  overthrow  of  the  directory 
and  the  substitution  of  the  consular  government 
the  new  constitution  being  devised  by  him  He 
Boon   found   his   speculations   completely   over- 


matched  by  Bonaparte's  practical  energy,  and 
though  a  consul  provisionally,  he  saw  it  desirable 
to  terminate  his  political  career.  He  retired 
with  the  title  of  count,  and  obtained  grants  of 
land  and  property  to  the  value  of  at  least  $250,- 
000.  He  was  exiled  at  the  restoration,  but 
returned  to  Paris  during  the  revolution  of  1830, 
and  died  there  in  1836. 

Slfton,  Clifford,  Canadian  statesman,  was  bom  in 
Middlesex  county,  Ontario.  He  was  graduated 
at  Victoria  uiuversitj',  Cobourg,  1880;  was 
admitte<l  to  the  Manitoba  bar,  1882;  practiced 
in  Brandon;  was  created  queen's  counsel  by 
Dominion  patent,  1895.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Manitoba  legislature,  1888-90;  attorney- 
general  and  minister  of  education,  1S91 ;  codified 
the  laws  relating  to  civil  procedure  in  Manitoba, 
retired  from  Manitoba  government  and  entered 
Sir  Wilfred  Laurier's  administration  as  minister 
of  the  interior  and  superintendent-general  of 
Indian  affairs,  1896,  but  resigned  in  1905.  He 
was  first  elected  to  the  Dominion  bouse  of  com- 
mons for  Brandon,  Manitoba,  1896,  and  reelected 
In  1900,  1904,  and  1908. 

Sigel  {ae'-gd),  Frani,  American  general,  was  bom 
in  Gemianv,  1824.  He  was  m  the  service  of 
the  grandniuke  of  Baden,  and  became  minister 
of  war  in  the  revolution  of  1848.  but  was  obliged 
to  flee,  and  came  to  the  United  States.  He 
entered  the  federal  army  as  colonel  in  1861, 
during  the  civil  war,  and  by  gallant  service  rose 
to  the  rank  of  major-general.  He  was  raster 
of  New  York  city,  1871-74,  and  United  States 
pension  agent  for  the  city,  188&-89.  Died, 
1902. 

Slgrisraund  (»iy'-{«-mfi»Mf),  emperor  of  Germany,  waa 
born  about  1368.  When  only  nineteen  he 
became  king  of  Hungary  through  marriage.  He 
was  terribly  defeated  in  an  expedition  against 
the  Turks  at  Nicopolis  in  1396.  Some  years 
later  be  conquered  Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  and 
Servia,  and  became  emperor  of  Germanv  in  1411. 
The  council  of  Constance  was  held  during  his 
reign,  and,  failing  to  uphold  the  safe  conduct  he 
had  granted  to  liuss,  he  permitted  him  to  be 
burned  by  bis  enemies.  The  Hussite  war  fol- 
lowed, his  succession  to  the  throne  of  Bohemia 
after  his  brother's  death  was  opposed  by  the 
Hussites,  and  he  only  secured  it  after  making 
concessions,  a  year  before  his  death,  which  took 
place  in  1437. 

Simmons,  Fumifold  McLendel,  lawyer.  United 
States  senator,  was  born  in  Jones  county,  North 
Carolina,  1864.  He  was  graduated  at  Trinity 
college  North  Carolina,  1873,  LL.  D.,  1901: 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  1875.  He  continued 
in  the  active  practice  of  the  law,  1875-1886;  was 
a  member  of  congress,  1887-89,  2d  North  Caro- 
lina district;  internal  revenue  collector,  4th 
district,  1893-96;  was  elected  United  States 
senator  for  the  terms.  1901-07,  1907-13,  1913-19. 

Simon  («t'-m<5N'),  Jules  Francois  French  statesman 
and  publicist,  was  bom  at  Lorient,  France,  1814. 
He  was  educated  at  Lorient  and  at  Vannt^,  and 
in  1839  became  profeasor  of  philosophy  at  the 
Sorbonne,  Paris.  In  1848-50  he  was  a  repub- 
lican member  of  the  French  assemblj',  and  was 
removed  from  his  professorship  in  1851.  He 
was  then  member  of  the  corps  l^gislatif,  1863- 
70;  minister  of  public  instruction,  1871-73; 
senator  and  member  of  the  French  academy, 
1875,  and  prime  minister,  1876-77,  under  Mac- 
Mahon,  but  resigned  as  a  protest  against  the 
latter's  monarchical  schemes,  which  were  by 
this  action  chiefly  checkmated.  He  opf)osed 
Ferry's  measures  against  religious  bodies  not 
sanctioned  by  the  state,  advocating  entire 
liberty  of  conscience,  and  also  advocated  free 
trade.  Amidst  the  general  corruption  he  re- 
mained poor,  supporting  his  family  by  his  pen, 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


981 


and  presorving  an  absolutely  stainless  character 
to  tlie  last.      Died,  1896. 

Simpson,  8ir  Jame.4  Young,  noted  Scottish  physi- 
cian, was  born  at  Bathgate,  Scotland,  1811.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh  as 
doctor  in  medicine  in  1S;^2,  and  in  1840  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  obstetrics  there.  In 
this  field  he  introduced  the  use  of  chloroform 
and  other  anaesthetics,  and  ma<le  improvements 
in  the  old  methods  of  practice.  He  was  also 
much  interested  in  archicology,  and  his  contri- 
butions to  antiquarian  research  would  of  them- 
selves create  an  independent  reputation.  His 
scientific  sersnces  were  recognized  by  nearly 
every  medical  association,  whUe  his  professional 
distinction  secured  for  him,  in  1867,  a  baronetcy 
from  the  queen.     Died,  1870. 

Simpson,  Matthew,  American  Methodist  Episcopal 
clergyman  and  bishop,  was  born  in  Cadiz,  Ohio, 
1811.  He  was  graduated  in  medicine  in  1833, 
and  soon  after  entered  the  ministry  in  the  Pitts- 
burg conference.  He  was  vice-president  and 
professor  in  Allegheny  college,  1837;  president 
of  Indiana  Asbury  university',  1839,  and  editor 
of  the  Western  Christian  Advocate,  1848.  He 
was  bishop  in  1852,  and  was  delegate  to  the 
Irish  and  British  conferences,  and  the  evangelical 
alliance  at  Berlin,  and  extended  his  travels 
through  Greece,  Turkey,  Egypt,  and  the  holy 
land.  During  the  civil  war  he  delivered  numer- 
ous addresses  in  behalf  of  the  Union  and  the 
freedmen,  and  officiated  at  the  funeral  of  Presi- 
dent Lincoln.  In  1874  he  visited  Mexico,  and 
later  presided  at  the  conferences  in  Europe; 
and  in  1881  visited  Europe  for  the  third  time 
as  delegate  to  the  first  Methodist  ecumenical 
council,  and  delivered  the  opening  address.  He 
was  the  author  of  A  Hundred  Years  of  Methodism, 
and  of  the  Cyclopedia  of  Methodism,  and  was 
one  of  the  most  eminent  pUlpit  orators  of  the 
nineteenth  century.      Died,  1884. 

Sinclair,  Upton,  author,  was  born  in  Baltimore, 
1878,  and  graduated  from  the  college  of  the  city 
of  New  York,  1897.  He  assisted  the  government 
in  the  stockyard's  investigation  in  Chicago,  and 
has  taken  a  leading  part  in  socialist  movements. 
Author:  Springtime  and  Harvest;  Prince  Hagen, 
a  Phantasy;  Manassas;  The  Jungle;  The  Indus- 
trial Republic;  The  Overman,  etc. 

Sinclair,  William  Macdonald,  English  prelate,  arch- 
deacon of  London  and  canon  of  St.  Paul's,  1889- 
1911;  was  born  at  Leeds,  1850.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Balliol  college,  Oxford,  and  became 
assistant  minister  of  Quebec  chapel,  1876.  He 
was  resident  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  London, 
1877;  vicar  of  St.  Stephen's,  Westminster,  1880; 
member  of  London  school  board,  1885;  grand 
chaplain  of  England,  1894 ;  chaplain  to  the  order 
of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  1900,  and  chaplain-in<- 
ordinary  to  Queen  Victoria.  Author:  The  Ser- 
vant of  Christ;  The  Christian's  Influence;  Christ 
and  our  Times;  Words  to  the  Laity;  Leaders  of 
Thought  in  the  English  Church;  Simplicity  in 
Christ;  The  New  Law;  The  Happy  Life;  Diffi- 
culties of  our' Day,  etc. 

Sismondi  (sls-mdn'-dl),  Jean  Charles  Leonard 
Simonde  de,  distinguished  Swiss  historian  of 
Italian  descent,  was  born  at  Geneva,  1773. 
Before  he  had  completed  his  education  the 
pecuniary  reverses  of  his  father  made  it  neces- 
sary for  him  to  enter  a  counting-house.  Hateful 
as  mercantile  pursuits  seem  to  have  been  to  him, 
he  became  a  thoroughly  good  clerk.  The  French 
revolution  following,  he  took  refuge  in  England 
along  with  his  family.  In  1795  they  bought  a 
small  farm  near  Pescia,  in  Tuscany,  and  Sismondi 
had  now  leisure  for  literature.  In  1803  appeared 
a  work  on  political  economy,  followed  by  his 
History  of  the  Italian  Republics.  The  latter, 
published  between   1807  and   1818,   placed  him 


in  the  first  rank  among  contemporary  hiatoriaas. 
In  1813  ap(MiHro<i  his  LUerature  of  Souihtm 
Eurove,  and  m  IS  19  he  began  liis  greatoat  work, 
the  Histnry  of  the  French,  with  whioh  ha  waa 
occupied  until  his  death,  in  1842. 

Sixtus  IV^  Pope,  Francisco  dalla  RoTrre,  waa  bom 
in  a  small  village  near  Savona,  Italy,  1414.  H«i 
had  a  great  reputation  as  a  proat^lx^r  throughout 
Italy,  and  became  pope  in  1471.  He  oxluiuatad 
the  treasures  of  the  papal  church  in  providing 
for  his  relatives,  and  took  part  in  a  conapiraoy 
against  the  Me<lici  at  Florence.  Learning,  and 
especially  the  improvement  of  the  city,  owed 
much  to  him.  He  built  the  Kistine  chapel  and 
the  Sistine  bridge  across  the  Tiber,  incraaaed 
the  Vatican  library,  and  patronized  the  great 
painters  of  his  time.  His  union  with  the  Vene- 
tians against  the  duke  of  Ferrara  brought  on  an 
Italian  war,  which  ended  in  the  breaking  up  of 
the  Venetian  alliance.     He  died  In  1484. 

Sixtus  V„  Felice  Peretti,  one  of  the  ablest  of  the 
popes,  waa  born  near  Montalto,  Italy,  1521. 
He  was  a  professor  of  theology  at  Rimini  and 
Siena,  an  eloquent  preacher,  vicar-generai,  and 
cardinal,  and  succeeded  Gregory  XIII.  His 
pontificate  was  notable  for  vigorous  administra- 
tion. He  stopped  disorder,  improved  the  work- 
ing of  the  laws,  gave  liberty  to  the  Jews  to 
worship  in  their  own  way,  and  to  trade  in  his 
dominions.  He  built  the  library  buildings  of 
the  Vatican,  authorized  a  new  edition  of  the 
septuagint  and  the  vulgate,  and  in  every  way 
carried  out  his  policy  of  increasing  the  power 
of  the  Catholic  church  against  the  Huguenots, 
the  Lutherans,  and  Queen  Elizabeth,  lie  also 
fixed  the  number  of  cardinals  at  seventy.  Died, 
1590. 

Skeat  (sket),  Walter  William*  English  philologist, 
was  born  in  London,  1835.  He  was  graduated 
from  Christ's  college,  Cambridge,  1858,  became 
a  fellow  in  1860,  and  in  1878  professor  of  Anglo- 
Saxon;  Litt.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Ph.  D.,  D.  C.  L.  He 
was  the  first  director  of  the  dialect  society, 
established  in  1873,  and  contributed  more  than 
any  scholar  of  his  time  to  a  sound  knowledge  of 
Middle  English  and  English  philology  generally. 
His  works  include:  Piers  Plowmnn;  The  Lay  of 
Havelock  the  Dane;  Barbour's  Bruce;  Chaucer's 
Treatise  on  the  Astrolabe,  etc.,  all  editcnl  for  the 
Early  English  Text  society ;  editions  of  Chatter- 
ton's  Poems;  Chaucer's  Minor  Poems;  Kingia 
Quair;  A  Maeao-Gothic  Glossary;  his  admirable 
Etymological  English  Dictionary;  Principles  of 
English  Etymologi/;  his  great  eJition  of  Cnauoer, 
in  6  vols. ;  The  Student's  Chaucer;  A  Student's 
Pastime;  Chaucerian  and  Other  Pisces;  Notes  on 
English  Etymology;  A  Primer  of  Classical  and 
Ev^ish  Philology,  etc.     Died,  1912. 

Skobelev  (skd'-biUi/if),  MlkhaU  Dlmltrievlcb.  Rus- 
sian general,  was  bom  in  1844.  He  fought 
against  the  Polish  insurgents  in  186.3,  and  in 
1871-75  was  at  the  conquest  of  Khiva  and 
Khokand.  In  the  Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877-78 
he  bore  a  conspicuous  part  at  Plevna,  in  the 
Shipka  pass,  and  at  Adrianople*  in  1881  he 
stormed  the  Turkoman  stronghold  Geok-Tepe. 
He  died  near  Moscow,  in  1882.  He  was  an  ardent 
Panslavist. 

Slicer,  Thomas  Boberts,  Unitarian  clergyman,  waa 
bom  at  Washington,  1847.  He  waa  educated  in 
Baltimore;  A.  M.,  Dickinson  college;  D.  D., 
Harvard.  He  was  a  Methodi.st  Episcopal  minis- 
ter ten  years  in  Maryland,  Colorado  and  New 
York ;  entered  Unitarian  ministry,  1881 ;  held 
pastorates  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  and  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.,  and  since  1897  has  been  paator  of  the 
church  of  All  Souls,  New  York.  Author:  Doc- 
trine of  the  Unity  of  God  in  the  First  Three  Ceniip- 
ries;  The  Great  Affirmations  of  Religion;  The 
Power  and  Promise  of  the  Liberal  Faith;   Book  of 


982 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Common  Worship;  One  World  at  a  Time;  Shelley 
—  An  Appreciation;   The  Way  to  Happiness,  etc. 

Slldell  {dl-dM'\  John,  American  lawyer  and  politi- 
cian, was  bom  in  New  York  city  about  1793. 
After  graduating  at  C!olumbia  college,  he  studied 
law,  and  removing  to  New  Orleans  practiced 
there  and  became  a  leader  in  Louisiana  politics. 
From  1842  to  1845  he  served  in  congress;  from 
1853  to  1861,  was  a  member  of  the  United  States 
senate;  and  in  the  civil  war,  when  Louisiana 
seceded,  he  withdrew,  and  was  appointed  con- 
federate minister  to  France.  In  company  with 
James  M.  Mason,  who  was  named  minister  to 
England,  he  was  taken  on  the  high  seas  by  Cap- 
tain Wilkes,  of  the  United  States  navy,  and  both 
brought  as  prisoners  to  the  United  States,  where 
they  were  confined  in  Fort  Warren.  On  the 
demand  of  England,  they  were  released,  however, 
and  proceeded  on  their  respective  missions.  In 
France,  aided  by  the  sympathy  of  Napoleon  III. 
for  the  confederate  government,  Slidell,  though 
unable  to  secure  recognition  for  his  government, 
procured  a  ship,  the  Stonewall,  for  the  confeder- 
acy, and  negotiated  with  French  capitalists  for  a 
loan  to  the  Confederate  States  of  £15.000,000. 
After  the  war  closed,  he  settled  in  England  and 
resided  there  until  his  death  in  1871. 

Sloane,  William  Milligan,  American  historian,  Seth 
Low  professor  of  history,  Columbia,  since  189C, 
was  born  at  Richmond,  Ohio,  1850.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Columbia,  1868;  Ph.  D.,  Leipzig,  1876; 
L.  H.  D.,  Columbia,  1887;  A.  M.,  Princeton, 
1896;  LL.  D.,  Rutgers,  1898,  Princeton,  1903. 
He  was  secretary  to  George  Bancroft,  the  histo- 
rian, in  Berlin,  1873-75;  professor  at  Princeton 
university,  1876-96 ;  and  editor  Princeton  Review, 
1886-89.  Author:  Life  of  James  McCosh;  The 
French  War  and  the  Revolution;  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte, a  History,  4  vols;  French  Revolution  and 
Religious  Reform,  etc. 

Slocum,  Henry  W.,  American  general,  was  bom, 
1827,  at  Delphi,  N.  Y.  He  graduated  from  West 
Point  in  1852,  was  assigned  to  the  1st  artillery, 
resigned  in  1856,  practiced  law  at  Syracuse,  and 
was  elected  to  the  state  legislature  in  1860.  On 
the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war,  he  was  commis- 
sioned colonel  of  the  27th  New  York  volunteers 
and  took  part  in  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run, 
where  he  Was  wounded.  In  August  he  was 
made  brigadier-general,  commanded  a  brigade, 
and  later  a  division  in  the  army  of  the  Potomac, 
taking  part  in  McClellan's  peninsular  campaign 
in  1862.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battles 
of  Gaines'  Mill,  Glendale,  and  Malvem  Hill  and 
was  promoted  to  major-general  of  volunteers. 
He  fought  at  second  Bull  Run,  South  Mountain, 
and  Antietam,  and  as  commander  of  the  12th 
corps  rendered  signal  service  at  Fredericksburg, 
Chancellorsville,  and  Gettysburg.  Later  he  was 
transferred  with  his  corps  to  the  army  of  the 
Cumberland,  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the 
20th  corps,  and  was  the  first  to  enter  Atlanta. 
In  Sherman's  march  to  the  sea  and  through  the 
Carohnas  he  commanded  the  left  wing,  taking 
part  in  the  actions  of  that  campaign.  After  the 
war  he  took  up  the  practice  of  law  at  Brooklyn, 
To^o^  ®'^xx®^,.*°  congress  in  1870,  and  again  in 
1884.     He  died  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  18947 

Smeaton,  John,  English  civil  engineer,  was  bora 
near  Leeds,  England,  1724.  He  began  his 
career  as  a  maker  of  mathematical  instruments, 
but  continued  his  studies  and  experiments, 
inventing    in  1751,  a  machine  for  measuring  a 

rph?,nJfv.^  tf^^\  ^^  r^^  ^«^^  appointed  to 
rebuild  the  Eddystone  lighthouse.  It  was  built 
of  stone  and  was  the  greatest  work  of  the  kind 
at  the  time,  standing  for  one  hundred  twenty 
years  as  a  monument  of  his  skill.  His  other 
r^J^!  '^^'■?  ^^'"^gate  harbor,  the  Forth  and 
Clyde  canal,  Spurn  lighthouse,  the  preservation 


of  the  old  London  bridge,  and  the  Perth  and 
Banff  bridges  in  Scotland.     He  died,  1792. 

Smiles,  Samuel,  Scottish  writer,  was  bom  at  Had- 
dington, Scotland,  1812.  He  was  graduated  in 
medicine  at  Edinburgh,  at  twenty,  and  practiced 
in  Haddington.  Subsequently  he  settled  as  a 
surgeon  in  Leeds,  became  editor  of  the  Leeds 
Times,  secretary  of  the  Leeds  and  Thirsk  railway 
in  1845,  and  in  1854  secretary  of  the  South- 
Eastern  railway,  retiring  in  1866.  He  wrote 
Life  of  George  Stephenson;  Self-Help,  which  ha& 
had  an  extraordinary  success,  and  has  been 
translated  into  a  score  of  languages;  Character; 
Thrift;  Duty;  Life  and  Labor;  Lives  of  the  Engi- 
neers; Industrial  Biography;  Lives  of  Boulton 
and  Watt;  The  Huguenots  in  England;  The 
Huguenots  in  France;  Men  of  Invention  and 
Industry;  Josiah  Wodgtvood,  etc.  Ue  died  at 
London,  1904. 

Smith,  Adam,  Scottish  political  economist,  founder 
of  the  modern  science  of  political  economy,  was 
born  at  Kirkcaldy,  in  Fifesliire,  1723.  He  wa» 
cducaj^d  at  Glasgow  university,  and  at  Balliol 
cq^eg^,  Oxford^  and  after  giving  a  course  of 
lectures  in  Edinburgh  on  nictoric  and  belles 
lettfes,  he  was  elected,  in  1751,  professor  of  logic 
in  Gla.sgow,  and,  in  the  following  year,  professor 
of  moral  philosophy.  The  result  of  his  inquiries 
on  the  latter  suojcct  ap(>eared  in  his  Theory  of 
the  Moral  Sentiments,  wluch  was  published  in 
1759.  In  1764  he  accompanied  the  duke  of 
Buccleuch  to  the  continent  as  traveling  tutor 
and  governor,  and  this  engagement  occupied  him 
for  two  years-  but  at  the  end  of  that  time  he 
returned  to  Kirkcaldy,  where  he  lived  until  he 
was  appointed  a  commissioner  of  customs  in  1778, 
when  ne  took  up  his  residence  in  Edinburgh. 
In  1776  he  produced  his  great  work.  An  Inquiry 
into  the  Nature  ami  Causes  of  the  Wealth  cf 
Nations,  and  upon  tills  work  his  reputation  rests. 
A  later  work  was  his  Apology  for  the  Life  of  David 
Hume.  In  1787  he  was  elected  lord  rector  of  the 
university  of  Glasgow,  and  died,  1790. 

Smith,  Benjamin  Eli,  American  editor,  was  bom 
in  Beimt,  Syria,  1857.  He  graduated  at  Amherst 
college,  1877,  A.  M.,  L.  H.  D.  Editor  and 
translator:  Schwegler's  History  of  Philosophy; 
Century  Cydopcedia  of  Names;  Century  Atlas; 
Cicero's  De  Amicitia;  FrankUn's  Poor  Richard's 
Almanac;  Selections  from  Marcus  Aurdius; 
Epictetus;  Pascal,  etc.     Died,  1913. 

Smith,  Charles  Emory,  American  journalist,  was 
bom  at  Mansfield,  Conn.,  1842.  lie  removed  to 
Albany,  N.  Y.,  with  parents,  in  1849;  graduated 
at  Union  college,  1861;  LL.  D.,  Union,  1889, 
Lafayette,  1900,  Knox,  1900,  Wesleyan,  1901. 
He  was  actively  engaged  during  the  civil  war  in 
raising  and  organizing  Union  volunteer  regiment ; 
was  ^itor  of  Albany  Express,  1865-70;  Albany 
Journal,  1870-80;  and  Philaddphia  Press, 
1880-1908.  He  was  United  States  minister  to 
Russia,  1890-92;  postmaster-general  of  United 
States,  1898-1902.  He  was  well  known  through- 
out the  United  States  as  a  forceful  writer,  orator, 
and  publicist.     Died,  1908. 

Smitli,  Ellison  DuBant,  United  States  senator,  was 
born,  1866,  at  Lynchburg,  S.  C.  He  graduated 
at  Wofford  college,  Spartanburg,  S.  C,  in  1889; 
was  a  member  of  the  South  CaroUna  legislature, 
1896-1900.  He  became  a  national  figure  on 
account  of  addresses  at  New  Orleans,  Birming- 
ham, Dallas,  and  Shreveport,  on  the  cotton  in- 
dustry, and  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
senate,  1909,  for  the  term  1909-15.  He  is  a 
successful  merchant  and  planter. 

Smith,  Francis  Hopklnson,  American  artist,  author, 
and  engineer,  was  bom  at  Baltimore,  1838. 
When  quite  young  he  was  clerk  in  iron  works, 
and  was  later  educated  as  a  mechanical  engineer; 
L.  H.  D.,  Yale,  1907.     He  built  the  government 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


083 


sea-wall  around  Governor's  island;  another  at 
Tompkinsville,  S.  I.;  the  Race  Rock  liehthouse 
off  New  London;  foundation  for  Bartholdi 
statue  of  Liberty,  etc.  He  has  also  done  much 
landscape  work  in  water  colors,  charcoal  work 
and  illustrations,  and  is  represented  in  Walter's 
gallery,  Baltimore,  Marquand  collectionj,  etc. 
Author:  Old  Lines  in  New  Black  and  White; 
Well-Worn  Roads;  A  White  Umbrella  in  Mexico; 
A  Gentleman  Vagabond  and  Same  Others; 
Tom  Grogan;  Gondola  Days;  Venice  of  To-day; 
Caleb  West;  The  Other  Fellow;  The  Fortunes  of 
Oliver  Horn;  The  Under  Dog;  Col.  Carter's 
Christmas;  At  Close  Range;  The  Wood  Fire  in 
No.  3 ;  The  Tides  of  Barnegat;  The  Veiled  Lady; 
The  Romance  of  an  Old-Fashioned  Gentleman; 
Peter,  etc. 

Smith,  Goldwln,  English  author  and  educator,  was 
bom  in  Reading,  England,  1823;  graduated 
from  Magdalen  college,  Oxford,  1845;  D.  C.  L., 
Oxford,  1882;  LL.  D.,  Princeton,  1896;  and 
was  called  to  the  English  bar,  1847.  He  was 
regius  professor  of  modem  histoiy,  Oxford, 
1858-66 ;  was  an  active  champion  of  the  North 
during  the  American  civil  war;  visited  United 
States,  1864;  was  lecturer,  1868-71,  and-  later 
honorary  professor  of  English  and  constitutional 
history,  Cornell.  He  lived  in  Toronto  after 
1871.  Author:  Irish  History  and  Irish  Char- 
acter; Lectures  on  Modern  History;  Rational 
Religion  and  the  Rationalistic  Objections  of  the 
Bampton  Lectures  for  1858 ;  Does  the  Bible  Sanc- 
tion American  Slaver yf  The  Empire;  On  the 
Morality  of  the  Epiancipation  Proclamation;  Eng- 
land and  America;  The  Civil  War  in  America; 
Three  English  Statesmen;  The  Irish  Question; 
William  Cowper;  Jane  Austen;  The  Conduct  of 
England  to  Ireland;  False  Hopes;  Loyalty,  Aris- 
tocracy, and  Jingoism;  The  Political  Destiny  of 
Canada;  Canada  and  the  Canadian  Question;  Wil- 
liam Lloyd  Garrison:  a  Biographical  Essay;  A 
Trip  to  England;  History  of  the  United  States; 
Oxford  and  Her  Colleges;  Bay  Leaves:  Translations 
from  the  Latin  Poets;  Specimens  of  Greek  Tragedy; 
Essays  on  Questions  of  the  Day;  Guesses  at  the 
Riddle  of  Existence;  The  United  Kingdom;  Shakes- 
peare: The  Man;  Commonwealth  or  Em.pire;  In 
the  Court  of  History;  The  Founder  of  Christendom; 
Lines  of  Religious  Inquiry;  My  Memory  of  Glad- 
stone; Labor  and  Capital,  etc.  He  died  in  1910 
leaving  the  bulk  of  his  fortune  to  Cornell. 

Smith,  Hoke,  United  States  senator;  bom  at  New- 
ton, North  Carolina,  1855;  educated  in  prepara- 
tory school  conducted  by  his  father;  moved  to 
Georgia,  1872;  admitted  to  bar,  1873;  practiced 
at  Atlanta,  Georgia,  1873-1909;  delegate  to  dem- 
ocratic national  convention,  1892;  secretary  of 
the  interior,  1893-96;  governor  of  Georgia, 
1907-09;  reelected  governor  for  term,  1911-13; 
resigned  as  governor,  1911,  to  become  United 
States  senator. 

Smith,  Captain  Jolin,  English  adventurer  and 
colonist,  founder  of  Virginia,  was  bom  in  Lincoln- 
shire, England,  in  1580.  He  traveled  in  France 
and  Holland,  and,  when  on  his  way  to  join  the 
Christian  army  fighting  against  the  Turks  in 
Hungary,  was  robbed  by  four  adventurers.  He 
joined  a  ship,  half  merchant  and  half  pirate,  and 
helped  to  capture  a  Venetian  argosy.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  service  of  Ferdinand, 
duke  of  Austria;  was  next  sold  as  a  slave,  but 
escaped  and  traveled  through  Germany,  France, 
Spain,  and  Morocco.  In  1606  he  sailed  with  an 
expedition  of  three  vessels  and  one  hundred  five 
men  to  found  a  colony  in  Virginia.  On  the  way 
out  he  was  accused,  by  the  leaders,  of  a  con- 
spiracy to  make  himself  king  of  Virginia,  and 
was  kept  a  prisoner  on  the  voyage.  Jamestown 
was  founded  on  the  James  river  in  May,  1607. 
Smith,  after  being  tried  and  acquitted,  was  made 


a  member  of  the  council,  and  was  the  real  head 
of  the  colony,  saving  it  from  destruction.  On 
one  of  his  journeys  into  the  oountry  for  com  he 
was  captured  by  the  Indians,  under  the  chief 
Powhatan,  and  his  life  saved  by  the  chief's 
daughter  Pocahontas.  On  his  return  to  James- 
town he  found  the  colony  rtxiuced  to  about 
fortv  men,  who  were  anxious  to  return  to  Ens- 
land,  but  were  induced  by  Smith  to  remain  unul 
others  arrived.  He  then  explored  the  coasts  of 
the  Chesapeake  bay  in  two  voyages,  and  made  % 
map  of  the  country.  He  was  superseded  in  1609 
as  governor  of  the  colony  by  Lord  Delaware,  and 
returned  to  England.  In  1614  he  explon-d  the 
coasts  of  New  England,  and  undertook  the 
founding  of  a  colony  in  New  England  in  1616, 
but  his  vessel  was  captured  by  a  French  war 
ship,  and  he  was  carried  to  La  Rochelle.  After 
his  escape,  he  wrote  an  account  of  his  voyages 
to  New  England.  He  wrote  al.so  General  Htdoris 
of  Virginia,  New  England  and  the  Summer  Idet, 
and  the  True  Travels,  Adventures,  and  Observa- 
tions of  Captain  John  Smith.     Died,  1631. 

Smith,  John  Walter,  United  States  senator,  was 
bom  at  Snow  Hill,  Maryland,  1845.  He  was 
educated  by  private  tutors  and  at  Washington 
academy,  and  began  a  business  career  at  the  age 
of  eighteen.  He  has  at  present  large  lumber 
interests,  and  is  a  director  in  many  business  and 
financial  institutions.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
state  senate,  Maryland,  1889-99;  president  of 
state  senate,  1894;  member  of  the  fifty-sixth 
congress;  governor  of  Maryland,  1900-04;  United 
States  senator  for  the  term  1909-15. 

Smith,  Lyman  Cornelius,  manufacturer,  was  bom 
in  Connecticut,  1850,  and  educated  in  the  public 
and  state  normal  schools.  Removed  to  New 
York,  1872,  and  engaged  in  commission  and  then 
in  lumber  business.  From  1877  to  1890  he  was 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  breech-loading 
firearms.  Began  the  manufacture  of  typewriters 
in  1886;  organized  the  Smith  Premier  type- 
writer company,  of  which  he  was  president,  1890; 
sold  out  to  Union  typewriter  company,  becoming 
its  vice-president.  He  resigned  in  1903,  and 
with  his  brothers  organized  L.  C.  Smith  and 
Brothers  typewriter  company,  He  was  president 
of  Hudson  Portland  cement  company.  National 
bank  of  Syracuse,  Rochester,  Syracuse  and 
Eastern  railway.  In  1900  he  gave  to  Syracuse 
university  the  L3rman  Cornelius  Smith  college  of 
applied  science.     Died,  1910. 

Smith,  Munroe,  American  educator,  was  bom  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1854.  He  graduated  at  Am- 
herst college,  1874;  Columbia  law  school,  1877; 
J.  U.  D.,  Gottingen,  1880;  LL.  D.,  Columbia, 
1904.  He  was  instmctor,  1880-83,  adjunct  pro- 
fessor of  history,  1883-91,  and  professor  of 
Roman  law  and  comparative  jurisprudence, 
since  1891,  at  Columbia;  lecturer  on  Roman 
law,  at  Georgetown  law  school,  Washington, 
since  1901.  Author:  Bismarck  and  German 
Unity;  Selections  from  Cicero;  and  many  legal 
articles  in  Harper  s  Classical  Dictionary,  Lalor's 
Cydopadia  of  Political  Science,  the  Universal 
Cydopadia,  the  International  Cydopaedia,  etc. 

Smith,  Sydney,  English  clergvman  and  essayist, 
was  bom  at  Woodford,  England,  1771.  He 
graduated  from  Oxford,  and  entered  the  church: 
in  1802  resided  in  Edinburgh,  and  joined 
Brougham,  Jeffrey,  and  others,  in  establishing 
the  Edinburgh  Review,  of  which  he  was  the  first 
editor.  In  1803  he  removed  to  London,  where, 
between  1804  and  1806,  he  delivered  a  course  of 
Lectures  on  Moral  Philosophy  at  the  royal  insti- 
tution. In  1807-08  he  published  Letters  on  the 
Subject  of  the  Catholics  to  my  Brother  Abraham 
who  Lives  in  the  Country,  by  Peter  Plymley, 
which  had  an  immense  success;  and,  in  the 
following  years,  a  number  of  political  speeches 


984 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


and  pamphlets,  all  inspired  by  the  same  humor, 
force  of  argument,  and  expression.  From  1831 
until  his  death  in  1845  he  was  a  canon  of  St. 
Paul's,  London.  He  was  a  universal  favorite  in 
society  and  was  distinguished  for  brilliant  wit 
and  his  graceful  and  forcible  English. 

Smith,  William  Alden,  lawyer.  United  States 
senator,  was  bom  at  Dowagiac,  Mich.,  1859. 
He  received  a  common  school  education;  re- 
moved with  parents  to  Grand  Rapids,  1872; 
was  a  newsboy  and  messenger  boy  in  Western 
Union  telegraph  office;  appointed  page  in  the 
Michigan  house  of  representatives,  1879 ;  studied 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  1883;  A.  M., 
Dartmouth,  1901.  He  is  president  of  the  Grand 
Rapids  Herald;  was  a  member  of  congress,  1895- 
1907,  fifth  Michigan  district;  and  was  elected 
United  States  senator  for  terms,  1907-13  and 
1913-19. 

Smith,  William  Bobertson,  British  theologian  and 
orientalist,  was  born  at  Keig,  Scotland,  184G, 
and  graduated  at  Aberdeen  in  18G5.  He  after- 
ward studied  theology  at  Edinburgh,  Bonn,  and 
Gottingen;  and  in  1870  became  professor  of 
Hebrew  and  old  testament  exegesis  in  the  Free 
Church  college,  Aberdeen.  In  consequence  of 
his  article  on  the  Hebrew  Language  and  Literature. 
in  the  Encyclopadia  Britannica,  he  was  removed 
from  his  chair  in  1881.  He  delivered  in  Edin- 
burgh and  Glasgow  in  1880-81-82  two  series  of 
lectures,  substantially  republished  in  The  Old 
Testament  in  the  Jewish  Church;  and  The  Prophets 
of  Israel.  In  1881  he  became  associated  with 
Professor  Baynes  in  the  editorship  of  the  Encyclo- 
paedia Britannica,  and  in  1887  succeeded  him  as 
editor-in-chief.  At  Cambridge  he  was  succes- 
sively Lord  Almoner's  professor  of  Arabic  in  1883, 
university  librarian,  1886,  and  Adams  professor 
of  Arabic,  1889.  His  Kinship  and  Marriage  in 
Early  Arabia  was  published  in  1885,  Religion  of 
the  Semites  in  1889.     He  died  at  Cambridge,  1894. 

Smollett,  Tobias  George,  English  novelist,  was  bom, 
1721.  He  was  educated  at  the  university  of 
Glasgow,  and  was  afterward  apprenticed  to  a 
surgeon.  About  1740  he  went  to  London  and 
accepted  the  post  of  surgeon's-mate  in  the  navy, 
and,  in  1741,  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Carta- 
gena. In  1744  he  retumed  to  England,  and  in 
1748  produced  his  Roderick  Random,  which  was 
read  with  the  utmost  avidity.  In  1751  appeared 
Peregrine  Pickle,  a  more  ambitious  and  not  less 
successful  work;  and  in  1753  Ferdinand  Count 
Fatham,  an  inferior  production,  though  contain- 
ing scenes  of  striking  adventure  and  eloquent 
description.  He  next  translated  Don  Quixote, 
then  undertook  the  editorship  of  The  Critical 
Review,  which  was  the  most  unfortunate  of  all 
his  engagements,  and  involved  him  in  endless 
quarrels  and  personalities.  In  1758  he  pubUshed 
his  History  of  England,  four  volumes  quarto, 
which  was  begun  and  completed  in  fourteen 
months.  Though  superficial  and  inaccurate, 
this  history  has  passages  of  fine  animated 
writing  and  masterly  delineation  of  character. 
Another  novel  appeared  in  1760-61,  The  Adven- 
tures of  Sir  Launcelot  Greaves;  in  1766  two 
volumes  of  Travels  in  France  and  Italy;  in  1769 
I  he  Adventures  of  an  Atom,  a  poUtical  satire 
unworthy  of  its  author;  and  in  1771  The  Expe- 
dition of  Humphrey  Clinker,  the  best  of  all  his 
novels,  and  in  the  opinion  of  Thackeray  one  of 
the  very  best  in  the  whole  range  of  imaginative 
literature.     Died  at  Leghom    1771 

Smoot,  Eeed,  United  States  senator,  banker.' 
Mormon  apostle,  was  bom  at  Salt  Lake  city  1862 
Pro^f^K^t^^^icf^o  Brigham  Young  academy, 
Provo,  Utah,  1879;  is  president  of  the  Provo 
commercial  and  savings  bank,  Smoot  invest- 
ment company,  Smoot  drug  company  The  Elec- 
tric   company,    Provo,   Utah;     director   of   the 


following  Salt  Lake  corporations:  Zion's  coopera- 
tive mercantile  company,  Deseret  national  bank, 
and  the  Deseret  savings  bank.  He  was  appointed 
one  of  the  presidency  of  the  Utah  stake  of  the 
church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter  Day  Saints, 
1895,  and  apostle,  1900.  He  was  elected  by 
Utah  legislature,  1903,  United  States  senator  for 
term  1903-O9,  and  reelected  for  the  term  1909-15. 

Smyth  (amilh),  Newman,  American  clergyman  and 
author,  pastor  of  First  Congregational  church. 
New  Haven,  1882-1907,  pastor  emeritus,  1908; 
was  bom  in  Brunswick,  Maine,  1843.  He  grad- 
uated at  Bowdoin  college,  1863;  D.  D.,  New 
York  university,  1881;  Yale,  1895.  He  waa 
assistant  teacher  at  the  naval  academy,  New- 
port, 1863;  served  as  lieutenant  in  the  16th 
Maine  regiment,  1864-65;  graduated  at  Andover 
theological  seminary,  1867 ;  was  pastor  of  Mission 
chapel,  Providence,  R.  I.,  1867-70,  First  Congre- 
gational church,  Bangor,  Maine,  1870-75,  and  of 
the  First  Presbyterian  church,  Quincy,  111., 
1876-82.  He  is  a  member  of  the  Yale  corpora- 
tion. Author:  The  ReligiouM  Feeling,  a  Study 
for  Faith;  Old  Faiths  in  New  Light;  The  Ortho- 
dox  Theoloay  of  To-day;  The  Reality  of  Faith; 
The  Morality  of  the  Old  Testament;  Christian 
Facts  and  Forces;  Personal  Creeds;  Christian 
Ethics;  The  Place  of  Death  in  Evolution;  Through 
Science  to  Faith;  Passing  Protestantism  and  Coming 
Catholicism;  Modem  Belief  in  Immortality,  etc. 

Snorri  Sturluson  {snUr'-ri  atdbr' -Idb-sUn) ,  Icelandic 
poet  and  historian,  bom  in  1179.  Tracing  his 
descent  from  the  kings  of  Norway,  he  early 
turned  his  attention  to  uie  history  of  their  doings, 
and  made  a  collection  of  saxas  entitled  the 
Ileimskringla,  or  the  "Ring  olthe  World,"  in 
which  are  mterspersed  songs  of  hia  own  compos- 
ing. It  contains  a  record  of  the  Norwegian 
kings  from  the  earliest  time  to  the  death  of 
Magnus  Erlingsson,  in  1177,  and  was  first  printed 
in  1697.  It  has  been  translated  into  several 
languages.  Snorri  became  chief  judge  of  Iceland, 
but  his  ambitious  and  intriguing  character  led  to 
his  assassination  in  1241.  His  name  is  also  con- 
nected with  the  prose  Edda. 

Snow,  Francis  Hunttn^on,  American  educator,  waa 
born  at  Fitchburg,  Mass.,  1840.  He  graduated 
at  Williams  college,  1862,  Ph.  D.,  1881;  gradu- 
ated at  Andover  theological  seminary,  1866- 
LL.  D.,  Princeton,  1890.  He  was  professor  of 
mathematics  and  natural  science,  18t)6-70,  pro- 
fessor of  natural  history,  1870-89,  president  of 
the  faculties,  1889-90,  chancellor,  1890-1901,  and 
professor  of  organic  evolution,  systematic  ento- 
mology and  meteorology,  1901-08,  university  of 
Kansas.  He  conducted  twenty-six  expeditions 
to  Kansas,  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Texas,  and 
Arizona,  making  the  Kansas  university  collection 
of  22,000  species  of  insects  one  of  the  largest  in 
the  United  States.     Died,  1908. 

Snyders,  or  Sneyders,  Francis,  Belgian  artist, 
celebrated  as  an  animal  painter,  was  born  at 
Antwerp,  1579.  Originally  he  confined  himself 
exclusively  to  painting  fruits,  and  worked  with 
Rubens.  For  Philip  III.  of  Spain  he  executed 
several  hunting  and  battle  pieces.  The  best 
specimens  of  his  work  are  contained  in  the  gal- 
leries of  Vienna,  Munich,  and  Dresden.  Died  at 
Antwerp,  1657. 

Sobiesld  (so-byi^-ke).  See  John  III.*  king  of 
Poland. 

Socinus  («o-si'-nils),  Faustus,  Italian  theologian, 
was  bom  at  Siena,  Italy,  1539.  After  spending 
twelve  years  as  an  attendant  upon  the  luxurious 
court  of  Florence,  he  resolved  to  be  a  religious 
reformer,  and  in  1574  took  up  his  residence  at 
Basel,  where  he  busied  himself  in  elaborating 
into  a  system  the  scattered  hints  and  views  in 
the  writings  of  his  uncle.  In  1577  he  appeared 
in  open  debate,   maintaining   that   the   Trinity 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


9M 


was  a  pai^an  doctrine,  and  that  Chriat  was  a 
created  and  inferior  being.  Uis  efforts  being 
unsuccessful,  he  passed  into  Poland,  where  tlie 
anti-Trinitarian  party  had  gained  a  strong 
foothold.  His  works,  contained  in  tJie  first  two 
volumes  of  the  Bibliotheca  Fratrum  Folonorum, 
consist  of  theological  tracts,  expositions  of 
scripture,  and  polemical  troatiscs,  with  a  great 
number  of  letters.  The  Socinians  were  long  a 
powerful  religious  body  in  Poland,  Hungary,  and 
Transylvania;  their  peculiar  catechism  is  tnown 
aa  Racovian  from  its  place  of  publication,  Rak6w 
in  Poland.     He  died  near  Cracow,  1G04. 

Socrates  (s<3A;'-rd-^z).     See  page  254. 

Solomon,  king  of  Israel,  about  993-953  B.  C,  was 
the  son  of  David  and  Bathsheba,  and  was 
appointed  by  David  to  be  his  successor  in  prefer- 
ence to  his  elder  brothers.  By  his  remarkable 
judicial  decisions  and  his  completion  of  the 
political  institutions  of  David,  Solomon  gained 
the  respect  and  admiration  of  his  people;  while 
by  the  Duilding  of  the  temple,  which  gave  to  the 
Hebrew  worship  a  magnificence  it  had  not 
hitherto  possessed,  he  bound  the  nation  more 
strongly  to  his  throne.  The  wealth  of  Solomon, 
accumulated  by  a  prudent  use  of  the  treasures 
inherited  from  his  father,  by  successful  com- 
merce, by  a  careful  administration  of  the  roval 
revenues,  and  by  an  increase  of  taxes  enabled 
him  to  meet  the  expenses  of  erecting  the  temple, 
building  palaces,  cities,  and  fortifications,  and  of 
supporting  the  extravagances  of  a  luxurious 
court.  Fortune  long  seemed  to  favor  this  great 
king,  Israel  scarcely  perceiving  that  he  was  con- 
tinually becoming  more  despotic.  Contrary  to 
the  laws  of  Moses,  he  admitted  foreign  women  to 
his  harem;  and  from  love  of  them  he  was  weak 
enough  in  his  old  age  to  permit  the  free  practice 
of  their  idolatrous  worship  and  even  to  take  part 
in  it  himself.  Toward  the  close  of  his  reign 
troubles  arose  in  consequence  of  these  delin- 
quencies, and  the  growing  discontent,  coming  to 
a  head  after  his  death,  resulted  in  the  division  of 
the  kingdom,  which  his  feeble  son  Rehoboam 
could  not  prevent.  The  forty  years'  reign  of 
Solomon  is  still  celebrated  among  the  Jews  for 
its  splendor  and  its  happy  tranquility,  as  one 
of  the  brightest  periods  of  their  history.  The 
writings  attributed  to  Solomon  are  The  Book  of 
Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  and  the  Song  of  Solomon, 
with  the  apocryphal  book  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon. 

Solon  (so'-lun),  famous  legislator  of  Athens,  and 
one  of  the  seven  sages  of  Greece,  was  born  about 
638  B.  C,  at  Salamis,  of  an  ancient  family.  He 
acquired  fortune  by  commerce,  and  knowledge 
by  his  visits  to  foreign  parts.  He  then  directed 
his  attention  to  state  affairs.  After  having 
enhanced  the  glory  of  his  country  by  recovering 
Salamis,  he  refused  the  sovereignty  of  Athens, 
but  accepted  the  archonship.  As  archon,  he 
framed  a  new  code  of  laws,  and,  having  obtained 
from  the  citizens  an  oath  that  they  would 
observe  them  for  ten  years,  he  departed  from 
Greece,  and  visited  Egypt  and  Cyprus,  and,  per- 
haps, Lydia.  On  his  return  he  found  the  tyranny 
of  Pisistratus  estabUshed,  and  he  withdrew  to 
Cyprus,  where  he  is  said  to  have  died  at  the  age 
of  eighty,  about  559  B.  C. 

Solyman,  or  Soliman  II.,  surnamed  The  Magnificent, 
greatest  of  the  Turkish  sultans,  was  born  about 
1496,  and  succeeded  in  1520  his  father  Selim  I., 
who  had  carefully  initiated  him  into  the  Ottoman 
policy.  At  the  commencement  of  his  reign  he 
removed  from  office  all  who  were  unfit  for  the 
proper  discharge  of  their  duties.  After  having 
suppressed  the  revolt  of  the  governor  of  Syria, 
iae  exterminated  the  Egyptian  Mamelukes,  and 
concluded  a  treaty  with  Persia.  He  drove  the 
knights  of  St.  John  from  Rhodes,  1522;  and  for 
three  years  following  devoted  himself  to  improve- 


ments in  the  administration.  In  1536  be  con- 
cluded with  Francis  I.  the  famous  treaty  which 
opened  the  commerce  of  the  Levant  to  the  French 
flag  alone.  By  1541  the  lous  and  desultory 
contest  between  the  Turks  and  the  Imperialists 
for  Hungary  was  ended  in  favor  of  the  former, 
who  tooK  complete  pceseseioB  of  the  country. 
After  this  the  alliance  between  the  Freoob  and 
Turks  began  to  bear  fruit;  the  combined  fleets 
ravaged  the  Italian  coasts,  and  pillaged  Nice, 
1542,  but  peace  was  a^n  restored  with  Germany 
in  1547.  A  brilliant  naval  victory,  1561,  over 
the  knights  of  Malta  and  their  allies,  the  8p«n- 
iards,  and  an  expedition  to  Hungary,  1566,  were 
the  chief  events  of  the  remainder  of  his  rehrn. 
Died,  1566. 

SomerTlile,  Mary  Fairfax,  Scotch  scientist,  WM 
born  at  Jedburgh,  Scotland,  1780.  She  WM  A 
daughter  of  Admiral  Sir  William  Fairfax,  and 
was  married  first  to  Mr.  Greig,  a  commissioner 
in  the  Russian  navy,  and  afterward  to  Dr. 
William  Somerville.  In  1812  she  attracted 
attention  by  some  experiments  on  tiie  violet 
rays  of  the  solar  spectrum,  the  results  being 
published  in  the  PnUoaophical  Transactions  of 
1826.  Subsequently  she  adapted  Laplace's  worlc 
on  Celestial  Mechanics,  under  the  title.  Celestial 
Mechanism  of  the  Heavens,  in  1830.  She  was 
granted  a  pension  in  1835  and  made  a  member 
of  the  royal  astronomical  society  of  England  and 
of  many  foreign  societies.  When  nmety-one 
years  old  she  still  spent  five  hours  a  day  in 
mathematical  studies.  Other  works  published 
by  her  are  Connection  of  the  Physical  Sciences; 
Physical  Geography;  and  Molecular  and  Micro- 
scopic Science.     She  died  at  Naples,  1872. 

Sonnino  {son-ne'-no).  Baron  Sidney,  Italian  states- 
man, was  born  at  Florence,  1847,  and  educated 
at  the  university  of  Pisa,  where  he  took  his  law 
degree  in  1865.  He  afterward  entered  the  diplo- 
matic service,  and  was  attached  to  the  legations 
at  Madrid,  Vienna,  Berlin,  and  Paris.  He  then 
turned  to  a  study  of  the  agrarian  and  social 
problems  of  southern  Italy,  published  /  Conta- 
dini  in  Sidlia  and  La  Mezzadria  in  Toscana,  and 
established  the  paper  Rassegna.  He  was  elected 
deputy  for  San  Casciano,  1880,  and  has  sat  for  it 
ever  since.  In  1887  he  joined  the  Crispi  admin- 
istration as  under  secretary  for  the  treasury,  and 
first  as  finance  minister,  1893,  and  then  as  min- 
ister of  the  treasury,  he  worked  a  great  reform 
in  the  country's  finances.  After  Cnspi's  fall  in 
1896,  he  became  one  of  the  opposition  leaders, 
and  was  prime  minister  of  Italy,  1906,  and 
again.  1909-10. 

Sontag  {.zon'-tavi),  Henrietta,  German  soprano 
singer,  was  born  in  Coblentz,  Prussia,  1806. 
She  was  the  favorite  of  the  Berlin  stage  before 
she  was  eighteen;  soon  rose  to  a  foremost  place 
among  European  vocalists;  and  in  1828  married 
Count  Rossi,  a  Piedmontcsse  nobleman,  and  left 
the  theater.  But  she  never  lost  her  love  for 
her  art,  and  continued  to  make  progress  as  an 
artist  in  the  midst  of  all  the  enioyments  of  high 
life.  After  a  happy  union  of  nearly  twenty 
years  her  husband  lost  his  fortune.  Without 
hesitation  she  resolved  to  have  recourse  to  her 
art.  She  sang  for  several'  seasons  in  Europe, 
and  came  to  the  United  States  in  1852.  After  a 
brilliant  and  successful  tour  through  the  Union, 
she  accept«i  a  tempting  offer  from  Mexico, 
where  she  died  of  cholera,  1854. 

Sophocles  (sdf-d-kUz).     See  page  14. 

Sorley,  William  BItchie,  British  educator  and 
philosophical  writer,  Knightbridge  professor  of 
moral  philo.sophy,  university  of  Cambridge,  since 
1900,  was  born  at  Selkirk,' 1855.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Edinburgh,  and  Trinity  college,  Cam- 
bridge. He  was  deputy  for  the  professor  of 
philosophy  of  mind  and  logic.  University  college, 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


London,  1886-87;  professor  of  logic  and  philos- 
ophy at  University  college,  Cardiff,  1888-94; 
and  professor  of  moral  philosophy,  Aberdeen, 
1894-1900.  Author:  On  the  Ethics  of  Natural- 
ism. Edited:  Development  of  Modern  Philosophy, 
with  other  lectures  by  the  late  Professor  Adam- 
son;  Recent  Tendencies  in  Ethics,  etc. 
Sothem  (sMTH'-ern),  Edward  Hugh,  actor,  was  born 
in  New  Orleans,  La.,  1859.  He  received  an  aca- 
demic education  in  England;  studied  painting 
in  Spain;  first  appeared,  1879,  in  small  part  at 
Abbey's  Park  theater.  New  York.  He  later 
toured  the  United  States  with  John  McCullough ; 
toured  England,  1882-83 ;  wrote  the  farce.  Whose 
Are  They?  1884;  and  played  leading  parts  in 
One  of  Our  Girls;  A  Scrap  of  Paper;  Met  by 
Chance;  Peg  Woffington;  The  Love  Chase.  He 
first  took  leading  role,  Lyceum  theater.  New 
York,  1887,  as  Jack  Hammerton  in  Th«  Highest 
Bidder,  and  subsequently  starred  with  his  own 
company  in  Lord  Chumley;  The  Maister  of 
Woodbarrow;  The  Prisoner  of  Zenda;  Under  the 
Red  Robe;  An  Enemy  to  the  King;  The  Adven- 
tures of  Lady  Ursula;  The  Song  of  the  Sword; 
A  Shilling's  Worth;  The  Sunken  Bell;  Hamlet; 
Richard  Lovelace;  If  I  Were  King,  etc.  He  is 
now  co-star  with  Julia  Marlowe. 
Soiilt  (soolt),  Nicholas  Jean  de  Dleu,  duke  of  Dal- 
matia  and  marshal  of  France,  was  born  at 
Saint-Amans-la-Bastide  in  1769.  In  1785  he 
entered  the  army;  was  appointed  general  of 
division,  1799,  and  put  under  Mass^na,  in 
Switzerland  and  Italy;  became  an  ardent 
Napoleonist,  and  received  the  baton  of  marshal 
of  France  in  1804.  He  achieved  brilliant  suc- 
cess in  the  campaign  against  the  Austrians, 
closed  by  the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  wlJch  he 
decided  by  piercing  the  Russian  center.  He 
took  part  in  the  Russian  campaign  of  1806-07, 
after  which  he  was  appointed  governor  of  Berlin, 
and  created  duke  of  Dalmatia.  In  1809  he 
became  commander-in-chief  in  Spain,  gained  a 
brilUant  victory  at  Ocana,  and  overran  and 
subdued  Andalusia.  With  his  usual  suppleness 
of  character  he  became  an  ardent  royalist  after 
the  abdication  of  Napoleon;  but  on  the  return 
of  the  latter  from  Elba  he  abandoned  Louis 
XVIII.,  and  became  major-general  of  the  im- 
perial army.  After  Waterloo  he  rallied  the 
army  at  Laon,  and  on  July  3d,  at  the  council  of 
war,  coincided  with  Camot  as  to  the  uselessness 
of  further  resistance.  In  1838  he  was  embassa- 
dor to  England,  in  1845  retired  from  active  duty, 
and  was  made  marshal-general  of  France  in 
1847.  He  died,  1851. 
Soasa  (soo'-zd),  John  Philip,  Anaerican  musician, 
was  born  at  Washington,  D.  C,  1854.  He  studied 
music,  was  a  conductor  at  seventeen,  and  one  of 
the  first  violins  of  Jacques  Offenbach's  orchestra 
when  the  latter  was  in  the  United  States.  He 
was  then  music  director  of  the  United  States 
marine  corps,  1880-92,  and  since  1892  director 
of  Sousa's  band.  He  toured  in  Europe,  1900, 
1901,  1903,  1905,  and  received  many  decorations. 
Composer:  "Washington  Post''';  "Liberty 
Bell";  "Manhattan  Beach";  "High  School 
C^ets";   "Semper  Fidelis";   " The  Gladiator " ; 

Stars  and  Stripes  Forever";  "Invincible 
Eagle';  "Hail  to  the  Spirit  of  Liberty"; 
.Hands  Across  the  Sea";    "The  Charlatan"- 

The  Bride-Elect";  "El  Capitan";  "King 
Cotton    ;  "The  Diplomat";  "The  Free  Lance"; 

Last  Days  of  Pompeii";    "Sheridan's  Ride"; 

Three  Quotations";    "At  the  King's  Court'.' 

Looking  Upward";  "The  Chariot  Race" 
and  the  operas:  The  Smugglers;  Desire;  The 
Queen  of  Hearts;  El  Capitan;  The  Bride-Elect; 
J  he  Charlatan;  Chris  and  the  Wonderful  Lamp; 
J  he  Free  Lance,  etc.  Author:  The  Fifth  String; 
Ptpetown  Sandy,  etc. 


Southey,  Kobert,  English  poet  and  writer,  was  bom, 
1774,  at  Bristol,  England.  He  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  but  left  without  a  degree  in  1794,  and 
during  the  next  two  years  traveled  in  Spain  and 
Portugal.  In  1801  he  accepted  a  position  as  sec- 
retary to  Corry,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer 
for  Ireland,  but  soon  resigned  it,  and  finally 
betook  himself  to  literature  as  his  sole  source  of 
livelihood.  In  1804  he  settled  at  Greta  Hall, 
in  Cumberland,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of 
his  life,  happy  in  his  family  relations  and  his 
unremitting  daily  round  of  congenial,  though 
continuous,  toil.  In  addition  to  his  formal  pub- 
lications he  wrote  largely  for  various  periodicals, 
notably  for  the  Quarterly  Review,  to  wliich,  from 
its  establishment  in  1809,  he  was  a  most  constant 
and  valuable  contributor.  In  1813,  on  the  death 
of  Pye,  he  succeeded  him  as  poet-laureate. 
His  chief  poetical  works  are  Modoc;  Thalaba; 
The  Curse  of  Kehama;  and  Roderick.  As  a 
prose  writer  he  ranks  high;  his  style  is  easy, 
lucid,  agreeable,  best  represented  by  his  Lettera 
from  England  by  Don  Manuel  Alvarez  and  The 
Doctor.  Of  all  his  writings  his  Life  of  Nelson 
seems  most  likely  to  survive  as  a  classic.  Other 
excellent  biographies  are  those  of  the  poet  Cowper, 
of  Bimyan,  and  of  Wesley.     He  died,  1843. 

Spargo,  John,  socialist,  author,  was  born  at  Stith- 
ians,  Cornwall,  England,  1876.  He  was  educated 
in  the  public  schools  and  through  the  Oxford 
and  Cambridge  university  extension  courses, 
and  became  identified  with  socialist  cause  in 
England  at  eighteen.  He  publicly  opposed  the 
Boer  war;  came  to  the  United  States,  1901,  and 
has  been  active  as  socialistic  lecturer,  writer,  and 
worker.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Prospect  House  social  settlement,  Yonkers,  N.  Y. 
Author:  The  Bitter  Cry  of  the  Children;  Socialism, 
a  Study  and  Interpretation  of  Socialist  Principles; 
The  Socialists,  Who  They  Are  and  What  They  Stand 
For;  Underfed  School  Children;  Forces  That 
Make  for  Socialism  in  America;  Capitalist  and 
Laborer;  Not  Guilty,  a  drama;  and  many  pam- 
phlets, brochures,  and  magazine  articles  on  social 
and  economic  questions. 

Sparks,  Edwin  Erie,  American  educator,  historian, 
president  of  Pennsylvania  state  college  since  1908, 
was  bom   in   Licking  county,    Ohio,    1860.     He 

fraduated  from  the  Ohio  state  university,  1884; 
h.  D.,  university  of  Chicago;  LL.  D.,  Lehigh 
university.  He  was  instructor  in  the  Ohio  state 
university,  1884-85;  professor  in  Pennsylvania 
state  college,  1890-95;  lecturer  for  the  American 
society  for  university  extension,  1892-95;  lec- 
turer, instructor,  and  later  professor  of  American 
history,  university  of  Chicago,  1895-1908;  dean 
of  University  college,  1905-06.  He  is  a  member 
of  the  American  historical  association;  IlUnois 
historical  society ;  and  councilor  of  the  American 
institute  of  civics.  Author:  Expansion  of  the 
American  People;  The  Men  Who  Made  the 
Nation;  Formative  Incidents  in  American  Diplo- 
macy; The  United  States  of  America;  Founda- 
tions of  National  Development,  etc. 

Sparks,  Jared,  American  historian,  was  bom  at 
Willington,  Conn.,  1789.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard,  in  1815;  settled  as  a  Unitarian  minister 
at  Baltimore,  and  finally  became  editor  of  the 
North  American  Review.  He  was  ten  years  a 
professor  of  history  at  Harvard,  and  for  four 
years  its  president.  His  writings  include  Life  of 
John  Ledyard;  Life  of  Gouverneur  Morris;  and 
Library  of  American  Biography,  in  10  vols.  He 
edited  the  Works  of  Benjamin  Franklin;  Writings 
of  George  Washington;  Correspondence  of  tJie 
American  Revolution,  etc.  He  died  at  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  1866. 

Speer,  Robert  Elliott,  secretary  of  Presbyterian 
board  of  foreign  missions  since  1891,  was  bom  at 
Himtingdon,     Pa.,      1867.     He     graduated     at 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


987 


Princeton,  1889,  and  studied  one  year  at  Prince- 
ton theological  seminary.  He  made  a  tour  of 
visitation  of  Christian  missions  in  Persia,  India, 
China,  Korea,  Japan,  in  1896-97,  and  was 
traveling  secretary  of  the  volunteer  movement 
for  foreign  missions,  1889-90.  Author:  The 
Man  Chnst  Jesus;  The  Alan  Paul;  Missions  and 
Politics  in  Asia;  A  Memorial  of  a  True  Life; 
Remember  Jesus  Christ;  Studies  in  the  Book  of 
Acts;  Studies  in  the  Gospel  of  Luke;  Christ  and 
Life;  The  Principles  of  Jesus;  Missionary 
Principles  and  Practice;  Presbyterian  Foreign 
Missions;  Missions  and  Modem  History;  The 
Marks  of  a  Man,  etc. 

Spencer,  Herbert.     See  page  318. 

Spenser,  Edmund,  noted  English  poet,  was  bom 
in  London,  about  1552.  He  was  of  humble 
origin,  studied  at  Pembroke  college,  Cambridge, 
and  was  brought  under  the  notice  of  Queen 
Elizabeth  by  the  earl  of  Leicester.  In  1579  he 
published  The  Shepheard's  Calender,  sounding  the 
note  of  the  Elizabethan  outburst.  Through  the 
influence  of  Leicester  he  was  then  appointed 
chief  secretary  to  Lord  Grey  de  Wilton,  the 
lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland;  and  Queen  Elizabeth 
conferred  on  him  an  estate  at  Kilcolman,  near 
Cork.  It  was  while  he  was  at  Kilcolman  that 
he  wrote  The  Faery  Queene,  his  greatest  work. 
The  first  part  was  published  in  1589-90,  the  second 
part  about  six  years  later;  and  on  the  publication 
of  the  first  part  the  queen  conferred  on  the  poet  a 
pension  of  fifty  pounds  a  year.  In  1598  a  rebel- 
lion broke  out;  the  castle  of  Kilcolman  was 
burned,  an  infant  child  of  the  poet  perished  in 
the  flames;  and  Spenser  returned  to  London, 
impoverished  and  broken-hearted,  to  die  within 
three  months  after  his  arrival.  He  was  buried 
near  Chaucer  in  Westminster  abbey.  Spenser  was 
also  the  author  of  Tears  of  the  Muses;  Amoretti; 
Epithalamion;  Astrophel;  Hymns  and  Visions; 
and  some  other  pieces. 

Speyer  (spir),  James,  American  banker,  was  born 
in  New  York,  1861 ;  educated  at  Frankfort-on- 
the-Main,  Germany ;  entered  his  family's  bank- 
ing house  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main  at  age  of 
twenty-two.  He  was  later  transferred  to  tlie 
Paris  and  London  branches  to  receive  thorough 
business  education  before  returning  to  take 
charge  of  New  York  house,  and  is  now  senior 
member  of  the  Speyer  banking  houses.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  and  is  treasurer  of  the  Provi- 
dent loan  society,  which  lends  money  to  needy 
people  on  personal  property  at  legal  rates  of 
interest;  is  trustee  of  the  Union  trust  company, 
Central  trust  company,  Girard  trust  company  of 
Philadelphia,  German  savings  bank,^etc. ;  director 
of  many  railway  and  other  corporations;  member 
of  the  New  York  chamber  of  commerce. 

Splnola  {spe-no'-la),  Ambrosio,  Marquis  of,  Spanish 
general  under  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  was  bom  at 
Genoa,  Italy,  1569.  With  a  following  of  9,000, 
maintained  at  his  own  expense,  he  took  Ostend 
after  a  resistance  of  three  years.  He  was  then 
appointed  commander-in-chief,  in  which  capacity 
he  maintained  a  long  struggle  with  Prince 
Maurice  of  Nassau,  which  terminated  only  with 
the  death  of  the  latter.  His  services  on  behalf 
of  Spain,  in  the  interest  of  which  he  spent  his 
fortune,  were  never  acknowledged.     Died,  1630. 

Splnosa  (spi-no'-zd),  Baruch,  or  Benedict.  See 
page  289. 

Spohr  {shpor),  L,udwlg,  German  composer  and 
violinist,  was  bom  at  Brunswick,  1784.  At  the 
age  of  twelve  he  played  a  violin  concerto  of  his 
own  at  the  court  of  Bninswick;  and  at  thirteen 
he  obtained  an  appointment  as  chamber-musician 
to  the  duke  of  Hesse-Cassel.  In  1804  he  became 
music  director  at  the  court  of  Saxe-Gotha,  and 
held  afterward  for  several  years  the  office  of 
music  director  of  a  theater  in  Vienna.     In  1823 


he  became  chapclmanter  at  the  court  of  Hene- 
Cassel.  His  mumcal  works  include  the  opens, 
Fatiat;  Jeaaonda;  Zcmira  und  Ator;  Der  Zvoei- 
kampf  der  OdidiUn,  etc.;  the  oratorioe,  DU 
Letzten  Dinge;  Dea  Heilanda  letxts  Stunden;  Der 
Fall  Babylons;  and  many  instrumental  and  other 

Cieces.  lie  wrote  The  Violin  iSc/utol,  a  standard 
ook  of  instruction.  As  a  violinist  he  has  seldom 
been  suqiassed.     He  died,  1859. 

Spooncr,  John  Coit,  American  lawyer,  ex-United 
States  senator,  was  born  at  Lawrenceburg,  Ind., 
1843,  and  removed  to  Madison,  Wis.,  1859.  He 
graduated  at  the  university  of  Wisconsin,  1864; 
LL.  D.,  Wisconsin,  etc.  He  served  as  private  in 
company  A,  40th  Wisconsin  infantry;  captain 
and  brevet  major  50th  Wisconsin  infantry;  and 
later  as  private  and  military  secretary  to  Gov- 
ernor Lucius  Fairchild,  of  Wisconsin.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar,  1867;  was  assistant  attor- 
ney-general of  Wisconsin,  and  in  general  practice 
at  Madison,  1867-70;  practiced  at  liudson, 
Wisconsin,  1870-84;  was  regent  of  the  univer- 
sity of  Wisconsin,  1882-85-  member  of  the  Wis- 
consin assemblv,  1872;  United  States  senator, 
1885-91,  and  1897-1907;  resigned  in  1907  to 
resume  the  practice  of  law  at  Madison,  Wis- 
consin, and  New  York  city.  He  was  regarded  as 
one  of  the  ablest  men  in  public  life,  and  is  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  American  bar. 

Spreckels,  Claus,  sugar  refiner,  was  bom  in  Lam- 
stedt,  Hanover,  1828.  He  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1846,  was  employed  in  Ciiarleston, 
S.  C,  and  New  York  city.  He  went  to  San 
Francisco  in  1856,  conducted  a  store  and  later  a 
brewery.  In  1863  he  established  the  Bay  sugar 
refinery,  procuring  his  raw  material  from  Hawaii, 
where  he  acquired  vast  property.  He  inventea 
improved  processes  for  refining,  and  owned  some 
1,500  acres  devoted  to  beet-sugar,  a  large  factory 
at  Watsonville,  Cal.,  and  was  principal  owner  of 
the  Oceanic  steamship  company,  plving  between 
San  Francisco  and  Honolulu.     Died,  1908. 

Spring-Bice,  Sir  Cecil  Arthur,  British  diplomat; 
born,  1859;  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Balliol  col- 
lege, Oxford.  Secretary  at  Brussels,  Washington, 
Tokio,  Berlin,  and  Constantinople;  charge 
d'affaires,  Teheran,  1900;  British  commissioner 
of  public  debt,  Cairo,  1901;  first  secretary  of 
embassy  at  St.  Petersburg,  1903-06;  minister  and 
consul-general,  Persia,  1906-08;  envoy  extraor- 
dinary and  minister  plenipotentiary  to  Sweden, 
1908-12;  British  ambassador  at  Washington 
since  1913,  succeeding  the  Rt.  Hon.  James  Bryce. 

Spurgeon,  Charles  Haddon,  English  preacher,  was 
bom  at  Kelvedon,  1834.  In  1850  his  sympathies 
drew  him  toward  the  Baptists,  and,  removing 
to  Cambridge  in  1861,  he  began  to  deliver  cottage 
sermons  in  the  neighborhood.  At  the  age  of 
eighteen  he  had  charge  of  a  small  Baptist  con- 
gregation in  the  village  of  Waterbeach.  In  1854 
he  entered  upon  the  pastorate  of  the  New  Park 
Street  chapel,  London,  where  his  preaching 
proved  so  attractive  that  in  two  years'  time  the 
building  had  to  be  greatly  enlarged.  His  hearers 
continuing  to  increase,  the  Surrey  music  hall  was 
for  some  time  engaged  for  his  use;  and  finally 
his  followers  bmlt  for  him  the  well-known  London 
tabernacle,  opened  in  1861.  Spurgeon  continued 
to  preach  in  the  tabernacle  every  Sunday  to 
thousands  of  hearers  until  the  summer  of  1891. 
His  sermons  were  published  weekly,  and  yearly 
volumes  were  issued.  He  also  wrote  John  Plow- 
man's Talk;  Morning  by  Morning;  Evening  by 
Evening;  The  Treasury  of  David;  Lectures  to  My 
Students;  The  Saint  and  His  Saviour,  etc. ;  and 
from  1865  edited  a  monthly  magazine,  Sword  and 
Trowel.     He  died  in  1892. 

Squair,  John,  Canadian  educator,  professor  of 
French,  university  of  Toronto,  was  bom  at 
Bowmanville,  Ontario,  1850,  of  Scotch  parents. 


988 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


He  graduated  from  the  university  of  Toronto, 
1883,  with  gold  medal  in  modern  languages,  and 
has  been  fellow,  lecturer,  associate  professor  and 
professor  of   French  in   University   college,   To- 
ronto, since  that  time.     He  was  lecturer  in  the 
school  of  pedagogy,   Toronto,   and  examiner  in 
French  and  German  for  the  education  depart- 
ment ;  has  been  secretary  of  the  modern  language 
association   of   Ontario;     has  been   chairman   of 
college    and    high    school    department    of    the 
Ontario    educational    association;    is    president 
of  the  higher  education  section  of  the  Dominion 
educational  association.     He  is  joint  author  with 
W.  H.  Fraser  of  French  Grammar;    joint  author 
with  J.  H.  Cameron  of  Exercises  in  French  Prose; 
and    editor    of    several    French    texts    for    high 
schools  and  colleges. 
Stael  (stal),  Madame  de,  or  Anne  Louise  Gennalne 
de  StaSl-Holstein,  celebrated  French  writer,  was 
born   in    Paris,    1766,    daughter    of    M.    Necker, 
minister  of  finance  under  Louis  XV'I.,  and  from 
1786  the  wife  of  the  Baron  de  Stael-IIolstein,  who 
at  the  time  of  the  marriage  was  Swedish  minister 
in  Paris.     In  1788,  when  she  was  only  twenty-two 
years  of  age,  she  published  Letters  on  the  Works 
and  Character  of  Rousseau,  wliich  attracted  con- 
siderable attention;    and  in   1793,   having  been 
compelled  by  the  revolution   to   leave   Prance, 
she  published   a  defense   of   Marie   Antoinette, 
then  upon  trial.     In  1797  she  returned  to  Paris, 
but  only  to  find  herself  in  conflict  with  Bona- 
parte, whom  from  the  first  she  had  suspected 
and  disHked.     By  him  she  was  at  last  once  more 
exiled,  and  traveled  through  Italy  and  Germany, 
making  at  Weimar  the  acquaintance  of   Goethe, 
Schiller,  and  other  eminent  men.     In  Italy  she 
gathered  the  materials  for  her  novel  of  Corinne; 
and  in  Germany  she  gathered  the  materials  for 
her  celebrated  work  entitled  De  d'AUemagne,  a 
description  of  the  habits,  literature,  and  political 
tendencies   of    the   German    people,    which   was 
printed  in  Paris  in   1810,   but  by  the  order  of 
Bonaparte  was  inunediately  suppressed.     Soon 
afterward     she    visited     England,    where    she 
wrote  her  Ten  Years   of  Exue,  an   impassioned 
denunciation   of    Bonaparte    and    his    arbitrary 
rule.     After  the  fall  of   the  empire  she  returned 
to  Paris,  but  never  again  interfered   in  politics. 
She    had    now    been     several    years   a  widow, 
and  about    this   time    married   M.   de  Rocca,  a 
member  of  an  old  Genoese   family.     From  her 
former    husband    she    had    been    separated    for 
many  years  before   his  decease.     Her  last  work 
was   Thoughts   on  the  French  Revolution,  which 
was  not  published   until  after  her  death.      Be- 
sides   the    works    above    named,    she   was    the 
author  of    a  novel  entitled  Delphine;    Literature 
Considered   in  its  Relation  to  Social  Institutions; 
and  of   many  other   pubUcations.     She   died  in 
1817. 
Stafford,   Wendell   Phillips,   American   jurist   and 
publicist,   was   born    at    Barre,    Vt.,    1861.     He 
graduated    at    St.    Johnsbury    academy,    1880; 
graduated  from  the  law  department  of  Boston 
university,    1883;     practiced   at   St.   Johnsbury; 
was  president  of  the  Vermont  bar  association, 
1898-99;    represented  St.  Johnsbury  in  Vermont 
legislature,  1892;    was  reporter  of  the  decisions 
o^the  supreme  court  of  Vermont,  from  1896  to 
1900.     He  delivered  the  oration  at  unveiling  of 
the  statue  of  Robert  Bums,  at  Barre,  Vt ,  1899  • 
has  lectured  frequently  in  Vermont,   and  occa- 
Monally  in  Boston,  New  York,  and  Washington, 
fr^n^^  judge  of  the  supreme  court,  Vermont, 
rlu    ^-  ^^ociate  justice  of  the  supreme  court 
of  the  Distnct  of  Columbia  since  1904;   profes- 
sor of  equity  jurisprudence  in  the  George  Wash- 
ington university   since   1908.      Author:    North 
I< lowers,  poems;  and  a  contributor  of  poems  and 
articles  to  magazines. 


Stahl  (shtal),  Georg  Ernst,  German  physician  and 
chemist,  was  born  at  Anspach,  1660.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Jena,  and  was  called,  in  1694,  to 
the  chair  of  medicine,  anatomy,  and  chemistry 
in  the  newly  founded  university  of  Halle,  whence 
he  removed  to  Berlin  in  1716,  where  he  was 
appointed  physician  to  the  king  of  Prussia.  He 
wrote  a  system  of  medicine,  Tfieoria  Medica  vera; 
Zymotechnia  Fundamentalis;  Fermentationis  The- 
oria  Generalis,  etc.  His  system  of  medicine  is 
founded  upon  the  supposition  of  the  existence 
of  a  mysterious  force  resiiling  in,  but  independent 
of,  and  sujjerior  to  matter.  This  force,  the 
anima,  or  soul,  not  only  forms  the  body,  but 
directs  it  in  the  exercise  of  all  its  functions,  and 
this,  too,  sometimes  unconsciously;  though  the 
way  in  which  this  influence  is  exercised  he  doea 
not  explain.  His  system  of  therapeutics  corre- 
sponded with  his  pathological  principles,  and 
was  confined  mostly  to  bleeding  and  tne  use  of 
mild  laxatives.     Died  in  Berlin,  1734. 

Standish,  .>llles,  early  New  England  colonist,  waa 
born  in  Lancashirej  England,  about  1584.  He 
served  in  the  army  in  the  Netlierlaada  and  sailed 
with  the  pilgrims  in  the  Mavfiower  in  1620, 
though  not  a  member  of  the  Leyden  congregation. 
On  reaching  Massachusetts  he  was  chosen  captain 
by  the  pilgrims,  and  commandi'd  in  exptniitions 
against  the  savages.  He  settled  finally  at  Dux- 
bury,  Maas.,  where  he  died,  1656.  A  monument, 
100  feet  high,  crowned  by  a  statue,  has  been 
built  to  his  memory  at  Duxbury.  The  story  of 
bis  unsuccessful  effort  to  secure  a  wife  is  told 
by  Longfellow  in  his  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish. 

Stanford,  Leland,  American  capitalist  and  philan- 
thropist, was  bom  at  WatervUet,  N.  Y.,  1824. 
Early  in  life  he  studied  law  and  was  adnutted  to 
the  New  York  bar;  but  in  1849,  attracted  by 
the  gold  discoveries  in  California,  .he  proceeded 
there  and  engaged  in  gold  mining  and  in  business 
in  San  Franci.sco.  He  was  one  of  the  organizt-rs 
of  the  Central  Pacific  railroad  company,  and 
entering  political  life  was  republican  governor  of 
California,  1861-63;  and  from  1885  to  1893, 
United  States  senator  from  California.  Out  of 
his  large  fortune  he  gave  property  to  the  value 
of  $20,000,000  to  found,  in  memory  of  a  deceased 
son,  a  university  at  Palo  Alto,  to  be  known  aa 
the  Leland  Stanford  Junior  university.  He  died 
at  Palo  Alto,  CaUfornia,  1893 

Stanley,  Arthur  Penrhyn,  English  scholar  and 
divine,  was  born  at  Alderley,  England,  1815.  He 
graduated  at  Oxford,  was  tutor  there,  1841-51, 
and  in  the  latter  year  was  appointed  canon  of 
Canterbury.  From  1856  to  1863  he  was  profes- 
sor of  ecclesiastical  history  at  Oxford,  canon  of 
Christ  Church,  and  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of 
London.  In  1864  he  succeeded  Archbishop 
Trench  as  dean  of  Westminster.  He  was  also 
chaplain  to  the  prince  of  Wales,  and  chaplain-in- 
ordinary  to  the  queen.  He  was  elected  lord 
rector  of  St.  Andrews  university  in  1874.  Stan- 
ley was  one  of  the  most  accomplished  and  liberal 
theologians  of  his  age,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the 
leader  of  the  "Ijroad  church"  party.  He 
traveled  widely  in  Egypt,  Palestine,  Russia,  and 
America.  His  principal  writings  are:  Life  of 
Dr.  Arnold;  Sermons  and  Essays  on  the  Apostoli- 
cal Age;  Alemoir  of  Bishop  Stanley;  The  Epistles 
to  the  Corinthians;  Sinai  and  Palestine;  The 
Unity  of  Evangelical  and  Apostolical  Teaching; 
Lectures  on  the  Eastern  Church;  Lectures  on  the 
Jewish  Church;  Historical  Memorials  of  West- 
minster  Abbey,  etc.     Died,  1881. 

Stanley,  Sir  Henry  Morton,  African  explorer,  waa 
bom  near  Denbigh,  VVales,  in  1840.  He  was  of 
obscure  parentage,  the  name  Stanley  being 
assumed  to  honor  a  benefactor,  in  place  of  his 
own  name,  John  Rowlands.  Stanley  went  to 
California  at  an  early  age,  served  first  in  the 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


confederate  army,  then  In  the  federal  navy  during 
the  civil  war,  and  subsequently  went  to  Turkey 
as  a  newspaper  correspondent.  When  tlie 
English  expedition  was  sent  against  King 
Theodore  of  Abyssinia  in  18G7,  he  aocompaniod 
it  as  commissioner  of  the  New  York  Herald,  and 
made  his  reputation  as  a  correspondent  by 
sending  an  account  of  Lord  Napier's  victory  to 
London  before  the  official  dispatches  arrived. 
In  1868  he  went  to  Spain  to  report  the  Car  list  war 
for  the  same  paper.  He  was  called  away  from 
there  in  1869,  to  go  in  search  of  Dr.  David  Liv- 
ingstone in  Africa,  from  whom  no  news  had  been 
received  for  more  than  two  years.  He  reached 
Zanzibar  early  in  1871;  there  organized  a  large 
expedition,  and  found  Livingstone,  November 
10,  1871.  After  remaining  with  the  veteran 
Scotch  missionary  and  explorer  four  months  he 
returned,  Livingstone  refusing  to  give  up  his 
enterprise  until  he  had  completecT  his  work. 
Stanley  arrived  at  Zanzibar  in  1872.  In  1874  he 
set  out  on  a  second  African  expedition  for  the 
Herald  and  London  Daily  Telegraph.  He 
reached  Victoria  Nyanza  in  February,  1875; 
was  the  first  to  circumnavigate  Victoria  lake, 
and  discovered  the  Shimceyu  river;  and  reached 
England  again  in  February,  1878.  Then  came  the 
Belgian  enterprise,  out  of  which  was  developed 
the  free  state  of  Congo,  with  Stanley  as  its  con- 
ductor, with  large  means  at  his  disposal.  Near 
the  close  of  1886  Stanley,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Egyptian  government  and  of  English  societies 
and  individuals,  undertook  an  expedition  for  the 
relief  of  Emin  Pasha,  who  had  of  his  own  will 
continued  to  exercise  the  functions  of  Egyptian 

§ovcmor  of  the  equatorial  province  after  the 
oudan  was  abandoned.  For  this  purpose  he 
left  England  in  1887,  and  returned  in  1890,  after 
escorting  Emin  Bey  and  a  large  troop  of  followers 
from  the  interior  to  the  coast.  His  last  journey 
in  Africa  lasted  1,012  days,  of  which  hardly 
twenty  were  devoid  of  perils  and  tragic  incident. 
The  cost  of  the  expedition  was  $150,000.  He 
wrote  How  I  Found  Livingstone;  Through  the 
Dark  Continent;  Congo  and  the  Founding  of  its 
Free  State;  and  In  Darkest  Africa.  He  was 
made  a  D.  C.  L.  by  Oxford  university  in  1890, 
and  in  1890-91  made  a  lecturing  tour  of  the 
United  States.  He  was  a  member  of  parliament, 
1895-1900,  and  was  knighted,  1899.  He  died, 
1904. 

Stanton,  Edwin  McMasters,  American  statesman, 
was  born  in  Steubenville,  Ohio,  in  1814.  He 
practiced  law  with  success  in  his  native  town 
until  1847,  when  he  settled  in  Pittsburg,  Pa., 
and  there  became  leader  of  the  bar.  In  1857  he 
took  up  his  abode  in  Washington,  in  1860 
was  made  attorney-general  of  the  United  States, 
and,  in  1862,  secretary  of  war.  This  arduous 
post  he  filled  throughout  the  civil  war  with  con- 
spicuous energy,  industry,  and  ability.  He 
retained  office  after  the  death  of  President 
Lincoln  until  1867,  when  he  was  suspended  by 
President  Johnson,  who  appointed  General  Grant 
in  his  place  ad  interim.  The  latter,  however, 
held  the  appointment  only  a  few  months  when 
Stanton  was  reinstated  by  the  senate  in  January, 
1868.  In  May  he  definitely  retired  from  the 
secretaryship.  In  December,  1869,  he  was 
appointed  an  associate  justice  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States,  and  died  during  the 
same  month. 

Stanton,  EliEabeth  Cady,  reformer  and  suffragist, 
was  bom  at  Johnstown,  N.  Y.,  1815.  She 
married  Henry  B.  Stanton,  an  anti-slavery 
reformer.  She  signed  the  call  for  the  first 
woman's  rights  convention,  at  Seneca  Falls,  1848, 
and  became  president  of  the  national  woman's 
suffrage  association  there  formed,  retaining  the 
office  until  1893.     She  devoted  most  of  her  time 


from  1848  to  traveling  and  lecturing  in  behalf  of 
woman's  rights,  and  was  the  author  of  A  Hintory 
of  Woman  Suffrage  and  an  autobiocraphy. 
Died,  1902.  "•     k  / 

Stark,  John,  American  soldier,  was  born  at  London- 
derry, N.  H.,  1728.  He  served  In  the  French  and 
Indian  war  and  at  Ticonderoga  in  1768.  At 
Bunker  Hill  he  was  colonel  of  a  regiment  which 
he  had  enlisted ;  was  at  the  front  in  the  attack  on 
Trenton,  and  In  the  battle  of  Princeton.  He 
raised  a  new  regiment  In  1777,  and  was  given 
command  of  the  New  Hami)shirc  troops  sent 
against  the  British  troops  from  Canada.  On 
August  16,  1777,  he  fought  the  battle  of  Ben- 
nington, which  brought  him  the  thanks  of  con- 
gress and  the  rank  ofgeneral.  With  a  new  force 
recruited  by  him  in  New  Hampshire  he  cut  off 
Bur^oyne's  retreat  from  Saratoga,  and,  after 
servmg  in  Rhode  Island  and  New  Jersey,  had 
charge  in  1781  of  the  northern  department,  with 
headquarters  at  Saratoga.  He  died,  1822,  the 
last  but  one  of  generals  of  revolutionary  army. 

Stead,  William  Thomas,  English  journalist  and 
writer,  was  born  at  Embleton,  England,  1849, 
and  educated  at  Wakefield.  He  was  editor  of 
the  Northern  Echo  at  Darlington,  1871-80: 
assistant  editor  of  the  Pall  Mall  Gazette  until 
1883,  and  editor  from  1883  to  1889.  In  1890  he 
founded  the  English  Review  of  Reviews,  and  was 
its  editor,  1890-1912.  Author:  Truth  About 
the  Navy;  Maiden  Tribute  of  Modern  Babylon; 
The  Truth  about  Russia;  The  Pope  and  the  New 
Era;  The  Story  that  Transformed  the  World;  If 
Christ  came  to  Chicago;  The  Labor  War  in  the 
United  States;  Her  Majesty  the  Queen;  Satan't 
Invisible  World:  A  Study  of  Despairing  Democ- 
racy; The  United  States  of  Europe;  Mr.  Carnegie  a 
Conundrum;  Mrs.  Booth,  a  Study;  The  Confer- 
ence at  The  Hague;  The  Americanization  of  the 
World,  etc.  He  lost  his  life  on  the  ill-fated 
Titanic,  1912. 

Stedman,  Edmund  Clarence,  American  poet  and 
critic,  was  born  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  1833.  He 
graduated  at  Yale,  1853;  L.  H.  D.,  Columbia; 
LL.  D.,  Yale.  He  was  editor  of  the  Norwich 
Tribune,  1852-53;  Winsted  Herald,  1854-55;  on 
staff  of  New  York  Tribune,  1859-61 ;  war  cor- 
respondent for  the  New  York  World,  1861-63; 
and  was  a  member  of  the  New  York  stock  ex- 
change, 1869-1900.  He  deUvered  the  initiatory 
course  of  lectures  of  the  Turnbull  chair  of  poetry, 
at  Johns  Hopkins,  later  repeated  at  Columbia 
and  university  of  Pennsylvania.  Author:  Poem* 
Lyric  and  Idyllic;  Alice  of  Monmouth  —  an  Idr^ 
of  the  Great  War;  The  Blamdese  Prince;  Poetical 
Works;  Hawthorne,  and  Other  Poems;  Lyric* 
and  Idyls,  u-ith  Other  Poems;  Mater  Coronala; 
Victorian  Poets;  Poets  of  America;  The  Nature 
and  Elements  of  Poetn/,  etc.  Exlitor:  Caviroa 
from  the  Poems  of  Walter  Savage  Landor,  with 
T.  B.  Aldrich;  Poems  of  Austin  Dobson;  A 
Library  of  American  Literature,  with  Ellen  M. 
Hutchinson;  The  Works  of  Edgar  Allan  Poe, 
with  Professor  G.  E.  Woodbury;  A  Victorian 
Anthology;  An  American  Anthology;  co-editor. 
History  of  New  York  Stock  Exchange,  etc.  Died 
in  New  York  in  1908. 

Steele,  Sir  Richard,  British  man  of  letters,  was  bom 
in  Dublin,  1672.  He  was  educated  at  the  Char- 
terhouse with  Addison,  and  at  Oxford.  Leaving 
college  without  taking  a  degree,  he  entered  the 
army  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  captain.  In  1702 
he  produced  a  comedy.  The  Funeral,  or  Grief  a 
la  Mode;  in  1703,  The  Tender  Husband,  ancl  in 
1704,  The  Ljfirw  Lover.  In  1709  he  founded  the 
Taller,  a  periodical  pubUshed  thrice  a  week,  con- 
taining short  essays  on  life  and  manners,  which 
was  succeedwi  by'  The  Spectator,  a  daily  literary 
journal  of  a  higher  tone  and  character.  He  also 
founded,  in  1713,  The  Guardian.     He  was  then 


990 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


elected  to  parliament,  was  expelled  for  libel,  but 
afterward  reinstated.  In  1722  he  produced  his 
successful  comedy,  The  Conscious  Lovers.  The 
last  three  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  retire- 
ment in  Wales.  He  died,  1729.  His  essays 
have  eclipsed  his  dramas. 

Steen  {stan),  Jan,  celebrated  Dutch  painter,  was 
bom  at  Leyden,  1626.  He  became  a  pupil  of 
Van  Goyen,  whose  daughter  Margaret  he  married. 
The  paintings  "Feast  of  St.  Nicholas,"  "Humaii 
Life,"  "Marriage  Feast,"  etc.,  established  his 
reputation,  and  as  an  artist  of  the  Dutch  school 
he  ranks  high.  His  works  are  now  much  valued. 
It  was  in  homely  and  domestic  scenes  that  his 
genius  truly  exhibited  itself.     He  died,  1679. 

Stein  {shiln),  Heinrlch  Frledrlch  Carl,  Baron  von, 
Prussian  statesman,  was  bom  at  Nassau,  1757. 
He  entered  the  service  of  Prussia  in  1780,  and 
became  president  of  the  Westphalian  chambers, 
1796.  In  1804  he  was  summoned  to  take  charge 
of  the  Prussian  excise,  customs,  manufactures, 
and  trade,  but  was  unable  then  to  modify  the 
traditional  methods,  and  resigned  in  1807. 
After  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  Frederick  William  III. 
had  no  alternative  but  to  recall  Stein,  who  in 
barely  a  year  produced  such  changes  as  laid  the 
foundations  of  Prussia's  subsequent  greatness. 
He  abolished  the  last  relics  of  serfdom,  did  away 
with  the  privileges  of  caste,  freed  land  from  the 
shackles  of  feudalism,  created  peasant  pro- 
prietors, extirpated  monopolies  and  hindrances 
to  free  trade,  promoted  nnmicipal  government, 
and  supported  Scharnhorst  in  his  schemes  of 
army  reform.  Napoleon  insisted  upon  his  dis- 
missal, and  Stein  withdrew,  1808,  to  Austria, 
but  not  before  issuing  his  Political  Testament. 
In  1812  he  went  to  St.  Petersburg  and  forwarded 
the  coalition  against  Napoleon.  From  the  battle 
of  Leipzig  to  the  congress  of  Vienna  he  was  the 
ruling  spirit  of  the  opposition  to  the  emperor. 
He  died  in  1831. 

Stelnmetz  {shtln'^mMs\  Charles  Proteus,  electrician. 
General  electric  company,  was  bom  in  Breslau, 
Germany,  1865,  and  educated  at  Breslau,  Berlin, 
Zurich,  and  in  Switzerland.  He  is  the  consulting 
engineer  for  the  General  electric  company,  and 
a  leading  authority  in  mathematics  and  engineer- 
ing. He  is  professor  of  electrical  engineering  at 
Union  university.  Author  of  Theory  and  Calcu- 
lation of  Alternating  Current  Phenomena;  Theo- 
retical Elements  of  Electrical  Engineering. 

Stelwagon,  Henry  Weightman,  American  physician, 
was  born  at  Philadelphia,  1853.  He  graduated 
at  Andalusia  college,  Pennsylvania,  1872;  uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  M.  D.,  Ph.  D.,  1875. 
He  was  resident  physician  to  Philadelphia  hos- 
pital, 1875-76;  student  at  the  hospitals  of 
Vienna  and  Berlin,  1876-78 ;  physician  in  charge 
of  Philadelphia  dispensary  for  skin  diseases, 
1880-90;  instructor  in  dermatology,  university 
of  Pennsylvania,  1885-90;  was  associated  in 
professional  partnership  with  Professor  Duhring, 
1885-90 ;  dermatologist  to  Philadelphia  hospital 
smce  1888,  to  Northern  dispensary,  1882-1900 
Howard  hospital,  1885-1912.  He  was  clinical 
professor  of  dermatology,  Woman's  medical 
coUege,  Philadelphia,  1888  -  1907,  and  at 
Jefferson  medical  college  since  1890.  Author- 
Essentials  of  Diseases  of  the  Skin;  Treatise  on 
Viseases  of  the  Skin.  Translator  and  editor  of 
^racek  s  AUas  of  Skin  Diseases;  wrote  chapter 
on  Skin  Diseases  for  Pepper's  System  of  Medicine; 
chapter  on  skin  diseases,  Wilson's  Applied 
Jherapeutics;  and  has  been  a  contributor  oh 
dermatological  subjects  to  a  number  of  other 
medical  works. 

Stephen,  Sir  James  Fltzjames,  British  jurist,  was 
born  at  Kensington,  England,  1829.  He  grad- 
uated at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  1852;  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1854;    was  recorder  of 


Newark-on-Trent,  1859-69;  legal  member  of  the 
viceroy  of  India's  council,  1869-72;  professor  of 
common  law  at  the  Inns  of  Court,  1875-79 ;  and 
judge  of  the  high  court  of  justice,  1879-91.  On 
his  retirement  he  was  created  a  baronet.  Among 
his  works  are :  General  View  of  the  Criminal  Law 
of  England;  Liberty,  Equality,  and  Fraternity; 
Digest  of  the  Law  of  Evidence;  Digest  of  the 
Criminal  Law;  History  of  the  Criminal  Law  of 
England,  etc.  He  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate 
for  parliament  as  a  moderate  liberal.  He  died 
near  Ipswich,  1894. 

Stephen,  Sir  Leslie,  English  man  of  letters,  was 
born  at  Kensington,  1832.  He  was  educated  at 
Eton,  King's  college,  London,  and  at  Trinity 
hall,  Cambridge,  where  he  was  fellow  and  tutor. 
He  was  editor  of  the  Comhill  Magatine,  1871- 
82,  and  of  the  first  twenty-six  volumes  of  the 
Dxctionary  of  National  Biography.  His  worka 
include :  The  Playground  of  Europe;  Hours  in  a 
Library;  History  of  English  Thought  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century;  The  English  Utilitarians; 
Jcmnaon;  Pope;  Swift;  The  Science  of  Ethics; 
Life  of  Henri  Fawcett;  An  Agnostic's  Apology; 
Studies  of  a  Biographer;  George  Eliot;  and  some 
lectures.     He  died  in  1904. 

Stephens,  Alexander  Hamilton,  American  states- 
man, was  born  in  Georgia  in  1812.  He  graduated 
at  the  university  of  Georgia,  1832;  was  admitted 
to  the  bar;  and,  in  1843,  elected  to  congress  by 
the  whig  party.  He  retained  his  seat  in  that 
body  until  1859,  during  which  period  he  sup- 
ported the  annexation  of  Texas,  promoted  the 
passage  of  the  Kansas  and  Nebraska  act  of  1854, 
and  joined  the  democratic  party  in  upholding 
the  measures  of  President  liuchanan.  In  1800 
he  opposed  the  seccs-sion  of  his  state,  but  in  the 
following  year  gave  in  his  adhesion  to  sectional 
views,  and  was  elected  vice-president  of  the 
Confederate  States  of  America.  After  the  col- 
lapse of  the  latter,  Stephens  suffered  a  brief 
imprisonment  at  Fort  Warren,  and  in  1866, 
after  being  reelected  United  States  senator,  was 
not  allowed  to  take  his  seat.  He  was,  however, 
member  of  the  house  of  representatives,  1873— 
82,  and  governor  of  Georgia,  1882-83.  In  1869 
he  published  A  History  of  the  War  of  Secession, 
and,  in  1870,  A  Constitutional  View  of  the  War 
Between  the  StaUs.     Died,  1883. 

Stephens,  Henry  Morse,  British  historical  writer 
and  educator,  was  bom  at  Edinburgh,  Scotland, 
1857.  He  graduated  at  Balliol  college,  Oxford, 
1880,  M.  A.,  1892;  was  engaged  in  journalism, 
1880-92;  staff  lecturer  on  Oxford  university 
extension  system,  1890-94.  Lecturer  on  Indian 
history,  Cambridge,  England,  1892-94;  pro- 
fessor of  modem  European  and  English  history, 
Cornell  university,  1894—1902;  and  professor  of 
history  and  director  of  university  extension  at 
university  of  California  since  1902.  Author: 
History  of  the  French  Revolution;  The  Story  of 
Portugal;  Albuquerque;  Revolutionary  Europe; 
Colonial  Civil  Service,  etc. 

Stephenson,  George.     See  page  390. 

Stephenson,  Isaac,  United  States  senator,  was  bom 
near  Fredericton,  New  Brunswick,  1829.  He 
received  a  common  school  education ;  moved  to 
Wisconsin,  with  headquarters  at  Milwaukee,  in 
1845,  and  for  twelve  years  engaged  in  the  lumber 
trade  at  Escanaba,  ftlich.  In  1858  he  moved  to 
Marinette,  where  he  has  led  an  active  career  as 
lumberman,  farmer,  and  banker.  In  1866  and 
1868  he  was  a  member  of  the  Wisconsin  legis- 
lature; was  a  member  of  the  forty-eighth,  forty- 
ninth,  and  fiftieth  congresses;  and  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  senate,  1907,  to  fill  out  the 
unexpired  term  of  Hon.  J.  C.  Spooner,  resigned, 
and  was  reelected,  1909,  for  the  term  1909-15. 

Stepnlak  {styip-nyak'),  pseudonjTn  of  Sergius  Micha- 
elevitch    Kravtchinski,     Russian    revolutionary 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


Wl 


leader  and  writer,  born,  1852.  As  an  apostle 
of  freedom,  he  was  removed  from  his  professor- 
ship at  Kieff,  and  subsequently  kept  under  such 
surveillance  that  he  left  Russia  and  settled.  1876, 
in  Geneva,  and  then,  1885,  in  London.  Among 
his  works  were:  Underground  R%is8ia;  Ruaaia 
under  the  Tzars;  The  Career  of  a  Nihilist,  a  novel ; 
Nihilism  as  it  is;  King  Stork  and  King  Log; 
and  Russian  Wit  and  Humor.  lie  was  run  over 
by  a  train  in  a  London  suburb,  and  killed,  1895. 
Sternberg,  George  Miller,  American  physician, 
surgeon-general  of  the  United  States,  1893-1902, 
was  bom  at  Hartwick  Seminary,  Otsego  county, 
N.   Y.,    1838.     He  graduated  at  the  college  of 

Shysicians  and  surgeons,  I^ew  York,  1860 ;  LL.D., 
[ichigan,  1894,  Brown,  1896.  He  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  surgeon  of  United  States  army, 
1861,  and  was  steadily  advanced  to  surgeon- 
general  of  United  States  in  1893.  His  service 
began  in  the  army  of  the  Potomac ;  at  end  of 
civil  war  he  was  in  charge  of  the  United  States 
general  hospital,  Cleveland,  Ohio;  had  com- 
mand of  medical  service  in  the  war  with  Spain, 
1898;  was  member  and  secretary  of  Havana 
yellow  fever  commission,  national  board  of 
health,  1879 ;  is  a  member  of  many  medical  soci- 
eties and  was  president,  1898,  of  the  American 
medical  association.  Author:  Photo-Micro- 
graphs, and  How  to  Make  Them;  Bacteria; 
Malaria  and  Malarial  Diseases;  Manual  of 
Bacteriology;  Text-Book  of  Bacteriology;  Immun- 
ity, Protective  Inocxdations,  and  Serum-Therapy; 
and  many  government  reports,  etc. 

Sterne,  Laurence,  British  novelist,  was  bom  at 
Clonmel,  Ireland,  1713.  He  studied  at  Cam- 
bridge and  became  a  clergyman.  In  1759  he 
wrote  the  first  two  volumes  of  the  Life  and 
Opinions  of  Tristram  Shandy,  which  made  him 
famous.  Its  success  was  signal  and  he  became  the 
"lion"  of  the  fashionable  world.  The  other  two 
volumes  followed  in  the  same  year  and  were  as 
heartily  w'elcomed  as  the  earUer  ones.  The  rest 
of  the  work,  which  reached  nine  volumes,  was 
written  at  Coxwold,  where  he  had  moved  from 
his  Yorkshire  parish.  The  Sentim.ental  Journey 
through  France  and  Italy,  published  in  1768,  was 
the  result  of  a  tour  through  those  countries  in 
1765.  He  published  also  two  volumes  of  ser- 
mons. His  fame  rests  on  his  humor  and  the 
immortal  characters  of  "Corporal  Trim," 
"Yorick,"  and  "My  Uncle  Tobey,"  found  in 
Tristram  Shandy.     He  died  at  London,  1768. 

Steuben,  Frederic  William  Augustus,  Baron, 
general  in  the  American  revolutionary  armv, 
was  bom  at  Magdeburg,  Prussia,  1730.  lie 
served  when  only  fourteen  in  the  siege  of  Prague, 
and  rose  in  the  army  until,  in  1752,  he  was  on  the 
staff  of  Frederick  the  Great.  He  came  to  America 
in  1778  and  offered  his  services  to  Washington, 
who  gladly  accepted  them  during  the  dark  days 
of  Valley  Forge.  He  was  appointed  inspector- 
general;  remodeled  the  army;  took  part  in  the 
siege  of  Yorktown,  and  spent  his  whole  fortune 
in  clothing  hi^  men.  Congress  in  1790  voted 
him  $2,400  yearly  and  a  township  of  land  near 
Utica,  N.  Y.,  where  he  died,  1794. 

Stevens,  John  F.,  American  civil  engineer,  was  bom 
at  West  Gardiner,  Maine,  1853.  He  was  assistant 
engineer  for  the  city  of  Minneapolis,  1874-76; 
chief  engineer  Sabine  Pass  and  North-Westem 
railway,  1876-79;  assistant  engineer  of  Denver 
and  Rio  Grande  railway,  1879-80,  Chicago, 
Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  railway,  1880-82; 
division  engineer  of  Canadian  Pacific  railway, 
1882-86;  assistant  engineer  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
and  St.  Paul  railway,  1886;  principal  assistant 
engineer  Duluth,  South  Shore  and  Atlantic  rail- 
way, 1887-89;  assistant  engineer  Spokane  Falls 
and  Northern  railway,  1889;  principal  assistant 
engineer,     1889-93,     assistant     chief     engineer. 


1893-95,  chief  engineer,  1806-1002,  niMral 
manager,  19024)3,  Great  Northern  ratlway; 
chief  engineer,  1003-04,  eeoond  vioo-president, 
1904-05,  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and  PaoiEo  rail- 
way company ;  chief  engineer  of  Panama  eanal, 
1905-07;  chairman  of  Isthmian  canal  oonunla- 
sion,  1907;  and  vice-president  of  New  York- 
New  Haven  and  Hartford  railroad,  in  charge  u 
operation,  1907-09. 

Stevens,  Thaddeus,  American  statesman,  was  bom 
at.Peacham,  Vt.,  1792.  He  graduated  in  1814 
at  Dartmouth  college,  studied  law,  practiced  at 
Gettysburg,  Pa.,  served  for  a  time  in  the  Pennsyl- 
vania legislature,  and  became  an  active  advocate 
of  the  public  school  system  of  Pennsylvania.  He 
served  in  congress,  1849-53  and  1859-68,  and 
meanwhile  rose  to  a  prominent  position  at  the 
bar.  In  congress,  in  1850,  he  opposed  the  Clay 
compromise  measure,  including  the  fugitive 
slave  law.  He  was  a  pronounced  advocate  of 
emancipation  and  the  enfranchisement  of  the 
negro;  was  bitterly  hostile  to  the  seceding 
states,  and  stringent  in  his  proceedings  against 
them.  He  lived  to  take  an  active  part  in  the 
unsuccessful  impeachment  of  President  Jolmson, 
and  to  see  the  readmission  into  the  Union  of  the 
first  group  of  reconstructed  secession  states. 
Died  at  Washington,  1868. 

Stevenson,  Adlai  Ewing,  American  lawyer  and 
politician,  was  born  in  Kentucky,  1835.  He  was 
educated  at  Centre  college,  Ki;ntuck3r.  studied 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  Illinois  in 
1857.  He  was  master  in  chancery,  1860-64; 
district  attorney,  1865-69;  member  of  congress, 
1875-77  and  1879-81.  He  was  first  assistant 
postmaster-general  of  the  United  States,  1885-89, 
and  vice-president  of  the  United  States,  1893-97. 
After  his  term  as  vice-president  he  was  appointed, 
1897,  a  member  of  the  commission  to  Europe  to 
try  to  secure  international  bimetalUsm.  He  was 
again  democratic  nominee  for  vice-president  of 
the  United  States,  1900,  and  for  governor  of 
Illinois,  1908. 

Stevenson,  Robert,  Scottish  engineer,  was  bom  at 
Glasgow,  1772.  In  1796  he  became  engineer  and 
inspector  of  lighthouses,  and,  during  nis  forty- 
seven  years'  tenure  of  that  office,  planned  and 
constructed  no  fewer  than  twenty-three  light- 
houses —  employing  the  catoptric  system  of 
illumination,  and  his  valuable  invention  of  inter- 
mittent and  flashing  lights.  The  most  remark- 
able of  these  was  that  on  Bell  Rock,  when  the 
wreck  of  the  York,  a  74-gun  ship,  on  this  reef, 
drew  general  attention  to  the  same  subiect. 
Stevenson  was  a  consulting  en^neer  of  bridges, 
harbors,  railways,  etc.,  and  introduced  manv 
improvements  in  their  construction.  He  built 
the  Britannia  tubular  bridge  over  Menai  strait, 
Victoria  tubular  bridge  near  Montreal,  the  via- 
duct of  Berwick,  bridge  at  Newcastle,  etc.  Died, 
1850. 

Stevenson,  Robert  Louis  Balfour,  British  novelist 
and  essayist,  bom  at  Edinburgh,  1850.  He  was 
educated  at  Edinburgh  university,  and  in  1875 
was  admitted  to  the  bar ;  but  soon  abandoned  law 
for  the  profes-sion  of  letters,  in  which  he  rapidly 
came  to  the  front.  In  1878  appeared  his  first 
book,  An  Inland  Voyage,  quickly  followed  by 
Travels  with  a  Donkey,  Virginibua  Pueriaque, 
Familiar  Studies,  and  Treasure  Island.  As  a 
writer  of  adventure  and  romance,  he  established 
himself  permanently  in  the  public  favor  with 
Kidnapped,  The  Master  of  Ballantrae.  Dr. 
Jekyll  and  Mr.  Hyde,  etc.  His  versatility  in 
letters  was  further  revealed  in  his  charming  A 
Child's  Garden  of  Verae,  Ballada^  Memories  and 
Portraits,  and  A  Footnote  to  History.  In  1890 
failing  health  induced  him  to  make  nis  home  in 
the  island  of  Samoa,  where  he  died  and  was 
buried,  1894. 


992 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


Stewart,   Alexander  Tumey,    American   merchant 
and  capitalist,  was  born  at  Lisburn  near  Belfast, 
Ireland,  1803.     He  settled  in  New  York  in  1823, 
where  two  years  later  he  opened  his  first  dry 
goods  store,  and  acquired  great  wealth.     He  was 
a  leader  in  the  building  of  street  railways  and 
other    municipal    improvements.     Although    his 
charities    during    his    lifetime    were    numerous, 
yet  at  his  death  he  left  some  $40,000,000.     Died. 
1876.     His  body  was  stolen  in  1878,  and  restored 
to  his  widow  three  years  after  on  payment  of 
$20,000  through  a  lawyer. 
Stewart,   Balfour,   British   physicist,  was  bom  at 
Edinburgh,    1828,   studied   at   St.    Andrews  and 
Edinburgh,   and  in   1853  forsook  a  commercial 
career  in  Australia  to  become  assistant  to  Pro- 
fessor Forbes  at  Edinburgh.     He  became  director 
of    Kew    observatory,     1859,    and    professor    of 
physics    at    Owens    college,    Manchester,     1870. 
He  made  his  first  reputation  by   his  work   on 
Radiant  Heat  in  1858,  and  was  one  of  the  founders 
of     spectrum     analysis.     Particularly     valuable 
are    his    papers    on    terrestrial    magnetism.     He 
earned  a  high  reputation  by  his  text-books  on 
physics  —  Treatise  on  Heat,  Elementary  Physics, 
and    Conservation    of   Energy.     With    Professor 
Tait  he  published  The  Unseen  Universe  in  1875, 
a  book  which  had  a  phenomenal  reception.     He 
died,  1887. 
Stewart,    Dugald,    eminent    Scottish    philosopher 
and  writer,  was  bom,   in    1753,   at   Edinburgh. 
He  was  educated  at  the  high  school  and  univer- 
sity of  his  native  city ;   and  attended  the  lectures 
of  Dr.  Reid  at  Glasgow.     In  1785  he  succeeded 
to    the    professorship    of    moral    philosophy    at 
Edinburgh.     In  1780  he  began  to  receive  pupils 
into  his  house,  and  many  young  noblemen,  who 
afterward    became    celebrated,     received     their 
knowledge  under  his  roof.     In  1792  he  published 
the  first  volume  of  the  Philosophy  of  the  Human 
Mind.     Among  his  other  works  are :    Outlines  oj 
Moral  Philosophy;  Philosophical  Essays;  Memoirs 
of  Adam  Smith,  Drs.  Robertson  and  Reid;  and  a 
prefatory  dissertation  in  the  supplement  to  the 
Encyclopcedia  Britannica.     He  died,  1828. 
Stilicho    (stU'-i-ko),   Flavlus,    Roman   general,    by 
blood  a  Vandal,  was  born  about  359.     He  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Persia  in  384,  and  rewarded 
with  the  hand  of  Serena,  niece  of  the  emperor 
Theodosius.     In  394  he  departed  from  Constan- 
tinople  for   Rome   in   charge   of   the    youthful 
Honorius,    placed    him    on    the    throne    of    the 
western  empire,   and  administered  in  his  name 
the  affairs  of  state.     On  the  death  of  Theodosius, 
Stilicho's    rival,    Rufinus,    instigated    Alaric    to 
invade  Greece.     Stilicho  marched  against  Alaric, 
blocked  him  up  in  the  Peloponnesus,   but  per- 
mitted him  to  escape  with  captives  and  booty. 
In  398  his  daughter  became  the  wife  of  Honorius. 
Alaric  invaded  northern  Italv,  but  was  signally 
defeated  by   Stilicho  at   Pollentia  and   Verona. 
When  Radagaisus,    at   the   head   of   200,000   to 
400,000  Goths,   ravaged  the  country  as  far   as 
Florence  in  406,  Stilicho  routed  the  invaders  and 
saved  the  western  empire  a  second  time.     Next 
Vandals,  Alans,  and  Suevi  invaded  Gaul;    Stili- 
cho's proposed  alliance  with  Alaric  against  them 
was  mterpreted  as  treachery,  and  he  was  credited 
with  aimmg  at  the  imperial  dignity.     The  Roman 
araay  mutinied,   and  Stilicho  fled  to  Ravenna, 
where  he  was  murdered,  408. 
Stlmson,  Frederic  Jesup  ("J.  S.  of  Dale"),  lawyer, 
author,  was  bom  at  Dedham,  Mass.,  1855.     He 
graduated    at    Harvard,     1876;      Har^^ard    law 
school,    1878;     and  was   admitted   to   the   New 
York     and     Boston     bars.     He    was     assistant 
attomey-general     of     Massachusetts,      1884-85- 
general  counsel  to  the  United  States  industrial 
commission,   1898-1902;    and  professor  of  com- 
parative    legislation     at .  Harvard    since    1903 


Author:  Ratio's  Journey  to  Cambridge;  Gtiemdale; 
The  Crime  of  Henry  Vane;  A  merican  Statute  Law; 
The  Sentimental  Calendar;  First  Harvests;  Stim- 
son's  Law  Glossary;  In  the  Three  Zones;  Govern- 
ment by  Injunction;  Labor  in  Its  Relation  to  Law; 
Mrs.  Knollys  and  Other  Stories;  Handbook  to  the 
Labor  Law  of  the  United  States;  Uniform  State 
Legislation;  Pirate  Gold;  King  Noanett;  Jethro 
Bacon  of  Sandwich;  In  Cure  of  Her  Sotd;  The 
Law  of  the  Constitutions,  State  and  Federal;  and 
also  a  series  of  magazine  articles  on  The  Ethics  of 
Democracy,  etc. 

Stlmson,  Henry  Lewis,  cabinet  officer,  lawyer,  was 
born  in  New  York  citv,  1807.  He  graduated  at 
Yale,  1888;  A.  M.  Harvard,  1889;  Harvard  law 
school,  1889,  1890.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
1891;  member  of  firm  of  Root  and  Clarke,  1893, 
Root,  Howard,  Winthrop  and  Stimson,  1897. 
Winthrop  and  Stimson,  1901 .  He  was  appointea 
by  President  Roosevelt  United  States  attorney 
for  the  southern  district  of  New  York,  1906-09; 
resumed  active  practice;  took  charge  of  prose- 
cution of  sugar  trust  frauds  for  the  government. 
In  1910  he  was  the  unsuccessful  candidate  for 
governor  of  New  York  state,  and  in  1911  was 
appointed  secretary  of  war  by  President  Taft  to 
fill  the  position  left  vacant  by  the  resignation  of 
Secretary  Dickinson. 

StiriinK,  James  Iiut<-lilson,  Scottish  philosophical 
writer,  was  bom  at  Glasgow,  1820,  and  was 
educated  at  the  university  of  Gla-sgow,  and  in 
France  and  Germany;  LL.  D.,  E<iinburgh  and 
Glasgow.  He  graduated  in  medicine,  Edinburgh, 
1842,  and  was  a  practicing  phvsician  until  1851. 
He  was  the  first  ai)[>ointe<I  tiifTord  lecturer  at 
the  university  of  l-Minbur^h,  1888-90.  Author: 
The  Secret  of  Hegil;  Sir  William  Hamilton; 
Jerrold,  Tennyson,  and  Macaulay,  with  other 
Critical  Essays;  Lectures  on  the  Philosophy  of 
Law,  etc.;  TejU-Booh  to  Kant;  Philosophy  in  the 
Poets;  The  Community  of  Property;  Thomaa 
Carlyle's  Counsels;  Philosophy  and  Theology, 
Gifford  lectures;  Darunnianism,  Workmen  and 
Work;  What  i*  Thoughtt  or  The  Problem  of 
Philosophy;  The  Categories,  etc.     Died,  1909. 

Stockton,  Franris  Rk-hard,  American  novelist,  was 
bom  at  Philadelphia,  1834.  He  was  an  en- 
graver and  journalist,  became  assistant  editor 
of  St.  Nicholas,  and  first  attracted  notice  by  his 
stories  for  children.  He  is  now  best  known  as 
author  of  Rudder  Grange;  The  Lady,  or  the  Tigerf 
The  Squirrel  Inn;  Pomona's  Travds;  Mrs. 
Cliff's  Yacht;  The  Great  Stone  of  Sardis;  The 
Gin  at  Cobhurst;  The  Hundredth  Man;  Person- 
ally Conducted;  The  Clocks  of  Rondaine,  etc. 
He  died  at  Washington,  D.  C,  1902. 

Stokes,  George  Gabriel,  British  mathematician  and 
natural  philosopher,  was  bom  at  Skreen,  Ireland, 
1819.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1841; 
became  fellow  of  Pembroke  college  in  the  same 
year;  and  was  elected  in  1849  to  fill  the  Lucasian 
chair  of  mathematics  at  Cambridge.  In  1854 
he  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  royal  society, 
of  which  he  became  president  in  1885.  He  is 
best  known  bv  his  discovery  of  fluorescence. 
His  paper  on  the  Change  of  the  Refrangibility  of 
Light  was  printed  in  1852.  To  mathematicians 
and  natural  philosophers  he  is  known  by  a  num- 
ber of  admirable  papers  in  the  Cambridge  Philo- 
sophical Transactions,  the  Cambridge  and  Dublin 
Mathematical  Journal,  and  the  Philosophical 
Magazine.  He  was  made  baronet,  1889.  Stokes 
stood  preeminent  among  scientists  in  the  field 
of  optics  during  the  nineteenth  centur\'.  Died  at 
Cambridge,  1903. 

Stolypin  {st/i4l'-pln),  Peter  Arkadlevltch,  Russian 
prime  minister,  was  bom  in  1863.  Ho  graduated 
at  the  university  of  St.  Petersburg,  in  1884,  and 
obtained  an  appointment  at  the  ministry  of  the 
interior.     After  two  years  he  was  transferred  to 


THROUGHOUT  THE   WORLD 


oos 


the  ministry  of  a^culture,  where  he  remained 
another  two  years,  then  retirins  for  a  time  to 
private  life,  devote<l  himself  to  tlie  management 
of  his  estate  in  Kovno  government.  He  served 
as  marshal  of  the  district  nobility;  was  president 
of  the  arbitration  board;  justice  of  the  peace: 
and  in  1899  became  marshal  of  the  provincial 
nobility.  He  was  appointed  vice-governor  of 
Grodno  in  1902,  governor  of  Saratoff  in  1903, 
and  from  Saratoff  was  called  to  St.  Petersburg 
to  take  up  the  portfolio  of  the  interior.  When 
Goremykin  resigned  in  1906,  Stolypin  suc- 
ceeded him  as  premier,  was  thanked  by  the 
c»ar  for  his  services,  and  appointed  a  member 
of  the  council  of  the  empire,  January,  1907.  He 
suppressed  the  second  duma  and  attempted  to 
stamp  out  the  revolutionary  movement.  His 
policy  provoked  the  keenest  controversy.  His 
life  was  several  times  attempted.     Died,  1911. 

Stone,  Lucy  Blackwell,  American  reformer  and 
advocate  of  woman's  rights,  was  born  at  West 
Brookfield,  Maiss ,  1818.  She  graduated  at 
Oberlin  college  in  1847;  devoted  herself  to  the 
advocacy  of  woman  suffrage,  and  to  the  cause 
of  antislaverj' ;  lectured  widely,  and  became 
editor  of  the  Woman's  Journal.  She  aided  in 
organizing,  in  1850,  the  first  national  woman's 
rights  convention  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  and  was 
always  zealous  in  that  cause.  In  1855  she 
married  Henry  B.  Blackwell,  though  stipulating 
to  bear  her  maiden  name.  She  died  at  Dor- 
chester, Mass.,  1893. 

Stone,  Marcus,  English  painter,  was  born  in  1840. 
He  received  his  early  training  from  his  father  and 
began  to  exhibit  at  the  royal  academy  before  he 
was  eighteen.  At  an  early  age  he  illustrated 
books  by  Dickens,  Trollope,  and  other  writers. 
His  pictures  are  subjects  of  human  and  historical 
interest.  He  has  exhibited  in  more  than  fifty 
consecutive  exhibitions  of  the  royal  academy; 
medals  have  been  awarded  him  at  the  interna- 
tional exhibitions  of  Paris,  Berlin,  Vienna,  Phila- 
delphia, Chicago,  Melbourne,  and  other  parts  of 
the  world.  The  greater  number  of  his  works 
have  been  published ^as  engravings. 

Stone,  Melville  Elijah,  American  journalist,  general 
manager  of  the  associated  press,  was  born  at 
Hudson,  111.,  1848.  He  removed  to  Chicago, 
1860;  graduated  at  the  high  school,  1867;  con- 
ducted a  foundry  and  machine  shop,  1869-71; 
was  editor  of  several  Chicago  daiUes,  1871-74; 
and  established,  with  a  partner,  the  Chicago 
Daily  News,  in  1875.     He  then  bought  out  his 

Eartner  and  sold  that  interest  to  Victor  F. 
awson.  In  1881  they  started  the  Chicago 
Morning  News,  which  became  the  Chicago  Record. 
Stone's  health  failing  in  1888,  he  sold  out  his 
entire  interest  to  Lawson,  and  spent  three 
years  in  Europe.  He  returned  to  Chicago,  1891 ; 
organized  Globe  national  bank,  of  which  he  was 
president  until  its  consolidation  with  Continental 
national  in  1898;  removed  to  New  York,  and 
has  been  general  manager  of  the  associated  press 
since  1893.    ' 

Stone,  William  Joel,  lawyer,  United  States  senator, 
was  bom  in  Madison  county,  Kentucky,  1848. 
He  graduated  at  the  university  of  Missouri,  and 
was  admitted  to  bar,  1869;  LL.  D.,  Missouri. 
He  was  prosecuting  attorney  of  Vernon  county, 
Missouri,  1873-74;  presidential  elector,  1876; 
member  of  congress,  1885-91 ;  governor  of  Mis- 
souri, 1893-97;  member  of  the  democratic 
national  committee,  1896-1904,  \nce-chairman, 
1900-04;  he  was  elected  United  States  senator 
for  terms  1903-09  and  1909-15. 

Storey,  Moorfleld,  American  lawyer,  was  bom  at 
Roxbury,  Mass.,  1845.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard, 1866;  studied  at  the  Har^-ard  law  school; 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,    1869.     He  was 


private  secretary  of  Charles  8umn«r  1867-M; 
editor  of  the  Amrrican  Imw  lir\r%ew,  1873-79; 
overseer  of  Harvard  colle|;i>,  1877-88  and  1892- 
1910;  president  of  the  American  bar  asso- 
ciation, 1896.  Author:  Lift  t^f  CkarUa  Sumiur; 
Politics  as  a  Duty  and  tu  a  Career;  The  American 
Legidatwe;  A  Year's  Legidation;  The  Govern^ 
tnent  of  Cities;  and  various  pamphlets  and  occa- 
sional addressee.  Became  president  of  the  anti- 
imperialist  league,  1905. 

Story,  Joseph,  distinguished  American  jurist  and 
legal  writer,  was  bom  at  Marblehead,  Mass., 
in  1779.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  eoUags  in 
1798,  and  rapidly  rose  to  eminence  as  a  special 
pleader  at  the  bar.  In  1808  he  was  elected  to 
congress,  and  was  an  associate  justice  of  the 
United  States  supreme  court,  1811—45.  He  was 
professor  of  law  at  Harvard,  1829-45,  and 
attained  unusual  eminence  as  a  taw  lecturer  and 
writer.  His  published  works  embrace  the 
masterly  CommcnUirics  on  the  Conflict  of  Laws; 
Commentaries  on  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States;  Commentaries  on  Equity  Jurisprudence; 
A  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Agency,  etc.    Died,  1845. 

Story,  William  Wetmore,  American  sculptor  and 
poet,  son  of  the  above,  was  born  at  Salem,  Mass., 
1819.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  university. 
1838,  from  the  law  school,  1840,  and  was  admittea 
to  the  bar.  He  published  Contracts  not  under 
Seal,  and  other  legal  works,  during  the  early 
part  of  his  career,  but  afterward  devoted  him- 
self to  literature  and  sculpture.  Among  his 
publications  are  several  poems.  Origin  of  the 
Italian  Language  and  Literature,  Conversations 
in  a  Studio,  etc.  He  executed  numerous  monu- 
ments, statues,  and  busts,  chief  of  which  are: 
"Cleopatra"-  "Libyan  Sibyl";  "Delilah"; 
"Semiramis'  ;  and  statues  of  George  Peabody, 
Edward  Everett,  Professor  Henry,  and  Frances 
Scott  Key.     Died  in  Italy,  1895. 

vStowe,  Harriet  Elitabeth  Beecher,  sister  of  Rev. 
Henry  Ward  Beecher,  American  novelist,  was 
bom  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  1811.  She  married 
Professor  Calvin  Ellis  Stowe  in  1836,  became  a 
frequent  contributor  to  periodicals,  and  pub- 
lished some  stories  in  a  volume  entitled  The 
Mayflower,  and  other  spirited  juvenile  stories. 
In  1851  she  commenced  m  The  National  Era,  an 
antislaverv  paper  at  Washington,  D.  C,  a  serial 
tale  entitled  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin.  In  1853  she 
published  a  Key  to  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  and  made 
a  visit  to  Europe,  where  she  was  received  with 
distinguished  consideration.  The  events  and 
impressions  of  this  triumphant  tour  are  recorded 
in  her  Sunny  Memories  of  Foreign  Lands.  In 
1856  she  published  Dred,  a  Tale  of  the  Great 
Dismal  Stoamp,  followed  in  1869  by  The  Minis- 
ter's Wooing,  a  story  of  New  England  life  in  the 
eighteenth  century.  In  1869  she  contributed  to 
the  Atlantic  Monthly  an  article  entitled  The 
True  Story  of  Lady  Byron's  Life,  some  state- 
ments in  which  were  criticised,  and  she  then 
wrote  in  reply  Lady  Byron  Vindicated.  In 
1868-70  she  was  joint  editor  of  Hearth  and  Home. 
The  celebrated  Umde  Tom's  Cabin  is  one  of  the 
great  successes  in  American  literature  and  has 
been  translated  into  many  foreign  languages. 
She  died,  1896. 

Strabo  (strd'-bo),  noted  Greek  geographer,  was 
bom  at  Amasia,  in  Pontus,  about  63  B.  C.  He 
does  not  appear  to  have  followed  an^  professional 
calling,  but  to  have  spent  his  life  m  travel  and 
study.  His  Geography,  which  describes  Europe, 
Asia,  Egypt  and  Lioya,  is  a  work  of  great  value, 
and  comprises  seventeen  books.  He  died  about 
21  A.  D. 

Stradivari  (stra'-de-vH'-re)  or  Stradlvarius,  Antonio, 
celebrateid  Italian  violin  maker,  was  bom  at 
Cremona,  Italy,  in  1644.  Besides  violins,  he 
made  viols,  guitars,  and  mandolins.     His  instni- 


994 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


ments  are  known  for  their  finish  and  fine  tone. 
He  was  the  first  to  finish  them  neatly  on  the 
inside.  The  great  care  with  which  he  selected 
and  cut  his  wood,  the  study  he  gave  to  the  shape 
and  proportions,  and  the  luster  of  the  varnish 
used  all  combined  to  make  an  instrument  with- 
out a  rival.  They  are  carefully  preserved  bj' 
those  possessing  them,  and  bring  great  prices, 
ranging  from  $1,000  to  $15,000.  He  died  at 
Cremona,  1737. 

Strafford,  Thomas  Wentworth,  Earl  of,  English 
statesman,  was  born  in  London,  1593.  He 
studied  at  Cambridge,  and  after  some  months' 
travel  on  the  continent  entered  parliament  in 
1614,  but  took  no  active  part  in  affairs  until  1621. 
In  1622  he  felt  compelled  to  side  with  the  king, 
favored  a  strong  government  with  the  king  at 
the  head,  and  strove  to  put  down  with  a  firm 
hand  all  opposition  to  the  royal  authority.  He 
was  appointed  lord-deputy  in  Ireland  in  1632, 
and  was  at  length,  in  1640,  exalted  to  the  lord- 
lieutenancy,  being  at  the  same  time  created 
earl  of  Strafford.  By  this  time  he  had  risen  to 
be  the  chief  adviser  of  the  king,  and  was  held 
responsible  for  his  arbitrary  policy.  After  the 
meeting  of  the  long  parliament  he  was  impeached 
for  high  treason,  and  as  a  result  was  beheaded  on 
Tower  hill,  1641. 

Strathcona  (str&th-ko'^na).  Baron,  Donald  Alexan- 
der Smith,  high  commissioner  for  Canada,  1896- 
1911;  was  born  in  Scotland,  1820.  He  was 
educated  in  Scotland;  hon.  LL.  D.,  Cambridge, 
Yale,  Aberdeen,  Glasgow,  and  Toronto;  D.  C.  L., 
Oxford  and  Dublin;  entered  the  Hudson  Bay 
company's  service  at  an  early  age,  and  was  the 
last  resident  governor  of  that  corporation  as  a 
governing  body.  He  was  special  commissioner 
during  first  Riel  rebellion  in  Red  river  settlements, 
1869-70;  member  of  the  first  executive  council 
of  the  Northwest  territory,  1870;  represented 
Winnipeg  and  St.  John's  in  Manitoba  legislature, 
1871-84;  member  of  parliament  for  Selkirk  in 
Dominion  house  of  commons,  1871-72,  1874,  and 
1878,  for  Montreal  West,  1877-96.  He  is  now 
governor  of  the  Hudson  Bay  company,  director 
of  the  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis,  and  Manitoba  rail- 
way, and  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  railway  com- 
pany; and  hon.  president  of  the  bank  of  Montreal. 
He  is  also  chancellor  of  McGill  university,  and  was 
lord  rector  of  Aberdeen  imiversity,  1899.  He 
raised  the  Strathcona's  horse  for  service  in  the 
South  African  war;  has  been  a  munificent  bene- 
factor to  McGill  university  and  other  Canadian 
educational  institutions ;  and,  with  Lord  Mount- 
Stephen,  gave  an  endowment  of  £16,000  a  year 
to  the  king's  hospital  fund.  He  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  in  1897. 

Straus  (strous),  Oscar  Solomon,  American  merchant, 
diplomat  and  publicist,  was  born  at  Otterberg 
Germany,  1850.  He  lived  at  Talbotton,  and 
afterward  at  Columbus,  Ga.,  until  1865  when  he 
removed  to  New  York,  where  he  graduated  at 
Columbia  university,  1871;  LL.  B.,  Columbia 
law  school,  1873,  L.  H.  D.,  Brown,  1895;  LL.  D  , 
Washington  and  Lee  university,  1898,  university 
of  Pennsylvania,  1900,  and  Columbia,  1904  He 
practiced  law,  1873-81;  entered  the  mercantile 
life  as  a  member  of  L.  Straus  and  Sons,  importers 
of  pottery  and  glassware;  was  United  States  min- 
ister to  Turkey,  1887-«9,  1898-1901,  1909-11- 
appointed,  1902,  by  President  Roosevelt,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  permanent  court  of  arbitration  at  The 
iTw^'iorfi'nn^^^.  secretary  of  commerce  and 
labor,  1906-09.  Author:  The  Origin  of  Repub- 
lican Form  of  Government  in  the  Urvitid  SMtes; 
Roger  WiUzams  the  Pioneer  of  Rdigimis  Liberty; 
The  Development  of  Religious  Liberty  in  the  United 
|tates;     Reform  %n  the  Consular  Service;      United 

f.^%r  "^^  ''^  ^t^^'^^ip;  Our  Diplomacy 
with  Reference  to  our  Foreign  Service,  etc. 


Strauss  (ahtrous),  David  Frledrlch,  German  theo- 
logian and  critic,  was  born  at  Ludwigsburg, 
Wiirtemberg,  1808.  He  studied  at  Tiibingea 
and  BerUn;  was  ordained  to  the  church  in  1^0; 
and  in  1832  became  lecturer  at  Tubingen.  In 
1835  he  published  the  first  volume  of  his  cele- 
brated Leben  Jeau,  which  led  to  his  expulsion 
from  that  office;  and  when,  in  1839,  he  was 
appointed  by  the  board  of  education  in  Zurich 
professor  of  dogmatics  and  church  history  in  the 
university  of  that  city,  the  public  indignation 
at  the  appointment  led,  not  only  to  the  appoint- 
ment being  cancelled,  but  to  the  fall  of  the  gov- 
ernment, which  was  held  to  be  responsible  for  it. 
In  1840-41  he  published  Die  ChrisUiche  Glau- 
bendehre,  "The  Christian  Doctrine,"  which  was 
followed  by  several  other  works  not  theological, 
including  a  Life  of  the  Reformer  Ulrich  von  HuUen. 
In  1864  he  pubhshed  a  new  Life  of  Jesua,  com- 
posed for  the  German  People;  and,  in  1872,  The 
Old  and  New  Faith.  Strauss's  Life  of  Jesus  was 
translated  into  English  by  George  EUot  in  1846. 
He  died,  1874. 

Strauss,  Jobann,  Austrian  composer  and  conductor, 
was  bom  at  Vienna,  182o.  He  came  of  an 
eminently  musical  family,  his  father  being  a 
noted  musician,  while  two  of  his  brothers  were 
composers.  On  his  father's  death,  he  became 
conductor,  and  toured  the  world  with  his  own 
and  his  late  father's  orchestra.  At  the  same 
time,  from  an  early  age,  be  composed  waltses 
and  operettas,  which  have  held  the  stage  with 
great  favor.  In  1872  he  conducted  an  orchestra 
of  1,000  performers  at  the  Boston  peace  jubilee; 
he  was  for  a  time  also  musical  director  to  the 
emperor  Joseph  at  Vienna.  His  most  famous 
waltz  pieces  are  Wiener  Blut,  KUnsilerleben,  ahd 
An  der  achdnen  blatien  Donau.  Of  his  operettas; 
the  following  are  best  known :  Indigo;  Caglioatra; 
La  Tsigane;  Die  Fledermaue;  Der  lustige  Krieg; 
Simpliciue;  Eine  Nacht  in  Venedig;  and  Der 
Zigeunerbaron.     He  died,  1899. 

Strauss,  Richard,  German  composer,  was  bom,  1864. 
at  Munich.  He  studied  music  at  Munich,  ana 
in  1885  became  conductor  at  Meiningen.  From 
1889  to  1894  he  was  chapelmaster,  with  Eduard 
Lassen,  at  Weimar,  later  conductor  at  the 
Munich  opera  house:  since  1898  conductor  of 
the  royal  opera,  Berun.  He  has  written  many 
charming  songs,  but  his  distinctiveness  as  a 
modem  composer  is  due  chiefly  to  extraordi- 
narily elaborate  instrumental  works.  Works: 
Guntram;  Feueranot;  Salome;  Tod  und  Ver- 
Mdrung;  Don  Juan;  Macbeth;  Till  Eulenspiegd; 
Don  Quixote;  Bin  Hdderdehen,  etc.  He  was 
made  chevaher  of  the  legion  of  honor,  1907. 

Strong,  Augustus  Hopkins,  American  theologian, 
president  and  professor  of  systematic  theology 
at  Rochester  theological  seminary  since  1872, 
was  bom  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  1836.  He  grad- 
uated at  Yale,  1857,  Rochester  theological  sem- 
inary, 1859;  D.  D.,  Brown  imiversity,  1870, 
Yale,  1890,  Princeton,  1896;  LL.  D.,  Buck- 
nell,  1891,  Alfred,  1904.  He  was  pastor  of 
the  First  Baptist  church,  Haverhill,  Mass., 
1861-65,  First  Baptist  church,  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
1865-72.  Author:  Systematic  Theology;  Philoso- 
phy and  Rdigion;  The  Great  Poets  and  Their  The- 
oiogy;  Christ  in  Creation  and  Ethical  Monism,  etc. 

Strong,  Charles  Augustus,  American  psvchologist, 
educator,  was  bom  at  Haverhill,  Mass.,  1862. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard,  1885,  and  was  a 
student  in  Berlin,  1886-87,  Paris,  Berlin  and 
Freiburg,  1889-90.  He  was  instructor  in  phi- 
losophy, Cornell  university,  1887-89;  docent 
Clark  university,  1890;  associate  professor,  psy- 
chology, university  of  Chicago,  1892-95;  lec- 
turer in  psychology,  1895-1903,  and  professor  of 
psychology,  since  1903,  Columbia  university. 
Author:   Why  the  Mind  Has  a  Body,  etc. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


096 


Strykcr,  Melancthon  Woolsey,  American  educator, 

E resident  of  Uamilton  college  since  1892,  was 
orn  at  Vernon,  N.  Y.,  1851.  lie  was  graduated 
at  Hamilton  college,  1872,  Auburn  theological 
seminary,  1876;  D.  D.,  Hamilton  and  Lafayette; 
LL.  D.,  Lafayette.  He  was  pastor  of  Presby- 
terian church,  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  1876-78,  Ithaca, 
N.  Y.,  1878-83,  Second  Congregational  church, 
Holyoke,  Mass.,  1883-85,  and  Fourth  Presby- 
terian church,  Chicago,  1885-92.  Author:  Song 
of  Miriam;  Church  Song;  Dies  Irae,  with  versions; 
Hamilton,  Lincoln  and  Addresses;  Letter  of 
James;  Lattermath,  verse;  Wdl  by  the  Gate, 
sermons,  etc. 

Stuart,  Gilbert  Charles,  American  portrait  painter, 
was  born  at  Narragansett,  R.  I.,  1755.  In  1778 
he  made  his  way  to  London,  where  his  talent 
was  recognized  by  Benjamin  West,  president  of 
the  royal  academy,  who  took  him  into  his  family, 
and  whose  full  length  portrait  he  painted  for  the 
national  gallery.  In  1781  he  opened  his  studio 
in  London,  and  painted  the  portraits  of  George 
III.,  the  prince  of  Wales,  the  duke  of  North- 
umberland, Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  and  many 
other  celebrated  characters.  In  1792,  in  the 
fullness  of  his  powers  and  fame,  he  returned  to 
America,  and  painted  portraits  of  Washington, 
Jefferson,  and  many  of  the  distinguished  men 
and  women  of  the  period.  Died  at  Boston, 
Mass.,  1828. 

Stuart,  James  Ewell  Brown,  confederate  cavalry 
general,  was  born  in  Patrick  county,  Virginia, 
1833.  His  early  career  was  spent  as  a  mounted 
rifleman  in  Texasand  Kansas,  engaged  in  Indian 
warfare.  When  the  civil  war  broke  out,  he 
held  a  captaincy  in  the  Union  army,  but  resigned 
this  to  enter  the  confederate  service,  in  wliich 
he  became  the  most  distinguished  of  cavalry 
officers  in  the  army  of  northern  Virginia.  His 
chief  exploits  were  the  night  attack  of  August, 
1862,  when  General  Pope's  papers  were  captured, 
and  the  raid  across  the  Potomac  in  the  same  year. 
He  was  mortally  wounded  at  Ashland,  and  died, 
1864,  at  Richmond,  Va. 

Stubbs,  William,  English  historian,  was  bom  at 
Knaresborough,  England,  1825.  He  studied  at 
Oxford,  entered  the  church,  and  settled  at 
Navestock,  Essex,  in  1850.  In  1866  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  modem  history  at  Oxford. 
He  was  made  bishop  of  Chester  in  1884,  and 
changed  to  the  see  of  Oxford  in  1889.  His 
writings  are  marked  by  great  learning  and  rare 
impartiality,  and  hold  the  highest  rank  in 
English  history.  He  has  edited  a  large  number 
of  ancient  histories  and  chronicles,  such  as  Gesta 
of  Henry  II.  and  Richard  I.;  Memorials  of  St. 
Dunstan,  and  Chronicles  of  the  Reigns  of  Edward 
I.  and  Edward  II.  His  historical  works  include : 
Constitutional  History  of  England;  The  Early 
Plantagenets;  and  Seventeen  Lectures  on  the  Study 
of  MedicBval  and  Modern  History.  He  died, 
1901. 

Stuyvesant  (sfi'-ve-sant),  Peter,  director-general  of 
the  New  Netherlands,  1647-64,  and  last  Dutch 
governor  of  New  York,  was  born  in  Holland, 
1592.  He  first  served  in  the  West  Indies,  and 
arrived  at  New  Amsterdam,  1647.  There  he 
made  peace  with  the  Indians;  arranged  the 
Dutch  and  English  boundary;  recaptured  the 
fort  on  the  Delaware  river,  taking  possession  of 
the  Swedish  colony  at  the  same  time,  but  was 
forced  to  surrender  the  city  of  New  York  to  the 
English,  1664.  He  then  retired  to  his  farm,  the 
"Bouwerij,"  which  gave  the  name  to  the  mo«dem 
Bowery,  and  died  in  1682. 

Sachet  (sU'-sh^'),  Louis  Gabriel,  duke  of  Albufera, 
celebrated  French  marshal,  was  bom  in  1772  at 
Lyons,  and  entered  the  army,  as  a  volunteer,  in 
his  twentieth  year.  Between  that  period  and 
1800  he  distinguished  himself  in  Italy,  Switzer- 


land, and  the  Orisons,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of 
major  general.  He  subsequently  increased  his 
fame  at  Marengo,  at  Austerlitc,  and  in  Poland. 
In  1808  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of 
the  French  forces  m  the  southeast  of  8pain,  and 
this  command  he  retained  until  the  termination 
of  the  war.  He  gained  many  victories,  reduced 
a  great  number  of  fortreastM,  and  conquered 
Valencia;  and  his  services  were  rewarded  with 
the  rank  of  marshal,  and  the  title  of  duke. 
When  Napoleon  returned  from  Elba,  he  intrusted 
Suchet  with  the  defense  of  the  departments  bor- 
dering on  the  frontier  of  Savoy.     l!e<lied,  1826. 

Sudermann  (2<55'-<ter-man),  Hermann,  German  dram- 
atist and  novelist,  was  bom  in  Mazisken,  Prussia, 
1857.  He  studied  in  the  universities  of  Kdnigs- 
berg  and  Berlin,  and  was  a  teacher  and  journal- 
ist, 1881-89.  He  published  a  series  of  talm,  of 
which  Frau  Sorge,  Der  Katztnateg,  and  Ea  War, 
are  the  mast  impressive.  The  drama  Sodoma 
Ende  was  produced  in  1891.  and  was  followed  by 
Die  Heimat,  which,  translated  as  Magda,  has 
been  represented  bv  Duse,  Sarah  Bemhar<lt.  and 
Mrs.  Patrick  Campbell.  His  later  works  include: 
Das  GlOck  im  Winkel;  Reiherfedem;  Moritiiri; 
Johannes;  and  Das  J ohannisfeuer .  In  1906  Daa 
Blumenboot  was  produced  in  Berlin,  and  Roaen 
at  Vienna  in  1907. 

Sue  (sm),  Marie-Joseph  Eugene,  French  novelist, 
was  born  in  Paris,  1804.  His  father  was  one  of 
the  household  surgeons  of  Napoleon  I. ;  and  the 
son  was  brought  up  to  the  same  profession,  acting 
as  surgeon  first  in  the  army  and  afterward  in 
the  navy.  After  the  death  of  his  father  in  1829, 
the  fortune  he  inherited  enabled  him  to  relin- 
quish practice,  and  he  thenceforth  devoted  him- 
self to  literature.  In  1850  he  was  elected  to 
the  legislative  assembly,  as  one  of  the  deputies 
for  the  department  of  Seine;  but,  as  an  ardent 
socialist,  he  was  expelled  from  France  after  the 
coup  d'itat  of  1851.  His  writings  extend  over 
many  volumes.  Some  of  his  later  works  were 
suppressed  as  immoral  and  seditious  by  the 
assize  courts  of  Paris.  His  reputation  as  a 
writer  rests  mainly  on  The  Wanaering  Jew  and 
The  Mysteries  of  Paris.  He  died  in  Savoy,  in 
exHe,  1859. 

Sulla,  Lucius  Cornelius,  Roman  general  and  dic- 
tator, was  bom,  138  B.  C.  He  acquired  military 
fame  in  the  armies  of  Marius  and  of  Catullus. 
Success  in  the  war  against  the  Marsi,  and  great 
popularity  among  the  soldiers  incited  him  to 
aspire  to  the  sovereign  power  under  the  title  of 
dictator;  and,  though  opposed  by  Marius,  he 
gained  his  end,  proscribing  and  putting  to  death 
all  who  opposed  him.  After  holding  the  dicta- 
torship for  about  two  years,  he  resigned  his 
office  in  79  B.  C,  and  retired  to  an  estate  he  pos- 
sessed at  Puteoli,  where  he  died  in  the  following 
year.  He  wrote  memoirs  of  his  own  life,  which 
are  lost,  but  which  are  supposed  to  have  been 
made  use  of  by  Plutarch. 

SuUlvan,  Sir  Arthur  Seymour,  English  composer, 
was  born  in  London,  1842.  He  studied  in  Lon- 
don and  at  Leipzig,  and  in  1862  composed  inci- 
dental music  for  The  Tempest,  performed  at  the 
Crystal  Palace,  London.  Subswiuently  he  wrote 
the  famous  comic  operas,  H.  M.  S.  Piruifore; 
Pirates  of  Penzance;  Patience;  lolanthe;  The 
Mikado;  The  Yeomen  of  the  Guard;  The  Gon- 
doliers, etc.  He  has  also  written  a  grand  opera 
entitled  Ivanhoe,  and  several  other  able  works  — 
cantatas,  overtures,  oratorios,  church  music,  and 
ballads.  He  b«;ame  a  member  of  the  legion  of 
honor,  1878,  and  was  knighted  in  1883.  Died, 
1900. 

Sully,  James,  English  educator  and  philosophical 
writer,  late  Grote  professor  of  pnilosophy  of 
mind  and  logic.  University  college,  London,  and 
lectiirer  on  education  to  the  college  of  preceptors. 


906 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


was  bom  at  Bridgewater,  1842.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Independent  college,  Taunton,  Regent's 
Park  college,  London,  and  at  the  universities  of 
Gottingen  and  Berlin.  Author:  Sensation  and 
Intuition;  Pessimism;  Illusions;  Outlines  of 
Psyclwlogy;  Teacher's  Handbook  of  Psychology; 
The  Human  Mind;  Studies  of  Childhood;  Chil- 
dren's Ways;  An  Essay  on  Laughter,  etc.  He  is 
one  of  the  most  eminent  of  modern  English 
psychologists. 

Sully,  Maximlllen  de  B^thune,  Duke  of,  French 
soldier  and  statesman,  noted  minister  of  Henry 
IV  ,  of  France,  was  born  at  Rosny,  near  Mantes, 
1560.  He  was  brought  up  in  the  Protestant 
religion,  and  in  the  civil  wars  greatly  distin- 
guished himself  on  the  side  of  the  Huguenots. 
After  the  accession  of  Henry  IV.,  in  1589,  he 
made  himself  especially  useful  by  his  skill  and 
integrity  in  managing  the  financial  affairs  of  the 
kingdom,  which  were  at  that  time  in  a  deeply 
involved  condition;  and  he  was  also  employed 
in  many  important  negotiations,  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  was  that  for  the  king's  marriage 
tp  Mary  de'  Medici.  In  1601  he  was  sent  on  a 
confidential  mission  to  Queen  Elizsibeth  of 
England,  who  professed  great  esteem  for  him; 
and  on  the  accession  of  James  I.,  in  1603,  he  was 
again  sent  on  a  mission  to  that  country.  He 
continued  at  the  head  of  affairs  until  the  assassi- 
nation of  Henry  in  1610 ;  but  after  that  event  his 
life  was  spent  chiefly  in  retirement,  though  he 
was  still  occasionally  consulted  as  to  the  condi- 
tion of  affairs.  He  had  been  created  duke  of 
Sully  in  1606,  and  was  made  marshal  of  France  in 
1634.  In  the  course  of  his  long  life  he  accumu- 
lated an  immense  fortune.  His  Memoirs,  writ- 
ten during  his  retirement,  are  of  great  value,  as 
furnishing  materials  for  the  history  of  the  period. 
He  died  at  Villebon,  near  Chartres,  1641. 

Sully,  Thomas,  American  painter,  was  born  in 
Lincolnshire,  England,  in  1783.  While  a  boy  he 
emigrated  to  America,  and  studied  his  art  at 
Charleston,  afterward  successively  taking  up  his 
residence  in  Richmond,  Va.,  New  York,  and 
Philadelphia.  As  a  portrait  painter,  he  enjoyed 
great  reputation,  Jefferson,  Lafayette,  Madison, 
Jackson,  and  many  other  of  the  most  illustrious 
personages  of  the  time  being  among  his  sitters. 
His  chief  historical  work  is  "Washington  Crossing 
the  Delaware,"  now  in  the  Boston  museum. 
Died,  1872. 

Sumner,  Charles,  American  statesman,  was  bom 
at  Boston,  1811;  was  graduated  at  Harvard, 
1830;  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
1834.  He  was  reporter  of  the  United  States 
circuit  court,  and  published  Sumner's  Reports; 
edited  the  American  Jurist;  lectured  on  law,  and 
in  1837-40  traveled  in  Europe.  He  took  no 
active  part  in  politics  until  1845,  when  on  the 
4th  of  July  he  pronounced  in  Boston  an  oration 
on  The  True  Grandeur  of  Nations,  followed  by  a 
number  of  public  addresses.  In  1851  he  entered 
the  United  States  senate  as  the  successor  of 
Daniel  Webster,  retaining  his  seat  until  his  death. 
His  first  important  speech  was  in  opposition  to 
the  fugitive  slave  act.  In  the  debate  on  the 
repeal  of  the  Missouri  compromise  and  on  the 
contest  in  Kansas  he  took  a  prominent  part. 
His  speech  upon  this  issue,  delivered  in  1856,  under 
the  title  "The  Crime  against  Kansas,"  greatly 
incensed  the  members  of  congress  from  South 
Carolina  one  of  whom,  Preston  S.  Brooks,  on 
May  22d  assaulted  Sumner  at  his  desk  in  the 
senate  chamber.  He  supported  the  election  of 
Lincoln,  urged  upon  him  the  proclamation  of 
emancipation,  and  became  the  leader  of  the 
senate,  as  chairman  of  the  committee  on  foreign 
relations^  In  1871  he  opposed  the  annexation 
?-u]^  S?r."^S^,*°  *^^  United  States.  He  pub- 
bshed     White    Slavery    in    the    Barbary    SUUes- 


Oratums  and  Speeches,  etc.  Died  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  1874. 

Sumner,  William  Graham,  American  educator  and 
economist,  profe.'ssor  of  political  and  social 
science  at  Yale,  1872-1910,  was  born  at  Paterson, 
N.  J.,  1840.  He  graduated  at  Yale,  1863; 
studied  at  Gottingen,  and  Oxford,  LL.  D.,  Ten- 
nessee. He  was  tutor  at  Yale,  1866-69;  took 
orders  in  Protestant  Episcopal  church,  and  was 
assistant  at  Calvarj'  churcn,  New  York,  and 
rector  of  church  of  the  Redeemer,  Morristown, 
N.  J.,  until  1872.  Author:  A  History  of  Ameri- 
can Currency;  What  Social  Classes  Ou>e  to 
Each  Other;  Collected  Essays  in  Political  and 
Social  Sciences;  Protectionism;  Andrew  Jack- 
son; Alexander  Hamilton;  Robert  Morris;  The 
Financier  and  Finances  of  the  Revolution;  A 
History  of  Bankiruj  in  the  United  States;  Folk- 
ways, etc.      He  dieu  in  1910. 

Sutherland,  Georice,  lawyer.  United  States  senator, 
was  born  in  Buckinghamshire,  England,  1862. 
He  came  to  the  United  States;  received  an 
academic  education;  attended  the  law  depart- 
ment of  the  university  of  Michigan,  1882-83, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  1883.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  first  Utah  state  leginlature,  1896; 
was  a  member  of  congress,  Utah,  1901-03;  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  senate  in  1905  and 
was  reelected  in  1911. 

Suvaroff  (sdb-va'-rOf),  Prince  Alexel,  celebrated 
Russian  field  marshal,  was  bom  in  1729,  at 
Suskoi,  in  Finland,  and  was  educated  at  the 
cadet  school  of  St.  Petersburg.  Ue  distinguished 
himself  during  the  Seven  Years'  war;  in  Poland, 
in  1768,  against  the  confederates;  in  1773,  against 
the  Turl^j  and,  in  1782,  against  the  Nogay 
Tartars.  For  these  services  ne  was  rewarded 
with  the  rank  of  general-in-chief,  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Crimea,  the  portrait  of  the  empress 
set  in  diamonds,  and  several  Russian  oniers. 
In  the  war  against  the  Turks,  from  1787  to  1790, 
he  gained  the  battle  of  R>'mnik,  took  Ismail  by 
storm,  and  obtained  other  imfwrtant  advantages. 
In  1794  he  defeated  the  Poles  who  were  strug- 
gling for  freedom,  and  carried  Praga  by  assault. 
When  Russia  joined  the  continental  coalition, 
in  1799,  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  com- 
bined army  in  Italy,  and,  after  several  sanguinary 
battles,  succeeded  in  wresting  that  country  from 
the  French.  He  was  less  successful  in  Switzer- 
land, whence  he  was  obliged  to  retreat.  He 
died,  1800,  soon  after  his  return  to  St.  Peters* 
burg. 

Swain,  Joseph,  American  educator,  president  of 
Swarthmore  college  since  1902,  was  bom  at 
Pendleton,  Ind.,  1857.  He  graduated  at  Indiana 
university,  1883;  A.  M.,  LL.  D.,  Wabash  college. 
He  was  instructor  of  mathematics  and  biology, 
1883-85,  associate  professor  of  mathematics, 
1885-86,  and  professor  of  mathematics,  1886-91, 
Indiana  university;  professor  of  mathematics 
in  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  university,  1891-93; 
president  of  Indiana  university,  1895-1902.  He 
has  written  numerous  scientific  papers;  is 
president  of  the  national  council  of  education, 
national  council  of  religious  education. 

Sweatman,  Arthur,  archbishop  of  Toronto,  and 
primate  of  Canada,  1907-09;  was  born  in  1834. 
He  was  graduated  at  Christ's  college,  Cambridge; 
was  headmaster  of  Hellmuth  college,  London, 
Ontario,  1865-72;  rector  of  Grace  church, 
Brantford,  Ontario,  1872-76;  secretary  of  the 
diocesan  synod,  1872-79;  secretary  to  Canadian 
house  of  bishops,  1873-79;  canon  of  Huron, 
1875-76;  archdeacon  of  Brant  and  rector  of 
Woodstock,  Ontario,  1876-79;  and  bishop  of 
Toronto,  1897-1907.    Died,  1909. 

Swedenborg  (swe'-den-bdrg),  Emanuel,  Swedish 
philosopher  and  mystic,  the  founder  of  the  New 
church,  was  the  son  of  the  bishop  of  Skars,  and 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


wr 


was  born  in  1688,  at  Stockholm.  Ho  studied  at 
Upsaiii,  possessed  considerable  acicntitic  attain- 
ments for  his  age,  and,  after  traveling  abroad  for 
five  years,  started  the  Daedalus  Hyperboreua,  a 
short-lived  Bt-ientific  journal.  In  1717  Charles 
XII.  appointed  him  assessor  in  the  college  of 
mines.  He  was  ennobled  in  1719,  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  house  of  peers,  and  wrote  on 
many  scientific  subjects,  but  his  largest  scientific 
work  was  the  Opera  Mineralia  et  PhUoaophica, 
which  combined  both  the  theoretical  and  the 
practical.  He  then  studied  anatomy  and  physi- 
ology, and  wrote  The  Economy  of  the  Animal 
Kingdom  and  The  Animal  Kingdom.  In  1743 
he  claimed  a  divine  commission  to  disclose  the 
internal  or  spiritual  sense  of  scripture  by  the 
correspondence  existing  between  natural  and 
spiritual  things,  and  thereby  to  make  known  its 
true  doctrines.  His  largest  work.  Arcana 
Cadestia,  a  spiritual  exposition  of  Genesis  and 
Exodus,  and  Tfie  Apocalypse  Revealed  refer  more 
to  the  former;  his  Four  Primary  Doctrines  and 
The  True  Christian  Religion,  to  the  latter.  He 
also  stated  that  for  the  puq^ose  of  his  mission  he 
was  intromitted  as  to  his  soul  into  heaven,  hell, 
and  the  intermediate  state  between  tViem.  Of 
these  he  treats  in  Heaven  and  Its  Wonders,  The 
Last  Judgment,  and  The  Earths  in  the  Universe. 
In  his  philosophy,  which  is  really  one  with  his 
theology,  he  treats  of  creation  in  his  Divine  Love 
and  Wisdom;  and  of  the  relations  of  God's 
government  to  man's  free  agency  in  his  Divine 
Providence.  He  died  in  London,  1772.  The 
New  church,  which  accepts  Swedenborg's  mission 
and  general  vieWs,  held  its  first  public  services 
in  1788. 

Sweet,  Henry,  English  philologist,  was  bom  in 
London,  1845.  He  studied  at  King's  college, 
London,  at  Heidelberg,  and  at  Balliol  college, 
Oxford;  M.  A.,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.  Author  and 
editor:  editions  of  Old  and  Middle  English  texts; 
Old  and  Middle  English  readers  and  primers; 
Student's  Dictionary  of  Anglo-Saxon;  Primer  of 
Spoken  English;  New  English  Grammar;  Short 
Historical  English  Grammar;  History  of  English 
Sounds;  Prim.er  of  Phonetics;  Manual  of  Current 
Shorthand;  History  of  Language;  The  Practical 
Study  of  Languages;  and  many  papers  and 
reviews  in  journals  and  transactions  of  learned 
societies.    Died,  1912. 

Swift,  Jonathan,  British  satirist,  was  bom  in 
Dublin,  of  English  parents,  1667.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Trinit}'  college,  Dublin,  and  then  re- 
moved to  London,  and  was  admitted  into  the 
house  of  Sir  William  Temple.  Temple  died  in 
1699,  and  Swift  published  his  posthumous  works, 
after  which  he  repaired  to  Ireland,  and  in  1713 
was  appointed  dean  of  St.  Patrick's.  Before 
this  he  had  written  the  most  powerful  satirical 
work  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  Tale  of  a 
Tub,  in  1704,  and  a  few  essays  on  ecclesiastical 
subjects,  some  ridicule  of  astrology  under  the 
name  of  "Isaac  Bickerstafif,"  and  poetical  pieces 
possessing  a  peculiar  vein  of  humor  and  descrip- 
tion. He  then  wrote  papers  for  the  London 
Examiner,  a  Letter  to  the  October  Club,  The  Con- 
duct of  the  Allies,  The  Barrier  Treaty,  and  in- 
numerable pasquinades  against  the  whigs,  and 
became  a  formidable  power  in  the  state.  His 
Drapier  Letters,  1724,  produced  quite  a  ferment 
in  Ireland,  and  compelled  the  government  to 
abandon  a  scheme  for  supplying  Ireland  with 
copper  coinage.  The  triumphant  author  made 
his  last  visit  to  England  in  1726,  and  published 
his  Gulliver's  Travels,  the  most  popular  of  all  his 
works.  After  this  period  he  wrote  some  of  his 
best  minor  pieces,  The  Grand  Question  Debated; 
On  Poetry,  a  Rhapsody;  The  Legion  Club;  Verses 
on  the  Death  of  Dr.  Swift;  and  The  Modest  Pro- 
posal.    Died,  1745. 


Swinbume,  Alfcemon  Charles,  English  poet  and 
prose  writer,  wiw  born  in  London,  183/,  uon  of 
Admiral  Swinburne.  Ue  waa  eilucftted  at 
Balliol  college,  Oxford,  went  to  Fioreace  and 
spent  some  time  there.  Hid  first  produotiona 
were  the  plays,  Qurcn  Mother  and  Rotamond, 
which  were  followed  by  two  tragedies;  Poem* 
and  Ballads;  A  Sana  of  Italv;  essay  on  William 
Blake;  and  Songs  before  Sunrise.  The  latter 
were  instinct  with  pantheistic  and  republican 
ideas,  and  gave  him  rank  with  Laiidor,  whose 
successor  he  was.  and  of  whom  he  was  a  great 
admirer.  His  subse<iuent  worlu  include:  Under 
tfis  Microscope;  Botkwell,  a  Tragedy;  Songs  of 
Two  Nations;  A  Study  of  Shakespeare;  Songs  of 
the  Springtides;  Mary  Stuart,  a  Tragedy;  A 
Century  of  Roundels;  Marino  Faliero,  a  Tragedy; 
A  Study  of  Victor  Hugo;  Astrophal  and  other 
Poems;  Studies  in  Prose  and  Poetry;  Love'e 
Cross  Currents,  a  novel;  The  Duke  of  Gardia, 
etc.     He  died  in  1909. 

Sybel  (2«'-6e/),  Uelnrlch  von,  German  historian, 
born  at  Diisseldorf,  1817.  He  studied  at  Berlin 
under  Ranke;  became  professor  of  history  at 
Bonn,  1844,  at  Marburg,  1846,  at  Munich,  1856, 
and  at  Bonn  again  in  1861;  and  in  1875  waa 
made  director  of  the  state  archives  at  Berlin. 
He  published  the  political  correspondence  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  shared  in  issuing  the 
Monumenta  Germahiae  Historica,  and  founded 
and  edited  the  Historische  Zcitschrift.  His  his- 
tory of  the  first  crusade,  in  1841,  often  ran 
counter  to  the  accepted  oiiinions  of  centuries' 
his  next  work  was  on  the  title  "German  king,' 
1844.  Then  came  his  great  work,  Geschichte  der 
Revolutionszeit,  1789-95,  a  history  of  the  French 
revolution  based  upon  official  documentary  evi- 
dence. He  also  wrote  an  exhaustive  history  of 
the  founding  of  the  German  empire  by  William 
I.     He  died  at  Marburg,  1895. 

Sydenham  {sld'-en-am),  Thomas,  English  physician, 
was  born  at  Winford  Eagle  in  Dorsetshire,  1624. 
In  1648  he  graduated  M.  D.  at  Oxford,  and 
shortly  after  became  a  fellow  of  All  Souls.  In 
1666  he  publislicd  his  Metliodus  Curandi  Febres; 
and  in  1676  took  his  M.  D.  at  Cambridge.  The 
friend  of  Locke  and  Boyle,  he  was  a  profound 
master  of  the  Hippocratic  method,  but  treated 
current  medical  theories  with  scant  courtesy. 
He  wrote  in  Latin  on  epidemics,  venereal  dis- 
eases, smallpox,  gout,  and  hysteria.  His  last 
work,  Processus  Integri,  in  1692,  is  an  outline  of 
pathology  and  therapeutics.  Seemingly  behind 
nis  a^e  in  science,  he  was  really  ahead  of  it  in 
practice.     He  died  at  London,  1689. 

Symonds  (slm'-Hnz),  John  Addinirton,  an  English 
man  of  letters,  was  born  at  Bristol,  England, 
1840.  He  was  graduated  at  Oxford,  but  his 
delicate  health  required  him  to  live  chiefly  in 
Italy,  where  he  wrote  much  on  Italian  history 
and  literature.  His  chief  writings  are  an  Intro- 
duction to  the  Study  of  Dante;  Studies  of  the 
Greek  Poets;  Sketches  tn  Italy  and  Greece;  The 
Renaissance  in  Italy;  Italian  Byways;  with 
lives  of  Shelley,  Ben  Jonson,  Sir  Philfp  Sidney. 
Boccaccio,  Benevento  Cellini,  Michaelangolo,  ana 
Shakespeare's  Predecessors  in  the  English  Drama. 
His  work  is  marked  by  accurate  learning  and 
much  critical  insight.  The  Renaissance  in  Italy 
is  his  chief  work,  which  forms  in  its  several 
parts  seven  volumes,  on  which  the  author  spent 
eleven  vears  of  intelligent  labor.  He  died  at 
Rome,  1893. 

Tacitus  (Ids'-l-tHs),  OaluB  Cornelius,  Roman  histo- 
rian and  orator,  was  bom  about  5.5  A.  D.  From 
the  emperors  Vespasian,  Titus,  and  Domitian  he 
received  promotion  and  other  marks  of  favor. 
In  97  he  was  appointed  consul,  succeeding 
T.  Virginius   Rufus.     He    had    already  attained 


998 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


distinction  as  an  orator  when  the  younger  Phny  | 
was  entering  upon  public  life;  and  both  of  them 
were  appointed,  in  99,  to  conduct  the  prosecution 
of  Marius,  then  proconsul  of  Africa.  Tacitus 
became  one  of  the  most  intimate  friends  of  the 
younger  Pliny,  of  whose  letters  eleven  are  ad- 
dressed to  him.  The  time  of  his  death  is 
unknown,  but  he  probably  survived  Trajan,  who 
died  in  117.  His  chief  works  are  the  Life  of 
Agricola,  and  the  Germania,  both  written  about 
98,  the  Histories  extending  from  68  to  96,  and  the 
Annals  extending  from  14  to  68. 

Tadema,  Alma.     See  Alma-Tadema. 

Taft,  William  Howard,  twentv-seventh  president 
of  the  United  States,  was  bom  in  Cmcinnati, 
Ohio,  1857.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale,  1878, 
and  irom  the  law  school,  Cincinnati  college,  1880 ; 
LL.  D.,  university  of  Pennsylvania,  Yale,  etc. ; 
admitted  to  the  Ohio  bar,  1880 ;  was  law  reporter 
of  the  Cincinnati  Times,  and  later  of  Cincinnati 
Commercial,  1880;  assistant  prosecuting  attor- 
ney, Hamilton  county,  Ohio,  1881^82;  col- 
lector of  internal  revenue,  first  district,  Ohio, 
1882-83;  practiced  law,  Cincinnati,  1883-87; 
was  assistant  county  solicitor,  Hamilton  county, 
Ohio,  1885-87;  judge  of  the  superior  court  of 
Ohio,  1887-90;  solicitor-general  of  the  United 
States,  1890-92;  dean  and  professor  in  law  de- 
partment, university  of  Cincinnati,  1896-1900; 
United  States  circuit  judge,  sixth  circuit,  1892- 
1900;  president  of  the  United  States  Philippine 
commission,  1900-01 ;  first  civil  governor  of  the 
Philippine  islands,  1901-04;  secretary  of  war, 
United  States,  1904-08.  On  November  3,  1908, 
he  was  elected  president  of  the  United  States, 
and  inaugurated  March  4,  1909.  In  1912  he 
was  renominated  for  president  by  the  republican 
party,  but  was  defeated.  He  was  made  Kent 
professor  of  law,  Yale,  1913. 

TaJne,  Hippolyte  Adolphe,  French  historian  and 
critic,  was  bom  at  Vouziers,  France,  1828.  He 
studied  at  the  College  Bourbon,  and  in  1864  was 
made  professor  of  history  and  aesthetics  in  the 
school  of  arts.  One  of  his  first  essays  was 
crowned  by  the  French  academy.  Among  his 
most  important  works  is  his  History  of  English 
Literature,  a  clear  and  valuable  criticism  written 
in  brilliant  style.  In  1871  the  university  of 
Oxford  conferred  upon  him  the  honorary  degree 
of  D.  C.  L.,  and  in  1878  he  was  elected  to  mem- 
bership in  the  French  academy.  His  other 
writings  embrace  Voyage  in  Italy;  Voyage  to 
the  Pyrenees;  The  Ancient  R^me;  Notes  on 
England;  and  The  Ideal  in  Art.     Died,  1893. 

Talt,  Peter  Guthrie,  British  mathematician  and 
physicist,  was  bora  in  1831.  He  was  educated 
at  Edinburgh  university,  and  St.  Peter's  college, 
Canibridge;  was  elected  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  Belfast,  1854,  and  of  natural  philosophy 
at  Edinburgh,  1860.  His  most  important  experi- 
mental work  was  on  thermo-electricity,  on  the 
effects  of  pressure,  on  thermal  conductivity,  and 
on  impact.  He  resigned  his  chair  early  in  1901, 
and  died  the  same  year.  With  W.  J.  Steele  he 
wrote  the  Dynamics  of  a  Particle;  with  Lord 
Kelvin,  a  Treatise  on  Natural  Philosophy;  with 
Balfour  Stewart,  The  Unseen  Universe;  and  he 
collaborated  on  lives  of  Forbes,  Rankine,  and 
Andrews.  Among  his  other  works  may  be 
named  a  treatise  on  Quaternions;  Recent  Ad- 
vances in  Physical  Science;  and  text-books  on 
Ugfit,  Heat,  Properties  of  Matter,  and  Dynamics. 

Takahira  ita' -kd-M' -rd),  Kogoro,  Japanese  diplo- 
mat, was  bom  in  Japan,  1854.  He  was  educated 
'^+  u?**'^'^*^  entered  the  foreign  office  as  student 
attach^,  1876;  was  appointed  attache,  1879. 
secretary,  1881,  charge  d'affaires,  1882,  of  the 
legation  at  Washington;  was  secretary  of  the 
ioo^c^Sn°*^^!  ^^^^'  '^^''^^  d'affaires  in  Korea, 
l»86-87,   acting  consul-general,    1888-89;     chief 


of  the  political  bureau,  foreign  office,  1890-91 ; 
consul-general  at  New  York,  1892;  minister 
resident  to  Holland  and  Denmark,  1893-94; 
envoy  extraordinary  and  minister  plenipoten- 
tiary to  Italy,  1894-95  and  1906-07,  to  Austria 
and  Switzerland,  1896-99;  vice-minister  for 
foreign  affairs,  1889-1900,  and  envoy  extraor- 
dinary and  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the 
United  States,  1900-00,  and  190S-O9. 

Taliaferro  (M/'-l-t*r),  James  Piper,  lawyer,  ex-United 
States  senator,  was  born  at  Orange,  Va.,  1847. 
He  was  educated  in  Virginia,  leaving  the  school 
of  William  Dinwiddle,  at  Greenwood,  in  1864,  to 
volunteer  in  the  confederate  army,  in  which  he 
served  until  the  war  ended ;  returned  to  his  home 
after  the  war  and  resumed  his  studies,  removing 
later  to  Jacksonville.  Pla.,  where  he  engaged  in 
business.  He  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
senate  in  1S99,  and  reelected  for  term  1905-11. 

Talleyrand-P^rlKord  (td' -li' -riis' -pd'-re' -gdr"), 
Charles  Maurice,  Prinre  de  B^n^vent,  was  born  in 
Paris,  1754.  He  was  educated  for  the  church,  be- 
coming in  1775  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Denis. 
in  1780  general  agent  of  the  clergy  of  France,  ana 
in  1788  bi.shop  of  Autun.  As  oishop  of  Autun 
he  was  a  member  of  the  states-general  which  was 
convoked  in  1789,  and  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
proceedings  of  that  assembly,  and  also  of  the 
national  assembly  by  which  it  was  succeeded. 
He  was  soon  after  excommunicated  by  the  pope 
and  compelled  to  resign  his  bishopric,  for  which 
his  personal  character  renderetl  him  wholly 
unfitted,  and  thenceforward  devoted  himself 
entirely  to  politics.  The  progress  of  the  revolu- 
tion led  to  Ills  retirement  to  England  and  after- 
ward to  America;  but  on  the  faU  of  Rob^pierre 
he  returned  to  Paris,  and,  through  the  influence 
of  Matlame  de  Stai-l  with  Barras,  was  appointed 
foreign  minister  under  the  directory,  an  ofifice 
which  he  retained  under  the  consulate,  and  under 
the  empire  until  1807.  In  return  for  his  services 
he  was  made  grand  chamberlain,  and  prince  of 
B^n6vent;  but  this  did  not  prevent  him  from 
scheming  against  his  master,  by  whom  he  was 
ultimately  aismissed  from  office.  After  the  fall  of 
Napoleon,  he  became  for  a  time  prime  minister 
under  Louis  XVllI.,  but  ceased  to  hold  this 
position  subsequent  to  the  battle  of  Waterloo. 
Under  Louis  Philippe  he  was  employed  as 
ambassador  to  the  court  of  London,  and  this 
was  the  last  public  position  he  held.  His  skill 
and  finesse  in  diplomacy  are  said  to  have  been 
unrivaled.     Died,  1838. 

Talmage,  Thomas  De  Witt,  American  Presbj'terian 
minister  and  orator,  was  bom  in  New  Jersey, 
1832.  He  was  educated  at  New  York  university. 
and  at  the  New  Brunswick  (N.  J.)  theological 
seminar^-.  In  1870  he  became  pastor  of  the 
Brooklyn  tabernacle.  He  editea  for  several 
years  the  Christian  at  Work,  later  the  Christian 
Herald,  and  wrote  extensively.  In  1889-90  he 
visited  the  holy  land,  and  in  1894  made  a  tour 
of  the  world.  He  was  pastor  of  the  First  Pres- 
bjrterian  church,  Washington,  D.  C,  1895-99. 
Author:  Crumbs  Stoejot  Up;  Abominations  of 
Modem  Society;  The  Marriage  Ring,  etc. ;  also 
many  volumes  of  Sermons.     Died,  1902. 

Tamerlane,  or  TImur  {te-m^br'),  oriental  conqueror, 
was  bom  at  Sebz,  near  Samarkand,  about  1336. 
He  was  a  direct  descendant  of  Jenghiz  Khan,  and 
consequently  of  Mongol  origin.  He  began  his 
military  career  when  only  twelve  years  of  age, 
and  in  1361  succeeded  his  father  as  chief  of  the 
Turkish  tribe  of  the  Berlas.  In  1369  he  made 
himself  master  of  Balkh,  in  which  city  he  assumed 
the  title  of  Sahib  Karan,  or  emperor  of  the  age, 
after  which  he  repaired  to  Samarkand,  which  he 
made  the  seat  of  his  empire.  He  afterward 
overran  the  country'  now  called  Turkestan,  sub- 
dued Persia,  with  his  victorious  hordes  penetrated 


VH.LIAM  HOWARD  TAFT  AT  WORK 

From  a  f  holograph  by  Harrh-Etving^  fVaihington 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


1001 


the  country  as  far  north  as  Moscow  and  then, 
turning  back,  crossed  into  India,  where  Delhi, 
with  all  its  immense  treasures,  fell  into  his  hands. 
He  subsequently  invaded  Syria,  and  took  Damas- 
cus, Ephesus,  and  Snivma.  His  whole  career 
was  one  of  conquest,  though  he  was  frequently 
interrupted  by  revolts  in  his  own  dominions,  and 
in  the  provinces  he  had  brought  under  his  rule. 
He  was  preparing  for  the  conquest  of  China,  but 
died  on  his  march  to  that  country,  1406. 

Taney  (td'-nl),  Boger  Brooke,  American  jurist,  was 
born  in  Calvert  county,  Md.,  1777.  He  was 
graduated  at  Dickinson  college.  Pennsylvania, 
studied  law,  and  took  part  in  politics  as  a  feder- 
alist. He  afterward  became  a  Jackson  democrat 
and  was  made  attorney-general  in  President  Jack- 
son's cabinet  in  1831.  1  wo  years  later  he  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  the  treasury,  and  succeeded 
John  Marshall  as  chief-justice  of  the  United 
States  supreme  court  in  1836.  His  most  famous 
decision  was  that  in  the  Dred  Scott  case,  in  1857, 
in  which  the  negro  Scott  brought  suit  to  gain  his 
freedom,  on  the  ground  of  his  having  been 
carried  by  his  master  from  the  slave  state  Mis- 
souri into  free  territory.  The  decision,  denying 
the  right  of  citizenship  to  negroes,  and  also  the 
authority  of  congress  to  keep  slavery  out  of  the 
territories,  caused  a  greater  excitement  through- 
out the  country  than  any  decision  of  the  supreme 
court  before  or  since.  He  died  at  Washington, 
D.  C,  1864. 

Tarbell,  Ida  Minerva,  American  author  and  editor, 
was  born  in  Erie  county.  Pa.,  1857,  daughter  of 
Franklin  S.  Tarbell.  She  was  graduated  from 
Allegheny  college;  was  associate  editor  of  The 
Chautatiguan,  1883-91 ;  student  in  Paris  at  the 
Sorbonne  and  College  de  France,  1891-94; 
editor  on  staff,  and  associate  editor  of  McClure's 
Magazine,  1894-1906,  and  associate  editor  of  the 
American  Magazine  since  1906.  Author:  Short 
Life  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte;  Life  of  Madame 
Roland;  Early  Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln,  with  J. 
McCan  Davis ;  Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln;  History 
of  the  Standard  CHI  Company;  He  Knew  Lincoln; 
and  many  magazine  articles  on  history  and  cur- 
rent subjects. 

Tarkington,  Newton  Booth,  American  novelist, 
was  born  in  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  1869.  He  was 
graduated  at  Princeton,  1893;  A.  M^  1899. 
Author :  The  Gentleman  From  Indiana;  Monsieur 
Beaucaire;  The  Two  Vanrevels;  Cherry;  In  the 
Arena;  The  Conqtiest  of  Canaan;  The  BeatUiful 
Lady;   His  Own  People,    etc. 

Tarr,  Ralph  Stockman,  American  educator,  was 
bom  at  Gloucester,  Mass.,  1864.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Lawrence  scientific  school,  Harvard, 
1891 ;  assistant  professor  of  geology  at  Harvard. 
1892-97;  professor  of  dynamic  geology  ana 
physical  geography,  1897-1906,  and  professor  of 
physical  geography,  1906-12,  Cornell  univer- 
sity. He  was  special  field  assistant  of  the  United 
States  geological  survey  1903-06.  Author:  Eco- 
nomic Geology  of  United  States;  Elementary  Physi- 
cal Geography;  Elementary  Geology;  First  Book  of 
Physical  Geography;  Physical  Geography  of  New 
York  State;  New  Physical  Geography;  and  many 
monographs  on  geological  and  geographical 
topics.     Died,  1912. 

QTaschereau  {tdsh'-rd').  Sir  Henri  Elzear,  Canadian 
jurist,  chief-justice  of  the  supreme  court  of 
Canada,  1902-06,  was  born  in  1836.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  Quebec  bar,  1857;  queen's 
counsel,  1867;  sat  in  Canadian  legislative 
assembly  for  Beance  county,  1861-67;  was 
appointed  a  judge  of  the  Quebec  superior  court, 
1871;  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Canada, 
1878.  He  is  the  author  of  several  books  on 
Canadian  jurisprudence.     Died,  1911. 

Vasso  (tas'-so),  Torquato,  Italian  poet,  was  bom 
in  Sorrento,  1544,  and  studied  law  at  the  univer- 


sity of  Padua,  where  he  published  his  wrllMt 
poem,  Rinaldo.  in  1662.  In  1566  he  entered  the 
service  of  Cardinal  Luigi  d'Este,  and  was  invited 
to  the  court  of  his  brother,  Alfonso,  duke  of 
Fcrrara.  While  there  he  wrote  his  pastoral 
drama,  AmirUa,  and  in  1676  finished  his  great 
epic,  Jerusalem  Delivered,  describing  the  first 
crusade.  In  1577  he  was  imprisoned  Dy  Alfonso 
in  a  monastery,  from  which  he  escaped.  In 
1579  he  returned  to  Ferrara,  but,  being  a  sufferer 
from  occasional  insanity,  was  confined  in  a 
madhouse,  where  he  remained  until  1680,  when 
he  was  released  on  the  intercession  of  the  duke 
of  Mantua  and  other  princes.  In  1694  Pope 
Clement  VIII.  summoned  him  to  Rome  to 
receive  a  laurel  crown,  but  ho  died  soon  after 
his  arrival,  in  1596. 

Tauler  (tou'-ler),  Johann,  German  mystic,  was  bom 
at  Strassburg,  about  1300.  He  entered  the 
Dominican  order  about  1318;  was  driven  from 
Strassburg  by  a  feud  between  the  city  and  his 
order,  and  settled  at  Basel,  where  ho  associated 
with  the  devout  "Friends  of  God/'  having  before 
then  been  a  disciple  of  Meister  Eckhart.  After 
seven  years  he  returned  to  Strassburg.  His 
fame  as  a  preacher  spread  far  and  wide,  and  he 
became  the  center  of  the  quickened  religious  life 
in  the  middle  Rhine  valley.  He  died  at  Strass- 
burg in  1361.  Sincere  practical  piety  marks  his 
Sermons.  Following  in  the  Footsteps  of  Christ  is 
by  some  attributed  to  Tauler. 

Taylor,  Charles  H^  American  journalist,  editor 
and  manager  of  the  Boston  Daily  Globe  since 
1873,  was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  1846,  and  was 
educated  in  the  Boston  public  schools;  A.  M., 
Dartmouth,  1896.  He  started  in  life  as  a  printer 
and  reporter  on  the  Boston  Daily  Traveler;  was 
private  secretary  to  the  governor  of  Massachu- 
setts, 1869-71 ;  member  of  the  Massachusetts 
legislature,  1872 ;  and  clerk  of  the  Massachusetts 
house  of  representatives,  1873.  He  served  during 
the  civil  war  in  the  38th  Massachusetts  regiment; 
was  wounded  at  Port  Hudson,  La.,  1863;  be- 
came lieutenant-colonel  on  the  staff  of  Governor 
Clafiin,  1869-71;  and  brigadier-general  on  Gov- 
ernor Russell's  staff,  1891-93.  He  has  long  held 
a  prominent  place  among  American  journalists 
and  publicists. 

Taylor,  Hannis,  American  lawyer,  diplomat,  was 
bom  in  New  Bern,  N.  C,  1861.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  university  of  North  Carolina; 
LL.  D ,  Edinburgh  and  Dublin.  Admitted  to 
bar,  1870;  practiced  at  Mobile,  Ala.,  1870-92. 
He  was  United  States  minister  to  Spain,  1893-97 ; 
was  special  counsel  for  the  government  of  the 
United  States  before  the  Spanish  treaty  claims 
commission,  1902,  and  before  the  Alaskan 
boundary  commission,  1903.  Author:  The 
Origin  and  Growth  of  the  English  Constitution; 
International  Public  Law;  Jurisdiction  and  Pro- 
cedure of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States, 
etc. 

Taylor,  James  Bayard,  American  author  and 
traveler,  was  bom  at  Kennett  Square,  Pa.,  1826. 
At  seventeen  he  began  his  poetical  contributions 
to  periodicals,  and  in  1844  published  a  volume 
of  poems  under  the  title  of  Ximena.  Soon  after 
he  started  on  a  pedestrian  tour  of  Europe,  and 
in  1846  published  Views  Afoot,  or  Europe  Seen 
■with  Knapsack  and  Staff.  After  his  return  he 
settled  in  New  York  and  wrote  for  the  Literary 
World  and  Tribune.  Of  the  latter  he  became 
assistant  editor  and  part  owner  in  1849,  and  in 
the  interests  of  that  journal,  as  its  correspondent, 
made  extensive  travels  in  various  countries.  In 
1862-63  he  was  connected  with  the  embassy  at 
St.  Petersburg,  and  in  1874  he  was  in  Iceland 
and  Egypt.  For  several  years  he  resided  in 
Germany.  He  was  appointed  United  States 
minister  to  Berlin  in  1878,  where  he  died  the 


1002 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


same  year.  He  was  an  industrious  worker,  and 
wrote  many  volumes  of  verse,  fiction,  sketches, 
essays,  translations,  and  criticisms,  besides  several 
books  of  travel.  Some  of  his  best  travesties  are 
in  his  Echo  Club.  Among  the  finest  of  his  poems 
are  Bedouin  Song,  The  Quaker  Widow,  and  Tlie 
Old  Pennsylvania  Farmer.  His  masterpiece  is 
the  translation  of  Goethe's  Faust,  "one  of  the 
glories  of  American  literature."  Perhaps  the 
best  of  his  novels  is  The  Story  of  Kennett,  which 
is  largely  his  own  story. 

Taylor,  James  Monroe,  American  educator,  pro- 
fessor of  ethics  and  president  of  Vassar  college, 
1886-1913;  was  born  in  Brooklyn,  1848.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  university  of  Rochester, 
1868;  D.  D.,  Rochester  theological  seminary; 
LL.  D.,  Rutgers;  D.  D.,  Yale.  He  was  pastor 
of  the  Baptist  church.  South  Norwalk,  Conn., 
1873-82,  and  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  1882-86. 
Author :  Psychology;  New  World  and  Old  Gospel; 
Practical  or  Ideal,  etc. 

Taylor,  Jeremy,  English  divine,  was  born  in  Cam- 
bridge, England,  1613.  He  was  graduated  at 
Cambridge,  and  then  attracted  the  attention  of 
Archbishop  Laud,  who  presented  him  with  a 
fellowship  at  Oxford,  1636.  He  soon  afterward 
became  chaplain  to  Charles  I.,  was  rector  of 
Uppingham,  1638-42,  and  accompanied  the  king 
to  Oxford.  About  1645  he  withdrew  into  Wales, 
where  he  had  charge  of  a  school  at  Newton,  in 
Caermarthenshire,  and  afterward  found  a  shelter 
in  the  house  of  the  earl  of  Carbery.  He  removed 
to  Ireland  in  1658,  and,  after  the  restoration, 
was  made  bishop  of  Down  and  Connor.  His 
chief  works  are:  Holy  Living;  Holy  Lh/tng; 
Liberty  of  Prophesying;  Ductor  Dubitantium; 
and  Sermons.  He  is  sometimes  styled  "the 
modern  Chrysostom"  on  account  of  his  golden 
eloquence,  which  has  no  equal  in  the  whole 
series  of  ecclesiastical  writers  for  richness  of 
fancy.     Died,  1667. 

Taylor,  Robert  Love,  lawyer,  United  States  senator, 
was  bom  in  Happy  Valley,  Term.,  1850.  He 
was  educated  in  Pennington,  N.  J. ;  admitted  to 
the  Tennessee  bar,  1878;  member  of  congress, 
1879-81;  elector  at  large  on  Cleveland's  ticket, 
1884  and  1892;  pension  agent  at  Knoxville, 
1885-87 ;  elected  governor,  1886,  as  democrat,  his 
opponent  being  his  brother,  Alfred  A.  Taylor; 
was  governor,  1887-91 ;  practiced  law  at  Chatta- 
nooga, 1891-96;  again  governor,  1897-99;  elected 
United  States  senator  for  term,  1907-13.  He 
was  editor-in-chief  of  Bob  Taylor's  Magazine, 
1905-06,  and  of  the  Taylor-Trotwood  Magazine, 
1906-12.  He  was  a  well-known  lecturer  and 
writer.     Died,  1912. 

Taylor,  Zachary,  American  general,  and  twelfth 
president  of  the  United  States,  was  bom  in 
Orange  county,  Va.,  1784.  He  was  educated  in 
Kentucky,  and,  after  entering  the  army  in  1808, 
obtained  the  rank  of  colonel  in  1832,  and  fought 
in  the  Black  Hawk  war.  After  defeating  the 
Seminoles  at  Okechobee  in  1837,  he  was  given 
the  chief  command  in  Florida  in  the  following 
year.  In  1846  he  was  intrusted  with  the  com- 
mand of  the  army  which  entered  Mexico.  There 
he  gained  the  battles  of  Palo  Alto,  Resaca  de  la 
Palma,  and  Buena  Vista,  and  brought  the  cam- 
paign to  a  successful  conclusion  in  1847.  In  the 
following  year  he  was  nominated  as  whig  candi- 
date for  the  presidency,  elected,  and  inaugurated 
in  1849.  His  tennre  of  office  was  chiefly  signal- 
ized by  the  passing  of  Clay's  compromise  bill 
relative  to  the  admission  of  California  into  the 
Union.  Died,  1850. 
Tecuraseh  {te-kiim' -si) ,  famous  Shawnee  chief,  was 
born  on  the  Scioto  river,  Ohio,  about  1768.  He 
headed  an  Indian  alliance  against  the  whites  in 
the  Northwest,  and  was  defeated  by  the  Ameri- 
can general,  Harrison,  at  Tippecanoe,  1811.     In 


the  war  of  1812  he  became  an  ally  of  the  Eng- 
lish, obtained  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in 
their  service,  and  commanded  tiie  right  wing  ia 
the  battle  of  the  Thames,  in  1813,  where  he  fell 
mortally  wounded. 

Tell,  WlUIam,  Swiss  patriot,  was  born  at  Biirglen, 
near  Altdorf,  toward  the  close  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  His  renown  rests  upon  his  resistance 
to  the  Austrians  in  1307  and  afterward  He  was 
only  a  simple  countryman,  remarkable  for  noth- 
ing but  his  spirit  of  independence  and  his  skill 
in  the  use  of  the  cross-bow,  both  of  which  he 
proved  to  the  tyrant  Albrecht  (Jessler,  who  then 
represented  the  Austrians  in  Tell's  canton  of  L)ri, 
and  but  for  whose  austerity  and  insolence  Tell's 
name  would  long  since  have  been  forgotten  An 
old  tower  at  Altdorf  is  said  to  mark  the  spot 
from  which  Tell  shot  the  apple  from  his  son's 
head;  and  a  fountain  now  occupies  the  place  of 
the  linden-tree  under  which  it  is  alleged  that  the 
boy  stood.  The  story  of  Tell  has  been  the  sub- 
ject of  numerous  poeiiis  and  dramas.  The  most 
notable  is  the  Wxlhelm  Tell  of  Scliiller. 

Teller,  Henry  Moore,  ex-Uuited  States  Miiator,  law- 
yer, was  born  at  Grancer,  N.  Y.,  1830,  and  was 
educated  at  Alfred  university;  LL.  D.,  188ti. 
He  studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and 
practiced  in  Illinois.  He  then  removed  to 
Colorado,  from  which  state  he  was  United  States 
senator,  1876-82;  was  secretary  of  the  interior 
in  President  Arthur's  cabinet,  1882-85;  and 
again  a  member  of  the  United  States  senate, 
1885-1909. 

Tempest,  Marie  Susan  (Mrs.  Cosmo  Stuart),  opera 
singer,  was  born  in  London,  18(i6,  daughter  of 
Edwin  Etherington.  She  received  her  musical 
education  in  the  Convent  des  UrsuUnes,  Thil- 
donck,  Belgium,  and  at  the  rojral  academy  of 
music,  London.  She  first  sang  in  concert,  but 
soon  went  into  light  oi>era  in  leading  r6les; 
came  to  the  United  States  as  prima  donna  in 
New  York  Casino  company;  has  appeared  in 
comic  opera  in  principal  American  cities,  more 
recently  in  England;  has  received  numerous 
medals  for  ItaUan  and  declamatory  English 
singing.  She  married,  1898,  Cosmo  Charles 
Gordon-Lennox  (Cosmo  Stuart),  son  of  Lord 
Alexander  Gordon-Lennox.  She  created  Nell 
Gwyn  in  English  Nell  and  Becky  Sharp. 

Temple,  Sir  William,  English  diplomat  and  essay 
writer,  was  born  in  London,  1628.  He  studied 
at  Cambridge,  but  at  nineteen  went  abroad. 
He  subsequently  settled  in  Ireland,  was  returned 
for  Carlow  to  the  Dublin  parliament  in  1660, 
was  sent  in  1665  on  a  mission  to  Germany,  and 
then  created  a  baronet  and  appointed  minister 
at  Brussels.  His  great  diplomatic  success  was 
the  triple  alliance,  in  1668,  of  England,  Holland, 
and  Sweden,  against  France.  He  also  took  part 
in  the  congress  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1668,  and 
was  ambassador  at  The  Hague.  In  1677_  he 
helped  to  bring  about  the  marriage  of  the  prince 
of  Orange  with  the  princess  Mary.  He  twice 
declined  the  offer  of  a  secretaryship  of  state  from 
Charles  II.,  and  suggested  the  scheme  of  a 
reformed  privy-council  of  thirty.  At  the  revo- 
lution he  again  refused  the  secretaryship,  and 
gave  the  remainder  of  his  days,  after  1681,  to 
letters  and  gardening.      Died,  1699. 

Tenlers  {U-nersf),  David,  the  Younger,  celebrated 
Flemish  painter,  was  bom  at  Antwerp,  1610. 
Before  he  was  twenty  his  work  bore  the  stamp 
of  maturity,  and  he  entered  the  guild  as  master 
in  1632.  He  was  the  most  popular  of  all  the 
Flemish  painters.  So  numerous  were  his  paint- 
ings that  he  was  accustomed  to  say  that  a  gallery 
two  leagues  long  would  not  hold  them.  Among 
them  are:  "The  Denial  of  St.  Peter";  "The 
Prodigal  Son";  " Village  Festival " ;  "Judith"; 
"Parable     of     the     Laborer";       "Charles     V. 


•fipir-'^ 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


loas 


Leaving  Dort";  "Boom  Feasting,"  etc.  He 
was  habitually  conversant  with  the  nigher  classes 
of  society ;  and  the  suavity  of  his  manner  and 
his  irreproachable  conduct  made  him  the  object 
of  general  esteem.  His  works  —  especially  his 
smaller  works  —  are  very  highly  valued.  He 
died  at  Brussels,  1690. 

Tennyson,  Alfred,  English  poet,  was  bom  in 
Somersby,  Lincolnshire,  En^and,  1809,  of  which 
parish  his  father  was  rector.  He  was  the  third 
of  a  large  family,  and  was  educated  at  Louth 
grammar  school,  and  at  Cambridge  university. 
In  1827,  with  his  brother  Charles,  he  issued  a 
small  volume  entitled  Poems,  by  Two  Brothers,  of 
which  almost  nothing  has  been  preserved.  At 
Cambridge  he  gained  the  chancellor's  medal  by 
a  poem  in  blank  verse  entitled  Timbuctoo;  but 
his  literary  career  properly  dated  from  1830,  in 
which  year  a  volvune  appeared  of  Poems,  chiefly 
Lyrical.  From  this  time  the  reputation  of  the 
writer  slowly  extended  itself,  and  the  publio% 
tion,  in  1842,  of  Poems,  by  Alfred  Tennyson,  in 
two  volumes,  raised  him  to  the  position  of  suprem- 
acy, which  he  continued  to  occupy  until  his  death. 
In  1847  appeared  The  Princess,  a  Medley,  and  in 
1850  the  series  of  elegies  entitled  In  Memoriam. 
On  the  death  of  Wordsworth,  in  1850,  Tennyson 
succeeded  him  as  poet  laureate,  in  which  capacity 
he  issued,  in  1852,  his  Ode  on  the  Death  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington.  In  1855  appeared  Maud, 
arid  other  Poems.  The  Idylls  of  the  King  at  once 
took  rank  as  one  of  the  noblest  poems  in  the 
language.  It  was  followed  in  1864  by  a  volume 
containing  Enoch  Arden;  Aylmer's  Field;  Titho- 
nus;  and  a  few  other  poems.  The  Window,  or 
Songs  of  the  Wrens,  appeared  in  1870.  In  1875 
he  essayed  in  a  new  field  by  publishing 
Qtieen  Mary,  a  drama,  which  was  followed  by 
Harold,  also  a  play,  in  1876.  Then  came 
Locksley  Hall  Sixty  Years  After;  Demeter,  and 
other  Poems;  The  Foresters,  Robin  Hood,  and 
Maid  Marian,  etc.  He  lived  for  the  most  part 
a  retired  life.  In  1884  he  was  made  an  hereditary- 
peer,  with  the  title  of  Baron  Tennyson.  Died, 
1892. 

Terhone  (tir-hun'),  Mary  Virginia,  ne6  Hawes, 
American  novelist  and  miscellaneous  writer, 
better  known  by  her  pen-name  of  "Marion 
Harland,"  was  bom  in  Amelia  county,  Va.,  1831. 
Her  first  story  was  accepted  by  Godey's  Lady's 
Book  when  she  was  only  sixteen;  in  1854  she 
published  Alone,  which  at  once  created  a  sensa- 
tion; and  in  1855  she  produced  The  Hidden 
Path.  In  1856  she  was  married  to  Rev. 
Edward  P.  Terhune.  In  1857  her  Moss-Side 
appeared,  and  this  was  followed  in  rapid  suc- 
cession by  Nemesis;  Husks;  Husbands  ana  Homes; 
Sunnybank;  Christmas  Holly;  Ruby's  Husband; 
Phemie's  Temptation;  At  Last;  The  Empty 
Heart;  Jessamine;  Handicapped;  A  Gallant 
Fight.  Besides  her  novels  "Marion  Harland" 
has  been  noted  for  her  counsel  to  housekeepers, 
and  has  written  on  many  topics  connected  with 
the  home.  H6r  Com,mon  Sense  in  the  Horisehold 
had  an  immediate  success. 

Terry,  Ellen  Alicia  (Mrs.  James  Carew),  English 
actress,  was  bom  at  Coventry,  England,  1848; 
she  made  her  first  appearance  on  the  stage  with 
Charles  Kean's  Shakespearean  revivals,  in  1856, 
in  The  Winter's  Tale,  and  afterward  as  Prince 
Arthur  in  King  John.  She  subsequently  joined 
a  Bristol  company,  of  which  Mrs.  Kendal  was  a 
member,  and  appeared  in  London  as  Gertrude  in 
The  Little  Treasure,  as  Hero  in  Much  Ado  about 
Nothing,  and  as  Mary  Meredith  in  Our  American 
Cousin.  In  1864  she  married  G.  F.  Watts,  the 
painter,  but  was  speedily  divorced;  reappeared 
on  the  stage  in  1867  for  the  first  time  with 
Henry  Irving;  and  in  1868  married  E.  A. 
Warden,  and  retired  from  the  stage  until  1874. 


In  1878  she  was  again  aasocUted  with  Irving, 
with  whom  she  continued  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  his  subsequent  career.  Her 
personations  include:  Viola  in  Twelfth  Night; 
Kuth  Meadows  in  Eugene  Aram;  Henrietta 
Maria  in  Charles  I.;  Marguerite  in  Faust;  Rosa- 
monde  in  Becket;  Lucv  Ashton  in  Ravennoood; 
Lady  Macbeth  in  Shakespeare's  tragedy  of 
Macbeth;  Madame  Sans-Gene  in  Sardou's  play: 
Clarice  in  Robespierre,  etc.  She  prooucea 
Ibsen's  The  Vikings  in  1903,  and  Shakeopearean 
plays  with  her  own  company  at  the  Imperial 
theater.  In  1905  she  played  at  Duke  of  York's 
theater  in  Barrie's  Alice-sit-by^the-fire,  and  cele- 
brated her  stage  jubilee  in  1906.  In  1907  she 
married  James  Carew,  actor,  her  former  husband 
having  died  in  1885. 

TertuUian  (<^-^t2^'-{ -an),  QuintusSeptlmiua  Florens. 
celebrated  father  of  the  Latin  church,  flourished 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  second  and  the  earUer 
part  of  the  third  century,  A.  D.  He  was  bom 
at  Carthage,  practiced  law  in  Rome,  and  later 
returned  to  his  birthplace,  where  he  became  a 
presbyter,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life.  When 
and  how  he  was  converted  to  Christianity  we 
are  not  informed;  but  he  was  well  versed  in 
Greek  and  Roman  literature,  and  was  remark- 
able for  his  impassioned  eloquence,  which  he 
used  with  great  power  in  his  Apology  for  th* 
Christian  Religion,  which  is  his  most  famous  work. 
Thirty-one  of  his  works  are  extant.  At  some 
period  of  his  life  he  embraced  the  views  of  the 
Montanists. 

Tesia  (tis'-l&),  Nikola,  American  electrical  inventor, 
was  bom  in  Smiljan,  Austria-Hungary,  1857. 
He  studied  engineering  in  Gratz,  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1884,  and  for  several  years  waa 
employed  at  Edison's  laboratory,  near  Orange, 
N.  J.  He  then  opened  a  laboratory  of  his  own. 
In  1888  he  completed  his  discovery  of  the  rotating 
magnetic  field  by  the  invention  of  the  rotarr 
field-motor,  the  multi-phase  system  of  whicn 
is  used  in  the  50,000  horse  power  plant  built  to 
transmit  the  water  power  of  Niagara  Flails  to 
Buffalo  and  other  cities.  He  invented  many 
methods  and  appliances  for  the  use  of  electricity, 
among  them  the  production  of  efficient  light 
from  lamps  without  filaments,  and  the  production 
and  transmission  of  power  and  intelligence  with- 
out wires.  In  1898  ne  announced  the  discovery 
of,  and  in  1900  patented,  a  method  of  trana- 
mitting  electrical  energy  without  wires.  la 
1901  he  discovered  that  the  capacity  of  the 
electrical  conductor  is  variable.  Since  1903  he 
has  been  engaged  in  developing  his  system  of 
world  telej^raphy  and  telephony. 

Tetrazclni  (tSf-tra-ze'-ne)  Slfcnora  T..ulsa,  one  of  the 
greatest  successes  in  operatic  history,  was  bom 
in  Florence.  She  was  educated  under  Signor 
Cecherini.  First  appeared  in  Florence  in  189S 
and  at  Covent  Garden  in  1907.  Has  toured  in 
South  America,  Russia,  and  other  countries.  She 
is  recognized  as  the  true  successor  of  Patti,  and 
some  r6les  that  made  Patti  famous  have  never 
been  successfully  sung  since  her  retirement  until 
Tetrazzini  appeared  upon  the  scene.  She  posseaaea 
a  wonderful  voice,  remarkable  for  ita  purity  and 
range. 

Thackeray,  William  Makepeace,  eminent  English 
novelist,  was  bom  at  Calcutta,  India,  1811. 
Brought  to  England,  he  was  educated  first  at 
the  Charterhouse,  and  afterward  at  the  univer- 
sity of  Cambridge.  His  first  profession  was  that 
of  artist;  but  he  soon  abandoned  art  for 
literature,  his  earliest  work  to  attract  attention 
being  some  contributions  to  Preiser's  Magazine. 
which  appeared  under  the  pseudonym  of  Michael 
Angelo  Titmarsh.  He  afterward  contributed 
largely  to  Punch  and  published  several  volumes 
under  his  adopted  name,  all  of  which  exhibited 


1006 


MASTERS   OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


power,  especially  of  wit  and  satire.  In  1846^8 
Vanity  Fair  appeared,  and  Thackeray's  reputation 
was  at  once  established.  In  1848-50  Pendennia 
appeared;  in  1852,  The  History  of  Henry  Esmond; 
in  1855,  The  Newcomes;  and  somewhat  later, 
The  Virginians,  Lovd  the  Widower,  and  Philip. 
In  1851  he  delivered  and  published  his  Lectures 
on  the  English  Humourists  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century,  and  in  1856  his  Lectures  on  the  Four 
Georges.  In  1860  he  established  the  CornhiU 
Magazine,  to  which  he  contributed  his  Round- 
about Papers.  His  last  novel,  Denis  Duval, 
was  left  incomplete,  the  hand  of  the  writer 
being  suddenly  arrested  by  his  death  in  1863. 
Besides  the  works  above  mentioned,  he  wrote  a 
number  of  smaller  works,  all  marked  by  the 
same  characteristic  features  as  his  larger  produc- 
tions. 

Thales  (tha'-lez),  early  Greek  philosopher,  founder 
of  the  Ionic  or  physical  school  of  philosophy, 
and  one  of  the  seven  wise  men,  was  a  native  of 
Miletus,  in  Asia  Minor,  and  flourished  during 
the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century  B.  C.  He  is 
regarded  by  some  as  the  first  Greek  that  specu- 
lated on  the  constitution  of  the  universe.  He 
regarded  water  as  the  principle  of  things;  pre- 
dicted an  eclipse  of  the  sun;  and  made  various 
discoveries  in  geometry  and  astronomy. 

Themistocles  (the-mls'-td-klez),  Athenian  statesman, 
was  born  at  Athens,  about  514  B.  C,  fought  at 
Marathon,  and  devoted  the  succeeding  years  to 
the  upbuilding  of  the  Athenian  navy.  In  481 
B.  C.  he  was  chief  archon,  and  added  greatly  to 
the  naval  power  of  Athens.  On  the  invasion  of 
Greece  by  Xerxes,  he  was  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  Athenian  fleet,  and  to  his  energy, 
foresight,  and  courage  the  Greeks  mainly  owed 
their  salvation  from  the  Persian  dominion.  He 
later  rebuilt  the  walls  and  fortified  the  Pirseus. 
But  he  was  wily,  ambitious,  and  self-seeking; 
and,  being  accused  of  peculation  in  471  B.  C, 
he  was  ostracized,  and  retired  for  a  time  to  Argos. 
Being  still  in  danger  of  arrest  on  a  charge  of 
treason  in  concert  with  Pausanias,  he  flwi  to 
Asia,  where  he  was  received  with  great  favor  by 
Artaxerxes,  who  had  just  succeeded  his  father 
Xerxes  on  the  Persian  throne.  He  lived  securely 
in  Magnesia  until  his  death,  which,  according  to 
some  writers,  was  caused  by  poison  administered 
by  himself.     Died  about  449  B.  C. 

Theocritus  (the-dk'-rl-tiis),  celebrated  Greek  poet, 
flourished  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
285  to  247  B.  C.  He  was  a  native  of  Syracuse, 
but  very  little  is  known  of  his  personal  history, 
except  that  he  became  famous  as  a  poet  during 
his  residence  at  Alexandria,  where  a  great  part 
of  his  life  appears  to  have  been  spent,  and  that 
he  afterward  returned  to  Syracuse,  and  lived 
there  imder  the  reign  of  Hiero  II.  The  compo- 
sitions of  Theocritus  bear  the  name  of  Idyls,  of 
which  there  are  thirty  extant,  though  the  gen- 
uineness of  some  of  them  is  doubtful.  Twenty- 
two  epigrams,  and  a  poem  called  Berenice,  are 
also  ascribed  to  him. 

Theodorlc  {the-dd'-d-rik)  the  Great,  founder  of  the 
monarchy  of  the  Ostro-  or  East  Goths,  son  of 
Iheodemir,  the  Ostrogothic  king  of  Pannonia 
was  born  about  454.  He  was  for  ten  years 
during  his  youth  a  hostage  at  the  Byzantine 
court  at  Constantinople;  succeeded  his  father  in 
^J'^'^^^^^edmtely  began  to  push  the  fortunes 
ot  the  Ostrogoths.  Various  territories  fell  into 
his  bands,  and  alarm  arose  at  the  imperial  court 
in  493  he  advanced  upon  Italv,  overthrew 
Udoacer,  and  after  his  murder  became  sole  ruler 
He  was  now  the  most  powerful  of  the  Gothic 
kings,  with  an  empire  embracing  Italv,  Sicilv. 
and  Dalmatia,  besides  German  possessions.  M 
a  ruler  he  proved  himself  as  wise  as  he  was 
strong;    became  in  after  years  one  of  the  great 


heroes  of  German  legend,  and  figures  in  the 
Nihelungenlied.  Died,  526. 
Thiers  (tydr),  Liouls  Adolphe,  French  statesman 
and  historian,  and  president  of  the  French 
republic,  was  Ixirn  in  Marseilles,  1797.  He  waa 
educated  for  the  law,  but,  discarding  it  at  an 
early  age,  entered  the  field  of  journalism  as  a 
contributor  to  the  Conatitutionnel.  Between  the 
years  1823-27  appeared  hia  History  of  the  French 
Revolution,  a  work  which  stamped  him  an  his- 
torian of  the  first  order.  He  largely  contributed 
to  the  revolution  of  1830.  In  1832  he  was  made 
minister  of  the  interior;  in  1834,  was  admitted 
to  the  French  academy;  and  from  February  to 
August,  1836,  filled  the  post  of  president  of  the 
council  and  minister  for  foreign  affairs.  In  1840 
he  was  recalled  to  power,  but  being  unable  to 

Erevail    ufwn    Louis    Pliilippe    to    support    his 
astern  policy,  he  resigned  office  in  October  and 
employed  his  leisure  in  writing  his  History  of  the 

4I^Constuate  and  Empire,  one  of  the  greatest  his- 
torical works  of  the  age.  He  entered  the  cor[)S 
legislatif  in  1803  and  in  1870  resolutely  opposc-d 
the  impending  war  against  Germany.  In  1871 
be  succeeded  in  efTecting  peace  on  tlie  best  terma 
possible  under  the  circumstances,  and,  in  the 
same  year,  was  elected  president  of  the  new 
republic.  In  1873,  after  an  adverse  vote  of  the 
legislative  body,  he  resigned,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Marshal  MacMahon.     Died,  1877. 

Thomas,  Ambroise,  French  composer,  was  bom  at 
Metz,  1811.  He  studied  at  the  Paris  conserva- 
toire, 1828-32.  Jlis  first  success  in  opera  was 
with  La  Double  Echdle,  in  1837,  followed  by 
Mina,  Betty,  Le  Caid,  Le  Songe  d'une  Suit  d'Ete, 
Le  Camawd  de  Venise,  Mignon,  Hamlti,  and 
Frangoise  de  Rimini,  the  latter  in  1882.  He 
also  wrote  many  cantatas,  part-songs,  and 
choral  pieces.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
French  institute  in  1851.  professor  of  composi- 
tion, 18.52,  director  of  the  conservatoire,  1871, 
and  receive*!  the  grand  cross  of  the  legion  of 
honor,  1880.      Died,  1896. 

Thomas,  Aueustus,  American  playwright,  wa» 
born  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  1859.  He  was  educated 
in  the  public  schools  there;  studied  law  two 
years;  was  a  page  in  the  4l8t  congress;  spent 
six  years  in  practical  railroading;  was  a  special 
writer  and  illustrator  on  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City 
and  New  York  newspapers,  and  editor  and  pro- 
prietor of  the  Kaneaa  City  Mirror.  Author: 
Alabama;  In  Mizzoura;  Arizona;  The  Burglar; 
Colorado  Man  of  the  World;  After  Thoughts; 
The  Meddler;  The  Man  Upstairs;  Oliver  Gold- 
smith; On  the  Quiet;  A  Proper  Impropriety; 
That  Overcoat;  The  Capitol;  New  Blood;  The 
Hooaier  Doctor;  The  Earl  of  Pau^ucket;  The 
Other  Girl;  Mrs.  Leffingu^U's  Boots;  The  Educa- 
tion of  Mr.  Pipp;  Jim  De  Lancey;  The  Embassy 
Ball;    The  Witching  Hour,  etc. 

Thomas  k  Becket.     See  Becket,  Thomas  H. 

Thomas,  George  Henry,  American  general,  waa 
born  in  Southampton  county,  Va.,  1816.  He 
was  graduated  at  West  Point,  served  in  the 
Mexican  and  Seminole  wars,  and  for  six  years 
was  in  service  in  California  and  Texas."  He 
began  his  career  in  the  civil  war  as  cavalry 
colonel  in  the  Shenandoah  valley.  In  1861  he 
was  appointed  brigadier-general  of  volunteers, 
and  in  January,  1862,  won  the  battle  of  Mill 
Springs.  Major-general  in  command  of  the 
center  of  Rosecrans'  army,  he  saved  the  battle 
of  Stone  river;  and  at  Chickamauga  again  ren- 
dered the  victory  a  barren  one  for  the  confed- 
erates. In  October,  1863,  he  was  given  the 
command  of  the  army  of  the  Cumberland,  and 
in  November  captured  Mission  Ridge.  In  1864 
he  commanded  the  center  in  Sherman's  advance 
on  Atlanta,  and  then  was  sent  to  oppose  Hood 
in  Tennessee;    in  December  he  won  the  battle  of 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


1007 


Nashville,  and  received  the  thanks  of  congress. 
He  afterward  commanded  the  military  division 
of  the  Pacific,  and  declined  the  ranlc  of  heutenant- 
general  which  was  offered  him,  saying  he  had 
done  nothing  since  the  war  to  merit  promotion. 
He  died  at  San  Francisco,  1870. 

Thomas  k  Kempls.     See  Kempis,  Thomas  &. 

Thomas,  M.  Carey,  American  educator,  was  bom 
in  Baltimore,  Md.,  1857,  daughter  of  Dr.  James 
Carey  Thomas.  She  was  graduated  at  Cornell, 
1877 ;  studied  in  Johns  Hopkins,  1877-78,  and  at 
Leipzig,  1879-83;  Ph.  D.,  Ziirich,  1883;  LL.  D., 
Western  Pennsylvania,  1896.  Professor  of  Eng- 
lish since  1885,  dean,  1885-95,  and  since  1895 
president  of  Bryn  Mawr  college.  First  woman 
trustee,  Cornell  university,  189^99;  trustee  Bryn 
Mawr  college  since  1903.  Author  and  editor :  .Sir 
Gawayne  and  the  Green  Knight;  Education  of 
Women;  Shovld  the  Higher  Education  of  Women 
Differ  from  That  of  Ment  The  College,  etc.,  and 
various  educational  addresses.  ^ 

Thompson,  Ernest  Seton.  See  Seton,  EmeR 
Thompson. 

Thompson,  Launt,  American  sculptor,  was  bom  in 
Ireland,  1833,  but  was  brought  up  in  Albany, 
N.  Y.  He  was  nine  years  in  Palmer's  studio  m 
Albany,  where  his  bust  of  "Little  Nell"  made 
him  well  known.  A  statue  of  General  Winfield 
Scott,  at  the  soldiers'  home  near  Washington,  a 
soldiers'  monument  at  Pittsheld,  Mass.,  a  colossal 
statue  of  Napoleon,  and  a  statue  of  the  first 
president  of  Yale,  on  the  college  grounds,  are 
some  of  his  larger  works.     Died,  1894. 

Thompson,  Robert  Ellis,  American  educator,  presi- 
dent of  Central  high  school,  Philadelphia,  since 
1894,  was  born  near  Lurgan,  Ireland,  1844.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  university  of  Pennsylvania, 
1865;  S.  T.  D.,  1887;  Ph.  D.,  Hamilton  college, 
1870.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Re- 
formed presbytery  of  Philadelphia,  1867;  was 
professor  of  Latin  and  mathematics,  1868-71, 
social  science,  1871-81,  history  and  English 
literature,  1881-92,  university  of  Pennsylvania. 
Author:  Social  Science  and  National  Economy; 
Elements  of  Political  Economy;  Protection  to 
Home  Industry,  Harvard  lectures;  De  Civitate 
Dei:  The  Divine  Order  of  Human  Society,  Prince- 
ton Stone  lectures;  Political  Economy  for  High 
Schools;  The  Hand  of  God  in  American  History, 
etc. 

Thompson,  William  Oiley,  American  educator, 
was  bom  at  Cambridge,  Ohio,  1855.  He  was 
graduated  from  Muskingum  college,  1878,  West- 
ern theological  seminary,  Allegheny  City,  Pa., 
1882;  D.  D.,  1891,  Muskingum  college;  LL.  D., 
Western  university  of  Pennsylvania,  1897.  He 
was  ordained  to  the  Presbyterian  ministry,  1882; 
was  president  of  Miami  university,  1891^99,  and 
has  been  president  of  Ohio  state  university  since 
1899. 

Thomson,  Elihu,  American  electrician,  was  bom  in 
Manchester,  England,  1853.  He  was  graduated 
from  Central  high  school,  Philadelphia,  1870; 
Ph.  D.,  Tufts  college.  He  was  profes.sor  of 
chemistry  and  mechanics,  Philadelphia  Central 
high  school,  1870-80,  and  since  1880  electrician 
for  the  Thomson-Houston  and  General  electric 
companies,  which  manufacture  his  inventions, 
for  which  more  than  500  patents  have  been 
obtained.  He  is  the  inventor  of  electric  welding, 
which  bears  his  name,  and  many  other  impor- 
tant devices  in  electric  lighting,  power,  etc. 

Thomson.  James,  British  poet,  was  bom  in  Rox- 
burghshire, Scotland,  1700.  He  studied  six  years 
at  Edinburgh.  His  fame  rests  upon  his  poems. 
The  Seasons,  the  first  of  which,  WirUer,  appeared 
in  1726,  followed  by  Summer,  Spring,  and 
Autumn.  He  wrote  several  dramas,  including 
Agamemnon,  Edward  and  Eleonora,  and  TancrM 
and  Sigismunda.     The  Castle  of  Indolence,  next 


to  The  Seasont,  his  best  known  work,  wm  written 
in  1748.  The  sone,  "Rule  Britannia"  is  found 
in  a  masque,  Alfred,  written  by  Thomson  in  con- 
nection with  Mallet.     Died,  1748. 

Thomson,  Joseph  John,  English  pliysicist,  profeiBor 
of  experimental  physics  at  Cambridge  university. 
England,  since  1884;  professor  of  physics,  royal 
institution,  London,  since  1905;  was  bom  near 
Manchester,  1856.  He  was  graduated  at  Trinity 
college,  Cambridge,  1880.  Ills  work  haa  all  been 
of  a  very  profound  character,  and,  beside*  numer- 
ous contributions  to  periodical  literature,  includes 
the  followine:  Treatise  on  the  Motion  of  Vortex 
Rings;  Application  of  Dynamics  to  Physics  arul 
Chemistry;  Recent  Researches  in  Electricity  and 
Magnetism;  Conduction  of  Electricity  through 
Gases;  Electricity  and  .*'.  :t.  In  1899  be 
accomplished  the  impo:  -  .  achievement  of 
dividing  the  hydrogen  atom. 

Thomson,  Sir  William.   See  Kelvin,  Lord,  page  415. 

Thoreau  (tho'-ro,  tho-ro'),  Henry  David,  .\nifrican 
naturalist,  friend  of  Emerson,  and  a  member  of 
the  transcendental  school  of  New  England,  was 
bom  at  Concord,  Mass.,  1817.  He  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  college  in  1837,  and  became  a  sur- 
veyor; Uved  the  simplest  of  lives,  in  the  study  of 
nature,  and  in  writing.  Emerson  says  of  him: 
"He  was  bred  to  no  profession;  he  never  mar- 
ried; he  lived  alone;  he  never  went  to  church; 
he  never  voted;  he  refused  to  pay  a  tax  to  the 
state;  he  ate  no  flesh;  he  drsuik  no  wine;  he 
never  knew  the  use  of  tobacco;  and,  though  m 
naturaUst,  he  used  neither  trap  nor  gun."  This 
"poet  naturaUst"  built  with  his  own  hands  a 
small  cabin  on  the  banks  of  Walden  pond,  near 
Concord,  and  lived  there  alone  for  two  years. 
His  expenses  during  these  years  were  nine  cents 
a  day,  and  he  gave  an  account  of  his  exp>erience8 
in  perhaps  his  finest  book,  Walden,  published  in 
1854.  Others  were  Cape  Cod,  The  Afaine  Woods. 
and  A  Yankee  in  Cancuia.  No  one  else  haa  lived 
so  close  to  nature  or  written  of  it  so  well.  He 
became  acquainted  with  John  Brown  in  1859, 
and  devoted  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  the 
liberationist  cause.      Diet!  at  Concord,  1862. 

Thorpe.  Thomas  Edward,  Engli.sh  chemist,  director 
of  the  government  laboratories,  London,  was 
born  near  Manchester,  1845.  He  was  educated 
at  Owens  college,  Manchester,  and  at  the  univer- 
sities of  Heidelberg  and  Bonn ;  was  professor  of 
chemistry  in  the  Andersonian  institution,  1870, 
Yorkshire  college,  Leeds,  1874,  and  at  the  royal 
college  of  science,  London,  1885.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  society  of  chemical  industry,  1895: 
honorary  or  correspxjnding  member  of  the  royal 
society  of  Edinburgh,  literary'  and  philosophical 
societies  of  Glasgow,  Manchester,  Leeds,  Haarlem, 
Berlin,  etc.  Author:  Chemical  Problems;  Inor- 
ganic Chemistry;  QuarUitative  Analysis;  Qxudita- 
tive  Analysis;  A  Dictionary  of  Applied  Chemistry; 
Essays  in  Historical  Chemistry;  Humphrey 
Davy,  Poet  and  Philosopher;  Joseph  Priestley; 
and  numerous  memoirs  in  the  philosophical 
transactions  of  the  royal  society,  and  of  the 
chemical  society. 

Thorwaldsen  (tAr'-wdld-sin),  Albert  Bertet.  Danish 
sculptor,  was  bom  at  Copenhagen,  1770.  He 
stuched  at  the  academy  of  Copenhagen,  where 
he  gained  the  first  gold  medal  m  sculpture,  and 
was  sent  by  that  Ixxljr  to  Rome  in  1796.  His 
first  great  work  was  hjs  "Jason."  Except  for  a 
visit  to  Denmark  in  1819-20,  when  he  executed 
the  statues  of  "Christ  and  the  Twelve  Apostles" 
for  the  Frue  Kirke  at  Copx-nhagen,  he  remained 
in  Rome  imtil  1838.  After  that  date  he,  for  the 
most  part,  lived  in  Denmark.  His  masterpieces 
include  the  "Entry  of  Alexander  into  Babylon  "; 
"Cupid  and  Psyche"-  "St.  John  Preaching  in 
the  Wilderness";  "Procession  to  Golgotha"; 
the  statue  of  "Pnnce  Poniatowski";  the  "Dying 


1008 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Lion"  at  Lucerne,  and  busts  of  Byron  and  the 
Danish  poet,  (Ehlenschlager.     Died,  1844. 

Thucrdldes  (thu-M'-l-dez),  great  Greek  historian, 
was  bom  at  Athens,  about  471  B.  C.  He 
belonged  to  a  noble  Athenian  family,  and  was 
himself  a  person  of  great  influence  and  wealth. 
Failing  to  secure  the  objects  of  an  expedition 
which  he  commanded  during  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  h»  was  banished  from  Athens  in  423  B.  C, 
and  remained  in  exile  for  twenty  years,  being 
assassinated,  it  is  said,  at  Athens  soon  after  his 
return.  It  was  during  his  exile  that  he  wrote 
his  History  of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  which  is 
supposed  by  some  to  have  been  edited  by  Xeno- 
phon,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  fullness  and 
exactness  of  its  details,  for  its  philosophical 
spirit,  and  for  the  force  and  elegance  of  its  style. 
Among  the  Romans,  Sallust  is  believed  to  have 
taken  Thucydides  for  his  model.  He  died  about 
400B.  C. 

Thurman,  Allen  Granbery,  American  statesman, 
was  bom  at  Lynchburg,  Va.,  1813.  When  six 
years  old  his  family  moved  to  Ohio,  where  he 
became  a  lawyer  and  was  chosen  a  representa- 
tive in  the  29th  congress.  In  1851  he  was  made 
judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Ohio,  and  served 
as  chief-justice  from  1854  to  1856.  He  then 
served  as  United  States  senator,  1869-81,  and 
was  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  prominent  mem- 
bers of  that  body.  In  1888  he  was  a  candidate 
for  vice-president  on  the  democratic  ticket  with 
Cleveland.     Died,  1895. 

Thwing  {tvAng),  Charles  Franklin,  American 
educator,  author,  president  of  Western  Reserve 
university  since  1890,  was  born  at  New  Sharon, 
Me.,  1853.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard,  1876 , 
Andover  theological  seminary,  1879;  S.  T.  D., 
Chicago  theological  seminary,  1889;  LL.  D., 
Marietta,  1894,  Illinois  college,  1894,  Waynesburg 
college,  1901,  Washington  and  Jefferson,  1902. 
He  was  ordained  to  the  Congregational  min- 
istry, 1879;  was  pastor  of  North  Avenue  Con- 
gregational church,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1879-86, 
and  Plymouth  church,  Minneapolis,  1886-90. 
Author:  American  Colleges  —  Their  Students 
and  Work;  The  Reading  of  Books;  The 
Family,  with  Mrs.  Thwing;  The  Working 
Church;  Within  College  Walls;  The  CoUege 
Woman;  The  American  College  in  American 
lAfe;  The  Best  Life;  College  Administration; 
The  Youth's  Dream  of  Life;  God  in  His  World; 
If  I  Were  a  College  Student;  The  Choice  of  a 
CoUege;  A  Liberal  Education  and  a  Liberal 
Faith;  CoUege  Training  and  the  Busin,ess  Man; 
A  History  of  Higher  Education  in  America,  etc. 

Tlcknor,  George,  American  author,  was  bom  at 
Boston,  1791.  He  was  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
college  when  but  sixteen  years  old,  studied  at 
Gottingen  and  elsewhere  in  Europe,  1815-19,  and 
in  1819  became  professor  of  French  and  Spanish 
in  Harvard  college.  His  History  of  Spanish 
Literature  was  published  in  1849,  and  at  once 
took  high  rank,  and  was  translated  into  Spanish, 
German,  and  French.  His  Life  of  Prescott  is 
considered  one  of  the  finest  biographies  ever 
written.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Boston  pubhc  Ubrary.     Died,  1871. 

Tiffany,  Charles  Louis,  American  merchant,  was 
bom  at  Killingly,  Conn.,  1812.  In  1837,  in 
partnership  with  John  B.  Young,  on  a  borrowed 
capital  of  »1,000,  he  estabUshed  a  stationery  and 
fancy  goods  store  next  door  to  A.  T.  Stewart's 
establishment.  The  jewelry  part  of  the  business- 
grew  most  rapidly.  In  1847  Tiffany  began  the 
manufacture  of  gold  jewelry;  in  1850  made 
immense  purchases  of  diamonds  in  Europe 
ffrofl'^  ^^  'i"  the  United  States  at  tremendou^ 
P„  i«i  S  1^7"  became  Tiffany  and  Company 
m  1851,  and  later  established  branches  in  several 
European  centers.     Tiffany  adopted  the  sterUng 


silver  standard,  .925  fine,  which  has  since  become 
standard  throughout  the  country.     Died,  1902. 

Tiffany,  Louis  Comfort,  American  artist,  was  bom 
in  New  York,  1848.  He  studied  art  under 
George  Inness  and  Samuel  Coleman,  New  York, 
and  L6on  Bailly,  Paris,  and  has  devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  oriental  scenes  in  oil  and  water  colors. 
He  has  also  done  much  decorative  work  and  ia 
president  and  art  director  of  the  Tiffany  glass 
and  decorating  company;  president  of  the 
Tiffany  furnaces.  Corona,  L.  I.;  second  vice- 
president  and  trustee  of  Tiffany  and  Company. 
He  discovered  the  formulas  for  making  decora- 
tive glass  known  as  "Tiffany  Favrile  glass"; 
is  a  member  of  many  American  and  foreign  art 
societies. 

Tllden,  Samuel  Jones,  American  statesman,  waa 
born  at  New  Lebanon,  N.  Y.,  1814.  He  was 
educated  at  Yale  and  at  New  York  university, 
and  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1841.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  New  York  legislature,  1845,  and 

*  of  the  constitutional  convention,  1846.  By  1868 
he  had  become  leader  of  the  democrats  in  the 
state,  and  attacked  and  destroyed  the  "Tweed 
Ring."  In  1874  he  became  governor  of  New 
York;  in  1876  was  democratic  candidate  for  the 
presidency,  but  failed  to  be  seated  on  account  of 
alleged  irregularities  in  Louisiana.  He  won 
admiration  oy  his  temperate  utterances  and 
unselfish  attitude.  He  died  in  1886,  leaving  a 
great  part  of  his  large  fortune  to  found  a  free 
fibrary  in  New  York  city,  which  was  realized  in 
the  completion  of  the  splendid  new  Ubrary 
building  in  1909. 

Tillman,  Benjamin  Byan,  United  States  senator, 
farmer,  was  born  in  Edgefield  county,  S.  C, 
1847.  He  received  an  academic  education; 
joined  the  confederate  army,  1864,  but  was 
stricken  with  severe  illness  which  caused  the  loss 
of  his  left  eye  and  kept  him  an  invalid  for  two 
years,  so  that  he  saw  no  military  service.  He 
then  followed  farming  as  his  sole  pursuit  until 
1886,  when  he  became  prominent  in  an  agitation 
for  industrial  and  technical  education  and  other 
reforms.  He  was  elected  governor  of  South 
Carolina  in  1890  and  1892,  and  has  been  United 
States  senator  since  1895;  founded  Clemson 
agricultural  and  mechanical  college  at  Calhoun's 
old  home.  Fort  Hill,  and  also  Winthrop  normal  and 
industrial  college  at  Rock  Hill  —  the  former  for 
boys,  the  latter  for  girls,  two  of  the  largest  schools 
of  the  kind  in  the  South.  He  is  also  author  of 
the  dispensary  system  of  selling  liquor  under 
state  control ;  was  the  centraJ  figure  in  the  South 
CaroUna  constitutional  convention,  1895,  which 
instituted  educational  quaUfication  for  suffrage; 
was  one  of  the  leaders  in  securing  the  insertion 
of  advanced  positions  in  democratic  platform  of 
1896 ;  was  prominent  in  the  democratic  national 
conventions  of  1900  and  1904,  and  in  the  latter 
was  active  in  work  of  harmonizing  contending 
factions  of  democracy.  He  is  a  picturesque 
debater  of  acknowledged  ability,  and  a  well- 
known  lecturer. 

TUly,  Johann  Tserklaes,  Count  of,  Belgian  general, 
one  of  the  great  leaders  of  the  Thirty  Years'  war, 
was  bom  near  Gembleaux,  Belgium,  1559.  He 
was  designed  for  the  priesthocxi  and  educated 
by  Jesuits,  but  abandoned  the  church  for  the 
army.  He  was  trained  in  the  art  of  war  by 
Parma  and  Alva,  and  prov&d  himself  a  bom 
soldier.  He  reorganized  the  Bavarian  army, 
and,  devoted  to  the  Catholic  cause,  was  given 
command  of  the  Catholic  army  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  thirty  years'  war,  during  the  course  of 
which  he  won  many  notable  battles.  He  subse- 
quently cooperated  with  Wallenstein,  whom,  in 
1630,  he  succeeded  as  commander-in-chief  of  the 
imperial  forces.  In  1631  he  sacked  with  merci- 
less cruelty   the   town   of   Madgeburg,    a.  deed 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


ion 


which  Gustavus  AdolphiiB  was  swift  to  avenge 
by  crushing  the  Catholic  forces  in  two  successive 
battles  —  at  Breitenfeld  and  at  the  river  Lech  — 
in  the  latter  of  which  Tilly  was  mortally  wounded. 
1632. 

Tintoretto  {ten'-to^W-td),  Venetian  historical 
painter,  was  bom  in  1518.  His  real  name  was 
Jacopo  Robusti,  but  he  was  called  Tintoretto 
from  the  Venetian  word  meaning  dyer,  which 
was  his  father's  trade.  He  was  self-taught 
except  for  a  few  lessons  from  Titian.  He  took 
as  his  motto:  "The  design  of  Michaelangelo  and 
the  coloring  of  Titian."  He  rose  to  high  repu- 
tation, and  was  employed  by  the  Venetian 
government  to  paint  a  picture  of  the  victory 
gained  over  the  Turks  in  1571.  Most  of  his 
finest  compositions  are  at  Venice.  He  sketched 
so  fast  that  he  was  called  the  "madman." 
Among  his  famous  pictures  are:  " Belshazzar's 
Feast,"  a  fresco;  "The  Last  Supper";  "The 
Last  Judgment";  "The  Slaughter  of  the  Inno- 
cents"; and  "Paradise."  He  died  at  Venice, 
1594. 

Tlschendorf  (tlsh'-en-ddrf),  I«begott  Frledrlch 
Konstantin  von,  German  biblical  scholar,  was 
born  at  Lengenfeld  in  Saxony,  1815.  In  1839 
he  became  a  university  lecturer  at  Leipzig,  and 
in  1845  a  professor.  His  labors  in  search  of  the 
best  and  most  ancient  MSS.  of  the  new  testa- 
ment, especially  those  in  1844,  1853,  and  1859, 
resulted  in  the  discovery  of  the  fourth  century 
SinaUic  Codex  at  the  monastery  on  Mount  Sinai. 
His  journeys  thither  he  described  in  Reise  in 
den  Orient,  and  Atis  dem  Heiligen  Lande.  Among 
his  works  are  the  editions  of  the  Sinaitic  and 
many  other  MSS. ;  the  eighth  edition  of  the  new 
testament;  an  edition  of  the  septuagint;  and 
the  Monumenta  Sacra  Inedita  When  were  our 
Gospels  Writtenf  was  translated  in  1866.  He 
was  created  count  of  the  Russian  empire,  LL.  D. 
of  Cambridge,  D.  C.  L.  of  Oxford,  etc.  He  died 
in  Leipzig,  1874. 

Tissot  (^'-so'),  James  Joseph  Jacques,  French 
genre  painter,  was  bom  at  Nantes,  France,  1836. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts, 
in  Paris,  and  under  Lamothe  and  Flandrin.  He 
made  his  first  appearance  in  the  Paris  salon  in 
1859,  with  a  number  of  fine  water  colors,  etch- 
ings, etc.,  and  in  1861  painted  his  "Faust  and 
Marguerite,"  now  in  tne  Luxembourg,  Paris. 
His  other  notable  canvases  include:  "Return  of 
the  Infant  Prodigal";  "Confidence";  "A 
Widow";  "An  Interesting  Story";  "The 
Captain's  Daughter";  "On  the  Thames";  "A 
Young  Girl  in  a  Boat";  and  "A  Young  Woman 
in  Church."  He  then  turned  his  attention  to 
his  series  of  religious  subjects  illustrating  the 
Life  of  Christ,  for  which  a  firm  of  French  pub- 
lishers, it  is  said,  paid  him  over  a  million  francs. 
The  series,  365  in  number,  were  painted  each  on 
the  spot  traditionally  associated  with  its  subject, 
and  were  exhibited  in  London  and  Paris,  where 
they  won  high  fame  for  the  distinguished  artist. 
Died,  1902. 

Tltcbener  (tlch'-en-Sr),  Edward  Bradford,  American 
educator,  Sage  professor  of  psychology  at  Cornell 
since  1895,  was  born  at  Chichester,  England, 
1867.  He  was  graduated  at  Brasenose  college, 
Oxford,  1890;  Ph.  D.,  Leipzig,  1892;  D.  Sc, 
Oxford,  1906;  LL.  D.,  university  of  Wisconsin, 
1904.  He  was  extension  lecturer  in  biology, 
Oxford,  1892 ;  assistant  professor  of  psychology, 
Cornell,  1892-95;  American  editor  of  Mind; 
associate  editor  of  American  Journal  of  Psychol- 
ogy. Author:  AnOutlineof  Psychology;  A  Primer 
of  Psychology,  etc. ;  translator  of  several  psycho- 
logical works. 

Titian  (tish'-an).     See  page  141. 

Tlttmann,  Otto  Hilgard,  American  scientist,  was 
bom  at  Belleville,  111.,  1850.     He  was  educated 


in  the  public  schools  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  186»-M, 
and  entered  the  United  States  coast  and  cm>> 
detic  survey  in  1867.  He  wm  Msistant  astron- 
omer of  Transit  of  Venus  expedition  to  Japan, 
1874,  in  charse  of  various  sunreving  expediUon* 
to  the  east  and  the  west  coast,  United  8tiU«s;  eenfe 
to  Paris,  1890.  to  bring  to  the  United  State*  th* 
national  standard  metre  and  to  inspect  wei|dtta 
and  measures  offices  in  London,  Paris,  and  Ber> 
Un;  United  States  del(>^atc  to  Intemational 
geodetic  conference,  Ik;rhn,  1895.  Member  of 
permanent  commission  international  geodetie 
association,  1900;  assistant  in  charae  ol  United 
States  coast  and  geodetic  survey  omoe,  1806-Mf 
assistant  superintendent,  1890-1900,  and  super- 
intendent since  1900.  He  was  ap|K)inU>d  to 
represent  the  United  States  in  the  dcmarkation 
of  the  boundary  between  Alaska  and  Canada 
in  1899,  and  was  United  States  Alaska  boundary 
commissioner,  1904. 

TocqueylUe  (t6k'-vU)^  Alexis  Charles  Henri  CMrel 
de,  French  statesman  and  writer,  was  l)om  at 
Verneuil  of  an  old  Norman  line,  1806.  He 
studied  at  Metz  and  at  Paris,  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1825,  and  became  an  assistant  magis- 
trate at  Versailles.  Sent  in  1831  to  America  to 
report  on  the  penitentiary  system,  he  wrote 
Democracy  in  America,  which  made  a  great 
sensation  in  Europe.  He  became  successively  a 
member  of  the  academy  of  moral  sciences  and 
of  the  French  academy.  In  1835  he  visited 
England,  and  in  1839  was  elected  to  the  chamber 
of  deputies  by  the  Norman  farmers.  After  184^ 
he  was  the  most  formidable  opponent  of  the 
socialists  and  extreme  republicans,  and  as  stren- 
uously opposed  Louis  Napoleon.  He  became 
vice-president  of  the  assembly  in  1849^  and  from 
June  to  October  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 
After  the  coup  d'itat,  he  retired  to  his  Norman 
estate,  Tocqueville,  and  agricultural  pursuits, 
and  there  wrote  L'ancien  Rtgime  et  la  Revolution. 
He  also  wrote  a  work  on  the  reign  of  Louis  XV. 
Died,  1859. 

Togo  (to'-go).  Admiral  Count  Helbachlro,  Japanese 
aidmiral,  a-  samurai  of  the  Satsuma  clan,  was 
bom  at  Kagoshima,  1847.  He  was  sent  to 
England  for  training  on  her  majesty's  ship 
Worcester,  1873-74,  and  after  returning  to  his 
country  became  one  of  the  group  of  hard-working 
young  officers  who  successfully  achieved  the  tasa 
of  creating  a  new  navy.  He  first  came  into 
prominence  as  commander  of  the  Naniwa,  which 
sank  the  transport  Kowshing  and  forced  on  the 
war  with  China.  He  was  then  a  rear-admiral 
and  third  in  command  of  the  fleet.  After  the 
war  he  became  commander-in-chief  at  Maicuru, 
and  was  promoted  vice-admiral.  At  the  cloee 
of  January,  1904,  he  was  selected  to  command 
the  entire  Japanese  fleet  in  the  hostilities  against 
Russia.  After  Nogi's  (^ns  from  the  land  had 
completed  the  destruction  of  the  Port  Arthur 
fleet,  Togo  hid  his  ships  for  three  months,  pending 
the  arrival  of  the  Baltic  fleet.  Numerically  the 
Russians  were  his  superior,  notably  in  battle- 
ships; but  in  speed,  manoeuvring,  gun-fire,  and 
discipline,  the  advantage  was  all  with  the  Japa- 
nese. The  battle  of  the  sea  of  Japan  was  fought 
May  27-28,  1905,  when  of  the  Baltic  fleet  twenty 
ships  were  sunk,  six  captured,  two  demolished, 
ana  six  disarmed  and  interned.  Admirals 
Rojestvensky  and  Nebogatoff  were  captured 
with  some  8,000  men,  while  4,000  Russians  were 
killed.  The  Japanese  losses  were  three  torpedo 
boats  sunk,  116  men  killed,  and  638  wouiuled. 
Togo  was  made  count  in  1907. 

Tolstoi  (tdl-stoi').  Count  Lyoff  Nlkolayevltcb,  Rus- 
sian author  and  social  reformer,  was  bom  at 
Yasnaia  Poliana,  in  the  government  of  Toula, 
1828.  He  studied  at  the  university  of  Kaxan: 
entered  the  army  when  twenty-three,  and  served 


1010 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


in  the  Caucasus  and  at  Sebastopol.  He  first 
made  a  literary  reputation  by  liis  vivid  sketches 
from  Sebastopol.  Leaving  the  army  soon  after 
the  close  of  the  Crimean  war,  he  devoted  himself 
to  literature.  His  War  and  Peace,  a  tale  of  the 
invasion  of  Russia  by  Napoleon  in  1812,  ia 
regarded  as  his  masterpiece;  but  his  Anna 
Karenina,  which  appeared  in  1876,  is  better 
appreciated.  The  Cossacks  is  another  admirable 
work.  Translations  of  his  Kreutzer  Sonata 
appeared  in  1890.  He  wrote  much  on  edu- 
cation, published  many  short  tales  and  reminis- 
cences of  childhood  and  youth,  and  latterly 
devoted  himself  to  religious  teaching.  He  made 
"Resist  not  evil"  the  keystone  of  the  Christian 
faith,  and  insisted  that  the  literal  interpre- 
tation of  the  sermon  on  the  mount  is  the  only 
rule  of  the  Christian  life.  His  religious  views 
are  set  forth  in  Christ's  Christianity  and  My 
Religion.  In  1892  he  deposited  his  Memoirs  and 
Diaries  with  the  curator  of  the  Rumyanzoff 
museum  on  the  condition  that  they  should  not 
be  published  until  ten  years  after  his  death.  In 
November  he  legally  made  over  his  whole  fortune, 
including  his  real  and  personal  estate,  to  his  wife 
and  children.  During  1893  he  wrote  The  King- 
dom of  God  Within  Us,  an  important  work  on  the 
social  question;  and  in  1895  The  Four  Gospels 
Harmonized  and  Translated.  He  was  excommuni- 
cated by  the  holy  synod  in  1901,  and  the  same 
authority  enjoined  all  true  believers  to  refrain 
from  celebrating  his  eightieth  birthday  in  1908. 
In  November,  1910,  he  deserted  his  family  and 
retired  to  Astapova,  where  he  died  in  a  peasant's 
hut  on  November  20. 

Toombs,  Robert,  American  politician,  was  born  in 
Wilkes  county,  Ga.,  1810.  He  was  graduated 
at  Union  college,  studied  law  at  the  university 
of  Virginia,  became  a  member  of  congress  from 
Georgia  in  1844,  and  in  1850  contributed  to  the 
passing  of  the  compromise  measures.  From 
1853  to  1861  he  was  a  member  of  the  United 
States  senate,  a  Southern  extremist  and  leading 
disunionist.  In  1861  he  became  secretary  of 
state  under  the  confederate  government,  but 
resigned  to  accept  the  commission  of  brigadier- 
general  in  the  confederate  army.  He  was  present 
at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  was  at  Antietam 
in  1862,  and  in  1864  commanded  the  militia  of 
Georgia.  After  the  war  he  lived  abroad  until 
1867,  denounced  strongly  the  reconstruction 
measures  of  congress,  and  on  his  return  to  the 
South  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
the  United  States  government.     He  died  in  1885 

Torricelll  {t6r'-re-chja74e),  E vangellsta,  distinguished 
Itahan  physicist  and  mathematician,  was  bom 
probably  at  Piancaldoli,  in  the  Romagna,  1608 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Galileo  at  the  university  of 
Florence,  and  succeeded  him  as  professor  of 
natural  philosophy  and  mathematics  in  1642  in 
the  same  mstitution.  He  is  celebrated  as  the 
mventor  of  the  barometer,  and  for  his  improve- 
ments in  lenses  for  telescopes.  He  was  Ukewise 
tbe  tirst  to  make  microscopes  with  globules  of 
glass  formed  by  the  blow-pipe.     He  died,  1647 

Torstensson  (tdr'-sten-sdn),  Lennard,  count  of 
Urtala,  Swedish  general,  was  bom  at  the  castle 
of  rorstena,  Sweden,  1603.  He  accompanied 
Adolphus  to  Germany  in  1630,  and  in  1641  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Swedish  army 
IfrivJ^T''^-  He  invaded  Silesia,  and,  when 
nrfr^i'fu^  ^y  *h«  imperiaUsts,  turned  and 
he  sw^nt  tK^'n*  Breitenfeld.  The  next  winter 
drovl  ?L  r  ^.^^^  "l**  ?^  Holstein,  and  then 
AdTAl  ^  Austnans  back  into  Bohemia.  In 
Iht  f  u  ^4^^'i'^ed  to  the  walls  of  Vienna,  but  in 
the  following  year  was  compelled  by  illness  to 
return  to  Sweden. ,  He  died  in  1651.  ^ 

lv^„*]^Jt"l"^^p"^^^'  °'  Todleben,  Fran.  Eduard 
IvanoTltch,  Russian  general  and  military  engi- 


neer, was  bom  at  Mltau  in  Courland,  1818,  of 
German  descent.  He  served  as  lieutenant  of 
engineers  in  the  Caucasus,  and  was  with  the 
Russian  army  in  the  Danubian  principalities  in 
1853.  Until  he  was  severely  wounded  in  1855, 
he  conducted  with  skill  and  energy  the  defense 
of  Sebastopol,  and  thereafter  completed  the 
fortification  of  Nikolaieff  and  Cronstaut.  During 
the  Turkish  war  of  1877-78  he  was  called  to 
besiege  Plevna,  which,  after  a  brilliant  defense, 
he  took.  He  died  at  Bad  Soden  near  Frankfort 
in  1884,  and  was  buried  at  Sebastopol.  He 
wrote  an  account  of  the  defense  of  Sebastopol. 

TouTgAe  (M&r-z/id'),  Albion  Wlnegar,  American 
author,  was  bom  at  Williamsfield,  Ohio,  1838. 
He  studied  at  the  university  of  Rochester,  N.  Y. ; 
enlisted  as  a  private  in  the  27th  New  York 
volunteers :  was  wounded  at  Bull  Run  and  again 
at  Perryville;  and  was  held  a  prisoner  for  four 
months.  He  moved  to  North  Carolina,  where 
he  was  prominent  in  the  reconstruction  of  the 
state,  drawing  up  the  constitution,  and  aiding  in 
the  revision  of  the  laws.  For  some  years  prior 
to  his  death  in  1905  he  was  United  States  consul 
at  Bordeaux,  France,  and  Halifax.  Canada.  His 
writings,  besides  legal  works,  include:  Toinette; 
Figs  and  ThisUea;  A  Fool'a  Errand;  and  Brick* 
vnihmU  Straw. 

TouBsaint  L*OuTerture  (Wa'-sdN'  lOZ-vir^-tiir'), 
Francois  Dominique,  Haitian  ^neral,  was  bom 
in  1743,  son  of  African  slaves,  in  Santo  Domingo. 
In  1796  he  was  appointed  by  the  F'rench  direc- 
tory chief  of  the  army  of  Santo  Domingo,  and 
afterward  established  his  authority  throughout 
the  island,  which  he  ruled  with  justice  and  vigor. 
When  Bonaparte  sought  to  restore  slavery  in 
Santo  Domingo  in  1801,  Toussaint  resisted,  but 
was  forced  to  surrender,  and  was  sent  to  France, 
where  he  died  in  prison  in  1803. 

Tower,  Chariemagne,  American  capitalist  and 
diplomat,  was  Ixtm  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1848. 
He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1872;  LL.  D., 
Lafayette,  university  of  Chicago,  university  of 
Glasgow.  After  graduation  at  Harvard  be 
studied  history,  foreign  languages  and  literature 
in  Europe,  1872-76 ;  studied  law  at  Philadelphia, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1878.  He  lived 
in  Duluth,  Minn.,  1882-87;  was  president  of 
Duluth  and  Iron  Range  railroad  and  managing 
director  of  Minneapolis  iron  company;  returned 
to  Philadelphia,  1887,  where  he  nas  large  inter- 
ests. He  was  United  States  minister  to  Austria- 
Hungary,  1897-99;  ambassador  to  Russia,  1899- 
1902,  and  ambassador  to  Germany,  1902-08. 
Author:  The  Marquis  de  La  Fayette  in  the 
American  Revolution. 

Toy,  Crawford  Howell,  American  educator,  biblical 
scholar,  was  bom  in  Norfolk,  Va.,  1836.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  university  of  Virginia, 
1856;  studied  at  the  university  of  Berlin,  1866- 
68;  A.  M.,  LL.  D.  He  was  professor  of  Hebrew 
in  the  Southern  Baptist  theological  seminarv, 
Greenville,  S.  C,  and  Louisville,  Ky.,  1869-79; 
Hancock  professor  of  Hebrew  and  other  oriental 
languages  at  Harvard,  1880-1909,  professor 
emeritus  since  1909;  was  Dexter  lecturer  on 
biblical  Uterature  until  1903.  Author:  The  Religion 
of  Israel;  Quotations  in  the  New  Testament;  Juda- 
ism and  Christianity;  Hebrew  Text  and  English 
Translation  of  Ezekiel;  Commentary  on  Pro- 
verbs, etc. 

Trajan  (tra'-jan),  Marcus  Ulplns  Crinitus,  Roman 
emperor,  sumamed  Optimus,  was  bom  at  Italica, 
in  Spain,  about  52  A.  D.  After  having  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  the  head  of  the  legions  in 
lower  Germany,  he  was,  at  the  age  of  forty-two, 
adopted  by  Nerva.  On  the  death  of  that  mon- 
arch, 98  A.  D.,  Trajan  was  invested  with  the 
imperial  purple.  The  adoption  of  Nerva  and 
the  choice  of    the  senate  were  justified  by  the 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


lOtl 


conduct  of  the  emperor.  In  his  civil  capacity, 
he  ruled  for  the  welfare  of  his  people;  in  his 
military  character,  he  sustained  the  glory  of 
Rome,  by  defeating  the  Dacians,  Parthmns, 
Arabians,  Armenians,  and  Persians.  The  column 
which  bears  his  name  was  raised  in  the  Roman 
capital  to  commemorate  his  victories.  He  died 
117  A.  D. 

Tree,  Herbert  Beerbohm,  English  actor  and  man- 
ager, son  of  a  grain  merchant  named  Beerbohm, 
was  born  in  London,  1853.  Shortly  after  enter- 
ing his  father's  office,  in  1870,  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  an  amateur  dramatic  club,  and  joined  the 
profession  in  1877.  His  first  success  was  aa  the 
timid  curate  in  The  Private  Secretary,  and  imme- 
diately after  he  played  the  grim  spy  Macari  in 
Called  Back.  He  managed  the  Comedy  theater 
in  1887,  and  produced  The  Red  Lamp;  and  in 
the  autumn  of  the  same  year  assumed  charge  of 
the  Haymarket  theater.  In  1897  he  opened  his 
new  theater,  His  Majesty's,  in  the  Haymarket. 
Here  he  has  produced  the  greatest  of  his  suc- 
cesses: Julius  Ccesar;  King  John;  A  Midsum- 
mer Night's  Dream;  Herod;  Twelfth  Night;  The 
Merry  Wives  of  Windsor;  Ulysses;  The  Eternal 
City;  King  Richard  II.;  The  Darling  of  the  Gods; 
The  Tempest;  Much  Ado  AboiU  Nothing;  Busi- 
ness is  Business;  Oliver  Twist;  Nero;  Colond 
Newcame,  etc.  In  1905  he  inaugurated  a 
Shakespeare  festival,  which  is  now  one  of  the 
annual  arrangements  of  the  theater.  During 
the  Shakespeare  celebrations  in  1906,  he  revived 
Hamlet,  Julius  Caesar,  Twelfth  Night,  Much  Ado 
About  Nothing,  Henry  IV.,  and  The  Tempest. 
In  1907  he  produced  several  of  Shakespeare's 
plays  in  Berlin,  and  was  received  by  the  em- 
peror. His  wife,  an  admirable  Greek  scholar, 
formerly  connected  with  Queen's  college,  is  a 
very  refined  actress. 

Trench,  Richard  Chenevlx,  British  prelate  and 
writer,  was  bom  at  Dublin,  1807.  He  was 
graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  1829. 
After  a  vovage  to  Gibraltar  he  became  curate 
at  Hadleigh,  incumbent  of  Curdridge,  and  in 
1841  curate  to  Samuel  Wilberforce,  afterward 
bishop  of  Winchester.  During  1835—46  he  pub- 
lished six  volumes  of  poetry,  reissued  in  1865. 
In  1845  he  became  rector  of  Itchenstoke;  in 
1847  professor  of  theologv  in  King's  college, 
London;  in  1856  dean  of  Westminster;  and  in 
1863  archbishop  of  Dublin,  an  office  which  he 
resigned  in  1884.  His  principal  works  are: 
Notes  on  the  Parables;  Notes  on  the  Miracles; 
Hulsean  Lectures;  Sacred  Latin  Poetry;  The 
Study  of  Words;  Lessons  in  Proverbs;  New 
Testament  Synonyms;  English  Past  and  Present; 
Life  and  Genius  of  Calderon;  Select  Glossary  of 
English  Words;  Studies  on  the  Gospels;  and 
Lectures  on  Mediaeval  Church  History.  He  died 
in  1886,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  abbey. 

Trent,  William  Peterfleld,  American  educator  and 
critic,  was  born  at  Richmond,  Va.,  1862.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  university  of  Virginia,  A. 
M.,  1884;  LL*.  D.,  Wake  Forest  college,  1899;  D. 
C.  L.,  university  of  the  South,  1905.  He  was 
professor  of  English,  1888-1900,  and  dean  of  the 
academic  department,  1894-1900,  university  of 
the  South.  Editor  of  the  Sewanee  Review,  1892- 
1900.  Author :  English  Culture  in  Virginia;  Life 
of  William  Gilmore  Simms;  Southern  Statesmen  of 
the  Old  Regime;  Robert  E.  Lee;  Verses;  John  Mil- 
ton, a  Short  Study  of  His  Life  and  Works;  Author- 
ity of  Criticism;  War  and  Civilization;  The  Prog- 
ress  of  the  United  States  in  the  Century;  A  History 
of  American  Literature,  1607-1865;  History  of  the 
United  States  for  Schools;  A  Brief  History  of 
American  Literature;  Greatness  in  Literature,  ana 
Other  Papers;  Daniel  Defoe,  etc. 

Tribonlan  (fri-fto'-nl-an),  celebrated  Byzantine 
jurisconsxilt,  was  bom  at  Sida,   in  Pampbylla, 


about  the  beginning  of  the  nixth  century.  H« 
gaine<l  a  high  reputation  at  the  bar,  and  roML 
through  a  succeasion  of  state  offices,  to  thoMOC 
prtetorian  prefect  and  conaui.  Juatinian  intrusted 
to  him  the  superintendence  of  bia  new  oodo  of 
laws.  This  task  waa  begun  in  530  and  oom- 
plcted  in  534.     Died,  545. 

Trollope,  Anthony,  English  novelist,  waa  bom  tn 
London,  1815.  He  waa  educated  at  Winchester 
Bchool,  and  subsequently  at  Harrow,  and  for 
many  years  held  a  position  in  the  London  post- 
office.  He  produced  a  long  aeries  of  novela, 
among  which  are:  BarcheMer  Towers;  Doctor 
Thorne;  The  Bertrams;  The  Claveringa;  CaatU 
Richmond;  and  The  Golden  Lion  of  Granptrt. 
Besides  these  he  published  several  volumes  of 
travel  about  the  West  Indies  and  the  Spanish 
Main,  on  North  America,  on  Australia,  and  on 
South  Africa.  He  also  wrote  the  Life  of  Cicero, 
one  of  Caesar,  and  sketches  of  Thackeray.  He 
died  in  1882. 

Tromp,  Martin  Harpertioon,  Dutch  admiral,  was 
born  at  Briel,  1597.  He  entered  the  navy  in 
1624,  and  as  lieutenant-admiral  defeated  a 
superior  Spanish  fleet  off  Gravelines  in  1639. 
The  same  year  he  defeated  another  fleet  off  tlie 
Downs,  and  captured  thirteen  richly  laden 
galleons.  In  1652  he  was  worsted  by  an  English 
fleet  under  Blake.  In  November  he  again 
encountered  Blake  in  the  strait  of  Dover,  this 
time  successfully,  but  in  February,  1653,  Blake, 
with  Monk  and  Deane,  defeated  Tromp  off 
Portland,  after  an  obstinate  three  days'  contest. 
In  June  another  terrific  battle  between  Tromp 
and  Deane  took  place  off  the  North  Forelano, 
the  Dutch  being  defeated.  In  the  final  battle 
with  Monk,  July  31,  1653,  off  the  coast  of  Hol- 
land, the  Dutch  lost  thirty  men-of-war,  but  their 
greatest  loss  was  the  heroic  admiral,  the  victor 
in  thirtv-three  sea-fights,  shot  through  the 
heart,     fie  was  buried  at  Delft. 

Troubetzkoy  (jtr<Xhbits'-koi),  Princess.  See  RItcs, 
Amelia. 

Trowbridge,  John  Townsend,  American  novelist, 
poet,  and  editor,  was  born  at  Ogden,  N.  Y., 
1827.  Early  in  life  he  lived  on  a  farm,  and  in 
1847  went  to  New  York  and  began  to  write  for 
the  press.  He  removed  to  Boston  and  there 
contributed  to  magazines  and  journals  and  took 
actively  to  authorship.  His  chief  works  are: 
Neighbor  Jackvoood;  Cudjo'a  Cave;  Famell't 
FoUv;  Neighbors'  Wive*;  The  South  and  lU 
Battlefields;  Three  Scouts;  Jack  Haxard  series; 
The  Silver  Medal  series;  The  Drummer  Boy; 
The  Tide  Mill  series;  the  Toby  Trafford  aeries; 
and  Start  in  Life  series.  He  has  also  published, 
besides  his  popular  stories,  some  volumes  of 
verse,  notably.  The  Vagabonds,  and  Other  Poema; 
The  Book  of  Geld,  and  Other  Poema;  The  Emi- 
grants Story,  and  Other  Poems. 

Trumbull,  John,  American  painter,  was  bom  at 
Lebanon,  Conn.,  1756.  He  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  college,  and  studied  art  at  Boston.  He 
served  in  the  army  during  the  revolutionary  war 
as  adjutant  of  the  first  Connecticut  regiment, 
aid-de-camp  to  Washington,  major,  and  colonel, 
resigning  in  1777.  While  studying  painting  in 
London,  in  1780,  he  was  imprisoned  for  eight 
months  during  the  excitement  produced  by  the 
execution  of  Andr^.  His  first  American  histori- 
cal pictures  were  "Battle  of  Bunker  Hill,"  and 
the  "Death  of  Montgomery."  He  painted  por- 
traits of  Washington  and  other  revolutionary 
characters.  In  1817  he  was  employed  by  con- 
gress to  paint  four  pictures  for  the  rotunda  of 
the  capitol,  and  chose  for  bis  subjects,  "The 
Signing  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence," 
"Surrender  of  Burgoyne,"  "Surrender  of  Com- 
wallis,"  and  "Resignation  of  Washington."  He 
died  at  New  York,  1843. 


1012 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Tschalkowsky  (chl-kd/'-ski),  Petr  lUch,  the 
greatest  musical  composer  Russia  has  thus  far 
produced,  was  bom  in  the  Ural  mining  region, 
1840.  He  studied  jurisprudence  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, in  1859  secured  a  position  under  the 
ministry  of  justice,  and  then  studied  at  the 
conservatory  under  Rubinstein.  In  1866  he 
became  teacher  of  harmony  at  the  Moscow 
conservatory.  He  visited  America  in  1891,  and 
died  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1893.  His  best  work 
is  found  in  his  Man/red,  Romio  et  Jvliette,  The 
Tempest,  Francesco  da  Rimini,  and  his  remark- 
able symphonies.  He  also  wrote  over  a  hundred 
songs,  some  of  which  are  masterpieces, 

Tupper,  Sir  Charles,  Canadian  statesman,  was  bom 
in  Amherst,  Nova  Scotia,  1821.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Edinburgh  university;  practiced 
his  profession  in  his  native  town;  in  1855  was 
made  a  member  of  the  provincial  legislature, 
and  was  prime  minister  of  Nova  Scotia,  1864- 
67.  He  warmly  advocated  the  formation  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada;  became  a  member  of  Sir 
John  A.  Macdonald's  cabinet  in  1870;  was 
minister  of  public  works  in  1878;  and  1879-84, 
minister  of'  railways  and  canals.  While  filling 
the  latter  oflBce  he  promoted  the  construction  of 
the  Canadian  Pacific  railway.  In  1884  he  was 
appointed  high  commissioner  for  Canada  in 
London.  He  was  one  of  the  negotiators  of  the 
fisheries  treaty  with  the  United  States  in  1887- 
88,  and  was  created  a  baronet  in  the  latter  year. 
In  1895  he  represented  Canada  at  the  inter- 
national railway  conference  in  London.  In  1896 
he  was  prime  minister  of  Canada. 

Turenne  (tu'-r&n'),  Henri  de  la  Tour  d'Auvergne, 
Vicomte  de,  French  general,  son  of  the  Due  de 
Bouillon,  and  grandson  of  William  I.,  prince  of 
Orange,  was  born  in  1611.  He  was  brought  up 
in  the  Reformed  faith,  and  was  sent  in  1623  to 
Holland,  where,  under  his  uncle,  the  celebrated 
Maurice,  he  was  initiated  into  the  art  of  war. 
Returning  to  France  in  1630,  he  was  favorably 
received  by  Richelieu,  who  at  once  gave  him  a 
commission  in  the  French  army.  In  1G37  he 
was  attached  to  the  army  of  Bernard  of  Weimar, 
and  gained  much  repute.  After  his  conquest  of 
Roussillon,  in  1642,  he  was  made  a  marshal  of 
France  and  given  chief  command  on  the  Rhine, 
when  he  defeated  the  Bavarians  at  Rottweil, 
but  was  himself  defeated  by  their  general,  Mercy, 
at  Marienthal.  With  Cond6,  he  avenged  this 
defeat  at  Nordlingen,  where  Mercy  was  slain. 
Turenne  finished  the  war  by  conquering  the 
electorate  of  Treves,  and,  with  the  help  of  the 
Swedes,  Bavaria,  and  conducted  a  successful 
campaign  in  Flanders.  In  the  civil  wars  in 
France,  the  two  greatest  generals  of  the  period, 
Cond6  and  Turenne,  were  on  opposite  sides,  and 
Turenne  with  inferior  forces  was  uniformly  vic- 
torious, finally  driving  Cond6  from  France.  He 
then  conquered  much  of  the  Spanish  Nether- 
lands. Louis  XIV.  made  him  marshal-general 
of  France,  and  only  his  Protestantism  prevented 
his  being  appointed  constable.  Bossuet's  cele- 
brated Exposition  of  the  Christian  Doctrine  was 
written  at  the  king's  suggestion  to  effect  the 
conversion  of  Turenne  to  Catholicism,  and,  aided 
by  the  king's  solicitations,  was  successful.  In 
the  campaign  in  Holland,  1672,  he  compelled 
the  elector  of  Brandenburg  to  beg  for  peace. 
His  last  campaign  is  disfigured  by  the  devasta- 
tion of  the  Palatinate,  where  he  burned  about 
thirty  towns.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
basbach,  while  viewing  the  preparations  for  the 
attack,  1675. 

THTgenleff  («8r-g«n'-y«/),  Ivan  Sergyevitch,  Russian 
novehst,  was  bora  in  Orel,  Russia,  1818.  After 
studying  at  Moscow,  St.  Petersburg,  and  Berlin 
he  obtained  a  position  in  the  department  of  the 
intenor  at  St.   Petersburg.     On  account  of  his 


liberal  ideas  he  was  banished  for  a  period,  but 
was  finally  allowed  to  return  to  Russia.  His 
home,  however,  was  for  the  most  part  at  Paris 
and  at  Baden.  Many  of  his  works  were  written 
in  French,  and  have  been  translated  into  English 
and  German.  Among  his  best  known  novels  are : 
Fathers  and  Sons;  Liza;  Smoke;  Dimitri  Rudin; 
Journal  of  a  Useless  Man;  and  Virgin  Soil. 
Died,  1883. 
Turgot  {tur'-^d'),  Anne  Bobert  Jacques,  French 
statesman  and  economist,  was  born  in  Paris, 
1727.  He  was  educated  for  the  church,  and 
was  prior  of  the  Sorbonne  in  1749.  In  1762 
he  studied  law  and  became  councilor  in  parlia- 
ment. He  was  given  charge  of  the  province  of 
Limoges  in  1761,  where  he  introduced  many 
reforms,  such  as  abolishing  the  method  of  mencf- 
ing  the  roads  by  the  compulsory  labor  of  the 
poor.  He  intrtxiuced  the  cultivation  of  the 
potato  and  other  means  of  subsistence  for  the 
people.  Under  Louis  XVI.  he  was  put  in  charge 
of  tne  finances  of  the  country,  and,  if  his  plans 
had  been  received  with  favor  by  the  nobility 
and  statesmen,  France  mi^ht  have  been  spared 
the  horrors  of  the  revolution.  But  the  combi- 
nation against  him  was  so  strong  that  the  king 
yieldedj  and  Turgot  retired  after  twenty  months 
of  ser>'ice.  Among  his  writings  are,  Refiections 
upon  the  Formation  and  DistrHnUion  of  Riches, 
and  a  work  on  Usury.  He  died  at  Paris  in  1781. 
Tomer,  Joseph  Mallord  William,  British  landscape 
painter,  was  born  in  London,  1775.  His  genius 
for  art  showed  itself  very  early,  and  in  1787, 
when  only  twelve  years  old,  he  exhibited  two 
drawings  at  the  royal  academy.  Again,  in  1790, 
he  exhibited,  and  thence  onward  until  his  death. 
In  1799  he  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  royal 
academv,  and  three  years  afterward  attained 
the  full  dignity  of  academician.  He  traveled 
much,  and  was  frequently  in  Scotland,  France, 
Switaerland,  the  Rhine  countries,  and  Italy. 
His  industry  was  almost  as  unexampled  as  his 
genius.  To  the  exhibitions  of  the  royal  academy 
he  contributed  in  all  259  pictures.  In  1808  he 
commenced  the  publication  of  his  famous  Liber 
Studiorum,  a  series  of  engravings  from  original 
designs,  which  ranks  as  one  of  his  most  impor- 
tant undertakings;  to  this  is  to  be  added  his 
Scenery  of  the  Souihem  Coast;  England  and 
Wales;  Rivers  of  England;  Rivers  of  France; 
etc.  Among  his  finest  paintings  are:  "Dido 
Building  Carthage";  "The  Sun  Rising  in  a 
Mist";  "The  Slave  Ship";  "The  Burial  of 
Wilkie  at  Sea " ;  "The  Grand  Canal";  "Ulysses 
Deriding  Polyphemus,"  etc.  Died,  1851. 
Twain,  Mark.  See  Clemens,  Samuel  I^anghome. 
Tycho  Brahe.     See  Brahe. 

Tyler,  John,  tenth  president  of  the  United  States, 
was  bom  at  Greenway,  Va.,  1790.  He  was 
graduated  at  William  and  Mary  college,  1807; 
studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He 
was  elected  five  times  to  the  state  legislature, 
and  three  times  to  congress.  He  sympathized 
with  the  states'  rights  party,  and  opposed  the 
United  States  bank,  protection,  and  all  limita- 
tions of  slavery.  In  1825  and  again  in  1827 
he  was  chosen  governor  of  Virginia;  and  in  1833 
was  elected  United  States  senator.  From  this 
time  he  acted  with  the  whig  party,  being  an 
active  partisan  of  Henry  Clay,  and  in  1840  was 
elected  by  that  party  vice-president  of  the 
United  States,  with  Harrison  as  president.  The 
death  of  President  Harrison,  a  month  after  his 
inauguration,  made  Tyler  president  in  1841. 
His  administration,  at  first  favorable  to  the 
whies,  was  soon  displeasing  to  them.  He  vetoed 
the  bill  for  a  United  States  bank,  at  that  time  a 
favorite  project  of  the  party.  Several  members 
of  the  cabinet  resigned,  and  finally  John  C. 
Calhoun,   the  great  democratic  statesman,  was 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


1018 


made  secretary  of  state.  The  annexation  of 
Texas  in  1845,  and  the  passing  of  a  protective 
tariff  law  in  1842,  were  among  the  important 
acts  of  Tyler's  administration.  In  1861  ne  was 
president  of  the  peace  convention  which  met  at 
Washington  to  effect  a  compromise  between  the 
North  and  the  South.  He  afterward  joined  the 
confederate  cause,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
confederate  congress  at  his  death,  which  occurred 
at  Richmond,  Va.,  18G2. 

Tyler,  Moses  Colt,  American  educator  and  writer, 
professor  of  American  history  at  Ck)rnell  univer- 
sity, 1881-1900,  was  born  at  Griswold,  Conn., 
1835,  and  was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1857.  He 
spent  several  years  in  the  ministry,  later  travel- 
ing in  Europe.  From  1867  to  1881  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  English  at  the  university  of  Michigan, 
and  for  a  time  was  literary  editor  of  The  Christian 
Union.  In  1881  he  accepted  the  chair  of  Ameri- 
can history  at  Cornell.  He  wrote:  Manual  of 
English  Literature;  History  of  American  Litera- 
ture during  the  Colonial  Period,  1606-1766; 
The  Literary  History  o/  the  American  Revolution; 
Glimpses  of  England;  Life  of  Patrick  Henry, 
etc.     Died,  1900. 

Tylor,  Edward  Burnett,  English  anthropologist, 
was  born  at  Camberwell,  1832.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Tottenham,  and,  after  traveling  in  Cuba 
and  Mexico,  he  wrote  Anahuac,  or  Mexico  and 
the  Mexicans.  He  was  in  1883  appointed  keeper 
of  the  Oxford  luiiversity  museum  and  reader  in 
anthropology;  and  in  1896  was  made  professor 
of  anthropology.  He  was  in  1888  Gifford  lec- 
turer at  Aberdeen,  and  president  of  the  anthro- 
pological society  in  1891.  His  Researches  into 
the  Early  History  of  Mankind,  Primitive  Culture, 
and  Anthropology  stand  first  among  works  of 
their  class. 

Tyndale,  William,  English  divine,  was  bom  in 
Gloucestershire,  about  1484.  He  studied  at 
both  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  where  he  acquired 
a  knowledge  of  the  Greek  language,  at  that  time 
little  understood  in  England.  Having  become 
impressed  with  the  importance  of  giving  to  the 
English  people  the  Bible  in  their  own  language, 
he  devoted  himself  to  that  work  in  private  for 
many  years;  until,  in  1523,  finding  it  no  longer 
safe  to  prosecute  his  labors  in  his  own  country, 
he    sailed    for   Hamburg,    and    from    that    port 

Eroceeded  to  Wittenberg.  There  he  completed 
is  version  of  the  new  testament,  which  was 
published  at  Antwerp,  1526.  He  then  under- 
took a  translation  of  the  old  testament,  in 
which  he  was  assisted  by  Miles  Coverdale. 
After  1530  he  lived  at  Antwerp,  where  he  was 
taken  prisoner,  at  the  instigation  of  Henry  VIII., 
and  was  confined  for  a  year  and  a  halt  in  the 
castle  of  Vilvoord,  or  Villefort,  near  Brussels; 
and  was  at  length  strangled  in  1536  near  his 
prison,  his  body  being  afterward  burned.  His 
last  words  were,  "Lord,  open  the  king  of  Eng- 
land's eyes."  Besides  his  version  of  the  Bible, 
Tyndale  wrote  several  treatises,  of  which  The 
Wicked  Mammon  and  The  True  Obedience  of  a 
Christian  Man  are  the  best  known. 
Tyndall,  John,  British  physicist,  was  bom  in 
County  Carlow,  Ireland,  1820.  He  began  his 
career  as  a  surveyor  and  railway  engineer,  went 
to  Germany  for  study  during  1848-51,  and  be- 
came in  1853  professor  of  natural  philosophjy^  in 
the  royal  institution  of  London,  a  post  he  held 
to  within  a  year  or  two  of  his  death.  His  pub- 
lished lectures  on  Light,  Sound,  and  Heat  a  Mode 
of  Motion  are  well  known;  he  also  wrote  on 
glaciers,  the  physics  of  crystals,  and  many 
essays  on  other  subjects.  As  a  lecturer  he 
greatly  developed  the  system  of  lantern  demon- 
stration now  so  general  in  all  educational  theaters. 
In  1874  he  presided  at  the  meeting  of  the  British 
association  in   Belfast,   and  there  delivered  an 


address  which  by  its  mat«>rialiHtic  t<-ndency  anil 
anti-tcleulogic  tone  crcaU-d  much  excitement  and 
opposition,  as  it  was  in  fact  intended  to  do.  Ua 
was,  however,  best  known  as  a  popular  exponeat 
of  physical  science,  and  his  lectures  on  light, 
delivered  in  America,  attracted  immense  audi- 
ences. His  chief  works,  benidcs  the  above,  are: 
Essays  on  the  Imagination  in  Science;  The  Forma 
of  Water;  Lessons  in  Electricity:  Fermentation; 
Fragments  of  Science,  etc.     He  died  in  1893. 

Chland  (<K>'-torU),  Jobaim  LudwICf  German  poet, 
was  born  at  Tubingen,  1787,  and  studied  at  the 
university  of  his  native  citv.  Ue  began  to 
publish  ballads  and  other  lyrics  in  various 
periodicals,  collected  under  the  title  of  Gediehte, 
m  1815.  It  is  on  these  and  his  songs,  such  •• 
Der  gute  Kamerad  and  Das  Schloss  am  Meer, 
that-  his  fame  rests.  His  other  productions 
include  the  essays,  Ueber  Walther  von  drr  Vogcl- 
weide;  Der  Mythus  von  Thdr;  Sagenlchre  vom 
Thor;  and  two  dramas,  Hertog  Ernst  von  Schxoaben 
and  Ludxvig  der  Bayer.   He  died  at  Tubingen,  1^2. 

Ulfllas  {W-fl-lds),  translator  of  the  Bible  into 
Gothic,  was  bom  about  311.  He  was  made 
bishop  in  341,  was  expelled  by  his  heathen  com- 
patriots from  his  native  place  seven  years  later, 
and  sought  refuge,  together  with  a  number  of 
newly  converted  Christians,  in  lower  Mccsia,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Hcemus,  where  he  remained  for 
thirty  years.  He  was  one  of  the  chief  lights  of 
Arianism,  in  the  interest  of  which  he  exerted 
himself  with  the  utmost  energy.  Familiar  with 
Latin,  Greek,  and  Gothic,  and  accustomed  to 
write  in  each  of  them,  he  undertook  to  render 
the  whole  Bible,  with  the  exception  of  Kings, 
into  Gothic.  Up  to  the  ninth  century  tnis 
sacred  and  national  work  accoinpanied  the 
Goths  in  all  their  migrations.  The  Swedes  cap- 
tured it  and  took  it  to  Upsala,  where  it  still 
remains  in  the  university  library  under  the 
name  of  the  Codex  Argenteus.     Died,  381. 

Ulpian  (id'-pl-an),  Domitius,  Roman  jurist,  bom 
at  Tyre,  about  170  A.  D.  He  held  judicial 
offices  under  Septimius  Severus  and  Caracalla, 
and,  on  the  accession  of  Alexander  Severus  in 
222,  became  his  principal  a<lvi8er  and  prcefectus 
praetorio.  He  was  murdered  by  his  own  soldiery, 
228  A.  D.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer.  In 
Justinian's  Digest  there  are  nearly  twenty-five 
hundred  excerpts  from  Ulpian,  but  the  originals 
are  almost  wholly  lost. 

Underwood,  Oscar  W^  democratic  floor  leader  of 
the  house  of  representatives,  was  born  in  Louis- 
ville, Kentucky,  1862.  Educated  at  Rugby 
B(iiool,  Louisville,  and  at  university  of  Virginia: 
admitted  to  bar,  1884;  member  of  54th  to  63rd 
congresses  (1895-1915),  9th  Alabama  district. 

Dntermyer,  Samuel,  American  lawyer,  was  bom  in 
Lynchburg,  Va.,  1858.  He  was  educated  at  the 
college  of  the  city  of  New  York  and  at  Columbia 
.  university  law  school,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,  1879.  He  has  since  practiced  in  New  York, 
and  is  now  a  member  of  tne  law  firm  of  Guggen- 
heimer,  Untermyer  and  Marshall.  He  organ- 
ized and  is  counsel  for  many  trade  combinations; 
director  of  many  corporations. 

Urban  VIII^  Pope,  1623-44,  the  successor  of 
Gregory  XV.,  whose  family  name  was  Maffeo 
Barbenni,  was  bom  at  Florence  in  1568.  His 
memory  has  suffered  through  the  imputation  of 
nepotism ;  but  his  pontificate  was,  on  the  whole, 
vigorous  and  enlightened.  He  was  the  founder 
of  the  celebrated  college  of  the  Propaganda,  and 
to  him  Rome  is  indebted  for  many  public  works, 
including  large  and  important  additions  to  the 
Vatican  library.  His  pontificate  was  also  dis- 
tinguished by  the  acquisition  of  the  duchy  of 
Urbino  to  the  holy  see  in  the  year  1626.  He 
died  in  1644,  and  was  succeeded  by  Innocent  X. 


1014 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Usher  (ush'-ir),  James,  British  prelate,  theologian 
and  scholar,  was  bom  in  Dublin,  1580.  He 
graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  in  1600; 
in  1601  he  was  ordained  deacon  and  priest,  and 
was  shortly  after  appointed  preacher  at  Christ 
church,  Dublin.  In  1607  he  was  chosen  to  the 
chair  of  divinity  in  the  university  of  Dublin,  a 
post  which  he  held  for  thirteen  years.  In  1613 
his  first  publication  appeared,  De  Ecdesiarum 
Christianarum  Succesaione  et  Statu.  In  1623  he 
was  constituted  privy  councilor  of  Ireland,  and 
two  years  later  was  raised  to  the  highest  eccle- 
siastical dignity  in  the  kingdom,  the  archbishopric 
of  Armagh.  Among  his  many  works  were: 
Veterum  Epistolarum  Hibernicarum  Sylloge; 
Emmanuel,  or  A  Treatise  on  the  Incarnation  of 
the  Son  of  God;  and  Annales  Veteris  et  Novi 
Testamenti,  giving  in  two  parts  a  chronological 
digest  of  universal  history  from  the  creation  of 
the  world  to  the  tim.e  of  Vespasian.  It  was 
Usher  who  formulated  the  system  of  biblical 
chronology  now  generally  adopted.  He  died  in 
1656. 

Valentine,  Edward  Ylrglnlus,  American  sculptor, 
was  bom  at  Richmond,  Va.,  1838.  He  studiea 
art  under  Couture,  and  Jouffroy  in  Paris,  in 
Florence  under  Bonaiuti,  and  in  Berlin  under 
Kiss.  His  most  prominent  works  include: 
Recumbent  figure  of  General  Robert  E.  Lee, 
Memorial  chapel,  Washington  and  Lee  univer- 
sity, Lexington,  Va. ;  bronze  figure  of  General 
Thomas  J.  Jackson,  Lexington,  Va.;  bronze 
figure  of  Vice-president  Breckinridge,  Lexington, 
Ky. ;  marble  statue  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  Rich- 
mond, Va. ;  "Andromache  and  Astyanax"; 
"The  Blind  Girl";  "Judas  and  Grief";  heroic 
bronze  statues  of  Jefferson  Davis  and  allegorical 
female  figures,  sjonbolical  of  the  South,  for  Rich- 
mond, Va.;  statue  of  Gen.  Robert  E.  Lee  for 
statuary  hall,  Washington.  Among  his  earlier 
works  were  the  small  figure,  "The  Nation's 
Ward,"  and  the  bust,  "Unc'  Henry." 

Van  Alstyne,  Mrs.  Frances  Jane.  See  Crosby, 
Fanny. 

Van  Buren,  Martin,  American  statesman,  eighth 
president  of  the  United  States,  was  bora  of 
Knickerbocker  stock,  in  Kinderhook,  N.  Y., 
1782.  After  studying  law  and  becoming  a 
member  of  the  bar,  he  was  elected  by  the  demo- 
cratic party  to  the  state  senate  in  1812,  and 
became  attorney-general  in  1815.  In  1816  he 
largely  contributed  to  the  organization  of  the 
so-called  Albany  regency,  a  political  body  which 
maintained  an  ascendancy  in  the  state  for  many 
years.  In  1821  Van  Buren  entered  the  United 
States  senate,  and  was  reelected  in  1827.  As  a 
senator  he  supported  the  protective  tariff  of 
1828,  and  in  the  same  year  was  elected  governor 
of  New  York.  In  1830  he  took  office  as  secretary 
of  state  in  President  Jackson's  cabinet,  resigning 
the  same  in  April  of  the  following  year.  After 
the  rejection  by  the  senate  of  his  nomination  as 
minister  to  England,  he  was  elected  in  the 
Jackson  interest  vice-president  of  the  United 
btates,  and  in  1836  became  the  successful  demo- 
cratic candidate  for  the  presidency.  During  his 
iIq^''®  °l  ?^^^  occurred  the  financial  crisis  of 
Tu  Y  .  ^'^^  suspension  of  specie  payments  bv 
the  banks— a  state  of  things  which  induced  the 
president  to  recommend  to  congress  the  estab- 
if^n^T-  ?  an  independent  treasury,  a  measure 
carried  into  effect  in  1840.  In  the  latter  year 
Van  Buren  s  renomination  for  the  presidencv 
was  defeated  by  General  Harrison,  and?n  li^l 

.La^K'"''^'^^!  "^^^V^^  *^°  P"vate  Ufe.  His  third 
candidature  for  the  presidency,  in  1844  waa 
frustrated  by  the  Southern  vote    and  Lsvbst 

?^^!^Sr°^'^^**i'*'"^  ^^^  democrats  to  become  a 
free-soiler,  and  the  unsuccessful  nominee  of  the 


latter  party  in  the  presidential  election  in  1848. 
Died,  1862. 

Vanderbllt,  Cornelius,  American  capitallat,  waa 
born  near  Stapleton,  Staten  Island,  N.  Y.,  1794. 
He  early  engaged  in  steamboat  transportation 
between  Staten  Island  and  New  York  and  so 
enlarged  his  business  that  he  soon  gained  com> 
plete  control  of  the  New  York  and  Staten  Island 
tines.  Later  he  started  steamboats  in  various 
waters  —  the  Hudson,  the  Delaware,  Long 
Island  sound,  and  established  steamboats  and 
other  connections  between  New  York  and  Cali- 
fornia. In  1864  he  withdrew  his  capital  from 
shipping  and  investiHl  it  in  railroads.  He  secured 
the  management  of  one  railroad  after  another 
and,  in  1877,  controlled  stocks  representing  an 
aggregate  capital  of  $150,000,000,  of  which  be 
owned  fully  one-half.  In  1801  he  presented  the 
steamship  Vanderbilt  to  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment to  be  used  for  the  capture  of  confederate 
privateers,  and  in  1872  founded  Vanderbilt 
university  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  to  which  he  gave 
about  $1,000,000.  At  the  time  of  his  death  in 
New  York  citv,  1877,  his  fortune  was  estimated 
at  neariy  $100,000,000. 

Vanderbilt,  Georire  Waahlngton*  capitalist,  waa 
bom  at  New  Dorp,  Staten  Island,  N.  Y.,  1862. 
He  was  educated  by  private  tutors  and  at  the 
best  schools,  and  traveled  extensively.  He  gave 
to  New  York  the  Thirteenth  street  branch  of  the 
free  circulating  library,  which  he  founded,  pro- 
vided with  suitable  buildings  and  appointments; 
presented  New  York  college  for  the  training  of 
teachers,  its  site  on  MorniuKside  Heights,  adjoin- 
ing site  selected  for  Columbia  college;  and  pre- 
sented American  fine  arts  society  of  New  York 
the  room  in  their  building  known  as  the  Vander- 
bilt gallery.  He  subsequently  purchased  100,000 
acres  of  mountain  land  on  tne  French  Broad 
river,  near  Asheville,  N.  C,  and  laid  it  out  in  a 
vast  park;  erected  mansion  and  stables;  stocked 
this  estate  and  spends  much  of  his  time  super- 
intending its  improvements. 

Vanderbilt,  WiUiam  Klssam,  capitalist,  was  bom 
in  Staten  Island,  1849.  He  received  an  academic 
education,  and  studied  several  years  in  Geneva, 
Switzerland.  He  subsequently  learned  railroad- 
ing and  was  second  vice-president  of  the 
New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River  railroad, 
1877-83;  was  chairman  of  the  board  of  directors 
of  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern  rail- 
way from  1883;  director  of  New  York  Central 
and  Hudson  River  railroad.  New  York,  Chi- 
cago and  St.  Louis  railroad  company,  Michi- 
gan Central  railroad  company.  Lake  Erie  and 
Western  railroad  company,  Cfhicago  and  North- 
western railway  company,  Chicago,  St.  Paul, 
Minneapolis  and  Omaha  railway  company,  Cleve- 
land, Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  St.  Louis  railway 
company,  Detroit  and  Chicago  railroad  company. 
New  York  and  Harlem  railroad,  Pittsburgh  and 
Lake  Erie  railroad  company,  West  Shore  rail- 
road company,  The  Pullrnan  company,  etc. 

Vanderlip,  Frank  Arthur,  banker,  president  of  the 
National  city  bank.  New  York,  since  1909,  was 
born  in  Aurora,  111.,  1864.  He  studied  at  the 
university  of  Illinois  and  university  of  Chicago: 
became  reporter,  Chicago  Tribune,  later  financial 
editor;  associate  editor,  Chicago  Economist; 
private  secretary  to  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
Gage,  1897;  assistant  secretary  of  the  treasury, 
1897-1901 ;  and  vice-president  of  National  city 
bank.  New  York,  1901-09.  He  was  a  delegate 
to  the  international  conference  of  commerce  and 
industry,  Ostend,  Belgium,  1902;  is  trustee  of 
Carnegie  foundation;  member  of  council  of  New 
York  university;  and  director  in  various  finan- 
cial institutions.  Author:  Chicago  Street  Rail- 
ways; The  American  Commercial  Invasion  of 
Europe;  Business  and  Education,  etc. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


1015 


Tanderljii,  John,  American  painter,  was  bom  at 
Kingston,  N.  Y.,  1775.  He  studied  painting 
under  Gilbert  Stuart,  visited  Paris  and  studied 
his  art  in  that  city  for  a  number  of  years.  He 
returned  home  in  1801,  but  in  1803  made  another 
journey  to  Europe,  where  he  remained  until  1815. 
Among  his  works  executed  while  in  Europe  were, 
"The  Murder  of  Jane  McCrea  by  the  Indians'' 
and  "Marius  sitting  among  the  Ruins  of  Car- 
thage." The  "Landing  of  Columbus,"  placed  in 
the  rotunda  of  the  national  capitol  and  engraved 
on  the  five  dollar  note  was  designed  by  Vanderlyn. 
One  of  his  best  known  portraits  is  that  of  Wash- 
ington in  the  hall  of  the  house  of  representatives. 
Died,  1852. 

Van  Devanter,  Willis,  jurist,  was  born  at  Marion, 
Ind.,  1859;  educated  at  Indiana  Asbury  (now 
De  Pauw)  university,  1875-78;  LL.  B.,  Cincin- 
nati Law  School,  1881.  He  practiced  law  at 
Marion,  Ind.,  1881-84,  at  Cheyenne,  Wyo., 
from  1884.  He  was  conmaissioner  to  revise  the 
Wyoming  statutes,  1886;  city  attorney,  Chey- 
enne, 1887-88 ;  member  of  territorial  legislature, 
1888;  chief  justice  of  supreme  court  of  Wyoming, 
1889-90;  chairman  republican  state  committee, 
1892-94 ;  member  republican  national  committee, 
1896-1900;  assistant  attorney-general  of  United 
States,  1897-1903;  United  States  circuit  judge, 
8th  judicial  district,  1903-10.  Professor  in  law 
department  of  Columbian  university,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C  1898-1903.  In  1910  he  was  appointed 
bv  President  Taft  an  associate  justice  of  the 
iJnited  States  supreme  court. 

Van  Dyck,  or  Vandyke,  Sir  Anthony,  Flemish 
painter,'  distinguished  for  his  surpassing  excel- 
lence in  portraiture,  was  born  in  Antwerp,  1599. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Rubens,  and  subsequently 
studied  in  Venice,  Genoa,  arid  Rome.  In  1632 
he  became  court  painter  to  Charles  I.  of  England, 
and  was  knighted  by  that  monarch.  His  "Christ 
on  the  Cross  "  at  Antwerp  is  his  greatest  historical 
work,  and  his  full-length  picture  of  "Charles  I. 
on  Horseback"  his  best  example  of  portraiture. 
Died  in  London  in  1641. 

Van  Dyke,  Henry  Jackson,  American  educator  and 
writer,  was  bom  in  Germantown,  Pa.,  in  1852. 
He  was  graduated  at  Princeton  university  in  1873, 
at  the  Princeton  theological  seminary  in  1877,  and 
at  Berlin  university  in  1879.  Soon  afterward  he 
assumed  the  pastorate  of  the  United  Congrega- 
tional church  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  and  was  pastor  of 
the  Brick  Presbj-terian  church.  New  York  city, 
1883-1900.  In  the  latter  year  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  English  literature  in  Princeton  univer- 
sity. Author:  The  Reality  of  Religion;  The 
Story  of  the  Psalms;  The  Poetry  of  Tennyson; 
Sermons  to  Young  Men;  The  Christ  Child  in  Art; 
Little  Rivers;  The  Other  Wise  Man;  The  Gospel  for 
an  Age  of  Doubt;  The  First  Christmas  Tree;  The 
Builders,  and  Other  Poems;  Ships  and  Havens; 
The  Lost  Word;  The  Gospel  for  a  World  of  Sin; 
Fisherman's  Luck;  The  Tmling  of  Felix,  and 
Other  Poems';  The  Poetry  of  the  Psalms;  The 
Friendly  Year;  The  Riding  Passion;  The  Blue 
Flower;  The  Open  Door;  The  School  of  Life;  Es- 
says in  Application;   The  Spirit  of  Christmas,  etc. 

Van  Dyke,  John  Charles,  author,  educator,  art 
critic,  was  bom  in  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  1856. 
He  was  privately  educated,  and  studied  at 
Columbia;  L.  H.  D.,  Rutgers,  1899.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  New  York  bar,  1877,  but  turned 
attention  to  literature,  and  since  1878  has  been 
librarian  of  the  Sage  library,  New  Brunswick, 
N.  J.  He  studied  art  many  years  in  Europe; 
traveled  much  on  both  continents  and  has 
written  extensively  on  both  art  and  nature; 
has  been  professor  of  history  of  art,  Rutgers  col- 
lege, since  1889 ;  lecturer  in  Columbia,  Harvard, 
Princeton.  Editor:  The  Studio,  1883-84;  Art 
Review,  1887-88 ;  College  Histories  of  Art;  History 


of  Amrrican   Art.     Author: 
Use  Them;    Studiet  in  Picturet; 


Booka  and  Hew  to 
M.  The  Nma  Nam 
York;  What  is  Artf  etc. 
Vane,  Sir  Henry,  F^ngUah  statesman,  colonial  fov- 
eraor  of  Massachusetts,  was  bom  in  1612.  H« 
was  opposed  to  the  Kngli.<)>i  church,  and  in  1636 
came  to  America  to  join  tlie  Puritans  in  MaM»- 
chusetts.  The  next  year  he  was  chosen  governor: 
but  religious  troubles  arose  in  the  colony,  and 
in  1637  he  returned  to  England.  In  1640  ha 
was  elected  to  parliament  and  was  knighted. 
He  was  always  op|>o»ed  to  Cromwell,  and,  after 
the  latter's  death,  was  the  leader  of  the  republican 
party.  On  tiie  restoration  of  tl»e  king  Charles  II,, 
Vane  was  arrested  and  imprisoned ;    but  the  king 

Eromised  to  spare  his  life.  Charles,  however. 
roke  his  word,  and  Vane  was  tried  on  a  charge  of 
high  treason  and  condemned  to  die.  At  the  scaf- 
fold he  tried  to  address  the  people ;  but  his  voice 
was  drowned  bv  the  noise  of  drums  and  trumpets. 
He  was  beheaded  on  Tower  hill,  London,  \VAS2. 
Van  Hlse  (vdn  hW),  Charles  Klchard,  American 
educator,  geologist,  was  bom  in  Fulton,  Wis., 
1857.  He  graduated  at  the  university  of  Wis- 
consin, 1879,  Ph.  D.,  1892:  LL.  D.,  Chicago, 
1903,  Yale,  1904.  He  was  instmctor  in  metal- 
lurgy, 1879-83,  assistant  professor  metallurgy, 
1883-86,  professor  metallurgy,  1886-88,  pro^ 
sor  mineralogy,  1888-90,  professor  archaean  and 
applied  geology,  1890-92,  professor  geology, 
1892-1903,  president  since  1903  of  the  umverMty 
of  Wisconsm.  Since  1883  he  has  been  con- 
nected with  the  United  States  and  Wisconsin 
geological  surveys.  He  is  a  member  of  many 
scientific  societies.  Author:  Principlea  of  North 
Am.erican  Pre-Cambrian  Geology;  Some  Princi' 
pies  Controlling  the  Deposition  of  Ores;  A  TreatiM 
on  Metamorphism;  and  many  scientific  and 
educational  papers. 
Van  Home,  Sir  William  Cornelius,  Canadian  rail- 
way official,  was  bom  in  Will  county,  Illinois, 
1843.  He  was  educated  in  the  common  schools, 
and  became  telegraph  operator  with  the  Illinois 
Central  railroad,  1857.  He  was  with  the  Michi- 
gan Central  in  various  capacities,  1858-64; 
Chicago  and  Alton  as  train  dispatcher,  superin- 
tendent telegraph,  and  division  superintendent, 
1864-72;  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City  and  Northern 
as  general  superintendent,  1872-74;  Southern 
Minnesota,  general  manager,  1874-77,  continuins 
as  president  to  1879 ;  Chicago  and  Alton,  general 
superintendent,  1877-79;  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
and  St.  Paul,  general  superintendent,  1880-81 ; 
Canadian  Pacific,  general  manager,  1882-84, 
vice-president    and    general    manager,    1884-8S, 

8 resident,  1888-99;  chairman  of  the  board  of  the 
anadian  Pacific  railway  company,  1899-1910. 
He  is  also  president  of  the  Cuba  company. 

Vasarl  (vS-zd'-re),  Giorgio,  Italian  art  historian, 
painter  and  architect,  was  bom  at  Arczzo,  1511. 
He  studied  under  Michaelangelo  and  Andrea  del 
Sarto,  and  entered  the  service  of  Duke  Cosirao 
the  Great,  with  whom  he  remained  until  his 
death,  1574.  He  was  one  of  the  most  versatile 
artists  of  the  later  renaissance,  and  an  architect 
of  no  mean  merit.  His  greatest  service  to  art  is 
his  world-renowned  Lives  by  which  we  gain  our 
chief  knowledge  of  the  artists  of  the  Italian 
renaissance.  V  asari  has  been  termed  the  founder 
of  modem  art  history  and  criticism. 

Vassar,  Matthew,  American  philanthropist  and 
founder  of  Vassar  college,  was  bom  in  Norfolk 
county,  England,  1792.  Four  years  later  he 
accompanied  his  father  to  America,  where  he 
settled  on  a  farm  near  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  his 
father  establishing  a  brewery  in  that  city.  The 
son  subsequently  succeeded  to  his  father's 
interests,  and  simassed  a  fortune.  In  1861  he 
donated  S400,000  to  the  institution  in  Pough- 
keepsie that  became  known  as  Vassar  college. 


1016 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


On  his  death,  in  1868,  he  provided  in  his  will  for 
a  further  donation  of  $400,000  to  Vassar.  The 
institution  has  been  since  enriched  by  large  sums 
donated  to  it  by  the  nephews  of  Matthew  Vasaar. 

Tauban  (t;d'-6aN')»  Sebastian  le  Prestre  de«  French 
marshal,  one  of  the  greatest  of  military  engineers, 
was  born  in  1633,  at  Saint  Leger  de  Foucheret, 
in  Burgundy.  He  first  served  in  the  Spanish 
army,  imder  Cond6,  but,  being  taken  prisoner 
by  the  French  troops,  Mazarin  gave  him  a 
lieutenancy.  The  sieges  of  Ypres,  Gravelines, 
and  Oudenarde,  in  1658,  were  his  first  attempts 
in  the  science  of  attack.  From  that  period  until 
the  peace  of  Ryswick  he  was  incessantly  em- 
ployed, either  in  erecting  fortresses  for  the  defense 
of  France,  or  in  reducing  those  which  belonged 
to  her  enemies.  In  1703  he  reluctantly  accepted 
the  marshal's  staff.  The  siege  of  Brisach  was 
his  last  operation.  He  died  in  1707.  Vauban 
wrote  various  works,  principally  on  fortification. 

TebleUf  Thorsteln,  educator,  author,  was  graduated 
at  Carleton  college,  1880;  Ph.  D.,  Yale,  1884. 
He  was  fellow  in  economics  and  finance,  Cornell, 
1891-92;  and  successively  fellow,  reader,  assist- 
ant and  instructor,  1892-1900,  and  associate 
professor  of  economics,  1900-06,  at  the  univer- 
sity of  Chicago;  associate  professor  of  economics 
at  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  university,  1906-09. 
Author  of  The  Theory  of  the  Leisure  Class  and 
Tfie  Theory  of  Business  Enterprise. 

Tedder  (rW-€r),  Elihu,  American  painter,  was 
born  at  New  York,  1836.  He  studied  at  Paris 
and  in  Italy,  and  made  Rome  his  ultimate 
residence.  His  subjects  are  mostly  ideal,  and 
include:  "The  Lair  of  the  Sea-serpent";  'Fish- 
erman and  Djin";  "Death  of  Abel";  "Greek 
Actor's  Daughter'  ;  "Ciunean  Sibyl";  "Nausi- 
caa  and  her  Companions";  "The  Monk  upon 
the  Gloomy  Path,"  etc.  He  has  finely  illus- 
trated Edward  FitzGerald's  Omar  Khayydm,  etc. 

Tega  Carpio  {va'-ga  k&r'-pyd).  Lope  Felix  de, 
noted  Spanish  dramatist,  was  bom  at  Madrid, 
1562.  He  was  a  graduate  of  AlcaUl;  served  in 
the  Portuguese  campaign  of  1580  and  in  the 
Armada;  was  secretary  to  the  duke  of  Alva, 
marquis  of  Malpica,  and  marquis  of  Sarria;  was 
banished  from  Madrid  because  of  a  quarrel, 
lived  two  years  at  Valencia,  and  about  1614  took 
priest's  orders.  He  died  poor,  for  his  large 
income  from  his  dramas  and  other  sources  was 
almost  wholly  devoted  to  charity  and  church. 
The  mere  list  of  Lope's  works  presents  a  picture 
of  unparalleled  mental  activity.  His  first  work 
of  length  was  a  poem,  the  Angelica.  Then  fol- 
lowed Arcadia,  a  story,  and  Dragontea,  an 
expression  of  exultation  in  ten  cantos  over  the 
death  of  the  dragon.  But  it  was  as  a  ballad 
writer  that  he  first  made  his  mark.  The  more 
notable  of  his  miscellaneous  works  are:  the 
Rimas;  Peregrino  en  su  Patria,  a  romance; 
Jerusalen  Conquistada,  an  epic  in  competition 
with  Tasso;  Pastores  de  Bden,  a  religious  pas- 
toral; Filomena  and  Circe,  miscellanies  in  emu- 
lation of  Cervantes;  Corona  Tragica,  an  epic  on 
Mary  Stuart;  Laurel  de  Apolo;  Rimas  de  Tome 
de  BurguUlos,  a  collection  of  lighter  verse,  with 
the  Gatomaquia,  a  mock-heroic;  and  Dorotea,  in 
form  a  prose  drama,  obviously  the  story  of  his 
own  early  love  adventures.  All  these  works 
show  the  hand,  not  of  a  great  artist,  but  of  a 
consummate  artificer.     He  died,  1635. 

Tel&squez  (va-las'-kath).     See  page  150. 

Tenddme  (vaN'-dom'),  Louis  Joseph,  Due  de, 
French  general,  was  bom  at  Paris,  1654,  and 
saw  his  first  service  in  the  Dutch  campaign  of 
1672.  He  next  served  with  distinction  under 
lurenne  in  Germany  and  Alsace,  again  in  Hol- 
land under  Luxembourg,  and  in  Italy  imder 
Catmat;  m  1695  he  received  the  command  of 
the  army  m  Catalonia.     He  shook  ofiE  his  indo- 


lence, and  closed  a  seriefl  of  brilliant  successes 
by  the  capture  of  Barcelona  in  1697.  After  five 
years  of  sloth  he  superseded  Villeroi  in  Italy, 
much  to  the  delight  of  the  soldiers.  He  fought 
an  undecided  battle  with  Prince  Eugene  at 
Luzzara,  then  burst  into  the  Tyrol,  returning  to 
Italy  to  check  the  united  Savoyards  and  Aus- 
trians.  In  August,  1705,  he  fought  a  second 
indecisive  battle  with  Prince  Eugene  at  Cassano, 
and  at  Calcinato  he  crushed  the  Austrians  in 
1706.  That  summer  he  was  recalled  to  super- 
sede Villeroi  in  Holland.  The  defeat  at  Ouden- 
arde, 1708,  cost  him  his  command,  but  in  1710 
he  was  sent  to  Spain  to  aid  Philip  V.  His  ap- 
pearance turned  the  tide  of  disaster;  he  brought 
the  king  back  to  Madrid,  and  defeated  the  English 
at  Brihuega,  and  next  day  the  Austrians  at  Vil- 
laviciosa.     He  died  at  Tinaroz,  in  Valencia,  1712. 

Verdi  (vAr'-di),  Giuseppe,  Italian  operatic  com- 
poser, was  bom  in  1813,  at  Rancola,  in  the 
duchy  of  Parma.  lie  studied  at  Busseto  and 
Milan,  settled  in  the  latter  city,  1838,  but  in 
later  life  lived  in  Genoa  and  at  his  villa  St.  Agata, 
near  Busseto.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Italian 
parliament  in  18C0  and  senator  in  1875.  He 
was  a  member  of  many  artistic  societies,  and 
was  decorated  by  the  rulers  of  Russia  and  Egypt. 
His  works  comprise  a  long  list  of  popular  favor- 
ites, including  Ernani,  Macbeth,  kigoletto,  II 
Trovatore,  La  Traviata,  Aida,  Othello,  Falataff, 
etc.     He  died  at  Milan.  1901. 

VereBhchaidn  ivyi-ri-«hcM'-&ln),  Vassill,  Russian 
painter,  was  bom  in  1842,  at  Tcberepovets,  in 
Novgorod.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1859,  but 
studied  art  under  G^rdme  at  Pans.  In  1867  he 
was  with  Kauffmann  in  the  Turcoman  com- 
paigns,  and  reaped  a  rich  artistic  harvest  from  a 
visit  to  India  in  1874  Still  more  famous  were 
his  realistic  pictures  of  the  horrors  of  the  Russo- 
Turkish  war  of  1877.  In  1884  he  made  another 
journey  to  India,  Syria,  and  Palestine;  and  pro- 
duced a  series  of  pictures  of  the  life  of  Christ. 
He  painted  also  gigantic  pictures  of  the  execution 
of  mutinous  sepoys  by  English  soldiers  and  of  ni- 
hilists bv  the  Russian  authorities.  He  was  blown 
up  on  fiiakaroff's  flagship  off  Port  Arthur,  1904. 

Vergil.     See  page  28. 

Verne  (t>6rn),  Jules,  French  author,  was  bom  at 
Nantes,  1828.  He  studied  law,  but  turned  to 
literature,  producing  his  Cinq  semaines  en  ballon 
in  1863.  He  struck  the  rich  but  not  unexplored 
vein  of  scientific  adventure.  Among  his  works 
are:  Twenty  Thousand  Leagues  Under  the  Sea; 
The  Mysterixms  Island;  Around  the  World  in 
Eighty  Days;  Michael  Strogoff;  From  the  Earth 
to  the  Moon;  and  The  Purchase  of  the  North  Pole. 
Died,  1905. 

Vemet  (vft^-n^'),  £mile  Jean  Horace,  French  battle 
painter,  was  born  in  Paris,  1789.  In  early  life 
he  served  for  a  time  in  the  army,  and  this  cir- 
cumstance, combined  with  the  fact  that  both 
his  father  and  his  grandfather  had  attained 
considerable  distinction  as  painters  of  battle 
pieces,  induced  him  to  devote  himself  to  the 
same  department  of  his  art.  He  studied  under 
Moreau  and  Vincent,  and  achieved  a  success 
hitherto  unequaled  as  a  painter  of  battles.  In 
1842  he  was  made  commander  of  the  legion  of 
honor,  and  declined  the  rank  of  baron.  Many 
of  his  pictures  are  to  be  found  in  the  galleries 
of  Paris  and  Versailles,  and  include  the  "Grena- 
dier of  Waterloo";  battles  of  Jemappes,  Valmy, 
Hanau,  Bouvines,  Jena,  Friedland,  Wagram, 
Isly;  " Barrier  of  Clichy " ;  " Bridge  of  Areola " ; 
"Siege  of  Antwerp",  etc.     Died,  1863. 

Veronese  (vd'-ro-na'-sd),  Paolo.    See  Cagliari.  Paolo. 

Veirazano  (vir'-rat-sa'-nd),  Giovanni  da,  Floren- 
tine navigator,  was  bom  at  Florence,  Italy, 
about  1480,  and  died,  probably,  about  1527  — 
being  executed  as  a  pirate,  it  is  said,  in  New 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


1017 


Caatile.  About  1505,  it  is  known  that  he  entered 
the  French  maritime  service,  made  a  voyage  to 
the  East  Indies  in  a  Portuguese  ship  in  1517, 
and  became  exjjert  as  an  explorer  and  navigator. 
In  1522  he  is  said  to  have  captured  the  rich 
treasure  sliip  in  whicli  Cortes  was  sending  the 
spoils  of  Mexico  to  Charles  V.  of  Spain.  From 
the  Madeira  islands  he  is  further  Icnown  to  have 
sailed  in  1524  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  in  Ameri- 
can waters,  and,  on  sighting  Cape  Fear,  he 
coasted  along  until  he  reached  what  is  now  New 
York  bay,  continuing  his  explorations  as  far  as 
Rhode  Island  and  New  Hampshire.  It  was  on 
a  second  voyage  to  the  new  world,  in  1527,  that 
it  is  alleged  he  was  captured  by  Spaniards  and 
hanged  as  a  corsair. 

Vesalius  (t'e-sd'-Zl-tis),  Andreas,  Belgian  anatomist 
and  physician,  was  bom  in  Brussels  in  1514. 
He  lectured  on  anatomy  at  Basel,  Padua,  and 
elsewhere  after  1537;  was  appointed  physician 
to  Charles  V.  in  1544;  accompanied  Charles  in 
his  campaigns  as  physician,  and  also  attended 
Philip  II.  of  Spain.  He  died  in  1564,  in  Zante, 
where  he  had  been  wrecked  on  his  return  from 
Jerusalem.  His  great  work  was  De  Corporis 
Humani  Fabrica. 

Vespasian  (vis-pd'-zhl-an),  Titus  Flavius  Veapa- 
sianus«  Roman  emperor  from  70  to  79,  was  born 
9  A.  D.  His  father  was  a  native  of  Reate,  in 
the  country  of  the  Sabini,  but  his  mother  was 
the  sister  of  a  Roman  senator.  In  the  reign  of 
Claudius  he  was  appointed  to  a  military  com- 
mand in  Britfiin'  when  he  conquered  the  Isle  of 
Wight;  and  was  afterward  proconsul  of  Africa 
under  Nero,  who  subsequently  sent  him  to  the 
East  to  conduct  the  war  against  the  Jews. 
After  the  death  of  Vitellius  he  was  proclaimed 
emperor  by  the  soldiers;  and  the  wisdom, 
moderation,  and  firmness  of  his  reign  showed  the 
propriety  of  the  choice.  The  most  important 
events  of  the  reign  were  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  by  Titus,  A.  D.  70,  and  the  conquest 
of  North  Wales  and  the  island  of  Anglesea  by 
Agricola,  who  was  sent  into  Britain  in  78.  In 
the  following  year  Vespasian  retired  and  died. 

Vespucci  (vSs-p<}iif-che\  Amerlgo«  Italian  navigator, 
was  bom  at  Florence,  1451.  He  was  first  em- 
ployed in  the  commercial  house  of  the  Medici, 
and  in  1493  went  to  Spain  where  he  became  a 
member  of  a  commercial  firm  in  Seville  about 
1495.  In  1497  he  embarked  at  Cadiz  in  one  of 
a  fleet  of  five  ships  commanded  by  Alonso  de 
Hojeda,  and  after  thirty-seven  days'  sailing 
reached  America,  coasted  along  the  continent  for 
several  hundred  leagues,  and  returned  to  Spain 
the  same  year.  Columbus  had  already  landed 
on  the  mainland  of  America  in  the  previous  year, 
so  that  to  him  doubtless  belongs  the  honor  of 
being  the  discoverer  of  the  continent,  but  the 
discovery  had  been  kept  a  state  secret,  and  the 

Erior  publication  of  Vespucci's  narrative  led  to 
is  name  being  given  to  the  continent,  at  the 
suggestion,  it»  is  said,  of  the  publisher  of  the 
narrative.  His  first  voyage  was  followed  by 
several  others,  first  in  the  service  of  Spain,  and 
afterward  in  that  of  Portugal.  In  1506  he  was 
recalled  to  the  court  of  Spain,  and  two  years 
afterward  was  appointed  chief  pilot,  which  office 
he  retained  until  his  death  in  1512. 
Vest,  George  Graham,  American  legislator,  was 
bom  at  Frankfort,  Ky.,  1830.  He  graduated  at 
Centre  college,  Kentucky,  and  at  the  law  depart- 
ment of  the  Transylvania  university  at  Lexing- 
ton. In  1853  he  removed  to  Missouri,  where  he 
practiced  law,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
state  legislature.  During  the^  civil  war  his 
secessionist  leanings  induced  him  to  become  a 
member  of  the  confederate  congress  and  later 
of  the  confederate  senate.  From  1879  to  1903 
he  was  a  democratic  member  for  Missouri  in  the 


United  States  senate,  where  ho  was  prominMit 
in  many  important  debates.     He  died  in  1904. 

Yiaud  (vyd\  Louis  Marie  Jullen.  "Pierre  LoU," 
French  writer,  was  born  of  a  Huguenot  line,  at 
Rochefort.  1850.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1867, 
became  a  lieutenant  in  1881  and  resigned  in  1896. 
He  traveled  extensively,  and  produced  in  1870  his 
first  work  of  importance,  Aziyadi,  a  aeriee  of  pic- 
tures of  life  on  the  Hosphorus.  This  was  foUowvd 
by  Le  Manage  de  Loti,  which  carried  the  Imagina- 
tion captive  with  all  the  charm  of  the  coral  seas. 
Later  came  Le  Roman  d'un  Svahi;  Mon  Frtr4 
Yves;  Le  Plcheur  d'Idande,  dealing  with  Brittany 
and  the  frozen  North;  Propos  d'Exil;  Madame 
ChrysarUhhne;  Japonneries  aAtitomnt;  Le  Roman 
d'un  Enfant;  Le  Livre  de  la  Pitie  et  de  la  Mori; 
Fantdme  d' Orient;  Le  Disert;  La  OaliUe;  Fiffwee 
et  Chases;  Jerusalem;  L'Inde  »ans  U»  AngUtie; 
Madame  Prune,  etc. 

Victor  Enunanuel  11^  first  king  of  modem  Italy, 
was  bom  at  Turin,  1820,  son  of  Charles  Albert, 
king  of  Sardinia.  After  serving  gallantly  in  the 
army,  he  became  king  of  Sardinia  by  the  abdi- 
cation of  his  father,  on  the  evening  of  the  battle 
of  Novara,  March  23,  1849.  From  the  Austrian 
conquerors  of  his  country,  he  succeeded  in 
obtaining  the  withdrawal  of  their  demand  that 
the  Sardinian  constitution  should  be  abolished. 
This  liberal  constitution,  granted  by  his  father, 
he  faithfully  maintained,  earning  by  this  con- 
duct the  title  of  the  "honest  king,"  and  winning 
the  confidence  of  the  Italian  nation.  He  chose 
wise  counselors,  and,  with  Cavour  to  jpide,  made 
many  reforms,  took  part  in  the  Crimean  war, 
and  visited  Paris  and  London.  With  the  help 
of  the  French,  the  battles  of  Solferino  and 
Magenta  were  fought  against  Austria,  but  the 
peace  of  Villafranca  between  Austria  and  France 
left  Italy  still  distant  from  its  hoped  for  unity. 
But  Tuscany,  Modena,  Parma,  and  the  Romagna 
voted  for  annexation  to  Sardinia,  and  the  Prus- 
sian alliance  in  1866  gave  Venice  to  Italy.  The 
French  withdrew  from  Rome,  and  on  December 
31,  1870,  Victor  Emmanuel  entered  Rome  and 
became  king  of  a  united  Italy.  He  reigned 
eight  years,  dying  at  Rome,  1878.  ' 

Victoria,  Alexandrina,  queen  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  empress  of  India,  bom  in  1819,  died  in 
1901.  She  was  the  only  child  of  Edward,  duke 
of  Kent,  fourth  son  of  George  III.,  and,  on  the 
death  of  William  IV.,  she  succeeded  to  the  throne 
in  1837,  and  was  crowned  queen  in  1838.  In 
1840  she  married  Albert,  prince  of  Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha,  who  died  in  1861,  and  by  whom  she  hiul 
nine  children.  She  assumed  title  of  empress  of 
India  in  1877.  The  jubilee  of  her  reign  was  cele- 
brated in  1887,  and  her  diamond  jubilee  in  1897. 
Five  attempts  were  made  on  her  life.  The  chief 
events  of  her  reign  were  the  establishment  of  the 
I>enny  jxrat;  the  repeal  of  the  com  laws;  the  an- 
nexation of  the  Punjaub;  the  Crimean  war,  the 
Indian  mutiny,  followed  by  the  assumption  of 
sovereignty  over  India;  the  second  and  third 
reform  bills;  wars  in  Afghanistan,  China,  South 
Africa,  and  Egypt;  and  the  Fenian ^  and  home 
rule  agitations  in  Ireland.  Queen  Victoria  was 
strictly  impartial  in  the  party  politics  of  her  reign, 
and  was  remarkable  for  her  wisdom,  knowledge 
of  foreign  affairs,  unselfishneA.s,  and  uprlglitness 
of  chai^u;ter.  No  sovereign  hsa  ever  Seen  more 
revered  by  her  subjects. 

Vlgny  {ytn'-yi'\  Alfred  Victor,  Comte  de,  French 
poet  and  novelist,  was  bom  at  Loches,  France, 
1799.  He  entered  the  French  armv  at  sixteen 
and  served  twelve  years.  In  1822  he  published 
anonymously  a  small  volume  of  verae,  followed 
in  1824  by  Eloa,  an  exquisite  piece  of  mystic 
phantasy.  He  then  issued  his  collected  Po^mes 
antiques  ti  modemes;  Cinq  Mars,  a  historical 
romance ;  a  translation  of  Othello;  and  a  drama. 


1018 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


La  Mar6chale  d'Anere.  After  1830  he  published 
chiefly  works  in  prose,  including  Stello;  Grandeur 
et  Servitude  MUiiaires;  and  a  drama,  ChatterUm. 
He  left  at  his  death  a  volume  of  verse,  Destinies, 
and  Journal  d'un  Poite.  In  1845  he  waa  elected 
to  the  academy.     He  died  in  1863. 

VUas  {m'4ds),  William  Freeman,  American  lawyer 
and  legislator,  was  born  at  Chelsea,  Vt.,  1840. 
He  graduated  at  the  university  of  Wisconsin, 
1858,  and  at  the  Albany  law  school,  18(i0.  In 
1862  he  recruited  Company  A,  23d  Wisconsin 
volunteers;  took  part  m  Vicksburg  campaipi; 
was  promoted  to  lieutenant-colonel,  commanding 
his  regiment  during  siege  of  Vicksburg;  after- 
ward resigned  his  commission  and  resumed 
practice.  He  was  law  professor,  1868-85,  and 
1881-85  and  1897-1905,  regent  of  the  university 
of  Wisconsin.  He  was  a  member  of  the^  com- 
mission to  revise  statutes  of  Wisconsin,  1875-78; 
member  of  the  Wisconsin  legislature,  1885; 
postmaster-general  of  the  United  States,  1885- 
88;  secretary  of  the  interior,  1888-89;  and 
United  States  senator,  1891-97.  At  his  death 
in  1908  he  left  an  endowment  of  $3,000,000  to 
the  university  of  Wisconsin. 

Vincent  de  Paul  {v&N'-saJi'  dS  pol'\  Saint,  French 
philanthropist  and  ecclesiastic  reformer,  was  bom 
in  Landes  in  1576.  He  was  captured  by  Tunisian 
pirates  in  1605,  and  remained  for  two  years  in 
slavery.  After  his  escape  he  repaired  to  Paris, 
where  he  became  curate  of  Clichy,  and  preceptor 
to  the  celebrated  Cardinal  de  Retz,  and  engaged 
himself  in  various  works  of  benevolence  and 
church  improvement.  He  estabUshed  a  found- 
ling hospital  at  Paris  in  1638;  organized  the 
congregation  of  the  Missions,  and  instituted  the 
order  of  Sisters  of  Charity.  Died  in  1660,  and 
was  canonized  by  Pope  Clement  XII.  in  1737. 

Vincent,  John  Heyl,  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal church  and  chancellor  of  the  Chautauqua 
system,  was  born  in  Tuscaloosa,  Ala.,  in  1832. 
He  was  educated  in  Lewisburg  and  Milton,  Pa. ; 
began  to  preach  at  eighteen;  and  subsequently 
studied  in  Wesleyan  institute,  Newark,  N.  J. ; 
8.  T.  D.,  Ohio  Wesleyan  and  Harvard;  LL.  D., 
Washington  and  Jefferson.  He  was  pastor  at 
Galena,  Chicago,  etc.,  1857-65;  established 
Northwest  Sunday  School  Quarterly,  1865 ;  Sunday 
Sc)iool  Teacher,  1866;  and  was  corresponding 
secretary  of  Sunday  school  union  and  editor  of 
Sunday  school  publications,  1868-84.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders,  in  1874,  of  the  Chautauqua 
assembly;  founder,  1878,  of  the  Chautauqua 
literary  and  scientific  circle,  and  has  been  its 
chancellor  ever  since;  was  preacher  to  Harvard, 
Yale,  Cornell,  Wellesley,  and  other  colleges,  and 
in  1900  was  made  resident  bishop  in  charge  of 
European  work  of  Methodist  Episcopal  church, 
but  retired  from  the  active  episcopate  in  1904. 
Author:  The  Modern  Sunday  School;  Studies  in 
Young  Life;  Little  Footprints  in  Bible  Lands; 
The  Church  School  and  Sunday  School  Institutes; 
Earthly  Footsteps  of  the  Man  of  Galilee;  Better  Not; 
The  Chautauqua  Movement;  To  Old  Bethlehem; 
Our  Own  Church;  OuMine  History  of  England; 
Outline  History  of  Greece;  The  Church  at  Home; 
Family  Worship  for  Every  Day  in  the  Year,  etc. 

Vinci  da  (do  ven'-che),  Leonardo.     See  page  124. 

Vinogradoff  (ve'-no-gra'-ddf),  Paul,  Russian  edu- 
cator and  writer,  Corpus  professor  of  jurispru- 
dence, Oxford  university,  since  1903,  and  formerly 
professor  of  history,  university  of  Moscow,  was 
bom  at  Kostroma,  Russia,  1854.  While  professor 
in  Moscow  he  exerted  himself  for  the  spread  of 
mstmction  in  Russia,  founded  the  Moscow 
pedagogical  society,  and  was  chairman  of  the 
educational  committee  of  the  city  of  Moscow. 
He  resigned  his  chair  in  consequence  of  a  conflict 
with  bureaucratic  authorities  and  settled  in 
England,    where    he    resumed    his    interrupted 


studies  in  English  social  and  legal  history.  He 
lectured  in  Harvard  and  other  American  univer- 
sities in  1907;  D.  C.  L.,  of  Oxford;  LL.  D.,  Cam- 
bridge and  Harvard,  etc.  Author:  Villainage 
in  England;  The  Growth  of  the  Manor;  The  Rise 
of  Feudalism  in  Lombard  Italy;  Inquiries  in  the 
Social  History  of  England;  English  Society  in  the 
Eleventh  Century;  several  articles  in  the  eleventh 
edition  of  the  Encydopcedia  Britannica,  etc. 

Vircbow  (Jer'-jLo),  Kudolf,  German  pathologist, 
was  bom  in  Prussia,  1821.  He  graduated  in 
medicine  at  Berlin  university,  and  in  1847  became 
a  lecturer  there.  After  being  involved  in  trouble 
on  account  of  his  share  in  the  revolution  of  1848, 
he  obtained  the  chair  of  pathological  anatomy  at 
Wiirzburg,  but  was  recalled  in  1856  to  Berlin. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Prussian  diet,  1862- 
1902;  of  the  German  Heischtag,  1880-93; 
became  leader  of  the  liberal  opposition  in  the 
Prussian  diet,  and  was  challenged  to  a  duel  in 
1865  by  Bismarck.  In  1878  lie  retired  from 
public  Ufe.  lie  was  much  consulted  during  the 
illness  of  the  emjKTor  Frederick.  His  master 
work  was  Cellular  Pathology,  which  laid  the 
foundation  of  that  branch  of  science.    Died,  1902. 

VlrRrU.     See  pa«e  28. 

VitUirla  Colonna.     See  Colonna. 

Vladimir  (lid-dyi'-mir)  the  Great,  Russian  emperor. 
who  reigned  from  980  to  1015.  He  added 
largely  to  the  kingdom  by  conquest,  but  is  best 
known  for  the  introduction  of  Christianity  into 
the  empire.  He  embracetl  the  doctrines  of  the 
Greek  church,  and  was  baptized  at  Constanti- 
nople in  988,  the  day  after  his  marriage  to  the 
sister  of  the  Turkish  czar.     He  died  in  1015. 

VoKt  (JdK.1),  Karl,  German  naturalist,  was  bom  at 
Giessen,  1817.  At  Neufchatel  he  studied  natural 
history  for  five  years  under  Agassiz.  He  was 
made  professor  of  natural  history  at  Giessen  in 
1847,  out  lost  his  position  and  had  to  leave 
Germany  because  of  his  zeal  in  the  revolutionary 
movements  of  1848.  In  1849  he  was  made 
professor  of  geology  at  Geneva,  and  held  that 
position  to  the  time  of  bis  death,  May  6,  1895. 
He  claims  to  have  written  the  first  volume  and  a 
part  of  the  second  of  Agassiz's  Natural  History 
o/"  Fresh-Water  Fishes.  He  wrote  also  Studies  in 
Geology  and  Petref actions;  Man,  His  Place  in 
Creation  and  in  the  History  of  the  Earth;  Essays 
on  t/ie  Darwinian  Theory;  works  on  physiology, 
zoology,  anthropology,  and  geologA",  and  many 
scientific  papers.  His  work  on  Faith  and  Science, 
published  in  1855,  is  best  known,  and  has  been 
severely  criticised  for  its  supposed  atheistic 
tendencies.     Died,  1895. 

Volta  (vdl'-ta),  Alessandro,  Italian  physicist,  was 
bom  at  Como,  1745.  He  invented  the  voltaic 
arc,  electrophore,  electroscope,  and  condenser; 
discovered  several  new  properties  in  electricity: 
and  was  for  thirty  years  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  at  Pavia.  He  was  made  an  Italian 
count  and  senator  by  Napoleon;  was  a  member 
of  many  learned  bodies;   and  died  in  1827. 

Voltaire  (vol'-t&r').     See  page  67. 

Wade,  Benjamin  Franklin,  American  statesman, 
was  born  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  1800.  He  studied 
law  in  Ohio,  was  three  times  elected  state  senator, 
becoming  United  States  senator  in  1851,  again 
in  1857  and  1863.  He  was  known  as  a  strong 
anti-slavery  man,  being  one  of  six  senators  who 
voted  to  repeal  the  fugitive  slave  law.  He  also 
oppiosed  all  the  measures  proposed  as  compro- 
mises between  the  North  and  the  South,  and 
was  influential  in  getting  the  homestead  bill 
through  congress.  After  the  death  of  President 
Lincoln,  Wade  was  acting  vice-president  of  the 
United  States.     Died  at  Jefferson,  Ohio,  1878. 

Wadlln,  Horace  Greeley,  librarian  of  Boston  public 
library  since  1903,  was  born  at  Wakefield,  Mass., 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


1010 


1851.  He  was  educated  in  the  schools  of  Read- 
ing, Mass.,  and  received  private  instruction; 
Litt.  D.,  Tufts,  1905.  He  studied  architecture 
at  Salem  and  Boston,  Mass.,  and  began  practice 
as  an  architect  in  Boston,  1875;  became,  in 
1879,  special  agent  and  later  in  charge  of  special 
lines  of  statistical  work  for  the  Massachusetts 
bureau  of  statistics  of  labor,  and  in  1888  chief 
of  bureau,  and  relinquished  professional  practice. 
He  resigned  in  1903  to  accept  his  present  app>oint- 
ment.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Massacliusetts 
house  of  representatives,  1884-88;  supervisor  of 
United  States  census,  1899,  1900;  lecturer  upon 
social  science,  history  and  art,  etc.  Author: 
Annual  Statistics  of  Manufactures  of  Massachu- 
setts, 1886-1901 ;  Reports  on  the  Statistics  of  Labor 
of  Massachusetts,  1888-1901 ;  The  Decennial  Cen- 
sus of  Massachusetts  for  1895,  etc. 

Wagner  {vag'-n£r'),  Charles,  French  Protestant 
clergyman  and  essayist,  was  bom  in  1852,  and 
educated  at  Paris,  Strassburg  and  Gottingen. 
After  several  years'  service  in  the  Protestant 
missions  in  the  provinces,  he  settled  in  Paris  in 
1882,  and  aroused  general  interest  by  his  effective 
protest  against  the  degenerating  tendencies  of 
Parisian  literature  and  life  in  La  Jeunesse,  Le 
courage,  and  La  vie  simple.  The  last  was  trans- 
lated and  published  in  the  United  States,  as  The 
Simple  Life,  meeting  with  universal  approval  and 
gaining  the  endorsement  of  President  Roosevelt. 
Wagner  visited  this  country  in  1905,  recording  his 
observations  later  in  My  Im.pressions  of  America. 

Wagner  (vag'-nSr),  bicbard.     See  page  180. 

Wainwright,  Richard,  American  naval  officer,  was 
born  at  Washington,  D.  C,  1849.  He  was 
graduated  from  the  naval  academy  in  1868,  and 
was  attached  for  a  time  to  the  brie  Jam.estown, 
on  the  Pacific  station.  Later  on  he  served  on 
the  Asiatic .  station,  and  after  gaining  a  lieu- 
tenancy he  did  duty  on  the  coast-survey  vessel 
Arago.  In  September,  1894,  he  reached  the  rank 
of  Ueutenant-commander,  and  was  executive 
oflBcer  on  the  battleship  Maine,  when  destroyed 
in  Havana  harbor,  February  15,  1898.  After 
this  he  did  good  service  at  the  battle  of  Santiago 
de  Cuba  aa^'commander  of  the  gunboat  Gloucester, 
when  Cervera's  squadron  was  destroyed.  He 
commanded  the  ships  at  the  naval  academy, 
1899-1900;  was  superintendent  of  the  naval 
academy,  1900-02;  became  a  captain  in  1903; 
commander    of    Newark,    1902-04;     member    of 

feneral  board,  1904-07,  and  commander  of  the 
lOuisiana,  1907-08. 

Waite,  Morrison  Remlck,  American  jurist,  chief- 
justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States, 
1874-88,  was  bom  at  Lyme,  Conn.,  1816.  He 
was  graduated  from  Yale,  1837;  studied  law 
and  practiced  in  Ohio;  was  a  member  of  the 
Ohio  legislature,  1849-50,  and  in  1871  was 
appointed  one  of  the  attorneys  to  represent  the 
United  States  before  the  tribunal  of  arbitration 
at  Geneva.  He  was  nominated  by  President 
Grant  chief-judtice  of  the  United  States  supreme 
court,  1874,  and  served  until  his  death  in  1888. 

Walcott,  Charles  Doolittle,  American  geologist, 
secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  institution  since 
1907,  was  bom  at  New  York  Mills,  N.  Y.,  1850. 
He  was  educated  in  the  public  schools,  Utica, 
N.  Y.;  LL.  D.,  Hamilton,  1897,  Chicago,  1901, 
Johns  Hopkins,  1902,  Pennsylvania,  1903.  He 
became  assistant  to  the  New  York  state  survey 
in  1876;  assistant  geologist  to  the  United  States 
geological  survey  in  1879;  paleontologist  in 
charge  of  invertebrate  paleontology,  1888-93, 
geologist  in  general  charge  of  geologv  and  paleon- 
tology, 1893-94,  and  director  of  United  States 
geological  survey,  1894—1907.  He  is  a  member 
of  many  scientific  societies,  and  author  of  the 
following:  The  Trilobite;  Paleontology  of  the 
Eureka  District;    The  Cambrian  Faunas  of  North 


America;  The  Fauna  of  the  Lower  Cambrian  or 
Olendlua  Zone;  Fre-Cambrian  Foutii/eroiu  For- 
mations; Correlation  Papers;  and  many  i«port« 
and  papers  on  geological  and  paleontologieal 
subjects. 
Waldersee  (vOl'-dir-tH'),  Count  Alfred  von,  German 
general,  was  bom  m  Potsdam,  Prussia,  1832, 
and  entered  the  German  anny  in  1860.  He 
served  with  distinction  through  the  war  of  1866, 
and  was  chief  of  the  general  utaff  in  the  Franco- 
Pmssian  war;  succeeded  Moltke  as  chief  of 
staff  in  1888,  and  in  1891  became  commander  of 
the  ninth  army  corps.  In  1900  he  was  created 
field-marshal,  and  was  appointed  to  the  chief 
command  in  China  of  the  allied  armies  encaged 
in  suppressing  the  lioxer  disturbances  at  Pekin 
and  m  tiie  province  of  Pe-chili.  In  1874  he 
married  the  widow  of  Prince  Frederick  of  Schle»- 
wig-Holstein,  who  was  formerly  Miss  Lee  of 
New  York.  Died,  1904. 
Waldstein  (wdld'-stin),  Charles,  American  arch- 
aK)logist,  was  born  in  New  York,  1856.  lie  was 
educated  at  Columbia  college,  Heidelberg,  and 
Leipzig.  He  was  university  lecturer,  classical 
archaeology,  1880,  university  reader,  1882,  director 
of  the  Fitzwilliam  museum,  1883-89,  Cam- 
bridge university ;  Slade  professor  of  fine  arts  at 
Cambridge  university.  1895-1901  and  since  1904; 
director,  1889-95,  and  professor,  1895-97,  Ameri- 
can school  of  classical  studies,  Athens,  Greece. 
Author:  Excavations  at  the  Heraion  of  Argoa; 
Balance  of  Emotion  and  Intellect;  Essays  on  the 
Art  of  Phidias;  The  Work  of  John  liuskin;  The 
Study  of  Art  in  Universities;  The  Surface  of 
Things;  The  Jewish  Question;  The  Exparuion  of 
Western  Ideals  and  the  World's  Peace;  This 
Argive  Herceum,  etc. 
Walker,  Francis  Amasa,  American  political  econo- 
mist, was  born  at  Boston,  Mass.,  1840.  He  was 
graduated  from  Amherst  in  1860;  took  part  in 
the  civil  war,  and  in  1865  rose  to  the  brevet  rank 
of  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  He  was 
wounded  at  CTiancellorsville,  and  for  a  time  was 
an  inmate  of  Libby  prison.  In  1871-72  he  was 
United  States  Indian  commissioner;  was  also 
chief  of  the  bureau  of  statistics  at  Washington, 
and  superintendent  of  the  9th  and  10th  United 
States  censuses.  From  1873  to  1881  he  was 
professor  of  political  economy  in  the  Sheffield 
scientific  school  at  Yale,  and  in  1881  became 
president  of  the  Massachusetts  institute  of  tech- 
nology at  Boston.  In  1898  he  acted  as  United 
States  commissioner  to  the  international  mone- 
tary conference  at  Paris.  His  treatment  of 
wages  and  profits  has  profoundly  influenced 
economic  theory.  Walker  was  a  leading  advo- 
cate of  international  bimetallism.  His  published 
WTntings  include:  The  Indian  Queetum;  The 
Wages  Question;  Money;  Money,  Trade,  and 
Industry;  Land  and  Its  Kent;  Political  Economy; 
Bimetallism;  and  History  of  the  Second  Army 
Corps.  Died,  1897. 
Walker,  William,  America.n  filibuster,  was  bom  at 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  1824.  He  studied  medicine  at 
Edinburgh  and  Heidelberg,  but  afterward  took 
up  law  and  then  journalism  at  New  Orleans  and 
in  California.  In  1853  he  failed  to  found  a  new 
republic  in  northern  Mexico;  in  1854  fought  his 
way  to  California,  and  with  fifty-five  followers 
started  for  Nicaragua  to  help  the  democrats.  In 
June,  1855,  he  was  repulsed;  but  in  September, 
with  110  men,  he  took  the  capital,  Granada. 
He  was  generalissimo  of  the  new  government,  and 
raised  an  American  force  of  1,400  men.  In  1856 
Costa  Rica  made  war  on  the  foreigners.  Walker 
was  elected  president;  and  his  government, 
recognized  by  the  United  States,  restored  slavery. 
Meanwhile  his  enemies  were  closing  in  on  him. 
and  at  Rivas,  in  1857,  he  capitulated  to  a  Unitea 
States   sloop-of-war.     In    November   be   landed 


1020 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


again  with  150  men  —  only  to  surrender,  in 
December,  to  a  United  States  frigate.  In  1860 
he  published  The  War  in  Nicaragua.  In  August 
he  sailed  for  Honduras  with  100  men,  took 
Trujillo,  was  compelled  to  evacuate  by  a  British 
man-of-war,  and,  given  up  to  the  Honduras 
authorities,  was  tried  and  shot  in  September, 
1860. 

Wallace,  Alfred  Russet,  English  naturalist  and 
traveler,  was  bom  in  Monmouthshire,  England, 
1823.  He  was  educated  as  a  surveyor  and 
architect,  but  devoted  his  attention  to  natural 
history  after  1845.  He  visited  South  America 
and  the  Malay  archipelago^  published  the  results 
of  his  observations  on  his  return,  and  sim.  .- 
taneously  with  Darwin  announced  the  theory  of 
natural  selection.  Among  his  other  works  are: 
Contrihutiona  to  the  Theory  of  Natural  Selection; 
On  Miracles  and  Modern  Sjnritualism;  Land 
Nationalization;  Darurinism;  Geographical  Dia- 
tribution  of  Animals,  etc. 

Wallace,  John  Flndley,  American  civil  engineer, 
was  bom  at  Fall  River,  Mass.,  1852.  He  was 
educated  at  Monmouth  college;  C.  E.,  university 
of  Wooster;  LL.  D.,  Monmouth  college;  Sc.  D., 
Armour  institute,  Chicago.  He  was  assistant 
United  States  engineer,  upper  Mississippi  river 
and  improvements  of  Rock  island  rapids,  1871- 
76;  county  surveyor  and  city  engineer,  1876- 
78;  chief  engineer  and  superintendent  of  Peoria 
and  Farmington  railroad,  1878-81 ;  chief  engi- 
neer and  superintendent  of  Central  Iowa  railway 
in  Illinois,  1881-83;  construction  engineer  and 
master  of  transportation.  Central  Iowa  railway, 
1883-86;  bridge  engineer  of  Atchison,  Topeka 
and  Santa  Fe  railroad,  1886-89;  resident  engi- 
neer of  Chicago,  Madison  and  Northern  railroad, 
1889-91;  with  Illinois  Central  railroad,  1891- 
1904;  chief  engineer  of  the  Panama  canal,  1904; 
isthmian  canal  commissioner,  1905;  president 
of  Electric  Properties  company  since  1906.  He 
is  chairman  of  the  board  of  directors  of  Westing- 
hous^  Church,  Kerr  and  Company;  was  vice- 
president  Holland-American  construction  com- 
pany; director  Atha  steel  foundries,  New  York, 
and  of  the  Wallace-Coates  engineering  company, 
Chicago. 

Wallace,  Lewis,  American  general,  diplomat,  and 
author,  was  bom  at  Brookville,  Ind.,  1827.  He 
served  as  first  lieutenant  in  the  Mexican  war; 
engaged  in  the  practice  of  law  in  Indiana  from 
1848 ;  entered  the  Union  service  during  the  civil 
war;  became  a  brigadier-general  in  1861,  and 
served  throughout  the  war.  He  was  governor 
of  New  Mexico,  1878-81,  and  from  1881  to  1885 
was  United  States  minister  to  Turkey.  Author: 
The  Fair  God;  Ben  Hur;  The  Boyhood  of  Christ; 
The  Prince  of  India,  etc.     Died,  1905. 

Wallace,  O.  C.  S.,  Canadian  clergyman  and  edu- 
cator, chancellor  of  McMaster  university,  Toronto, 
since  1895,  was  born  at  Canaan,  Nova  Scotia, 
1856.  He  was  graduated  from  Acadia  univer- 
sity, Wolfville,  Nova  Scotia,  and  at  Newton 
theological  institution,  Newton  Centre,  Mass., 
D.  D.,  LL.  D.  He  was  ordained  as  pastor  of  the 
First  Baptist  church,  Lawrence,  Mass.,  1885; 
remained  there  six  years,  and  was  called  to 
Bloor  Street  Baptist  church,  Toronto,  Canada 
and  entered  upon  his  pastorate,  1891.  Author: 
T /f  o/  Jesus;  Teachings  of  Jesus;  Labors  and 
Letters  of  the  Apostles,  etc. 

WaUace,  Sir  William,  Scottish  patriot,  was  bora 
about  1272.  He  headed  the  rising  of  1297 
against  the  English,  and  won  a  victory  at  Stirling 
bridge,  after  which  he  crossed  the  border,  devas- 
tated northern  England,  and  was  named  guardian 
of  Scotland  on  his  return.  The  next  year,  how- 
ever, he  was  defeated  by  Edward  I.  at  Falkirk 
after  which  deserted  by  the  nobles,  he  carried 
on   a  guenlla  warfare   for  seven   years.     After 


being  imprisoned  in  France,  where  he  had  sought 
aid,  he  was  declared  an  outlaw  in  1304,  was 
captured  the  next  year,  sent  to  London  and 
hanged. 
Wallensteln  (vdl'-en-a?Uin),  Albrecht  Wensel  Ease" 
blus,    duke    of    Friedland,    celebrated    German 

f general,  was  bom  in  Bohemia,  1583,  and  began 
ife  as  page  to  the  margrave  of  Bureau.  After 
having  traveled  over  nearly  all  of  Europe,  he 
married  a  widow  possessed  of  immense  riches, 
who  left  him  a  widower  at  the  end  of  four  years. 
At  the  head  of  a  formidable  army  raised  by  him 
for  the  service  of  the  emperor,  and  paid  from 
his  own  resources  and  from  unlimited  plunder, 
he,  for  several  years,  di-stinguished  himself  by 
his  successee  in  Moravia,  Bohemia,  and  northera 
Germany,  and  was  rewarded  with  the  dukedoms 
of  Mecklenburgh  and  Friedland.  His  enemies  at 
length  succeeded  in  procuring  his  dismissal,  and 
he  retired  to  Praj^ue,  where  he  lived  with  all  the 
state  of  a  sovereign.  The  progress  of  Gustavus 
Adolphus  compelled  the  emperor,  in  1632,  to 
place  Wallenstoin  again  in  command  of  his 
forces,  with  almost  regal  authority.  He  foiled 
Gustavus  at  Nuremberg,  but  was  defeated  at 
Liitzen.  At  length  he  was  accused  of  treason, 
and  his  commission  was  revoked;  and,  while  he 
was  meditating  projects  of  revenge,  he  was 
assassinated,  in  1634,  by  some  of  his  own  officers. 

Walpole,  Horace,  Engli.sh  author,  was  bom  in 
1717,  and  in  1791  succeeded  to  the  title  of  earl 
of  Orford,  originally  granted  to  his  father.  He 
graduated  from  Cambridge,  and  entered  parlia- 
ment in  1741.  In  1747  he  purcha.sed  the  famous 
estate  of  Strawberry  HiU,  Twickenham,  the 
building  and  adornment  of  which  occupied  him 
during  a  considerable  portion  of  his  life.  In 
this  house  he  collected  works  of  art  and  curiosities 
of  every  description,  and  likewise  established  a 
private  printing-press,  at  which  several  of  his 
own  works  and  some  others  were  printed. 
Although  he  remained  a  member  of  the  house  of 
commons  until  1768,  he  devoted  himself  chiefly 
to  literary  and  artistic  pursuits  from  the  period 
of  his  entering  into  possession  of  the  house  at 
Strawberry  Hill.  He  wrote  Catalogue  of  Royal 
and  Noble  Authors;  Anecdotes  of  Painting  in 
England;  The  Castle  of  Otranto;  Historic  Doubts 
on  the  Life  and  Reign  of  Richard  IIL;  and  subse- 
quently, Reminiscences  of  the  Courts  of  George  I. 
and  ll.,  the  publication  of  which  was  not  com- 
pleted until  after  his  death.  He  is  now  remem- 
bered chiefly  for  his  Letters,  which  extend  over  a 
period  of  sixty  years,  and  which  are  remarkable 
for  their  wit  and  humor,  and  for  their  delinea- 
tions of  the  society  in  which  he  lived.  Died, 
1797. 

Walpole,  Sir  Bobert,  English  statesman,  was  bom 
at  Houghton,  England,  1676.  He  was  graduated 
from  Cambridge,  and  entered  parliament  in  1701. 
He  was  secretary  of  war,  1708;  treasurer  of  the 
navy,  1709;  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  1715- 
17;  and  prime  minister,  1721— 42.  As  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer  he  had  to  deal  with  the  difli- 
culty  in  which  Great  Britain  was  placed  through 
the  collapse  of  the  South  Sea  company;  and 
was  one  of  the  first  to  urge  the  establishment  of 
a  sinking  fund  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  the 
national  debt.  He  was  an  enemy  of  war,  and  a 
strong  supporter  of  the  Protestant  succession. 
On  his  retirement  in  1742  he  was  created  earl  of 
Orford,  with  a  pension  of  4,000  pounds  a  year. 
Died,  1745. 

Walsh,  Blanche,  American  actress,  was  bom  in 
New  York,  1873,  daughter  of  Thomas  P-  Walsh. 
She  made  her  dramatic  d^but  as  Olivia  in 
Twdfth  Night,  with  Marie  Wainwright,  Chicago, 
1889,  and  remained  with  that  companv  until 
1892.  She  then  joined  Charles  Frohman's  com- 
pany;   played  the  title   r61e  in   Trilby,    1896; 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


1021 


created  the  part  of  Maslova  in  Tolatoi'a  Resur- 
rection, 1903.  She  married,  1896,  Alfred  Hick- 
man, whom  she  divorced  in  1903;  and  in  1906 
married  W.  M.  Travers,  actor. 

Walsh«  Thomas  F^  mine  owner  and  mining  engi- 
neer,  was  born  in  the  county  of  Tipperary, 
Ireland,  1851.  He  was  educated  in  the  public 
schools,  learned  the  millwright's  trade;  emi- 
grated to  the  United  States  at  the  age  of  nine- 
teen, and  settled  in  Colorado.  He  there  engaged 
in  the  mining  business,  studied  geology,  mineral- 
ogy, metallurgy,  the  deposition  of  ore  bodies,  and 
the  development  and  treatment  of  ores,  and  was 
instrumental  in  introducing  new  methods  of 
treatment.  He  developed,  equipped  and  was  a 
large  owner  in  the  Camp  Bird  mines,  Ouray,  Col., 
and  other  properties.     Died,  1910. 

Walter,  Thomas  Ustick,  American  architect,  was 
bom  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1804.  In  1833  he 
made  the  designs  for  the  Girard  college  building, 
which,  on  its  completion,  in  1847,  was  pronounced 
the  finest  specimen  of  classic  architecture  in  the 
United  States.  His  next  great  work  was  the 
breakwater  at  La  Guayra  for  the  Venezuelan 
government.  In  1848  his  design  for  the  exten- 
sion of  the  Capitol  at  Washington,  D.  C,  was 
adopted  Having  been  app>ointed  government 
architect,  he  removed  to  Washington,  and 
remained  there  until  the  completion  of  the  work 
in  1862.  While  in  Washington  he  also  designed 
the  extensions  of  the  patent  office,  treasury,  and 
post-office  buildings,  the  dome  of  the  capitol, 
and  the  government  hospital  for  the  insane.  He 
died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1887. 

Walton,  Clifford  Stevens,  American  lawyer,  was 
born  at  Chardon,  Ohio,  1861.  He  was  educated 
at  the  United  States  military  academy,  univer- 
sity of  Madrid,  Spain,  and  National  law  univer- 
sity, Washington.  He  was  an  authority  on  Spanish 
jurisprudence,  and  served  as  attorney  for  or 
against  the  United  States  on  several  international 
law  commissions,  including  controversies  between 
the  United  States  and  Chile,  Peru,  Salvador,  etc. 
Major  United  States  volunteers,  1898-99,  on 
staffs  of  Major-generals  Brooke  and  Ludlow  in 
Porto  Rico  and  Cuba.  Author:  T?ie  Civil  Law 
in  Spain  and  Spanish  America;  Leyes  Comer- 
dales  y  Maritimas  de  la  America  Latina,  etc. 
Died,  1912. 

Walton,  Izaak,  EngUsh  writer,  was  bom  at  Stafford, 
England,  1593.  He  is  chiefly  remembered  as 
the  author  of  The  Compleat  Angler,  or  The  Con- 
templative Man's  Recreation,  which  was  published 
in  1655.  .  He  was  a  linendraj>er  in  the  city  of 
London,  first  in  Comhill,  and  afterward  in  Fleet 
street.  At  fifty  years  of  age  he  retired  from 
business,  and  thenceforward  devoted  himself  to 
literary  pursuits,  and  to  angling,  whichlseems  to 
have  been  his  passion.  His  Compleat  Angler  is 
still  a  popular  book,  especially  pleasing  for  its 
quiet  and  quaint  dialogue,  and  for  its  ghmpses 
of  rural  scenery,  manners,  and  pastimes.  He 
also  wrote  Life  of  Dr.  Donne;  Life  of  Sir  H. 
Wotton;  Liife  of  Richard  Hooker;  Life  of  George 
Herbert;    Ldfe  of  Bishop  Sanderson.     Died,  1683. 

Wanamaker,  John,  American  merchant,  was  bom 
at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1838.  He  was  wiucated  in 
the  public  schools  until  1852;  was  errand  boy  in 
book  store  at  fourteen;  went  to  Indiana,  but 
returned,  1856;  retail  clothing  salesman,  1856- 
68;  established,  1861,  with  Nathan  Brown, 
clothing  house  of  Wanamaker  and  Brown,  Phila- 
delphia; established,  1876,  department  store  in 
Philadelphia,  and  a  similar  business  in  New  York 
in  1896,  in  succession  to  the  business  of  A.  T. 
Stewart,  now  among  the  largest  in  the  country. 
He  declined  the  republican  nomination  to  the 
48th  congress,  and  the  independent  nomination 
for  mayor  of  Philadelphia,  1886 ;  was  postmaster- 
general  of  the  United  States,  1889-93;    and  has 


long  been  active  In  religious  work.  He  founded, 
1858,  the  Bethany  Sunday  school,  probably  th« 
largest  in  the  United  States;  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Christian  commiasion  during  the 
civil  war,  and  was  president  of  the  Y.  M.  U.  A. 
of  Philadelphia,  1870-«3. 

"Ward,  Artenius."     See  Browne,  Cbaries  Farrsr. 

Ward,  Elizabeth  Stuart  Phelps.  See  Fbelps- 
Ward,  Elisabeth  Stuari. 

Ward,  Mrs.  liumphry  (Mary  Augusta  Arnold), 
English  novelist  and  writer,  was  bom  at  Hobart, 
in  Tasmania,  1851,  daughter  of  Thomas  Arnold, 
second  son  of  Dr.  Arnold  of  Rugby.  In  1872 
she  married  Thomas  Humphry  Ward,  a  well- 
known  critic  and  writer.  She  b^an  early  to 
contribute  to  Macmillan'a  Magazine,  and  gave 
the  fruits  of  her  Spanish  studies  to  Smith's 
Dictionary  of  Christian  Biography.  A  child's 
story,  Milly  and  OUy,  Miss  Bretherton,  a  slight 
novel,  and  the  translation  of  Amiel's  Journal 
Intime,  prepared  the  way  for  the  spiritual 
romance  of  liobert  Elsmere,  in  1888.  Since  then 
she  has  published :  The  History  of  David  Grieve; 
Marcella;  Sir  George  Tressady;  Lady  Roae'a 
Daughter;  Helbeck  of  Bannisaaie;  Eleanor,  a 
play;  The  Marriage  of  William  Ashe;  Fenvnck'a 
Career;  Diana  Mallory,  etc.  She  is  also  an 
occasional  lecturer  and  is  prominent  in  settlement 
work  in  London. 

Ward,  John  Quincy  Adams,  American  sculptor, 
was  bora  at  Urbana,  Ohio,  1830.  His  first 
work  was  done  in  Washington,  and  con^sted 
largely  of  busts  of  noted  men,  including  Alex- 
ander Stephens,  Hannibal  Hamlin,  and  others. 
After  1861  his  home  was  in  New  York.  His 
"Indian  Hunter,"  "A  Private  of  the  Seventh 
Regiment,"  and  "Shakespeare"  are  in  Centnil 
park.  New  York;  his  colossal  statue  of  Washing- 
ton is  on  the  steps  of  the  sub-treasury  building 
in  Wall  street.  New  York,  and  a  statue  of  Henry 
Ward  Beecher  in  Brooklyn,  and  tliat  of  William 
E.  Dodge  on  Broadway,  New  York.  He  also 
executed  the  "Good  Samaritan,"  "The  Freed- 
man,"  statues  of  Commodore  Perry^  Washington, 
and  General  Thomas,  and  equestrian  statues  of 
Sheridan  and  Hancock.     Died,  1910. 

Warfleld,  David,  American  actor  was  bom  at  Ban 
Francisco,  1866.  He  received  a  public  school 
education,  and  made  his  first  appearance  at  the 
Wigwam  theater,  San  Francisco,  1886.  He  went 
to  New  York  in  1890;  played  in  Casino  theatr>r 
and  Weber  and  Field's  music  hall,  1895-98;  was 
starred  by  David  Belasco  in  The  Auctioneer. 
1898-1901;  The  Music  Master,  1901-07,  and 
1909;  A  Grand  Army  Man,  1907-08;  The  Return 
of  Peter  Grimm,  191  i,  etc. 

Warner,  Charles  Dudley,  American  author,  was 
bom  at  Plainfield,  Mass.,  1829.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Hamilton  college,  1851;  practicea  law 
in  Chicago,  1856-60,  then  settled  as  an  editor  at 
Hartford,  Conn.,  and  became  associate  editor  of 
the  Hartford  Courant  in  1867.  In  1884  he  be- 
came co-editor  of  Harper's  Magatine.  in  which 
his  papers  on  the  South,  Mexico,  ana  the  great 
West  appeared.  In  1873  he  wrote  with  "Mark 
Twain '*^  The  Gilded  Age.  His  other  works 
include:  My  Summer  in  a  Garden;  Back-log 
Studies;  Being  a  Boy;  Washington  Irving; 
Captain  John  Smith;  books  of  travel,  such  as 
In  the  Levant,  etc.     Died,  1900. 

Warren,  Francis  Emroy,  United  States  senator, 
was  bom  in  Hinsdale,  Mass.,  1844.  He  received 
a  common  school  and  academic  education; 
enlisted  in  1862  in  the  49th  Massachusetts 
regiment  of  infantry,  and  served  as  private  and 
non-commissioned  officer  in  that  regiment  until 
it  was  mustered  out  of  service.  He  was  engaged 
in  farming  and  stock  raising  in  Massachusetts 
until  early  in  1868,  when  he  moved  to  Wyoming. 
He  was  president  of  the  senate  of  Wyoming 


1022 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


legislature,  1873-74,  and  member  of  the  senate, 
1884-85;  was  three  terms  treasurer  of  Wyoming; 
was  appointed  governor  of  Wyoming  by  President 
Arthur  in  1885,  and  removed  by  President 
Cleveland  in  1886 ;  was  again  appointed  governor 
of  Wyoming  by  President  Harrison  in  1889,  and 
served  until  the  territory  was  admitted  as  a 
state,  when  he  was  elected  the  first  governor  of 
.  the  state.  He  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
senate  in  1890,  and  reelected  in  1895,  1901,  1907, 
and  1913.  ,   ,  ^  ^ 

Warren,  Joseph,  American  soldier,  was  bom  at 
Itoxbury,  Mass.,  1741.  He  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1759,  and  became  a  physician  in 
Boston,  1764.  In  1772  he  was  a  member  of  the 
committee  of  correspondence.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Suffolk  county  convention,  which  was 
called  to  oppose  Governor  Gage's  proposed  forti- 
fication of  the  south  entrance  to  Boston  harbor, 
and  as  chairman  of  the  committee  appointed  to 
remonstrate  with  Gage  on  that  subject,  drew  uj) 
two  papers,  which  were  afterward  laid  before 
congress.  In  1774  he  was  a  member  and  presi- 
dent of  the  Massachusetts  congress,  and  chairman 
of  the  committee  of  public  safety.  He  had 
much  to  do  with  the  success  at  Lexington,  and 
in  1775  was  commissioned  maior-general.  He 
opposed  the  occupation  of  Chariestown  heights, 
advocated  by  Putnam  and  Prescott,  thinking 
the  American  supply  of  ammunition  too  small 
to  repel  an  attack.  Overruled  by  a  majority  of 
the  council,  which  resolved  to  fortify  Bunker 
Hill,  he  went  there  as  a  volunteer,  refusing  to 
take  the  chief  command  offered  to  him  by  both 
Prescott  and  Putnam.  As  he  was  leaving  the 
field  among  the  last,  he  was  killed  by  a  ball  in 
the  forehead,  1775. 

Warren,  Samuel,  English  novelist,  was  bom  in 
Denbighshire,  1807.  He  studied  medicine  and 
law,  was  called  to  the  bar  and  made  queen's 
counsel  in  1851.  He  was  recorder  of  Hull, 
1854-74;  conservative  member  of  parliament 
for  Midhurst,  1856-59,  and  then  master  of  lunacy 
in  1859.  He  is  chiefly  remembered  by  his 
Passages  from  the  Diary  of  a  Late  Physician,  and 
Ten  Thousand  a  Year,  the  amusing  story  of 
Tittlebat  Titmouse,  both  of  which  appeared  first 
in  Blackwood's.  Other  works  were:  Now  and 
Then,  The  Lily  and  the  Bee,  and  several  law 
books.     Died,  1877. 

Warren,  Winslow,  American  lawyer,  was  bom  at 
Plymouth,  Mass.,  1838.  He  was  graduated  at 
Harvard,  1858,  at  Harvard  law  school,  1860; 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  and  engaged  in  practice 
in  Boston,  1860.  He  was  formerly  associate 
counsel  for  the  Boston  and  Providence  railroad; 
collector  of  the  port  of  Boston,  1894-98;  United 
States  commissioner,  1861-94,  and  is  now  counsel 
for  many  corporations.  He  is  a  director  of  the 
Columbian  National  life  insurance  company; 
president-general  of  the  society  of  the  Cincinnati ; 
president  of  Massachusetts  society  of  the  Cin- 
cinnati; ex-president  of  the  Bunker  Hill  monu- 
nnent  association;  overseer  of  Harvard  college 
since  1899;  member  of  Massachusetts  historical 
society,  etc. 

Warwick,  Richard  Neville,  Earl  of,  sumamed  the 
'  king-maker,"  was  born  about  1428.  He  was  the 
wealthiest  and  most  powerful  subject  of  his  time 
in  Europe,  and  allied  by  blood  to  the  royal  houses 
of  England  and  France.  After  joining  the  York- 
ists in  the  commencement  of  the  calamitous  war 
of  the  Roses,  and  taking  King  Henry  VI.  prisoner 
Warwick,  after  his  victory  of  Towton,  placed 
Edward,  duke  of  York,  on  the  throne  as  Edward 
1  ^T^"^  ^^^  latter  quarreling  with  his  great 
vassal,  Warwick  allied  himself  with  the  Lancas- 
trians, formed  an  alliance  with  France,  and  at 
the  head  of  a  powerful  army  drove  Edward  out 
of  England,   and  reinstated  Henry  VI.   on  the 


throne.  He  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Bamet, 
1471. 

Washington,  Booker  Taliaferro,  principal  of  Tu»- 
kegee  normal  and  industrial  institute  since  1881, 
was  bom  near  Hale's  Ford,  Va.,  about  1859,  the 
son  of  a  mulatto  slave  and  a  white  man.  He 
was  graduated  from  Hampton  institute,  Vir- 
ginia, 1875;  A.  M.,  Harvard,  1896;  LL.  D., 
Dartmouth,  1901.  He  was  a  teacher  at  Hampton 
institute  until  elected  by  the  state  authorities 
head  of  Tuskegee  institute,  which  he  organized 
and  has  made  successful.  He  is  a  well-known 
and  able  writer  and  speaker  on  racial  and  educa- 
tional subjects.  Author:  Sowing  and  Reaving; 
Up  From  i^verp;  Future  of  the  American  Negro; 
Cnaracter  Building;  Story  of  My  Lije  and  Work; 
Working  With  Hands;  Tuakegee  and  lU  PeopU, 
etc. 

Washington,  Geors*.     See  page  473. 

Watsun,  John,  Canadian  educator  and  writer,  was 
bom  at  Glasgow,  Scotland,  1847.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Glasgow  university,  M.  A.,  1872, 
LL.  D.,  1880;  has  been  professor  of  lo^ic,  meta- 
physics, and  ethics  in  Queen's  university,  King- 
ston, since  1872.  Author:  Kant  and  his  English 
Critics;  Schdling^s  TranseenderUal  Idealism,  a 
Critical  Exposition;  The  Philosophy  of  Kant  as 
Contained  in  Extracts  from  his  own  Writings; 
ComU,  Mill,  and  Spencer,  an  Outline  of  Philoao- 
phy;  Hedonistic  Theories,  from  Aristippua  to 
Spencer;  Christianity  and  Idealism;  An  Outline 
of  Philosophy;  The  Philosophical  Basis  of  Reli- 
gion;   The  Philosophy  of  Kant  Explained,  etc. 

Watson,  John.     See  Maclaren,  Ian. 

Watson,  Thomas  E.,  American  lawyer  and  poli- 
tician, was  bom  in  Georgia,  1856.  He  studied 
two  years  in  Mercer  college,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1875.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
G^srgia  legislature,  1882-83;  member  of  con- 
gress, 1891-93;  and  while  in  congress  secured 
the  first  appropriation  for  the  free  delivery  of 
mails  in  rural  districts  that  congress  ever  passed. 
He  was  nominated  for  vice-president  of  the 
United  States  at  the  St.  Louis  populist  conven- 
tion, 1896;  was  nominated  for  president  by  the 
people's  party,  1904;  began  the  publication  of 
Tom  Watson's  Magazine,  in  New  York,  1905. 
Author:  The  Story  of  France;  Life  of  Thomas 
Jefferson;  Life  of  Napoleon;  Life  and  Times  of 
Thomas  Jefferson;  Bethany,  a  Study  and  Story  of 
the  Old  South,  etc. 

Watson,  William,  English  poet,  was  bom  at 
Burley-in-Wharf  edale,  1858.  His  father  became 
a  merchant  in  Liverpool,  and  there  he  received 
his  education;  hon.  LL.  D.,  Aberdeen,  1904. 
His  early  poems  were  published  in  the  Liverpool 
Argus  in  1875,  and  his  first  book.  The  Prince's 
<2ues<,  appeared  in  1880.  Since  then  have 
appeared:  Epigrams  of  Art,  Life,  and  Nature; 
Wordsworth's  Grave;  Lachrymae  Musarum;  Lyric 
Love;  The  Eloping  Angels;  Excursions  in  Criti- 
cism; Odes,  and  other  Poems;  The  Father  of  the 
Forest;  The  Purple  East;  The  Year  of  Shame; 
The  Hope  of  the  World;  Collected  Poems;  Ode  on 
the  Coronation  of  King  Eduxird  VII.;  For  Eng- 
land;  The  Woman  with  the  Serpents  Tongu*,  etc. 

Watt,  James.     See  page  375. 

Watterson,  Henry,  American  journalist  and  orator, 
was  born  at  Washington,  D.  C,  1840.  He  was 
privatelj'  educated,  and  began  his  career  on  the 
Democratic  Review  and  on  The  States  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.  He  edited  the  Republican  Banner, 
at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  before  and  after  the  civil 
war,  in  the  interim  serving  with  distinction  in  the 
confederate  army  as  chief  of  scouts  under  General 
Joseph  E.  Johnston.  He  subsequently  settled 
at  Louisville,  Ky.,  where  he  founded  and  has 
since  edited  the  Courier-Journal,  which  he  has 
made  one  of  the  foremost  democrat  newspapers. 
During  the  years  1876-77  he  was  a  member  of 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


1028 


congress,  and,  though  repeatedly  urged,  he  has 
uniformly  declined  office,  but  has  contented 
himself  with  presiding  over  conventions  and 
supporting  his  democratic  friends  and  allies  in 
"their  political  contests.  At  Chicago,  in  1893,  he 
delivered  the  dedicatory  oration  at  the  opening 
of  the  World's  Columbian  exposition.  In  189G 
he  decUned  the  offer  of  a  nomination  for  presi- 
dent on  the  national  gold  democratic  ticket.  He 
has  published  a  History  of  the  Spanish- American 
War;  Oddities  of  Southern  Life  and  Character; 
Abraham  Lincoln;  The  Compromises  of  Life, 
etc. ;  and  continues  to  be  one  of  America's  most 
brilliant  journalists. 

Watts,  George  Frederick,  English  artist,  sculptor, 
portrait  painter,  and  delineator  of  historical  sub- 
jects, was  bom  at  London,  1817.  He  first 
exhibited  at  the  royal  academy  in  1837,  and 
gained  a  reputation  for  the  size,  artistic  excel- 
lence, and  Deauty  of  coloring  of  his  pictures. 
His  chief  exhibits  included:  "Caractacus"; 
"Alfred  the  Great";  "St.  George  and  the 
Dragon";  "Cymbeline";  "Fata  Morgana": 
"Life's  Allusions";  "Endymicn":  "Love  and 
Death";  "The  Good  Samaritan";  "Hope"; 
"Sir  Galahad";  "Orpheus  and  Eurydice"; 
together  with  portraits  of  Tennyson,  Browning, 
Gladstone,  Lord  Ljrtton,  Matthew  Arnold, 
Holman  Hunt,  Swinburne,  Dean  Stanley,  John 
Stuart  Mill,  William  Morris,  and  others.  Died, 
1904. 

Watts,  Isaac,  English  hymn  writer  and  theologian, 
was  born  at  Southampton,  England,  1674.  In 
1096  he  became  tutor  in  the  family  of  Sir  John 
Hartopp,  with  whom  he  remains!  six  years. 
During  the^latter  part  of  his  time  he  officiated  as 
assistant  minister  of  the  Independent  church  in 
Mark  Lane,  London,  to  which  post  he  succeeded 
in  1702,  resigning  because  of  ill  health,  1712. 
His  theological  works  were  numerous,  and  his 
treatise  on  Logic  had  a  considerable  reputation. 
His  reputation  has  been  chiefly  perpetuated  by 
his  well  known  hj-mns.     Died,  1748. 

Wayne,  Anthony,  famous  general  in  the  war  of  the 
revolution,  was  bom  in  Pennsylvania,  1745.  At 
the  outbreak  of  hostilities  he  raised  a  regiment 
of  volunteers,  of  which  he  was  appointed  colonel, 
and  sent  to  Canada.  He  commanded  Ticonder- 
oga  until  1777^  when  he  was  made  brigadier- 
general,  and  joined  Washington  in  New  Jersey; 
led  the  attack  at  German  town;  captured  sup- 
plies for  the  distressed  army  at  Valley  Force; 
distinguished  himself  at  Monmouth;  was  de- 
feated at  Paoli,  but  achieved  a  briUiant  victory 
in  the  storming  of  Stony  Point,  1779.  His 
courage  and  skill  saved  Lafayette  in  Virginia, 
1780.  He  aided  in  the  siege  of  Yorktown,  and 
commanded  in  Georgia.  By  his  dash  and 
audacity  he  acquired  the  sobriquet  of  "Mad 
Anthony."  He  became  major-general  and  com- 
mander-in-chief in  1792.     Died,  179G. 

Weber  {vaf-btr),  Karl  Maria  von,  German  com- 
poser, was  bom  at  Eutin  near  Liibeck,  1786,  of 
a  famed  musical  family.  He  early  gave  proof 
of  musical  talent;  studied  at  Vienna  under 
Abb#  Vogler,  and  at  Dresden  became  founder 
and  director  of  the  German  opera.  His  first 
great  production  was  Der  Freischutz,  which 
established  his  fame,  and  was  followed  by  Oberon, 
his  masterpiece;  Das  Waldm&dchen,  etc.  Oberon 
was  produced  in  London  in  1826,  where,  shortly 
afterward,  he  died  in  the  same  year.  He  also 
wrote  a  number  of  pieces  for  the  piano,  deserv- 
edly popular. 

Webster,  Arthur  Gordon,  American  physicist,  pro- 
fessor of  physics,  Clark  university,  Worcester, 
Mass.,  was  bom  at  Brookhne,  Mass.,  1863.  He 
was  graduated  at  Harvard,  1885;  studied  at 
Berlin,  Paris,  Stockholm,  1886-90;  Ph.  D, 
BerUn,    1890;     D.    Sc,    Tufts,    1905.     He   wag 


awarded  the  Thomaoa  prite  of  6,000  franca  at 
Paris,  1895,  for  experimental  reitearch  on  tb« 
Period  of  Electrical  OaeiUationa.  He  ia  a  member 
of  many  scientific  aaBOciationa,  and  author  of: 
A  Mathematical  Treatiae  on  the  Theory  qf  Ette 
tricity  and  Magnetism;  Dvnamica  of  Partidst, 
and  of  Rigid,  Elastic  and  Fluid  Bodiet;  Lowm 
Institute  Lectures  on  Electricity  and  Ether;  and 
many  papers  on  physics. 

Webster,  Daniel.     See  ]>uge  494. 

Webtitcr,  John,  great  Enslish  dramatist,  waa  bom 
about  1580.  Little  of  his  Hfe  is  known.  He 
collaborated  with  a  number  of  writers  of  the 
period,  and  then  produced  unaided  the  tragedy 
of  The  White  Devu,  one  of  his  two  great  maater* 
pieces,  about  1610.  Appius  and  Virainia  fol- 
lowed, and  about  1616  Webeter  proauoed  hit 
famous  Duchess  of  Malfi.  The  Demi's  Law  Caae, 
a  later  work,  proved  more  commonplace.  Aa  a 
master  of  tragedy,  especially  the  tragedy  of 
terror  and  violence,  Webster  must  be  ranked 
second  only  to  Shakespeare.  He  died  about 
1625. 

Webster,  Noah,  author  and  philologist,  was  bom 
at  Hartford,  Conn.,  1758,  and  was  educated  at 
Yale  college;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1781,  but 
engaged  in  scholastic  and  Utcrarv  occupations. 
While  employed  in  teaching  at  Goshen,  N.  Y., 
he  prepared  his  Grammatical  Institutes  ^f  the  Eno- 
lish  Language,  and  edited  Governor  Winthrop  s 
Journal.  In  1784  he  wrote  Sketches  of  American 
Policy,  advocating  the  formation  of  a  new  con- 
stitution, and  gave  public  lectures  on  the  English 
language,  which  were  published  in  1789.  In 
1807  he  published  A  Philosophical  and  Practical 
Grammar  of  the  Englinh  Language,  and  com- 
menced his  American  Dictionary  of  the  Englith 
Language;  but  finding  difficulties  in  etymology. 
he  devoted  tenyears  to  its  study,  and  preparea 
a  Synopsis  of  Words  in  Twenty  Languages;  then 
began  his  dictionary  anew,  and  in  seven  years 
completed  it.  He  also  published  a  popular 
History  of  the  United  States,  Dissertations  on  th» 
English  Language,  and  a  Manual  of  Useful 
Studies.  He  was  a  judge,  a  member  of  the  state 
legislature,  and  one  of  the  founders  of  Amherst 
college.     Died  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1843. 

Weed,  Thuriow,  American  journalist,  was  bom  at 
Cairo,  N.  Y.,  1797.  At  the  age  of  ten  he  was  a 
cabin  boy  on  a  sloop  on  the  Hudson  river,  and 
at  twelve  an  apprentice  in  a  printing  office  at 
Catskill,  N.  Y.  He  served  as  a  volunteer  in  the 
war  of  1812;  established  the  Aaricvlturalitt  in 
western  New  York;  edited  several  other  journals, 
and  became  famous  as  the  editor  of  the  Albany 
Journal,  1830-62,  the  organ  of  the  whig  party. 
Here  he  became  an  acknowledged  leader  of  the 
whig  and  repubUcan  party,  and  had  great  influ- 
ence in  securing  the  nominations  of  William  H. 
Harrison,  Taylor,  and  Scott.  In  1865  he  moved 
to  New  York  city  and  became  editor  of  the 
New  York  Times,  and  afterward  of  the  Cotn>- 
mercial  Adv>ertiser.  In  1861-62  he  was  sent  to 
Europe  on  a  special  mission  by  President  Lin- 
coln. He  published  several  volumes  of  remini^ 
cences  and  letters.     Died  at  New  Yotk  in  1882. 

Weir  (wer),  Robert  Walter,  American  painter,  waa 
bom  at  New  Rochelle,  N.  Y.,  1803.  After 
studying  in  Italy  several  years  he  was  made 
professor  of  drawing  at  West  Point,  N.  Y., 
where  he  remained  for  forty-two  years.  His 
best  known  works  are:  "The  Landing  of  Henry 
Hudson";  "Columbus  before  the  Council  of 
Salamanca";  "Indian  Captives";  "Embarita- 
tion  of  the  Pilgrims,"  in  the  rotunda  of  Wash- 
ington; and  "Christ  in  the  Garden."  Some  d 
his  works  in  private  collections  at  New  Yorit  are 
very  fine,  as  a  "View  of  Hudson  frtwn  West 
Point,"  "Rebecca,"  from  Ivanhoe.  and  "A  Pier 
at  Venice."     He  died  at  New  York  in  1889. 


1024 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Weismann  (»i«'-man),  August,  German  biolopst, 
professor  of  zoology,  university  of  Freiburg,  since 
1867;  was  bom  at  Frankfort,  1834.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Gottingen,  and  in  1861  became 
physician  to  the  archduke  Stephen  of  Austria. 
His  first  work  was  on  the  Development  of  the 
Diptera,  in  1863.  In  1868-76  appeared  a  series 
of  papers,  translated  in  1882  as  Studies  in  the 
Theory  of  Descent.  His  Essays  upon  Heredity 
arid  Kindred  Biological  Problems  raised  a  great 
controversy  by  denying  that  characters  acquired 
by  the  individual  are  transmitted  to  offspring. 
He  contends  that  natural  selection  is  the  donu- 
nant  factor  in  evolution,  and  that  use  and  disuse 
of  parts  and  the  action  of  environment  count  for 
little  or  nothing  so  far  as  future  generations  are 
concerned.  He  has  published,  besides  the  Ro- 
manes lectures  of  1894,  The  Evolution  Theory, 
and  half  a  dozen  works  on  kindred  problems. 

Welch,  William  Henry,  American  physician  and 
pathologist, was  born  at  Norfolk,  Conn.,  1850.  He 
was  graduated  from  Yale  in  1870;  M.  D.,  college 
of  physicians  and  surgeons.  New  York,  1875; 
and  was  a  graduate  student  at  Strassburg, 
Leipzig  Breslau,  and  BerUn,  1876-78,  1884-86; 
hon.  M.  D..  university  of  Pennsylvania,  1894; 
LL.  D.,  Western  Reserve,  1894,  Yale,  1896, 
Harvard,  1900,  Toronto,  1903,  Columbia,  1904, 
Jefferson  medical  college,  1907.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  pathological  anatomy  and  general  pa- 
thology, IJ  niversity  and  Bellevue  hospital  medical 
college,  1879-84 ;  Baxley  professor  of  pathology, 
Johns  Hopkins,  since  1884-  and  pathologist  to 
the  Johns  Hopkins  hospital  since  1889.  Presi- 
dent board  of  directors.  Rockefeller  institute  for 
medical  research,  since  1901.  He  is  the  author  of 
General  Pathology  of  Fever,  and  numerous  papers 
on  pathological   and  bacteriological  subjects. 

Wellington,  Arthur  Wellesley,  Duke  of,  celebrated 
British  general,  was  bom  at  Dan^an  Castle, 
Ireland,  1769.  He  completed  his  military  edu- 
cation a  few  years  before  the  French  revolution, 
in  the  military  college  of  Angers,  in  France; 
entered  the  army  as  ensign  in  1787,  and  became 
lieutenant-colonel  in  1793.  In  1794  he  em- 
barked to  join  the  duke  of  York's  army  in  the 
Netherlands.  In  this,  his  first  term  of  actual 
service,  he  commanded  three  battalions  on  the 
retreat  of  the  army  through  Holland,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  several  repulses  of  the 
French.  It  was  in  the  Mahratta  war  of  1803 
that  he  won  his  first  fame.  In  1808  he  com- 
manded an  expedition  which  sailed  from  Cork, 
being  the  first  division  of  the  British  army  sent 
out  to  assist  in  the  expulsion  of  the  French  from 
Spain  and  Portugal.  Throughout  the  peninsula 
campaign  success  crowned  his  efforts,  and  the 
French  were  vanquished  everjrwhere.  In  1814 
he  was  created  marquis  of  Douro  and  duke  of 
Wellington.  He  was  appointed  ambassador- 
extraordinary  to  the  congress  of  Vienna.  Napo- 
leon having  escaped  from  Elba,  the  congress  was 
abruptly  broken  up.  He  was  then  appointed 
commander  of  the  British  forces  on  the  continent 
of  Europe,  and  from  Vienna  joined  the  army  at 
Bmssels.  It  appeared  probable  that  Napoleon 
would  make  a  bold  advance  into  Belgium,  and 
its  defense  was  assigned  to  an  army  under 
WeUington,  and  a  Prussian  army  under  Bliicher 
The  battles  of  Ligny  and  Quatre  Bras  were  suc- 
ceeded on  June  18,  1815,  by  the  great  battle  of 
Waterloo.  Here  the  grand  and  decisive  blo^ 
was  struck,  and  the  power  of  Napoleon  was 
finally  crushed.  When  the  allied  armies  evacu- 
ated France  in  1818,  the  emperors  of  Russia  and 
Austria  and  the  king  of  Prussia  created  Welling- 
ton a  field  marshal  of  their  armies.  At  the 
coronation  of  George  IV.,  in  1821,  he  officiated 
as  lord  high  constable  of  England.  In  1827  he 
succeeded  the  duke  of  York  as  conunander-in- 


chief  of  the  British  army,  and  from  1828  to  1830 
was  prime  minister.  In  1834  he  was  elected 
chancellor  of  the  university  of  Oxford.  Died,  at 
Wabner  Castle,  in  1852. 

Wells,  Carolyn,  author,  was  bom  at  Rahway, 
N.  J.,  daughter  of  William  E.  Wells,  and  has 
been  engaged  in  Uterary  work  since  1895.  Author : 
At  the  Sign  of  the  Sphinx;  Idle  Idylls;  A  Non- 
sense Anthology;  Eight  Girls  and  a  Dog;  The 
Gordon  Elopement;  The  Staying  Guest;  The 
Dorrance  Domain;  Marjorie's  Vacation;  Rainy 
Day  Diversions;  Emily  Emmins  Papers;  the 
Patty  Fairfield  series,  etc. 

Wells,  David  Ames,  American  economist,  was  bom 
at  Springfield,  MJftM.,  1828.  He  was  graduated 
from  Williams  college,  and  at  the  Lawrence 
scientific  school,  Harvard;  was  for  a  time  asso- 
ciate editor  of  the  Sprin^judd  Republican.  In 
1866  he  was  appointtxl  Lnited  States  commis- 
sioner of  revenue;  in  1871  was  chairman  of  a 
commission  to  re{>ort  upon  the  laws  relating  to 
taxation  in  the  state  of  New  York,  and  was  an 
industrious  and  prolific  writer.  Among  his  pub- 
lished works  are  text-books  on  Science  of  Common 
Things;  Elements  of  Natural  Philosophy;  First 
Princifles  of  Geology;  Production  arid  Distribu- 
tion of  Wealth;  Practical  Economics;  The  Rela- 
tion of  the  Tariff  to  Wages;  Recent  Economic 
Changes;  The  Principles  of  Taxation;  also  pub- 
lished Robinson  Crusoeft  Money,  and  a  work 
entitled  Our  Merchant  Marine.     Died,  1898. 

Wells,  Herbert  George,  English  novelist,  was  bom 
at  Bromley,  Kent,  1866.  He  was  graduated  at 
the  royal  college  of  science,  1888.  His  scientific 
training  and  his  writing  for  the  Pall  Mall  Gazette 
and  the  Saturday  Review  prepared  him  for  the 
series  of  books  remarkable  alike  for  a  mixture  of 
weird  adventure  and  scientific  knowledge,  and 
for  a  bold,  wide  imagination.  Among  these  are: 
The  Time  Machine;  Tfie  Stolen  Bacillus  and 
Other  Stories;  The  Wonderful  Visit;  The  Island 
of  Doctor  Moreau;  The  First  Men  in  the  Moon; 
The  Invisible  Man;  Mankind  in  the  Making; 
The  Food  of  the  Gods;  The  Future  in  America; 
In  the  Days  of  the  Comet;  Twelve  Stories  and  a 
Dream;  The  War  in  the  Air.  A  radical  socialist, 
he  is  a  constant  contributor  to  magazines  on 
sociaUst  topics. 

Wells,  Webster,  American  educator  and  mathema- 
tician, was  bom  at  Boston,  Mass.,  1851.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  Massachusetts  institute  of 
technology,  1873;  studied  civil  engineering,  and 
became  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts institute  of  technology,  1893.  Author: 
Elementary  Treatise  on  Logarithms;  University 
Algebra;  Plane  and  Spherical  Trigonometry; 
Academic  Algebra;  Elements  of  Geometry;  Higher 
Algebra;  Essentials  of  Trigonometry;  College 
Auf^a;  Academic  Arithmetic;  Essentials  of 
Algebra;  Essentials  of  Plane  and  Solid  Geometry; 
New  Higher  Algebra;  Complete  Trigonometry; 
New  Four  Place  Tables;  Advanced  Course  in 
Algebra;  Algebra  for  Secondary  Schools;  Text-Book 
in  Algebra,  etc. 

Wendell,  Barrett,  American  educator,  writer,  and 
critic,  was  bom  at  Boston,  1855.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard,  1877 ;  was  instructor  at  Har- 
vard, 1880-88,  assistant  professor,  1888-98,  profes- 
sor since  1898,  and  lecturer  at  the  Sorbonne  and 
other  French  universities,  1904-05.  Author: 
The  Duchess  Emilia,  a  novel;  RankeU's  Remains, 
a  novel;  English  Composition;  Life  of  Cotton 
Mather;  SteUigeri  and  Other  Essays  Concerning 
America;  Wmiam  Shakespeare,  a  Study  of 
Elizabethan  Literature;  A  Literary  History  of 
America;  Raleigh  in  Guiana;  Rosamond,  and  a 
Christmas  Masque;  The  Temper  of  the  Seventeenth 
Century  in  English  Literature,  Clark  lectures 
given  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  England, 
1902-03;    History  of  Literature  in  America,  with 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


1026 


Chester  N.  Greenough;  Liberty,  Union  and 
Democracy  —  the  National  IdeaU  of  America; 
The  France  of  To-day,  etc. 

Wenley,  Robert  Mark,  American  educator,  head  of 
philosophical  department,  university  of  Michigan, 
since  1896,  was  born  at  Edinburgh,  Scotland, 
1861.  He  was  graduated  at  the  university  of 
Glasgow,  M.  A.,  1884,  Ph.  D.,  1895;  university 
of  Edinburgh,  Sc.  D.,  1891;  hon.  LL.  D.,  Glas- 
gow, 1901.  He  studied  in  Paris,  Rome,  Ger- 
many; was  assistant  professor  of  logic,  Glasgow. 
1886-94;  and  was  in  charge  of  the  philosopnical 
department.  Queen  Margaret  college,  Glasgow, 
1888-95.  Author:  Socrates  and  Christ;  Aspects 
of  Pessimism;  Contemporary  Theology  arid  Theism; 
Introduction  to  Kant;  Preparation  for  Christianity 
in  the  Ancient  World;  Kant  and  his  Philosophical 
Revolution,  etc.  Joint  editor:  The  American 
Journal  of  Religious  Psychology,  etc. 

Werner  (v^-nir),  Abraham  Gottlob,  German 
mineralogist  and  geologist,  was  bom  at  Wehrau, 
in  upper  Lusatia,  1750.  tie  studied  at  Freiberg 
and  Leipzig,  and  in  his  twenty-fourth  year  pub- 
lished an  unusual  treatise  on  the  Character  of 
Minerals.  In  1775  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  mineralogy  and  curator  of  the  mineralogical 
collections  at  Freiberg.  In  1791  he  published  a 
Theory  of  the  Formation  of  Metallic  Veins,  which 
greatly  extended  his  reputation.  He  was  not  a 
voluminous  author,  but  his  views  were  diffused 
by  his  pupils,  among  whom  were  the  most 
eminent  German  mineralogists  of  the  time.  In 
1792  he  was  appointed  councilof  of  mines  in 
Saxony,  and  his  lectures  soon  extended  his  repu- 
tation throughout  Europe.  In  addition  to  the 
above  are  Classification  and  Distribution  of  Moun- 
tains, and  a  translation  of  Cronstadt's  Mineralogy. 
His  influence  was  very  great  in  the  promotion 
both  of  mineralogy  and  of  geolo^.  In  his 
mineralogical  system  minerals  were  distinguished 
and  arranged  chiefly  according  to  their  external 
characters.     He  died  at  Dresden  in  1817. 

Wesley,  Charies,  English  hymn  writer,  was  bom 
at  Epworth,  England,  1707,  and  was  associated 
with  his  brother  John  in  the  whole  Methodist 
movement.  He  studied  at  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  visited  Georgia  at  the  same  time  with 
his  brother,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  sub- 
sequent work  in  England.  He  was  a  clear  and 
simple  preacher  and  a  man  of  fervent  piety.  He 
is  the  author  of  a  great  number  of  hymns,  many 
of  which  are  among  the  best  and  most  admired 
in  the  English  language,  replete  with  pious 
feeling,  ana  of  unsurpassed  lyrical  power  and 
sweetness.     He  died  in  1788. 

Wesley,  John.     See  page  246. 

West,  Benjamin,  American  painter,  was  bom  at 
Springfield,  Pa.,  1738.  He  began  to  paint  at 
seven  years  of  age,  worked  in  Philadelphia  and 
New  York,  studied  in  Italy,  1760-63,  and  settled 
in  England  in  the  latter  year.  In  1792  he  suc- 
ceeded Sir  Joshua  Rej-nolds  as  president  of  the 
royal  academy,  an  office  which  he  held  until  his 
death.  His  works  were  formerly  very  highly 
esteemed,  and  he  is  still  considered  one  of  the 
greatest  painters  whom  America  has  produced. 
Among  his  best  paintings  are:  "The  Death  of 
Wolfe^';  "Christ  Healing  the  Sick";  "Death 
on  the  Pale  Horse";  "Alexander  the  Great  and 
kis  Physicians";  "Penn's  Treaty  with  the 
Indians,"  etc.     Died  in  London  in  1820. 

Westcott,  Brooke  Foss,  English  prelate,  writer,  and 
biblical  scholar,  was  bom  near  Birmingham  in 
1825,  and  was  educated  at  Trinity  college,  Cam- 
bridge. He  was  successively  master  at  Harrow, 
canon  of  Petersborough,  regius  professor  of 
divinity  at  Cambridge,  canon  of  Westminster, 
and  in  1890  was  appointed  bishop  of  Durham. 
His  writings  embrace :  History  of  the  Canon  of 
the  New  Teatameni;   Introduction  to  the  Study  of 


the  GoapeU;  History  of  the  Eniftiek  BOtU;  The 
Goapd  of  the  Reeurrection;  The  Oond  of  Left; 
Social  Aepeeta  of  Chriatianity;  Tne  Hiatorie 
Faith;  The  Revelation  of  the  Rxaen  Lord;  Char- 
acteriatica  of  the  Ooapd  Miradea;  The  New  Teata- 
ment  in  the  Original  Greek,  with  Dr.  Uort,  etc. 
Died,  1901. 

WestlDKhouHe,  GeorKe,  American  inventor  and 
manufacturer,  wius  bom  in  New  York  in  1846. 
He  spent  much  time  in  his  father's  "T^hln<» 
shop,  and  invented,  at  the  ace  of  fifteen,  « 
rotary  engine.  He  served  in  the  Union  army, 
1863-64;  was  assistant  engineer  in  the  United 
States  navy,  1864-65;  then  attcndcxl  Union 
college  to  sophomore  year:  Ph.  D.,  1890.  In 
1865  he  invented  a  device  lor  replacing  railroad 
cars  on  the  track;  in  1868  invented  and  succeaa- 
fuUy  introduced  the  Westinghousc  air  brake, 
which  be  has  since  greatly  improved;  and  haa 
also  made  other  inventions  in  railway  signals, 
steam  and  gas  engines,  steam  turbmes,  and 
electric  machinery.  He  was  the  pioneer  in 
introducing  alternating  current  machinery  in 
America,  which  has  rendered  fXMsible  the  great 
development  of  water  powers  for  long  distance 
electrical  transmission;  built  the  great  generators 
at  Niagara  Falls  and  those  for  elevated  railway 
and  rapid  transit  system  in  New  York:  haa 
established  large  works  in  the  United  Statea, 
England,  France,  and  Germany  for  manufactur- 
ing air  brakes,  electrical  and  steam  machinery. 
He  is  president  of  numerous  cor]x>rations,  em- 
ploying over  50,000  people  and  with  a  capitalisa- 
tion of  about  $120,000,000. 

Wetmore,  George  Peabody,  ex-United  States  sena- 
tor, was  born  during  a  visit  of  his  parents  abroad. 
at  London,  England,  1846.  He  was  graduated 
at  Yale  college  m  1867,  at  Columbia  law  school. 
1869;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  Rhode  Island 
and  of  New  York,  1869.  He  is  a  trustee  of  the 
Peabody  education  fund ;  was  governor  of  Rhode 
Island,  1885-86,  1886-87;  elected  to  the  United 
States  senate,  1894,  was  reelected  in  1900,  and 
again  in  1906. 

Weyman  (wn'-tnan),  Stanley  John,  English  novel- 
ist, was  bom  at  Ludlow,  1855.  He  was  educated 
at  Shrewsbury  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and 
became  a  barrister  in  1881.  In  1890  he  pub- 
lished The  House  of  the  Wolf,  followed  by  Francia 
Cludde;  and  in  1893  made  himself  famous  by  A 
Gentleman  of  France.  His  later  books  include: 
Under  the  Red  Robe;  My  LadyRotha;  Memoir  a 
of  a  Minister  of  France;  The  Red  Cockade;  The 
Man  in  Black;  Shrewabury;  The  Caatle  Inn; 
Count  Hannibal;  In  King'a  Bywaya;  The  Long 
Night;  The  Abbess  of  Vlaye;  Starveerow  Farm; 
Laid  Up  in  Lavender;   The  Wild  Geeae,  etc. 

Wharton,  Joseph,  American  manufacturer  and 
philanthropist,  was  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
1826.  He  was  educated  by  private  tutors; 
Sc.  D.,  university  of  Pennsylvania,  LL.  D., 
Swarthmore  college.  He  was  clerk  In  a  mer- 
cantile house,  1845-47;  afterward  a  white  lead 
manufacturer  and  connected  with  other  enter- 
prises; manufacturer,  1853-63,  the  Lehigh  sine 
company;  purchased,  1873,  the  Gap  nickel 
mines,  Lancaster  county,  Pa.,  and  established 
in  Camden,  N.  J.,  the  first  suooeasful  nickel  and 
cobalt  works  in  America.  He  endowed  a  chair 
of  history  and  economics  at  Swarthmore  ooUeige; 
founded  the  Wharton  school  of  finance  and  com- 
merce, university  of  Pennsylvania,  to  which  be 
gave  $500,000;  and  was  also  active  in  other 
philanthropic  work.     Died,  1909 

Wbeatstone,  Sir  Charles,  English  physicist  aiMl 
electrician,  was  bom  at  Gloucester.  Fnglann. 
1802.  In  a  paper  on  binocular  vision,  reaa 
before  the  royal  society  in  1838,  be  ezirfained 
the  principle  of  the  stereoscope.  Amang  bis 
other  inventions  are  the  erjrptocrapb;  automatie 


1026 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


telegraph  in  two  forms;  telegraph  thermometer 
and  barometer;  a  machine  for  the  conversion 
of  dynamical  into  electrical  force  without  the  use 
of  permanent  magnets;  and  an  apparatus  for 
conveying  instructions  to  engineers  and  steersmen 
on  board  large  steam-vessels.  He  is  well  known 
for  the  Wheatstone  bridge  which,  however,  he 
did  not  invent  but  brought  into  general  use. 
Died,  1875. 
Wheaton,  Henry,  American  jurist,  was  bom  at 
Providence,  R.  I.,  1785.  In  1812-15  he  edited 
the  National  Advocate  in  New  York,  where  for 
four  years  he  was  a  justice  of  the  marine  court, 
and  from  1816  to  1827  reporter  for  the  United 
States  supreme  court.  In  1827-35  he  was  chargi 
d'affaires  at  Copenhagen,  and  in  1835-46  minister 
at  Berlin.  Besides  his  Elements  of  IrUemational 
Law,  he  wrote  a  Life  of  William  Pinkney,  History 
of  the  Northmen,  Law  of  Nations,  etc.  Died,  1848. 
Wheeler,  Benjamin  Ide,  American  educator  and 
philologist,  president  of  the  university  of  Cali- 
fornia since  1899,  was  born  at  Randolph,  Mass., 
1854.  He  was  graduated  at  Brown  university, 
1875;  Ph.  D.,  Heidelberg,  Germany,  1885; 
hon.  LL.  D.,  Princeton,  1896,  Harvard,  1900, 
Brown,  1900,  Yale,  1901,  Johns  Hopkins,  1902, 
Wisconsin,  1904,  Illinois  college,  1904.  He  was 
instructor  at  Brown  university,  1879-81 ;  at 
Harvard,  1885-86;  became  professor  of  com- 
parative philology,  1887,  and  professor  of  Greek, 
1888,  at  Cornell;  and  was  professor  of  Greek  at 
the  American  school  of  classical  studies,  Athens, 
Greece,  1895-96.  Author:  The  Greek  Noun- 
Accent;  Analogy  in  Language;  Introduction  to  the 
History  of  Language;  IHonysos  and  Immortality; 
Organization  of  Higher  Education  in  the  United 
States;  Life  of  Alexander  the  Great,  etc.  Roosevelt 
lecturer  at  the  university  of  Berlin,  1909-10. 
Wheeler,  Joseph,  American  general,  was  bom  in 
Augusta,  Ga.,  1836.  He  was  graduated  at  the 
United  States  military  academy  in  1859;  served 
in  the  cavalry  until  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war, 
when  he  entered  the  confederate  army,  in  which 
he  was  later  commissioned  major-general  and 
senior  commander  of  cavalry.  He  won  great 
distinction  during  the  civil  war  as  a  raider. 
After  the  war  he  practiced  law;  held  a  seat  in 
congress,  1880-99 ;  and  was  made  major-general 
of  volunteers  during  the  Spanish-American  war 
in  1898.  During  the  Santiago  campaign  in  Cuba 
he  commanded  the  cavalry  division;  participated 
in  the  battles  of  Las  Guasimas  and  San  Juan 
hill ;  was  appointed  senior  member  of  the  com- 
mission to  make  arrangements  for  the  surrender 
of  the  Spanish  army;  served  in  the  Philippines, 
1899-1900;  and  was  appointed  brigadier-general 
in  the  United  States  army,  June,  1900,  and  was 
retired  the  following  September.  Died,  1906. 
Whipple,  Edwin  Percy,  American  author,  was  bom 
at  Gloucester,  Mass.,  1819.  He  attended  the 
public  schools  at  Salem,  and  in  1837  was 
appointed  superintendent  of  the  newsroom  of 
the  merchant's  exchange  in  Boston.  Following 
this  he  wrote  for  the  Boston  Miscellany  and  other 
magazines,  and  lectured  in  Boston  and  other 
cities.  In  1872  he  became  literary  editor  of  the 
Boston  Globe;  in  1877  wrote  for  the  North  Ameri- 
can Review,  and  at  the  same  time  did  consider- 
able bookseller's  jobwork.  His  publications  in- 
clude: Essays  and  Reviews;  Literature  and  Life; 
Character  and  Characteristic  Men;  Literature  of 
the  Age  of  Elizabeth,  etc.  Died,  1886. 
Whistler,  James  Abbott  McNeill,  noted  American 
pamter,  was  bom  in  Lowell,  Mass.,  1834.  He 
entered  the  United  States  military  academy  but 
was  dismissed;  studied  drawing  and  painting  in 
Paris,  France,  and  in  1863  settled  in  London, 
England.  He  held  original  views  concerning  his 
art,  and  made  interesting  experiments  with  color, 
m  quest  of  novel  efifects.     He  also  gained  celeb- 


rity as  an  etcher,  and  is  the  author  of  etchings 
and  paintings  of  established  reputation  and 
worth.  His  paintings  include  many  portraits, 
among  which  are:  "The  White  Girl,"  "Portrait 
of  my  Mother,"  "Nocturne  in  Blue  and  Gold," 
"Harmony  in  Gray  and  Green,"  etc.  In  1890 
he  wrote  the  Gentle  Art  of  Making  Enemies. 
Died  in  London,  1903. 

White,  Andrew  Dickson,  American  diplomatist  and 
educator,  was  bom  in  Homer,  N.  Y.,  1832.  He 
was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1853;  traveled  in 
Europe;  was  attache  to  legation  of  the  United 
States,  St.  Petersburg,  1854-55;  studied  in  the 
university  of  BerUn;  professor  of  history  and 
English  literature,  1857-63,  lecturer  on  history, 
1863-67,  university  of  Michigan;  also  at  univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania,  Stanford  and  Tulane  uni- 
versities; returned  to  Syracuse  and  was  state 
senator,  1863-67;  chosen  first  president  of 
Cornell  university,  toward  the  founding  of  which 
he  «tve  S300,0(l0  and  an  historical  library  of 
40,CmO  volumes;  and  in  addition  to  BUing  the 
presidenojr.  1867-85,  filled  the  chair  of  modem 
nistory.  He  was  appointed  by  President  Grant 
commissioner  to  Santo  Domingo,  to  study  and 
report  on  the  question  of  annexation,  1871 ; 
nunister  to  lierhn,  1879-81;  minister  to  St. 
Petersburg,  1892-94 ;  member  of  the  Venezuelan 
commission,  1896-97:  ambassador  to  Berlin 
under  President  McKmley,  1897-1902;  and  was 
president  of  the  American  delegation  to  the 
international  peace  congress  at  The  Hague  in 
1899.  His  best  known  works  are:  Warfare  of 
Science  with  Theology;  The  New  Germany;  and 
Studiea  in  General  niatory. 

White,  Edward  DousiasB,  American  jurist,  was 
born  in  the  parish  of  Lafourche,  La.,  1845.  He 
was  educatea  at  Mount  St.  Mary's  college,  Mary- 
land, and  at  the  Jesuit  college  in  New  Orleans. 
During  the  civil  war  he  served  in  the  confederate 
army.  Afterward  he  practiced  law;  was  state 
senator  of  Louisiana  in  1874;  associate  justice 
of  the  supreme  court  of  Louisiana^  1878;  and 
United  States  senator  in  1891-94.  While  in  the 
senate  he  was  appointed  associate  justice  of  the 
United  States  supreme  court  in  1894,  and  was 
appointed  chief-justice  by  President  Taft,  1910. 

White,  Gilbert,  English  naturalist,  was  born  at 
Selbome  in  Hampshire,  1720.  In  1744  he  ob- 
tained a  fellowship  at  Oriel  college,  Oxford;  in 
1747  took  orders;  in  1752  became  senior  proctor; 
and  in  1758  accepted  the  sinecure  college  Uving 
of  Morton  Pinkney,  Northants.  Six  years  before 
he  had  retired  to  Selbome,  to  indulge  his  taste 
for  literature  and  natural  history.  His  charming 
Natural  History  and  Antiquities  of  Selbome  is 
now  considered  an  English  classic.     Died,  1793. 

White,  Horace,  American  journalist,  was  bom  in 
Colebrook,  N.  H.,  1834.  He  was  graduated  at 
Beloit  college,  Wis.,  1853.  For  many  years  he 
was  with  the  Chicago  Tribune,  and  was  its  editor 
and  one  of  its  chief  proprietors,  1864-74;  and 
from  1883  to  1903  was  connected  with  the  New 
York  Evening  Post,  as  president  of  the  company, 
editorial  writer,  and  editor-in-chief.  Edited: 
Bastiat's  Sophismes  Ecorutmiques  and  Luigi 
Cossa's  Scierna  deile  Finame.  Author:  Money 
and  Banking  Illustrated  by  American  History; 
The  Roman  History  of  Appian  of  Alexandria,  etc. 

White,  Horatio  Stevens,  professor  of  German  at 
Harvard,  was  bom  in  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  1852; 
graduated  at  Harvard,  1873;  LL.  D.,  Glasgow 
university,  1901.  Traveled  and  studied  several 
years  in  Europe ;  admitted  to  the  New  York  bar, 
1878;  assistant  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin, 
1876-78,  assistant  professor  of  German,  1878-83, 
head  of  German  department,  1891-1902,  dean 
of  general  faculty,  1888-96,  dean  imiversity 
facility,  1896-1902,  Cornell  university.  In  1902 
he   b^ame   professor   of    German   at    Harvard. 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


1027 


Edited:  Sdeetiona  from,  Lessing's  Prose;  Sdediona 
from  Hein^s  Poems;  Selections  for  German  Prose 
Composition;  and  DctUsche  Volklifder.  He  was 
also  general  editor  of  Appleton's  Twentieth  Cen- 
tury Scries  of  German  Classics. 

^hlte,  James  William,  American  physician  and 
surgeon,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1850. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  university  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, M.  D.,  1871;  Ph.  D.,  Pennsylvama- 
LL.  D.,  Aberdeen.  He  was  resident  physician  of 
Philadelphia  hospital,  1873;  surgeon  to  eastern 
state  penitentiary,  1874-76;  waa  first  professor 
of  genito-urinary  surgery,  then  professor  of 
clinical  surgery;  is  now  John  Rhea  Barton  pro- 
fessor of  surgery,  university  of  Pennsylvania. 
Joint  author:  ATnerican  Text  Book  of  Surgery; 
Genito-Urinary  Surgery;  and  has  written  numer- 
ous articles  on  medical  and  surgical  subjects  in 
medical  journals. 

White,  Richard  Grant,  American  author  and 
critic,  was  bom  in  New  York  city,  1822.  He 
was  educated  at  the  college  of  the  city  of  New 
York,  and,  though  a  student  of  medicine  and  of 
law,  he  adopted  a  literary  career.  He  was  for 
fourteen  years  on  the  Courier  and  Enquirer  of 
New  York,  part  of  the  time  as  editor.  The 
result  of  his  studies  and  writings  on  music  and 
art  was  a  volume  on  Christian  Art,  published  in 
1853.  His  other  works  include :  National  Hymns, 
published  during  the  war;  Poetry  of  the  Civil 
War;  Words  and  Their  Uses;  Every-Day  English; 
Life  of  Shakespeare;  England  Without  and  Within; 
Studies  in  Shakespeare,  etc. ;  and  an  edition  of 
Shakespeare's  plays.  He  died  in  New  York  city, 
1885. 

White,  Stewart  Edward,  author,  was  bom  in 
Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,  1873;  Ph.  B.,  university 
of  Michigan,  1895 ;  studied  law  one  year  at 
Columbia  law  school.  He  is  a  frequent  con- 
tributor to  magazines,  and  author  of  The  West- 
erners; The  Claim  Jumpers;  The  Blazed  Trail; 
The  Forest;  The  Magic  Forest;  The  Silent  Places; 
Conjuror's  House;  The  Mountains;  Blazed  Trail 
Stories;  The  Pass;  The  Mystery,  with  S.  H. 
Adams;  Arizona  Nights;  The  Wilderness  Trav- 
eler; Camp  and  Trail. 

"White,  WllUam  Allen,  American  journalist  and 
author,  owner  and  editor  of  the  Emporia  Daily 
and  Weekly  Gazette,  was  bom  at  Emporia,  Kansas, 
1868.  He  was  educated  at  the  university  of 
Kansas,  and  began  his  career  as  a  contributor  to 
magazines  and  newspapers.  Subsequently  his 
paper  attracted  attention  throughout  the  country 
for  the  picturesqueness  and  virility  of  its  edi- 
torials, and  he  became  widely  known  as  a  special 
writer.  Author:  The  Real  Issue,  and  Other 
Stories;  The  Court  of  Boyville;  Stratagems  and 
Spoils;  In  Our  Toxtm;  A  Certain  Rich  Man,  etc. 

Wbitefleld,  George,  one  of  the  founders  of  Method- 
ism, was  bom  at  Gloucester,  England,  1714.  He 
was  educated  at  Oxford,  became  associated  with 
the  Oxford  Methodists;  visited  Georgia  in  1738 
and  1739-41,'  and  in  the  latter  year  doctrinal 
differences  led  to  his  separation  from  John 
Wesley,  both  of  them  being  by  this  time  dis- 
owned by  the  established  cnurch.  Wesley  be- 
lieved and  preached  the  doctrine  of  universal 
redemption;  Whitefield  was  a  rigid  Calvinist. 
The  latter's  supporters  now  built  him  a  large 
shed  at  Moorfields,  near  Wesley's  chapel  — 
■which,  being  temporary,  was  known  as  the 
tabernacle ;  and  his  preaching  gathered  immense 
audiences  around  hun.  But  he  had  no  talent 
for  organization;  and  as  soon  as  he  went  away 
on  his  frequent  and  protracted  journeys  his 
supporters  began  to  disperse.  The  countess  of 
Huntingdon  became  a  convert  to  his  views, 
appointed  him  her  chaplain,  built  and  endowed 
chapels  to  maintain  his  Calvinistic  doctrines. 
One  of  his  most  famous  missionary  journeys  was 


that  which  ho  made  to  SootUnd  In  1741.  EUa 
marriage,  like  that  of  John  Wesley,  waa  not  a  happy 
one.  He  made  a  number  of  visits  to  America, 
several  of  which  lasUni  for  two  or  three  yearm. 
He  died  at  Newburyport,  near  Boston,  1770. 

Whitman,  Walt,  an  American  poet,  was  bom  in 
1819  at  West  Hills,  L.  I.  He  learned  the  printing 
trade,  taught  school  on  Long  Island,  and  wrote 
for  newspapers  and  magaiines.  Later  hu  booama 
a  newspaper  publisher  Tor  a  year,  failed,  went  to 
New  York  to  work  in  several  newspaper  positions, 
until,  in  1846,  he  bucami;  for  one  year  editor  of 
the  Brooklyn  Eagle.  Meanwhile  he  traveled 
widely  in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  In 
1855  appeared  his  first  collection  of  Leaves  of 
Grass,  which  he  later  greatly  elalx^rated.  He 
served  as  an  army  nurse  at  Washington  through- 
out the  civil  war,  writing  in  1865  his  Drum  Tap*. 
Later  he  produced  his  Democratic  VittOM,  Two 
Rivulets,  and  Specimen  Days  and  Cailect.  Prob- 
ably no  American  author,  except  Foe,  has  called 
forth  so  much  comment  at  home  and  abroad. 
He  died  at  Camden,  N.  J.,  1892. 

Whitney,  Ell,  American  inventor,  was  bom  In 
Westborough,  Mass.,  1705.  In  1792  he  was 
graduated  at  Yale,  went  to  Georgia,  and  for  a 
time  read  law,  while  living  on  the  plantation  of 
the  widow  of  Nathanael  Greene.  Here  he  in- 
vented the  cotton  gin,  but  owing  to  litigation 
growing  out  of  the  claims  of  fraudulent  imitators, 
and  despairing  of  obtaining  his  rights  in  the 
South,  Whitney  went  to  New  Haven,  Conn., 
1798,  near  which  city  he  became  engage»d  in  the 
manufacture  of  firearms,  in  which  he  made  a 
fortune.     He  died  at  New  Haven,  1825. 

Whitney,  Josiah  Dwight,  American  geologist,  was 
bom  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  1819.  He  was 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1839,  and  in  1840  joined 
the  New  Hampshire  survey.  He  explored  the 
geology  of  the  Lake  Superior  region,  Iowa,  the 
upper  Missouri,  and  Cahfomia.  In  1855  he  was 
made  professor  in  Iowa  university,  in  1860  state 
geologist  of  California,  and  in  18i65  professor  at 
Harvard.  He  wrote  extensively  on  geological 
topics,  and  died  in  1896. 

Whitney,  William  Dwight,  American  philologist, 
was  bom  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  1827.  He 
studied  at  Williams  ana  Yale,  and  in  Germany 
with  Roth.  In  1854  he  became  professor  of 
Sanskrit  at  Yale,  and  in  1870  also  of  comparative 
philology.  He  was  an  office  bearer  of  the 
American  oriental  society,  edited  numerous 
Sanskrit  texts,  and  contributed  to  the  great 
Sanskrit  dictionary  of  Bohtlingk  and  Roth.  He 
received  honorary  degrees  from  many  universities, 
and  was  member  and  correspondent  of  several 
foreign  academies,  as  well  as  knight  of  the  Prus- 
sian order  "Pour  le  M^rite."  He  waged  war 
with  Max  Miiller  on  fundamental  questions  of 
the  science  of  language.  Among  his  works  are: 
Material  and  Form  in  Language;  Darwinism  and 
Language;  Oriental  and  Linauiatic  Studies;  Life 
and  Growth  of  Language;  Essentials  of  English 
Grammar;  Sanskrit  Grammar;  Logical  Consist- 
ency in  Views  of  Language;  Mixture  in  Language, 
etc.  He  was  also  editor-in-chief  of  the  Century 
Dictionary.     Died  at  New  Haven,  1894. 

Whlttier,  John  Greenleaf.  American  poet,  waii  bom 
of  Quaker  parents  at  Haverhill,  Mass.,  1807.  In 
his  younger  days  he  worked  on  his  father's  farm 
and  learned  the  sboemaklng  trade,  but  early 
began  to  write  for  the  press,  and  in  1831  pul>- 
lished  his  first  work,  Legends  of  New  England,  in 
prose  and  verse.  He  carried  on  the  farm  himself 
for  five  years,  and  in  1835-36  was  a  member  of 
the  legislature  of  Iffassachusetts.  After  havim| 
edited  several  other  papers,  he  went  to  Phlladsl- 
phia  to  edit  the  Pennsylvania  Freeman,  an  anti- 
slavery  paper,  the  office  of  which  was  burned  by 
a  mob  in  1838.     In  the  following  year  he  returned 


1028 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


to  his  native  state,  settling  at  Amesbury,  where 
(or  at  Danvers,  Mass.)  he  chiefly  resided  until  his 
death.  Among  the  numerous  volumes  of  poetry 
which  he  published  from  time  to  time  are: 
Moll  Pitcher;  Lays  of  My  Home;  Miscellaneous 
Poems;  The  Voices  of  Freedom;  Songs  of  Labor; 
The  Chapel  of  the  Hermits;  Home  Ballads;  Snow 
Bound;  In  War-Time;  National  Lyrics;  Ballads 
of  New  England;  Miriam;  Mabel  Martin;  Hazel 
Blossoms;  The  King's  Missive;  Poems  of  Nature, 
etc.  He  is  best  known  for  his  poems,  Barbara 
Frietchie,  The  Barefoot  Boy,  Maud  MuUer,  and 
The  Pipes  at  Lucknow.     Died,  1892. 

Wickersham,  George  Woodward,  American  lawyer, 
attorney-general  of  the  United  States,  1909-13; 
was  born  in  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  1858.  He  was  grad- 
uated from  the  law  department  of  the  university 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1880,  M.  A.,  1901.  Previous 
to  graduation  he  had  been  admitted  to  the 
Philadelphia  bar  and  practiced  there  imtil  1882, 
when  he  removed  to  New  York  city,  and  in  1883 
entered  the  law  firm  of  Strong  and  Cadwalader; 
was  admitted,  four  years  later,  to  partnership  in 
the  firm,  which  connection  he  terminated  upon 
becoming  attorney-general. 

Wleland  (ve'-lant),  Christoph  Martin,  noted  German 
poet,  was  born  at  Oberholzheim,  near  Biberach, 
1733.  He  studied  at  the  university  of  Tiibingen. 
returning  to  Biberach  in  1760.  In  1766  and 
1767  Agathon  made  its  appearance,  which  greatly 
contributed  to  establish  his  fame.  His  views  on 
the  subject  of  love  are  most  fully  and  worthily 
expounded  in  the  didactic  poem  Musarion,  a 
work  of  singular  grace  and  harmony  of  treatment. 
At  Weimar  in  1772  he  wrote  The  Choice  of 
Hercules,  and  the  following  year  the  lyrical 
drama,  Alceste.  His  hterary  productiveness 
showed  itself  chiefly  in  the  History  of  the  Abder- 
ites,  a  work  depicting  the  follies  of  small  com- 
munities. This  was  followed  by  Oberon,  a 
romantic  heroic  poem,  the  most  perfect  and 
enduring  of  his  greater  works,  and  translations  of 
Horace,  Cicero,  and  the  Greek  poets.     Died,  1813. 

Wiggln,  Kate  Douglas,  American  author,  was  bom 
in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1859.  She  was  graduated 
at  Abbott  academy,  Andover,  Mass.,  1878; 
married  Samuel  Wiggin  in  1881  and  George  C. 
Riggs  in  1895.  She  organized  the  first  free 
kindergartens  for  poor  children  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  and  has  been  interested  in  that  work  ever 
since.  Author:  Tlie  Birds'  Christmas  Carol; 
The  Story  of  Patsy;  A  Summer  in  a  Cahon; 
Timothy's  Quest;  A  Cathedral  Courtship;  Pene- 
lope's English  Experiences;  Polly  Oliver's  Problem; 
The  Village  Watch  Tower;  Nine  Love  Songs  and 
a  Carol;  Marm  Lisa;  Penelope's  Progress; 
Penelope's  Experiences  in  Ireland;  The  Diary  of 
a  Goose  Girl;  Rebecca;  The  Affair  at  the  Inn,  in 
collaboration,  etc. 

Wllberforce,  William,  English  statesman  and  phi- 
lanthropist, was  born  at  Hull,  England,  1759. 
He  was  educated  at  St.  John's  college,  Cam- 
bridge, and,  by  the  death  of  his  grandfather  and 
an  uncle,  became  the  possessor  of  a  handsome 
fortvme.  He  entered  parliament  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  his  native  town,  when  he  had 
scarcely  completed  his  twenty-first  ye%r.  In 
1784  he  became  member  for  the  county  of  York, 
and  held  this  position  until  1812,  when  he  became 
member  for  Bramber.  In  1789  he  first  proposed 
in  the  house  of  commons  the  abolition  of  the 
slave  trade,  and,  with  the  aid  of  Charles  James 
Fox,  this  measure  was  carried  in  1807.  He 
afterward  devoted  himself  to  an  agitation  for  the 
extinction  of  slavery,  and  this  measure  also  he 
hved  to  see  all  but  carried,  the  bill  being  finally 
?S^®?  *  *®^  ^^'y^  ^^*^f  '^Js  death  in  1833.  In 
1797  he  published  a  Practical  View  of  Christianity, 
which  has  gone  through  innumerable  editions; 
and  all  through  life  he  gave  his  warmest  sym- 


pathy to  efforts  for  the  spread  of  Christianity  at 
home  and  abroad.  He  was  buried  in  Westminster 
abbey,  where  a  statue  is  erected  to  his  memory. 

Wilcox,  Ella  Wheeler,  American  poet  and  writer, 
was  born  near  Madison,  Wis.,  1855,  and  waa 
educated  at  the  state  university  in  that  city. 
She  was  for  many  years  a  contributor  of  poems, 
sketches,  etc.,  to  the  Milwaukee  and  Madison 
papers,  the  demand  for  her  productions  steadily 
increasing,  and  extending  to  the  leading  journab 
and  periodicals  of  the  country.  For  many  years 
she  has  been  on  the  staff  of  the  New  York  Journal 
and  Chicago  American.  Author:  An  Ambitious 
Man;  Sweet  Danger;  Poems  of  Passion;  Poems  of 
Pleasure;  Kingdom  of  Love;  Men,  Women  and 
Emotions;   A  Woman  of  the  World,    etc. 

Wiiey,  Harvey  WastUngton*  American  chemist, 
chief  of  the  bureau  of  chemistry.  United  States 
department  of  agriculture,  1883-1912;  was  bom 
in  Kent,  Ind.,  1844.  He  was  graduated  at 
Hanover  oollege  in  1867,  and  from  Harvard  in 
1873;  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.  He  waa  professor  of 
chemistry,  Purdue  university,  1874-83.  State 
chemist  of  Indiana,  1881-83,  and  professor  of 
agricultural  chemistry,  George  Waanington  uni- 
versity, since  1899.  Author:  Principles  and 
Practice  of  Agricultural  Chemitbry;  Songs  of 
Agricultural  Chemists;  Foods  and  their  Adultera- 
tions; and  numerous  government  bulletins  and 
scientific  papers. 

Wilhelmlna  (vti'-hil-mi'-na\  Helena  Pauline  Maria, 
queen  of  the  Netherlands,  was  born  at  The 
Hague,  Holland,  1880,  and  is  the  only  child  of 
King  William  III.  and  of  his  second  wife, 
Princess  Emma,  daughter  of  Prince  George  Victor 
of  Waldeck.  Sne  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  the 
Netherlands  on  the  death  of  her  father  in  1890, 
though  she  came  of  legal  age  in  1898,  when  she 
was  crowned  queen.  In  1901  she  married  Duke 
Henry,  youngest  son  of  the  g^and  duke  of 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin.  Queen  Wilhelmina  is 
the  fourth  in  the  list  of  sovereigns  of  the  Nether- 
lands of  the  house  of  Orange  since  the  recon- 
struction of  the  kingdom  by  the  congress  of 
Vienna  in  1814-15.  She  is  known  to  possess 
simple  tastes,  is  an  accomplished  linguist,  and  an 
experienced  horsewoman. 

WiUard,  Edward  Smith,  actor, was  bom  at  Brighton, 
England,  1853.  His  first  appearance  on  the 
stage  was  at  the  Theater  Royal,  Weymouth, 
England,  1869,  in  the  Lady  of  Lyons.  He  sup- 
ported Sothem  at  Glasgow  and  filled  other 
engagements  vmtil  he  went  to  London  in  1881, 
and  became  famous  as  the  Spider,  in  The  Silver 
King.  He  subsequently  managed  the  Shaftes- 
bury theater,  London;  produced  there  The 
Middleman  and  other  plays.  Appeared  in  Amer- 
ica at  Palmer's  theater.  New  York,  1890,  and 
since  then  haa  made  thirteen  American  tours. 
He  leased  the  Comedy  and  Garrick  theaters  in 
London,  1894-96,  and  since  then  has  toured  the 
United  States  in  David  Garriek,  Tom  Pinch,  The 
Middleman,  Professor's  Love  Story,  etc. 

Willard,  Emma  C,  American  educator,  bom  at 
Berhn,  Conn.,  1787;  educated  privately  and  at 
Hartford  academy.  In  1809  she  married  Dr.  John 
Willard.  She  established  a  girls'  boarding  school 
at  Middlebury,  with  improved  methods  of  teach- 
ing ;  also  established  a  girls'  seminary  at  Water- 
ford,  N.  Y.,  which  was  afterward  removed  to 
Troy.  In  1830  she  traveled  in  Europe,  and  by 
her  efforts  a  school  for  the  training  of  native 
women  teachers  was  founded  in  Greece.  Among 
her  books  are:  History  of  the  United  States; 
Universal  History  in  Perspective;  Last  Leaves  of 
American  History;  and  a  book  of  poems,  of  which 
the  best  known  is  Rocked  in  the  Cradle  of  the 
Deep.     Died,  1870. 

Willard,  Frances  EUcabeth,  temperance  reformer, 
was  bom  at  Churchville,    N.    Y.,    1839.     After 


EMPEROR  \71LLIAM   11. 

From  a  photograph 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


1031 


some  years  spent  in  teaching  she  became  pro- 
fessor of  sesthetics  in  the  Northwestern  univer- 
sity, and  was  made  dean  of  the  woman's  college 
in  1871.  She  began  her  active  temperance  worK, 
in  1874,  as  secretary  of  the  national  Woman's 
Christian  temperance  union;  in  1879  was  made 
president  of  that  organization,  and  held  the 
oflfice  until  her  death.  She  was  chosen  president 
of  the  World's  Christian  temperance  union  in 
1888,  and  in  1892  visited  England  as  the  guest  of 
Lady  Henry  Somerset,  the  well  known  temper- 
ance worker.  She  was  an  orator  of  great  elo- 
quence, humor,  and  power,  and  her  executive 
abiUty  and  genius  for  organization  left  an  im- 
pressive mark  on  the  country.  She  died  in  New 
York,  1898.  Her  books  include  many  works  on 
temperance:  Woman  and  Temperance  and 
Glimpses  of  Fifty  Years. 

Willcox,  Walter  Francis,  American  educator  and 
statistician,  was  born  at  Reading,  Mass.,  1861. 
He  was  graduated  at  Amherst,  1884,  Columbia 
law  school,  1887;  Ph.  D.,  Columbia  school  of 
political  science,  1891;  LL.  D.,  Amherst,  1906. 
He  has  been  connected  with  Cornell  university 
since  1891,  and  is  now  professor  of  political 
economy  and  statistics;  chief  statistician  of  12th 
United  States  census,  1899-1902;  statistical 
expert  for  war  department  upon  censuses  of 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  1899-1900;  United  States 
delegate  to  the  international  statistical  congress, 
Brussels,  1903,  BerUn,  1903,  London,  1905,  Paris, 
1909.  Author:  The  Divorce  Problem  —  a  Study 
in  Statistics;  Supplementary  Analysis  and  Deriva^ 
live  Tables,  12th  Census,  and  numerous  census 
bulletins,  and  articles  in  economic  and  statistical 
journals. 

WlUlam  I^  commonly  called  the  Conqueror,  was 
born  in  Normandy,  1027.  He  was  the  illegiti- 
mate son  of  Robert  Le  Diable,  duke  of  Normandy, 
and  succeeded  to  the  dukedom  in  1035.  He  laid 
claim  to  the  sovereignty  of  England  on  the  death 
of  Edward  the  Confessor,  pretending  to  be 
entitled  to  it  under  the  will  of  that  monarch. 
In  1066  he  landed  at  Pevensey,  in  Sussex; 
defeated  Harold  II.  at  the  battle  of  Hastings; 
and  was  crowned  king  of  England  in  West- 
minster abbey  on  the  Christmas  day  following. 
During  his  reign  the  Norman  feudal  system  was 
developed,  the  forest  and  game  laws  were  intro- 
duced, and  the  large  district  of  country  now 
called  the  New  Forest  was  laid  waste  in  order  to 
provide  the  king  with  a  hunting  ground.  The 
Channel  islands,  being  part  of  William's  duchy 
of  Normandy,  became  attached  to  England  on 
his  accession.  Having  returned  with  an  English 
army  to  reduce  his  revolted  subjects  in  Nor- 
mandy, he  died  at  the  abbev  of  St.  Gervais,  1087. 

William  III^  king  of  England,  1689-1702,  was 
born  at  The  Hague,  1650.  He  was  the  posthu- 
mous son  of  WilGam  II.  of  Orange,  and  of  Mary, 
eldest  daughter  of  Charles  I.  of  England.  In 
1678,  being  then  stadtholder  of  Holland,  he  went 
to  England,  and  married  Mary,  eldest  daughter 
of  the  duke  of  York,  afterward  James  II.  In 
1688  he  landed  with  a  Dutch  army  at  Torbay, 
in  Devonshire,  and  was  soon  after  invited  by  a 
convention  parliament  to  accept  the  throne, 
which  James  had  vacated;  and  in  April,  1689, 
was  croAvned,  together  with  his  wife,  Mary,  with 
whom  he  reigned  jointly  until  her  death  in  1694; 
afterward  William  reigned  alone.  In  1690  he 
defeated  James  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne.  He 
afterward  engaged  in  a  war  with  France,  which 
was  brought  to  a  close  by  the  treaty  of  RyBwick, 
1697.  He  died  at  Kensington  palace  in  1702. 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  cousin  Anne,  second 
daughter  of  the  fugitive  James. 

William  IV.,  king  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
third  son  of  George  III.,  was  bom  in  1765.  In 
1779  he  entered  the  navy  as  midshipman,  was 


made  a  lieutenant  in  1785.  and  in  the  ytax  fol- 
lowing received  his  commuBion  u  captain.  In 
1789  he  was  created  duke  of  CUreooe  Mid  8t. 
Andrews  and  earl  of  Munster,  and  wm  made 
admiral  of  the  fleet  in  1801.  In  1818  h«  married 
Adelaide,  eldest  daushter  of  the  duke  <rf  8axe> 
Meiningcn,  and  the  Issue  of  this  marriafe  wm 
two  daughters,  both  of  whom  died  in  infancy. 
By  the  death  of  the  duke  of  York,  1827,  tbe 
duke  of  Clarence  became  hf>ir-prc8umptive  to  tbe 
throne,  to  which  he  succeo<lo<l  on  the  death  of  liie 
brother,  George  IV.,  in  June  1830.  The  great 
event  of  the  reign  of  William  IV.  was  the  paasing 
of  the  reform  bill.  After  a  fierce  and  protracted 
struggle  the  bill  was  read  a  third  time  In  tbe 
house  of  lords  in  1832,  and  three  days  afterward 
it  received  the  royal  assent.  Ue  died  in  1837, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  niece.  Queen  Victoria. 

William  I..  FHedrich  LudwlR  WUbetan,  kinc  <rf 
Prussia  and  emperor  of  Gcrmaiiy,  was  bom  in 
1797,  second  son  of  Frederick  William  III.  of 
Prussia.  He  joined  the  army  at  an  early  age. 
and  was  engaged  in  the  campaigns  of  1813-14 
against  France.  On  the  accMsion  of  his  elder 
brother,  Frederick  William  IV.,  to  the  throne  in 
1840,  he  became  governor  of  Pomerania,  and 
afterward  sat  in  the  Prussian  diet,  and  vigor- 
ously supported  the  absolutist  party.  In  conse- 
Quence,  ne  was  so  much  disliked  by  the  people 
tnat  on  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  of  1848 
he  fled  to  England;  though  he  returned  some 
months  after,  and  was  elected  to  the  national 
assembly.  In  1857,  the  king  having  become 
incapacitated  for  business,  William  was  commis- 
sioned to  act  as  regent,  a  commission  which  was 
renewed  from  time  to  time  until  his  permanent 
installation  in  1858.  In  1861  he  ascended  the 
throne,  and  became  the  head  of  the  North 
German  confederation  in  1807,  He  found  In 
Bismarck  an  able  minister  who  could  rule  with- 
out a  parUamentarv  majority.  At  Ems,  in  July, 
1870,  the  memorable  interviews  between  William 
and  the  French  ambassador,  Benedetti,  took 
place,  which  resulted  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war 
of  1870-71.  William  commanded  at  the  decisive 
battle  of  Gravelotte  and  at  Sedan.  In  1871  he 
was  proclaimed  emperor  of  Germany  in  the 
palace  of  the  Frencn  kings  at  Versailles.  He 
married,  in  1829,  Augusta  of  Saxe-Weimar,  and 
died  in  1888.  » 

William  II..  Friedrich  WUhelm  Viktor  Albrecbt, 
king  of  Prussia  and  emp)eror  of  Germany,  was 
bom  in  1859,  eldest  son  of  Frederick  iTl.  and 
Victoria,  princess  royal  of  England.  He  was 
educated  at  Cassel  and  Bonn,  married  Augusta 
Victoria  of  Schleswig-Holstein-Augustenburg, 
1881,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1888.  Since 
his  accession  he  has  taken  much  interest  in  social 
questions,  and  the  strong  initiative  which  be 
adopted  in  political  affairs  brought  about  the 
disminal  of  Prince  Bismarck  m  1890.  His 
independence,  ability,  and  aggreedveness  have 
placed  Germany  in  the  foremost  rank  of  tbe 
enlightened  world  powers.  In  1907  he  spoke  of 
the  German  nation  as  "the  block  of  granite  upoD 
which  the  Lord  our  God  can  build  up  and  com- 
plete His  work  of  cMUdn^  the  world."  Early 
m  1908  he  established  a  winter  residence  on  tbe 
island  of  Corfu. 

WilUam  I.,  Frederik  Willem,  first  king  of  tbe 
Netherland.'),  grand  duke  of  Luxemburg,  was  bom 
in  1772.  His  mother  was  a  niece  of  Frederick 
the  Great,  and  his  father  was  the  last  stadtholder 
of  the  republic,  as  William  V.  As  prince  of 
Orange  he  had  command  of  the  Dutch  army  until 
the  French  conquest  of  1795.  In  1802  be  re- 
ceived  from  his  lather  the  principality  of  Fulda 
and  other  territories  which  had  been  given  to  him 
in  compensation  for  the  Netherlands;  but  be  lost 
them  in  1806  for  refusing  to  join  the  Rbenleb 


1032 


MASTERS  OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


confederation.  He  became  a  Prussian  general, 
was  taken  prisoner  at  Jena,  and  after  his  release 
served  in  the  Austrian  army  at  Wagram  in  1809. 
In  1815  he  was  declared  king  as  William  I., 
under  a  limited  constitution,  and  with  Belgium 
included  in  the  new  kingdom,  exchanging  his 
German  possessions  for  the  grand  duchy  of 
Luxemburg.  The  Belgians  having  established 
their  independence  with  the  aid  of  France  in 
1830-32,  he  was  obliged  to  acknowledge  it  in 
1839.  In  1840  he  abdicated  in  favor  of  bis 
eldest  son,  and  died  in  1843. 
William  I.,  called  the  Silent,  prince  of  Orange  and 
count  of  Nassau,  founder  of  the  Dutch  republic, 
was  bom  in  Dillenburg,  1533.  At  the  age  of 
fifteen  he  became  page  to  the  emperor  Charles  V., 
who  took  an  almost  paternal  care  of  him,  and 
in  1555  promoted  him,  over  the  heads  of  all  his 
veteran  officers,  to  the  command  of  the  imperial 
army  on  the  French  frontier.  When  Philip  II. 
left  for  Spain,  he  appointed  William  one  of  the 
state  council  to  help  Margaret  of  Parma  to  rule 
the  Netherlands  as  regent.  He  opposed  the 
persecution  of  the  Protestants,  and  refused  to 

Eermit  it  in  the  provinces  of  which  he  was  stadt- 
older.  When  the  duke  of  Alva  marched  to 
Brussels  and  put  to  death  Egmont  and  Horn, 
William,  who  had  fled  to  Germany,  had  his 
property  seized  and  his  son  sent  to  Spain  as  a 
hostage.  After  raising  an  army  he  marched 
against  Alva,  but  was  forced  to  retire  to  French 
Flanders,  and  with  his  brothers  Louis  and  Henry 
joined  the  Huguenots  under  Coligny.  In  15G9 
he  sent  out  privateers,  who  captured  Briel  in 
1572.  This  exploit  was  followed  by  the  rebel- 
lions of  Flushing,  Haarlem,  Dort,  Leyden,  and 
other  cities,  which  acknowledge!  William  of 
Orange  as  their  prince.  William  and  his  brother 
captured  several  other  towns,  but  the  massacre 
of  St.  Bartholomew  destroyed  his  hopes  of  French 
aid,  and  he  was  forced  to  disband  his  army. 
The  Spaniards  retook  city  after  city,  sacked 
Haarlem  after  a  seven  months'  siege,  and  de- 
feated and  slew  his  brothers  Louis  and  Henry. 
But  William,  by  cutting  the  dikes  and  flooding 
the  country,  allowed  Admiral  Brissot  to  bring 
his  fleet  to  the  relief  of  Leyden,  which  had  long 
been  beseiged.  In  1576  the  five  provinces  which 
had  all  along  held  to  Spain  joined  the  states- 
general  at  Ghent,  and  formed  a  league  under 
William.  But  two  years  later  the  new  Spanish 
governor,  Don  John  of  Austria,  won  a  victory 
near  Gembloux.  His  successor,  Alexander  Far- 
nese,  also  gained  the  Walloon  provinces.  How- 
ever, William  formed  in  1579  a  league  between 
Holland,  Zealand,  Utrecht,  Friesland,  Gelderland, 
Gronigen,  and  Overyssel,  which  was  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Dutch  republic.  Two  years  later 
the  united  provinces  declared  themselves  inde- 
pendent. William  twice  refused  to  become  the 
ruler  of  the  new  country,  and  was  assassinated 
at  Delft,  1584. 

TFllllams,  George  Fred,  American  lawyer,  was  bom 
in  Dedham,  Mass.,  1852.  He  was  graduated  at 
Dartmouth  college,  1872;  studied  at  Heidelberg 
and  Berlin;  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  has 
since  practiced  in  Boston.  He  edited  Williams's 
Citations  of  Massachusetts  Cases,  and  volumes  10 
to  17  Annual  Digest  of  the  United  States.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  legislature  in 
1889,  member  of  congress,  1891-93,  and  has 
since  been  prominent  both  in  politics  and  in  his 
profession. 

lYUllams,  John  Sharp,  American  legislator  and 
publicist,  was  born  in  Memphis,  Tenn.,  1854. 
He  was  educated  at  Kentucky  military  institute, 
university  of  the  South,  university  of  Virginia 
and  university  of  Heidelberg,  Germany.  He 
then  studied  law  at  the  university  of  Virginia 
and  in  Memphis,  Tenn.,  and  was  admitted  to  the 


Tennessee  bar,  1877.  He  removed  to  Yazoo 
city,  Miss.,  1878,  has  since  practiced  law,  and 
been  engaged  as  a  cotton  planter.  He  was  tem- 
porary chairman  of  the  St.  Louis  convention, 
1904:  member  of  congress  from  5th  Mississippi 
district,  1893-1903;  from  8th  Mississippi  dis- 
trict, 1903-09 ;  and  became  United  States  sena- 
tor succeeding  Senator  Money  from  Miasiasippi, 
1911. 

Williams,  Roger,  English  colonist  and  founder  of 
Rhode  Island,  was  born  probably  in  London, 
about  1G04.  He  was  a  student  at  Pembroke, 
Oxford,  and  ordained  a  clergyman  of  the  church 
of  England;  but,  having  embraced  Puritan  views, 
be  emigrated  to  New  England  in  1631,  and  was 
assistant  pastor  at  Plymouth,  1631-33.  when  he 
went  to  Salem  to  become  pastor  there.  On 
account  of  his  religious  opinions,  he  was  ordered 
to  leave  the  colony  in  1635,  and  in  1636  founded 
Providence.  He  was  the  first  president  of  the 
colony  established  by  himself;  and  the  uniform 
justice  and  kindness  with  which  he  treated  the 
native  Indians  is  frequently  referred  to  in  the 
records  of  the  time.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest 
advocates  of  the  principle  of  perfect  liberty  of 
conscience;  his  chief  work,  Tne  Bloudy  Tenenl 
of  Persecution  for  Cause  of  Conacience  Discussed, 
is  still  regarded  as  a  remarkable  exposition  and 
defense  of  that  principle.     Died,  1683. 

Williams,  Talcott,  American  journalist,  was  bom 
at  Abeih,  Turkey,  1849.  Ue  was  graduated  at 
Amherst  college,  1873.  He  was  on  the  stafiT  of 
the  New  York  World.  1873-77;  Washington 
correspondent  New  York  Sun.  and  San  Francisco 
Chronicle,  1877-79;  editorial  writer  Springfidd 
Republican,  1879-81;  editorial  writer,  Philadel- 
phta  Press,  1881-1912.  Became  first  director, 
Pulitzer  school  of  journalism,  Columbia  university, 
1912.  He  is  also  a  well  known  lecturer  and 
contributor  to  the  magazine  press. 

Willis,  Nathaniel  Parker,  AJnerican  poet  and 
author,  was  bom  at  Portland,  Me.,  1806.  He 
was  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1827,  and  the 
same  year  published  Poetical  Sketches.  He  wrote 
for  the  nu^azines,  and  in  1829  started  the 
American  Monthly  Magazine.  After  its  merger 
with  the  New  York  Mirror  in  1831,  he  traveled 
in  Europe,  recording  his  saunterinc^  in  Penciiings 
by  the  Way,  which,  with  its  lifeuke  and  rapid 
sketches  of  old  world  scenes,  at  once  gained  for 
him  a  wide  popularity.  These  penciUngs  were 
contributed  to  thie  Mirror,  for  which  Poe  also 
wrote.  In  1839  appeared  the  most  charming 
of  his  books,  Letters  from  Under  a  Bridge.  In 
1841  he  founded  The  Home  Journal,  editing  it 
until  his  death  in  1867.  Among  the  best  of  his 
writings  are  the  tales  and  sketches:  F.  Smith; 
The  Ghost  Ball  at  Congress  Hall;  Unseen  Spirits; 
Spring;  People  I  have  Met;  Life  Here  and  There; 
Hurrygraphs;  Life  of  Jenny  Lind;  Fun  Jottings; 
A  Summer  Cruise  in  the  Mediterranean;  A 
Health-trip  to  the  Tropics;  Famous  Persons  and 
Places;  The  Rag-bag;  Paul  Fane;  The  Conva- 
lescent, etc. 

Wilson,  Francis,  American  actor,  was  bom  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1854.  He  first  engaged  in 
legitimate  comedy  at  Chestnut  Street  theater, 
Philadelphia,  1877-78;  as  Cool  in  London  Assur- 
ance, 1878-79;  with  Annie  Pixley  in  M'liss, 
1879;  with  Mitchell's  Pleasure  Party,  1880-83; 
started  in  comic  opera  as  Sir  Joseph  Porter  in 
Pinafore.  He  became  leading  comedian  of  the 
McCaull  opera  company  and  of  the  Casino,  New 
York,  1885-89,  where  he  created  the  character 
of  Cadeaux  in  Erminie.  Subsequently  he  organ- 
ized his  own  company  in  which  he  has  since 
taken  leading  comedy  r61es  in  The  Ociah;  The 
Merry  Monarch;  The  Lion  Tamer;  Erminie; 
The  Chieftain;  Devil's  Deputy;  Half  a  King; 
The  Little  Corporal;    Cyrano  de  Bergerac;    The 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


loa 


Monks  of  Malabar;  The  StroUera;  Th»  Toreador; 
Cousin  Billy;  The  Mountain  Climber;  When 
Knights  Were  Bold,  etc.  Author:  The  Eugene 
Field  I  Knew;  RecoUectiona  of  a  Player;  Going 
on  the  Stage,  etc. 

Wilson,  Henry,  American  statesman,  was  bom  in 
Farmiugton,  N.  H.,  1812,  of  poor  parents.  His 
original  name  was  Jeremiah  Colbath,  which  he 
legally  changed  to  Wilson  on  reaching  manhood. 
He  received  a  scanty  education ;  was  taught  the 
trade  of  shoemaker,  and  became  a  prominent 
anti-slavery  advocate.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Massachusetts  legislature  by  the  whig  party  in 
1840,  and  largely  contributed  to  the  formation 
of  the  free-soil  party  in  1848.  In  1855  he  suc- 
ceeded Edward  Everett  as  United  States  senator, 
and  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  republican 
party.  In  1872  he  was  elected  vice-president  of 
the  United  States,  on  the  same  ticket  with 
General  Grant,  and  served  until  his  death  in 
1875.  He  wrote  several  works  on  contemporary 
legislation. 

Wilson,  James,  United  States  secretary  of  agricul- 
ture, 1897-1913;  was  born  in  Ayrshire,  Scotland, 
1835.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1851, 
settled  in  Connecticut  with  his  parents,  and  in 
1855  went  to  Tama  county,  Iowa.  In  1861  he 
en^ged  in  farming;  was  a  member  of  the  Iowa 
legislature  three  terms,  and  speaker  the  last 
term;  member  of  congress,  1873-77,  and  1883- 
85;  regent  of  state  university  of  Iowa,  1870-74; 
for  six  years  director  of  the  Iowa  jL^icul- 
tural  experiment  station  and  professor  of  agri- 
culture, Iowa  agricultural  college,  Ames,  Iowa. 
He  received  the  degree  LL.  D.  from  the  univer- 
sity of  Wisconsin,  1904. 

Wilson,  John,  "Christopher  North,"  Scottish  poet 
and  essayist,  was  born  at  Paisley,  1785.  In  1797 
his  father  left  him  50,000  pounds,  and  he  was 
sent  to  Glasgow  universitv.  In  1803  he  entered 
Magdalen  college,  Oxford,  and  became  famous 
both  for  his  intellectual  gifts  and  as  an  athlete. 
In  1807  he  settled  in  Westmoriand,  where  he 
purchased  Ellerav,  overlooking  Windermere,  and 
associated  with  Wordsworth,  Southey,  Coleridge, 
De  Quincey,  and  others  of  the  "  lake  school."  In 
1811  he  married  and  devoted  himself  to  poetr}^ 
in  1812  publishing  his  Isle  of  Palms,  and  m  1816 
The  City  of  the  Plague.  In  1815  the  loss  of  his 
patrimony  through  an  uncle's  unjust  steward- 
ship obliged  him  to  give  up  EUeray  and  settle  in 
Edinburgh.  He  was  called  to  the  Scottish  bar, 
but  on  the  starting  in  1817  of  Blackwood's 
Magazine  he  and  Lockhart  were  chiefly  respon- 
sible for  its  success.  In  1820  he  was  elected  to 
the  chair  of  moral  philosophy  at  Edinburgh. 
He  published  Lights  and  Shadows  of  Scottish  Life; 
Recreations  of  Christopher  North,  etc.     Died,  1854. 

Wilson,  Woodrow,  educator,  28th  president  of  the 
United  States;  born  in  Staunton,  Va.,  December 
28,  1856;  A.  B.,  Princeton.  1879,  A.  M.,  1882; 
LL.  B.,  university  of  Virginia,  1882;  Ph.  D., 
Johns  Hopkins,  1886 ;  LL.  D.,  Wake  Forest  col- 
lege, 1887,  Tulane  university,  1898,  Johns  Hop- 
kins, 1902,  Rutgers,  1902,  university  of  Penn- 
sylvania, 1903,  Brown  university,  1903,  Harvard, 
1907,  Williams,  1908,  Dartmouth,  1909;  Litt.  D., 
Yale,  1901 ;  practiced  law,  Atlanta,  Ga.,  1882-83 ; 
associate  professor  of  history  and  political  econ- 
omy, BrjTi  Mawr  college,  1885-88,  professor  same, 
Wesleyan  university,  1888-90 ;  professor  of  juris- 
prudence and  politics,  Princeton,  1890-1902; 
president  of  Princeton  university,  1902-10;  gov- 
ernor of  New  Jersey,  1911-13.  In  August,  1912, 
he  was  nominated  by  the  democratic  national 
convention  at  Baltimore  for  president  of  the 
United  States  and  elected  November  5th. 
Author:  Congressional  Government,  a  Study  in 
American  Politics;  The  State:  Elements  of  His- 
torical   and    Practical    Politics;     Division    and 


Reunion;  An  Old  Matter  &nd  Otim  Petitiaal 
Essays;  Mere  Literature  and  athar  Kmm^; 
Osorge  WadtinQUm;    A  History  of  tks  Ammio&m 

People;  The  New  Freedom. 

Wine  hell,  AJezaader,  Amerioan  (•olociat  utd 
author,  wu  bom  in  Dutcbew  oounty,  N.  Y., 
1824.  He  was  graduated  from  Waalsyao  univ«r> 
sity,  Middletown,  Conn.,  1847;  waa  preaideat  of 
the  Masonic  female  univenity,  Selma,  Ala.;  la 
1853  became  professor  of  phvaias  and  dvU 
engineering  in  the  university  of  ICiohigaa,  aod 
two  years  later  was  tranaferred  to  the  chair  of 
geology,  zo6l<^r,  and  botany  there,  which  poet 
he  held  until  1873.  Between  1873  and  1878  h« 
held  the  same  position  at  Vaoderbilt  univenity. 
In  1879  he  was  recalled  to  the  univemitv  of 
Michigan  as  professor  of  geology  and  pafrffn- 
tology,  which  he  retained  for  the  ramalndar  of 
his  life.  His  published  writings  embraee: 
Sketches  of  Creation;  The  Doctrine  of  Evolution; 
The  Geolc^  of  the  Stars;  ReeoncUiation  of  Seiertes 
and  Religion;  Pre-Adamites;  Sparks  from  a 
Geologist's  Hammer;  World-Life:  a  Comparative 
Geolo^;  Geolo^cal  Excursions;  and  Geological 
Studies.     He  died  at  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  1801. 

Wlnsor  (wln'-zir),  Justin,  American  historian  and 
librarian,  was  bom  at  Boston,  Mass.,  1831.  He 
studied  at  Harvard  and  Heidelberg,  was  superin- 
tendent of  the  Boston  library,  l^S~77.  pasfftnt 
then  to  the  librarianship  of  Harvani.  From 
1876  to  1886  he  was  preudent  of  the  American 
library  association.  He  was  a  Uu^  contributor 
to  the  periodical  press  and  an  extensive  and 
instructive  author.  His  chief  publications  em- 
brace: Tfie  Readers'  Handbook  of  the  American 
Revolution;  Bibliography  of  Original  Quartos 
and  Folios  of  Shakespeare;  Christopher  Columbus; 
Cartier  to  Frontenac;  and  Narrative  and  Critical 
History  of  America.  He  was  also  editor  of  the 
Memorial  History  of  Boston.     Died,  1897. 

Wlnthrop,  John,  governor  of  Massachusetts  oolonr, 
was  born  at  Groton,  Suffolk,  England,  1588.  He 
became  a  lawyer,  and  because  of  his  good  and 
religious  character  was  chosen  governor  by  the 
Maaaachusetts  Bay  company  in  1629.  The  next 
year  he  came  over,  bringing  with  him  000  emi- 
grants. He  was  elected  governor  1630-34,  1637- 
40,  1642-44,  and  1646-49.  His  influence  waa 
very  great  in  the  colony,  and  through  it  on  tba 
life,  thought,  and  later  politics  and  institutions 
of  New  England.  His  Journal  is  one  of  the 
most  important  sources  of  early  American  his- 
tory.    He  died  at  Boston,  1640. 

Wirt,  William,  American  lawyer,  was  bom  at 
Bladensburg,  Md.,  1772.  He  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1792,  and  settled  to  practioe  in  Vir- 
ginia. He  was  clerk  of  the  Virginia  houM  of 
delegates  at  Richmond,  1799;  chancellor  of  the 
eastern  district  of  Virginia,  1802;  assisted  in  tha 
prosecution  of  Aaron  Burr,  1807;  member  of 
Virnnia  house  of  delegates,  1807-08;  and  in 
1817  became  attomey-genaral  of  the  United 
States.  In  1832  he  aooeptad  the  anti-Maaonie 
nomination  for  the  presidency.  He  poaseaaed  • 
fine  legal  mind ;  was  an  orator  of  unusual  attain- 
ments. Author:  Letters  of  a  British  Spy :  The  Old 
Bachelor;  Life  of  Patrick  Henry,  eUs.     Died.  1834. 

Wiseman,  Nicholas  Patrick  Stephen.  Engiiah  ear* 
dinal  and  Roman  Catholic  archbiahop  of  West- 
minster, was  bom  at  Seville,  Spain.  1802,  of  an 
Irish  family  settled  in  Spain.  In  hia  sixteenth 
year  he  entered,  as  an  ecclesiaatical  student,  tha 
English  college  at  Rome,  and  received  holjr 
orders  in  1824.  He  was  subaequentlT  admitted 
to  the  degree  of  D.  D. ;  waa  appointed  vio»- 
rector  of  the  English  college,  and  profesaor  of 
oriental  languages  in  the  univerMtv  of  tha 
Sapienza.  In  1828  he  publiahed  bia  Harm 
Syriaca,  and  in  the  end  of  that  jrear  waa  named 
president  of  St.  Mary's  college  of  OsooU.     In 


1034 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


1850  he  was  named  archbishop  of  the  see  of 
Westminster,  and  at  the  same  time  created 
cardinal.  Besides  high  professional  learning,  he 
possessed  rare  and  singularly  varied  attainments, 
was  an  eminent  Uneuist,  a  scientific  scholar,  a 
finished  orator,  a  vigorous  writer,  and  a  critic 
and  connoisseur  of  art.  He  wrote:  Influence  of 
Words  on  Thought  and  Civilization;  Lectures  on 
Science  and  Revealed  Religion;  Points  of  Contact 
between  Science  and  Art;  The  Real  Presence, 
etc.     He  died  in  London,  1865. 

Wister,  Owen,  American  author,  was  bom  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1860.  He  was  graduated 
from  Harvard,  1882;  from  Harvard  law  school, 
1888;  was  admitted  to  the  Philadelphia  bar, 
1889.  He  engaged  in  literary  work,  1891. 
Author:  The  Dragon  of  Wantley:  His  Tail; 
Red  Men  and  White;  Lin  McLean;  The  Jimmy 
John  Boss;  U.  S.  Grant,  a  Biography;  The  Vir- 
ginian; Philosophy  4;  Journey  in  Search  of 
Christmas,  etc.;  and  much  prose  and  verse  in 
magazines.  He  also  wrote  in  collaboration: 
Musk-ox,  Bison,  Sheep  and  Goat,  in  Whitney's 
American  Sportsmen's  library. 

Wltte  {vif-€).  Count  Sergei  Yulievltcb,  Russian 
statesman,  of  German  origin,  was  bom  at  Tiflis, 
1849.  He  was  educated  at  Odessa,  entered  the 
railway  administration,  and  first  gained  distinc- 
tion by  his  clever  organization  of  the  transport 
of  troops  in  the  war  of  1877-78.  He  was  called 
to  St.  Petersburg  for  employment  there  in  1879, 
and  appointed  in  1886  director  of  the  Russian 
southwest  railways.  In  1888  he  became  head  of 
the  railway  department  in  the  ministry  of  finance, 
and  chairman  of  the  commission  on  tarififs;  in 
1892,  minister  of  means  of  communication,  and 
in  1893,  minister  of  finance.  In  1903  he  was 
removed  from  the  ministry  of  finance  and  made 
president  of  the  conunittee  of  ministers.  He 
was  one  of  the  Russian  plenipotentiaries  in  the 
negotiations  for  peace  with  Japan  in  1905,  and 
was  afterward  made  a  count  and  appointed 
president  of  the  new  ministry,  although  m  May, 
1906,  he  was  superseded.  He  is  author  of  The 
Principles  of  RaUway  Rates,  and  Frtedrich  Lias, 
Economist. 

Wolfe,  Charles,  British  clergyman  and  poet,  was 
bom  at  DubUn,  1791.  In  1814  he  took  his 
B.  A.  at  Dublin.  His  Burial  of  Sir  John  Moore, 
in  1817,  was  so  admired  that  even  while  its 
author's  name  remained  unknown,  and  it  was 
ascribed  to  Campbell,  Byron,  and  others,  it 
won  for  itself  a  secure  place  in  the  heart  of  the 
British  nation.  In  1817  he  became  curate  of 
Ballyclog  in  Tyrone,  and  then  rector  of  Donough- 
more.     He  died  in  1823. 

Wolfe,  James,  English  general,  was  bom  at  Wester- 
ham,  in  Kent,  England,  1727.  His  first  service 
was  in  Flanders,  where  he  took  part  in  the  famous 
battle  of  Dettingen,  while  in  Scotland  he  was  in 
the  battles  of  Falkirk  and  CuUoden.  His  skill 
and  bravery  at  the  attack  of  Louisburg  won  him 
the  title  of  "hero  of  Louisburg."  In  the  effort 
to  drive  the  French  out  of  Canada,  Pitt,  in  1759, 
gave  the  charge  of  the  invading  army  to  Wolfe, 
who  had  been  made  major-general.  The  story 
of  his  attack  on  Quebec,  how  he  scaled  the  cUffs 
with  his  army  by  night,  and  died  in  the  moment 
of  victory,  while  his  brave  antagonist,  Montcahn, 
dying  too,  said:  "It  is  a  great  consolation  to 
have  been  vanquished  by  so  brave  an  enemy," 
is  well  known.     He  died  in  1759. 

Wolseley  (wddl^4l).  Garnet  Joseph,  Viscount, 
Enghsh  field-marshal,  was  bom  in  County  Dub- 
lin,  Ireland,  1833.  He  entered  the  army  in 
1852,  served  in  Burmah,  in  the  Crimean  war, 
the  Indian  mutiny,  and  the  China  war  of  1860 ; 
commanded  the  Red  rirer  expedition  in  Canada 
in  1870;  commanded  on  the  gold  coast  during 
Aflhantee  war,   1873;    was  governor  of  Natal, 


and  later  of  Cyprus;  gave  up  the  latter  post  to 
command  in  the  South  African  war  of  1879-80. 
He  then  commanded  the  Egyptian  expedition, 
1882;  Gordon  rehef  expedition,  1884;  and  while 
commanding  in  Ireland  was  made  field-marshal 
in  1894,  ana  commander-in-chief  after  retirement 
of  the  duke  of  Cambridge,  1895.  He  retir^  in 
1900.  He  wrote  Life  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough, 
The  Decline  and  Fall  of  Napoleon,  and  The  Story 
of  a  Soldier's  Life.     Died,  1913. 

Wolsey  (wd6l'-zi),  Thomag,  English  statesman  and 
cardinal,  was  bom  at  Ipswicn,  about  1475.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  son  of  a  butcher,  and 
was  educated  at  Magdalen  college,  Oxford, 
where  he  graduated  at  the  early  age  of  fourteen. 
Introduced  at  the  English  court  by  Sir  John 
Nanfan,  his  great  abilities  and  tact  soon  enabled 
him  to  gain  the  esteem  of  Henry  VII.,  who,  in 
1508,  made  him  dean  of  Lincoln.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Henry  VIII.  he  became  the  king's  almoner. 
In  1515  he  was  consecrated  arclibishop  of  York, 
and  was  about  the  same  time  ap[x>inted  lord 
chancellor  and  prime  minister.  Pope  Leo  X. 
granting  him  in  the  following  year  the  dignity 
of  a  cardinal  of  the  church.  From  this  time  he 
was  one  of  the  foremost  men  in  Europe,  and, 
as  his  revenues  were  immense,  his  pride  and 
ostentation  were  carried  to  the  greatest  height. 
In  1529  he  was  appointed,  together  with  Cardinal 
Campeggio,  to  inquire,  on  behalf  of  Pope  Clement 
VII.,  into  the  vahdity  of  Henry  VIII.  s  marriage 
with  Catharine.  The  inquiry  ended,  however, 
only  in  a  postponement  of  the  question  —  a 
postponement  wnich  Henry  could  ill  brook ;  and 
Wolsey  was  soon  after  deprived  of  the  great  seal, 
and  ordered  to  retire  to  his  diocese  at  York.  In 
the  following  year  he  was  arrested  on  a  charge 
of  high  treason,  and  was  ordered  to  be  conveyed 
to  London  for  trial.  Illness  delayed  him  at 
Sheffield  Park  for  eighteen  days.  At  length  he 
reached  Leicester  abbey,  and  died  there  a  few 
days  afterward,  in  1530.  He  foiuded  Christ 
Church,  Oxford. 

Wood,  Leonard,  army  officer,  was  bom  at  Win- 
chester, N.  H.,  1860.  He  was  graduated  from 
the  Harvard  medical  school,  1884;  LL.  D., 
Harvard,  1899;  Williams,  1902;  Pennsylvania, 
1903.  He  became  assistant  surgeon  in  the 
United  States  army  in  1886,  captain  in  1891; 
was  colonel  of  the  1st  United  States  volunteer 
cavalry,  rough  riders,  1898;  brigadier-general, 
July  8,  1898;  major-general,  December  7,  1898; 
brigadier-general,  Umted  States  regular  army, 
1901;  major-general,  1903.  He  was  miUtary 
governor  of  Cuba,  1899-1902;  governor  of  Moro 
province,  PhiUppine  islands,  1903-06 ;  commander 
of  Philippines  division,  1906-08;  commander  of 
the  department  of  the  East,  1908;  chief  of  staff 
of  army  in  1910. 

Woodberry,  George  Edward,  American  author  and 
critic,  was  bom  at  Beverly,  Mass.,  1855.  He 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1877.  He  was 
professor  of  English  at  Nebraska  university, 
1877-78,  1880-82,  and  professor  of  comparative 
Uterature,  Columbia,  1891-1904.  Author:  His- 
tory of  Wood  Engraving;  Edgar  Allan  Poe; 
Studies  in  Letters  and  Life;  The  North  Shore 
Watch;  The  Heart  of  Man;  Wild  Eden;  Makers 
of  Literature;  Nathanid  Hawthorne;  America  in 
Literature;  Poems;  The  Torch;  Algernon  Charles 
Swinburne;  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson;  The  Appre- 
ciation of  Liieralure;  Great  Writers,  etc.;  and 
editor  of  the  works  of  several  EngUsh  poets. 

Woodward,  Bobert  Simpson,  American  physicist 
and  educator,  was  bom  at  Rochester,  Mich.,  1849. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  university  of  Michigan, 
C.  E.,  1872,  Ph.  D.,  1892;  LL.  D.,  Wisconsin, 
1904;  Sc.  D.,  Pennsylvania,  and  Columbia,  1905. 
He  was  assistant  engineer  of  United  States  lake 
survey,  1872-82;   assistant  astronomer  of  United 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


lOM 


States  Transit  of  Venua  commission,  1882-84; 
astronomer,  geographer,  and  cliief  geographer. 
United  States  geological  survey,  1884-90 ;  assist- 
ant United  States  coast  ana  geodetic  survey, 
1890-93;  professor  of  mechanics  and  mathe- 
matical physics,  1893-1905,  and  dean  of  the 
school  of  pure  science,  1895-1905,  Columbia; 
president  of  the  Carnegie  institution  of  Washing- 
ton since  1905. 

Woolley,  Mary  E.»  American  educator,  president 
of  Mt.  Holyoke  college  since  1900,  was  born  at 
South  Norwalk,  Conn.,  1863,  daughter  of  Rev. 
Joseph  J.  Woolley.  She  was  graduated  at 
Wheaton  seminary,  1884 ;  taught  nistory  in  the 
same;  was  graduated  at  Brown  university,  1894, 
A.  M.,  1895 ;  Litt.  D.,  Brown,  L.  H.  D.,  Amherst, 
1900.  She  was  instructor  and  later  head  of  the 
department  of  biblical  history  and  literature  of 
Wellesley  college,  1895-1900. 

Woolman,  John,  American  Quaker  preacher,  waa 
born  at  Northampton,  N.  J.,  1720.  He  was  a 
farmer's  son,  and  was  for  some  time  a  tailor. 
He  spoke  and  wrote  against  slavery,  and  pub- 
lished: Some  Considerations  on  the  Keeping  of 
Negroes;  Considerations  on  Pure  Wisdom  and 
Human  Policy,  on  Labor,  on  Schools,  and  on  the 
Right  Use  of  the  Lord's  Outvuard  Gifts;  Considera- 
tions on  the  True  Harmony  of  Mankind;  The 
Journal  of  the  Life  and  Travels  of  John  Woolman 
in  the  Service  of  the  Gospel.  The  latter  was  a 
favorite  book  with  Charles  Lamb.  He  died  at 
York  on  a  visit  to  England,  1772. 

Woolsey,  Theodore  Dwigbt,  American  scholar,  was 
born  at  New  York  city,  1801.  He  was  graduated 
at  Yale  in  1820,  studied  at  Princeton,  and  for 
three  years  in  Germany.  He  was  professor  of 
Greek  at  Yale  college,  1831-46,  and  was  the 
president  of  that  institution,  1846-71.  He  was 
an  authority  on  questions  of  international 
law;  edited  in  Greek  a  number  of  Greek  plays, 
and  wrote  several  religious  works.  He  was 
president  of  the  American  company  of  revisers 
of  the  new  testament.  Among  his  works  are: 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  International  Law; 
Political  Science;  Communism  and  Socialism; 
Divorce  and  Divorce  Legislation,  etc.    Died,  1889. 

Worcester  {wobs'-tir),  Joseph  Emerson,  American 
lexicographer,  was  bom  at  Bedford,  N.  H.,  1784. 
He  taught  at  Salem,  Mass.,  and  then  turned  to 
authorship.  All  his  works  were  laborious  — 
gazetteers,  manuals  of  geography  and  history, 
etc.  He  edited  Chalmers'  abridgement  of  Todd's 
Johnson's  Dictionary,  with  Walker's  Pronouncing 
Dictionary,  in  1828;  abridged  Webster's  Diction- 
ary in  1829;  printed  his  own  English  Dictionary 
in  1830,  Crittcal  Dictionary  in  1846,  and  quarto 
Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,  1860.  He 
died  in  1865. 

Wordsworth,  William.     See  page  94. 

Wren,  Sir  Christopher,  noted  English  architect,  was 
bom  at  East  Knovle,  in  Wiltshire,  1632.  He  was 
graduated  at  Oxford,  and  in  1657  left  Oxford 
for  London,  .where  he  became  Gresham  professor 
of  astronomy.  In  1660,  however,  he  returned  to 
Oxford  as  Savilian  professor  of  astronomy,  and 
the  same  year  received  the  degree  of  D.  C.  L. 
In  1663  he  was  engaged  by  the  dean  of  St.  Paul's 
to  make  a  survey  of  the  cathedral,  with  a  view 
to  certain  projected  repairs  in  that  vast  fabric. 
But  the  building  was  leveled  to  the  ground  by 
fire  in  1666,  and  Wren  was  the  architect  of  the 
new  cathedral,  instead  of  the  restorer  of  the 
old.  Besides  numerous  churches,  he  built  the 
royal  exchange,  London ;  customhouse,  London ; 
Temple  Bar;  the  college  of  physicians;  the  royal 
observatory,  Greenwich ;  Chelsea  hospital ;  Hamp- 
ton court;  Greenwich  hospital;  Buckingham 
palace ;  Marlborough  house ;  the  towers  at  the 
west  front  of  Westminster  abbey,  etc.  In  1672 
he  was  knighted  and  in  1680  was  elected  president 


of  the  rov»i  wdetr.  In  1084  he  wm  mad*  eoa* 
troller  of  the  worka  at  Windaor  oaatle;  and  la 
1685  waa  elected  grand  maater  of  the  onlar  of 
Freemasons.     Died,  1723. 

Wright,  Carroll  Darldaoa,  eoooomiat,  -*^*«T*HaT. 
was  born  in  Dunbarton,  N.  U.,  1840.  Ha  r^ 
ccived  an  academic  education;  begaa  the  atudjr 
of  law;  served  in  the  civil  war  fromjwivate  to 
colonel;  was  admitted  to  the  New  Bampahira 
bar  in  1867:  membnr  <rf  MaaaaohuaaCta  aenate^ 
1872-73;  chief  of  Maaaaohuaetto  bureau  of  at«tia> 
tics  of  labor,  1873-88;  United  Statea  «<*««"«»«- 
sioner  of  labor,  1885-1902;  and  alao,  1808-V7, 
completed  the  eleventh  United  Statea  i»tnwiii 
He  was  honorary  profeaaor  of  aodal  eoonomiea, 
Catholic  university  of  America,  1896-1904; 
became  professor  of  statiatica  and  aodal  eoonom* 
ics,  school  of  comparative  iurisprudenca  and 
diplomacy,  Columbian  university,  1900;  and  waa 
president  of  Clark  college.  Woroeater,  Maaa., 
1902-09.  He  was  appoint^  by  President  Rooaa> 
velt  a  member  and  recorder  of  the  United  Statea 
anthracite  strike  commission,  19(X2,  and  waa  ona 
of  the  original  trustees  of  the  Carnegie  inatitute, 
Washington.  Though  not  a  graduate  of  any 
college,  he  received  honorary  di-greea  from  Tufta, 
Dartmouth,  Wesleyan,  and  Clark.  Author:  Tht 
Factory  System  of  the  United  Statea;  Relation  of 
Political  Economi/  to  the  Labor  Queation;  The 
Industrial  Evolution  of  the  United  Statea;  Outline 
of  Practical  Sociology;  History  and  Oroicth  of  th* 
United  States  Census.     Died,  1909. 

Wright,  OrvlUe,  American  aeronaut  and  inventor, 
was  born  at  Davton,  Ohio,  1871.  He  waa  edu- 
cated in  the  public  and  high  schools,  and  aince 
1903  has  devoted  hia  attention  mainly  to  the 
invention  and  improvement  of  Wright  Brothera' 
aeroplane  flying  machine.  He  made  the  first  teat 
at  Kitty  Hawk,  N.  C,  1903,  and  a  sucoeaaful 
long-distance  test  near  Dayton,  Ohio,  1906. 
Since  that  time  he  has  amply  demonstrated  the 
practicability  of  the  Wright  Brothers'  aeroplane. 
He  has  given  many  exhibitions  in  Europe  and 
the  United  States. 

Wright,  WUbur,  aeronaut,  brother  of  Orville,  waa 
bom  near  Millville,  Ind.,  1867.  He  was  educated 
in  the  high  schools,  four  yeara  at  Richmond, 
Ind.,  and  Dayton,  Ohio.  From  1903  to  1912, 
with  his  brother  Orville,  he  devoted  hia  time  to 
the  heavier-than-air  flying  machine,  patented  by 
Wright  Brothers  in  leading  countriea  of  the 
world.  He  also  gave  numerous  exhibitiona  at 
home  and  abroad.     Died,  1912. 

Wundt  ivdbnt\  Wllhehn  Max,  German  phyatologlak 
and  psychologist,  was  bom  at  Neckarau  in  Baden, 
Germany,  1832.  He  studied  at  TiibiosMi, 
Heidelberg,  and  Berlin;  in  1876  became  pro- 
fessor of  physiology  at  Leipzig.  He  ia  diatin- 
guished  in  the  fleld  of  experimental  payefaology, 
and  has  written  on  the  nervea  and  the  aanafa, 
the  relations  of  physiology  and  paycholocy,  lofi& 
etc.  Hia  Human  and  Animal  Payehtiogy  and 
Outlines  of  Psychology  were  tranalated  in  1890. 
He  is  considered  one  of  the  foremoet  inveatigatof* 
in  his  field,  and  is  a  prolific  writer. 

Wu  Ting-Fang  (u««'  an^-f&ng'),  Chineae  diplomat, 
waa  bom  at  Hsin-hui  district,  Kwangtung,  China. 
He  waa  educated  in  Chineae  literature  and 
classics  at  Canton,  in  English  at  Hong  Kong, 
and  in  law  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  London;  LL.  Dj 
university  of  Pennsvlvania,  1900.  He  practiced 
as  a  barrister  at  llong  Kong  until  1882;  waa 
appointed,"-1882,  bv  Li  Hung  Chang,  vicerojr  of 
(Aihli,  as  legal  adviser  and  deputy  for  foragn 
affairs  in  Tientsin;  became  promoter  and  chief 
director  of  the  Kai  Ping  railway  eompany,  and 
built  first  railway  in  Chma;  waa  later  appointed 
by  the  imperial  government  co-director  in  the 
railway  bureau,  constructing  railways  in  north 
China.     He  waa  alao  appointed  chiei  director  of 


1036 


MASTERS  OF  ACHIEVEMENT 


Tientsin  university  on  its  establishment,  1895; 
assisted  in  negotiating,  at  Peking,  the  Chino- 
Japanese  treaty  of  commerce  and  navigation, 
ratified  in  1896;  was  minister  of  China  to  the 
United  States,  Spain,  and  Peru,  1897-1902,  and 
reappointed  to  the  United  States  in  1907.  He 
has  written  numerous  articles  on  China  in 
American  magazines. 
Wycliffe  {wik'4y'),  John,  English  religious  reformer, 
was  bom  at  WycUfife,  near  Richmond,  in  York- 
shire, about  1320.  He  is  fret^uently  called  "the 
morning  star  of  the  reformation."  He  was  the 
son,  as  is  believed,  of  a  Yorkshire  squire,  and 
studied  first  at  Queen's  and  afterward  at  Merton 
college,  Oxford.  Attaining  a  high  reputation 
for  a  knowledge  of  theology  and  of  logic,  he  was 
raised  to  a  fellowship  in  Merton,  and  was  after- 
ward made  in  succession  master  of  Balliol  and 
warden  of  Canterbury  hall.  There,  and  after- 
ward in  his  country  parishes,  he  attacked  the 
abuses  of  the  church  and  the  character  of  the 
mendicant  friars  of  those  days;  and  his  liberty, 
and  perhaps  his  life,  would  have  been  in  peril, 
if  he  had  not  found  a  protector  in  John  of  Gaunt, 
duke  of  Lancaster,  who  was  favorable  to  the 
principles  of  the  reformation.  His  last  years 
were  spent  as  rector  of  Lutterworth,  in  Leicester- 
shire, where,  a  short  time  before  his  death,  in 
1384,  he  completed  his  translation  of  the  Bible. 
He  also  wrote  a  large  number  of  tracts  or  treatises 
in  exposition  or  defense  of  the  doctrines  he 
preached. 

Xavler  (zflr'-l-ft"),  St.  Francis,  Jesuit  missionary, 
styled  usually  the  "apostle  of  the  Indies,"  was 
born  in  1506,  of  a  noble  family,  in  the  north  of 
Spain.  At  Paris,  where  he  studied  and  then 
lectured,  be  was  associated  with  Loyola  in 
founding  the  Jesuit  society.  He  was  ordained 
priest  in  1537,  lived  at  Rome  in  the  service  of 
the  society,  and  was  sent  out  as  missionary  to  the 
Portuguese  colonies  in  the  East.  He  arrived  at 
Goa  in  1542,  and  labored  with  equal  zeal  and 
success  among  the  corrupt  Europeans  and  the 
native  population.  After  a  year  he  visited 
Travancore,  where  in  a  month  he  baptized 
10,000  natives.  He  then  visited  Malacca,  the 
Banda  islands,  Amboyna,  the  Moluccas,  and 
Ceylon,  where  he  converted  the  kin^  of  Kandy 
with  many  of  his  people.  The  mission  he  next 
founded  in  Japan  flourished  for  a  hundred  years. 
He  returned  to  Goa  in  1552  to  organize  a  mission 
to  China.  But  the  intrigues  of  the  Portuguese 
merchants  and  difficulties  caused  by  the  governor 
of  Malacca  wore  out  his  strength,  and  Tie  died, 
1552,  soon  after  reaching  the  island  of  Sanchian 
near  Canton.  His  body  was  ultimately  buried 
in  Goa.  He  was  canonized  in  1622.  His  only 
literary  remains  are  his  Letters,  and  a  Catechism 
with  some  short  ascetic  treatises. 

Xenophon  {zhi'-d-/dn),  Greek  historian,  philosopher, 
and  military  commander,  born  at  Athens,  about 
434  B.  C.  He  was  a  pupil  and  friend  of  Socrates ; 
joined  the  expedition  of  Cyrus  against  his  brother 
Artaxerxes,  and  on  its  failure  conducted  the  ten 
thousand  Greeks — "the  retreat  of  the  ten 
thousand  " —  who  went  up  with  him  back  to  the 
Bosphorus,  served  afterward  in  several  militarv 
adventures,  brought  himself  under  the  ban  of 
his  fellow  citizens  in  Athens,  and  retired  to  Elis, 
where  he  spent  twenty  years  of  his  life  in  the 
pursuits  of  country  life  and  in  the  prosecution 
of  literature.  His  principal  works  are  the 
Anabasis,  an  account  of  the  expedition  of  Cyrus 
and  his  own  conduct  of  the  retreat ;  the  Memora- 
hilta,  an  account  of  the  life  and  teaching  and  in 
defense  of  his  master  Socrates;  the  Hdenica,  an 
account  of  forty-nine  years  of  Grecian  history 
in  continuation  of  Thucvdides  to  the  battle  of 
Mantmea;    and  Cyropadeia,  an  ideal  account  of 


the  education  of  Cyrus  the  Elder.  He  died 
about  355  B.  C. 

Xerxes  (zurk'-ziz),  king  of  Persia,  son  of  Darius  I., 
whom  he  succeeded  on  the  throne  in  485  B.  C, 
was  bom  about  519  B.  C.  In  481  be  attempted 
to  subdue  Greece  both  by  sea  and  land;  and 
with  his  army  crossed  the  Hellespont  by  means 
of  a  bridge  of  boats;  was  checked  for  a  time  at 
Thermopylae  by  Leonidas  and  his  five  hundred; 
advanced  to  Athens  to  see  his  fleet  destroyed  at 
Salamis  by  Themistocles:  and  left  Mardonius 
with  300,000  men  to  suffer  defeat  on  the  fatal 
field  of  Platfiea  in  479.  He  then  returned  to 
Asia  Minor,  and,  after  an  expedition  against 
Babylon,  in  which  be  razed  its  temples  to  the 
ground,  he  was  assassinated  in  465  by  Artabanus. 
the  captain  of  his  bodyguard.  He  reignea 
twenty  years. 

Xlmenes  (zi-mi'-niz),  Francis  de  Cisneros,  Spanish 
cardinal  and  statesman,  was  bom  at  Torrelaguna, 
in  Castile,  in  1437.  He  was  educated  at  AJcala 
de  Henares,  Salamanca,  and  Rome.  His  repu- 
tation for  piety  and  learning  led  Queen  Isabella 
to  choose  nim,  in  1492,  for  her  confessor,  and 
three  years  afterward  to  name  him  archbishop 
of  Toledo.  As  confessor  and  confidential  adviser 
of  the  queen,  Xlmenes,  during  the  Ufetime  of 
Isabella,  was  the  guiding  spirit  of  Spanish  affairs; 
and  on  her  death  in  1504  he  held  the  balance 
between  the  parties  of  Ferdinand  and  Piiilip  of 
Burgundy,  husband  of  Joanna,  the  heiress  of  the 
crown.  In  1506-07  he  was  provisional  regent  of 
Castile,  and  was  regent  of  Spain,  1516-17.  He 
died  near  Aranda  de  Duoro,  i517> 

Tale,  Ellbu,  English  colonial  official,  was  bom  at 
or  near  Boston,  Mass.,  1648.  When  four  years 
old  he  was  taken  to  England  by  his  father,  and 
never  returned  to  America.  From  1687-92  be 
was  governor  of  Fort  St.  George,  Madras;  and 
later,  governor  of  the  East  India  company.  He 
was  a^  a  fellow  of  the  royal  society.  Yale 
college  received  his  name  in  the  charter  of  1745. 
Previously  the  building  and,  before  that,  the 
school  at  Saybrook  had  oeen  called  by  the  name. 
His  gifts  to  the  institution  amounted  to  about 
£500  in  money  and  many  books.  He  died  in 
England,  1721,  and  is  buri«Ki  at  Wrexham,  Wales. 

Tamagata  (ya'-rrui-gd'-td),  Aritomo,  Japanese  field- 
marshal,  president  of  the  privy  council  of  Japan, 
was  bom  at  Choshu,  1838.  He  was  junior  vice- 
minister  of  war,  1870;  lieutenant-general,  1872; 
minister  of  war,  1873;  chief  of  staff  of  the 
imperial  army  during  the  civil  war  of  1877; 
minister  of  home  affairs,  1885;  commanded  first 
army  in  the  China-Japan  war;  visited  Europe 
and  America,  1888-89;  was  prime  minister,  1889; 
minister  of  justice,  1892;  president  of  privy 
council,  1893;  inspector-general,  1895;  attended 
the  coronation  of  Czar  Nicholas  of  Russia,  1896: 
became  field-marshal,  1898;  chief  of  general 
staff,  1904 ;   and  was  created  prince,  1907. 

Yancey  (y&n'-si),  WilUam  Lowndes,  American 
politician  and  lawyer,  was  born  in  Georgia,  1814. 
He  was  a  member  of  congress  from  Alabama, 
1844—46;  became  a  leader  of  the  Southern 
secessionists;  withdrew  from  the  national  demo- 
cratic convention  at  Charleston  in  1860;  and 
was  greatly  instrumental  in  bringing  about  the 
civil  war.  He  was  sent  in  1861  to  Europe  as  a 
commissioner  to  obtain  recognition  of  the  con- 
federacy.    Died  near  Montgomery',  Ala.,  1863. 

Youmans  {y^Sb'-mam),  Edward  L~  American  scien- 
tist, was  bom  at  Coeymans,  N.  Y.,  1821.  Al- 
though suffering  for  some  years  from  almost  total 
blindness,  he  pursued  his  studies  in  phj'sics  and 
chemistry  with  marked  zeal  and  proficiency,  his 
sister  conducting  exp>eriments  for  him.  Ainong 
his  works  are :  Class  Book  of  Chemistry;  Correla- 
tion and  Conservation  of  Forces;    Alcohol  and  ths 


THROUGHOUT  THE  WORLD 


1037 


Constitution  of  Man;  Handbook  of  Houaehold 
Science;  The  Culture  Demanded  by  Modem  Life, 
etc.  In  1872  he  established  and  until  his  death 
edited  The  Popular  Science  Monthly,  which  has 
since  attained  a  very  wide  circulation  iu  both 
America  and  Europe.     Died  at  New  York,  1887. 

Toung,  BrlKham,  at  one  time  head  of  the  Mormon 
church,  was  bom  at  Whittingham,  Vt.,  1801.  In 
1832,  having  become  a  convert  to  Mormonism, 
he  was  made  an  elder  of  the  church,  and  began  to 
preach  at  the  Mormon  settlement  at  Kirtland, 
Ohio.  Three  years  later  he  was  sent  as  a  mis- 
sionary to  the  New  England  states,  where  he 
succeeded  in  making  quite  a  number  of  converts. 
After  the  death  of  Joseph  Smith,  at  Nauvoo.  111., 
in  1844,  Young  was  chosen  president  of  the 
Mormon  body.  In  1848  he  led  his  followers  to 
Utah  and  founded  Salt  Lake  City,  where  for 
several  years  he  reigned  supreme  and  bade 
defiance  to  the  United  States  government.  In 
1862  he  proclaimed  polygamy,  which  had  been 
condemned  by  the  Mormon  church,  and  in  1857, 
after  having  been  territorial  governor  of  Utah 
for  several  years,  he  was  removed  from  office  by 
President  BuchaJian.  He  died,  1877,  leaving  a 
fortune  of  $2,000,000  to  be  divided  among 
seventeen  wives  and  fifty-six  children. 

Toung,  Edwardt  English  poet,  was  bom  at  Upham 
rectory  near  Bishops  Waltham,  1683.  He  was 
educated  at  All  Souls,  Oxford,  and  in  1730 
became  rector  of  Welwj-n,  in  Hertfordshire.  His 
chief  poetical  work  is  Night  Thoughts,  which 
were  occasioned  by  the  death  of  his  wife  and 
other  sorrows,  many  of  whose  sententious  lines, 
such  as  "Procrastination  is  the  thief  of  time," 
have  passed  into  proverbial  use.  He  also  wrote 
Love  of  Fame,  the  Universal  Passion;  the  dramas, 
Busiris,  The  Revenge,  etc.     He  died  in  1765. 

Toung,  Ella  Flagg,  American  educator,  was  bom 
at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  1845.  She  was  grswluated  at 
the  Chicago  high  school  and  Chicago  normal 
school;  Ph.  D.,  university  of  Chicago;  married 
at  Chicago,  1868,  William  Young;  engaged  in 
teaching  since  1862.  She  was  district  superin- 
tendent of  schools,  Chicago,  1887-99 ;  professor 
of  education,  university  of  Chicago,  1899-1905; 
principal  of  the  Chicago  normal  school,  1905- 
09;  and  superintendent  of  the  Chicago  public 
schools  since  1909.  President  national  educa- 
tional association,  1910.  Author:  Isolation  in  the 
School;  Ethics  in  the  School;  Some  Types  of  Mod- 
em Educational  Theory;  and  various  monographs. 

Tounghusband,  Sir  Francis  Edward,  English 
soldier,  explorer,  and  writer,  was  bom  at  Murree, 
India,  1863.  He  was  educated  at  Clifton  and 
Sandhurst,   entered  the  British  army,  and  was 

fromoted  lieutenant-colonel,  1908,  for  service  in 
ndia.  He  traveled  in  Manchuria,  1886;  from 
Peking  to  India  via  Chinese  Turkestan,  1887; 
on  the  Pamirs  and  in  Hunza,  1889;  on  the 
Pamirs,  1890-91 ;  was  political  officer,  Hunza. 
1892;  political  agent,  Chitral,  1893-94;  special 
correspondent  of  the  London  Times  in  Chitral 
expedition,  1895 ;  and  was  British  conunissioner 
to  Tibet,  1902-04.  In  the  latter  year  he  headed 
the  expedition  which  forced  its  way  into  Lhassa, 
sacred  city  of  Tibet.  In  1906  he  became  British 
resident  at  Kashmir,  India.  Author :  Heart  of  a 
ContinerU;  Relief  of  Chitral;  South  Africa  of 
To-day,  etc. 

Zahm  (tsam\  John  Augustine,  provincial  of  order 
of  Holy  Cross  in  United  States  since  1897,  was 
bom  at  New  Lexington,  Ohio,  1851.  He  was 
graduated  at  Notre  Dame  university,  1871: 
Ph.  D  from  Pope  Leo  XIII ,  1895  He  entered 
the  order  of  Holy  Cross,  1871 ;  was  appointed  in 
charge  of  the  scientific  department,^  1874, 
director  of  same,  1875;  and  is  now  president  of 
the  board  of  trustees,  Notre  Dame  university. 


He  is  a  member  of  numerous  Kientifie  totAttJm 
and  has  lectured  widely  on  soientifio  and  aUiad 
toiiics.  Author:  Evolution  and  Doama;  Biti* 
Science  and  Faith-  Sound  and  Mune:  CathoUe 
Science  and  Catholic  ScientuU;  Sdentifie  Theory 
and  Catholic  Doctrine;  Science  and  the  Churdi, 
etc. 

ZangwUl  iadng'-uja),  Israel,  British  nun  of  letters, 
was  bom  in  London,  1864.  He  was  practically 
self-educated,  and  received  tbedegree  ofB.  A.  from 
London  university.  He  then  became  a  journal- 
ist; edited  Arid;  and  has  written  many  novels, 
essays,  poems,  and  plays;  has  lectured  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland.  Jerusalem,  Holland,  and  the 
United  States,  ana  is  president  of  the  inter- 
national Jewish  territorial  organisation  or  Zionist 
movement.  Author:  The  Premier  and  the 
Painter;  The  Bachdor'a  Club;  The  Big  Bow 
Mystery;  The  Old  Maids'  Club;  Children  of  the 
Ghetto;  Merely  Mary  Ann;  Ghetto  Traoediee; 
The  King  of  Schnorrers;  The  Master;  Without 
Prejudice;  Dreamers  of  the  Ghetto;  They  that 
Walk  in  Darkness;  The  Mantle  of  Elijah;-  The 
Grey  Wig;  Blind  Children,  verse;  Ghetto  Com- 
edies,  etc.  Plays:  Six  Persona;  Children  of  the 
Ghetto;  The  Moment  of  Death;  The  Revolted 
Daughter;  Merely  Mary  Ann;  The  Serio-Comie 
Governess;  Jinny  the  Carrier;  Nurse  Marjorie; 
The  Melting  Pot,  etc. 

Zeno,  founder  of  the  stoic  philosophy,  was  bom  at 
Citium,  in  Cyprus,  the  date  of  his  birth  and  death 
both  being  uncertain.  He  flourished  in  the  early 
part  of  the  third  century  B.  C,  and  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Epicurus.  At  the  age  of  thirty  he 
was  shipwrecked,  and,  having  lost  his  property, 
adopted  the  doctrines  of  the  Cynics,  m  which 
contempt  for  riches  is  conspicuously  taught. 
Having  made  himself  master  of  the  various 
schools,  he  proceeded  to  open  a  school  of  his  own, 
wherein  he  might  bring  forth  the  results  of  his 
inquiries  and  develop  his  own  peculiar  system. 
He  selected  for  his  purpose  the  painted  porch," 
and  there  until  his  death  continued  to  teach 
those  doctrines  which,  in  spite  of  many  objec- 
tionable features,  inculcate  the  manly  energy 
and  simplicity,  the  patience  and  fortitude,  and 
that  reverence  for  moral  worth  which  made 
disciples  of  so  many  noble  Roman  characters 
The  Athenians  honored  Zeno's  memory  with  a 
golden  crown  and  a  public  burial,  and  his  country- 
men erected  a  monumental  pillar  in  his  honor. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  died  about  264  B.  C. 

Zeno,  Greek  philosopher  of  Elea,  in  Italy,  was  bom 
about  490  B.  C.  He  was  a  favorite  disciple  of 
Parmenides,  visited  Athens,  and  the  illustrious 
Pericles  was  one  of  his  pupils.  According  to  the 
account  usually  given,  on  his  return  to  Elea  be 
joined  a  conspiracy  to  deliver  his  native  town 
from  the  tjrrant  Nearcbus,  and  on  the  failure  of 
his  plot  was  captured,  and  put  to  the  torture. 
He  aevoted  his  great  powers  of  argumentation  to 
enforce  the  doctrines  first  broached  by  Xenopb- 
anes,  and  more  systematically  dev«oped  by 
Parmenides.  His  works  were  in  prose,  but  only 
small  fragments  have  been  preserved. 

Zenobia  {zi-n6'-bird\  Septlmta,  queen  of  Palmvra, 
267  A.  D.,  succeeded  her  husband  Odenatnus, 
who  had  been  acknowledged  by  Gallienus  in  the 
sovereignty  of  the  Roman  empire;  but  when 
Aurelian  became  emperor,  he  marched  against 
her  with  a  large  army,  ana  after  defeating  her  in 
several  battles  besieged  her  in  Palmsrra.  She 
attempted  to  escape  by  flight,  but  was  ciHF>^ured 
and  brought  to  Rome  to  adorn  the  triumph  of 
her  conqueror.  After  this  ^be  was  presented  bv 
Aurelian  with  large  possessions  near  Tlvoli, 
where  the  remainder  of  ner  life  was  nassed.  She 
was  a  woman  of  great  courage,  hlgn  spirit,  and 
remarkable  beauty,  and.  with  purity  of  morals 
in  private  life,  she  combined  prudence,  justice. 


1038 


MASTERS   OF   ACHIEVEMENT 


and  liberality  in  her  administration  of  public 
affairs. 

Zlmmem,  Helen,  British  author,  translator,  and 
critic,  was  born  in  Hamburg,  Germany,  in  1846, 
and  was  taken  to  England  in  1850.  She  has 
been  a  correspondent  for  a  number  of  German, 
English,  and  Italian  periodicals,  and  has  besides 
executed  an  immense  amount  of  literary  work  of 
a  high  order.  She  resided  in  England  until 
1887,  when  she  removed  to  Italy,  where  she  has 
since  lived.  Author:  Stories  in  Precious  Stones; 
Told  by  the  Waves;  Schopenhauer,  his  Life  arid 
Philosophy;  Gotthold  Ephraim  Lessing,  hie  Life 
and  his  Works;  Half-Hours  with  Famous  Novel- 
ists; Tales  from  the  Edda;  The  Epic  of  Kings; 
The  Hansa  Towns;     The  Italy  of  the  Italians,  etc. 

Zlnzendort  (tsin'-tsen-d6rf),  Nicolaus  Ludwig,  Count 
von,  founder  of  the  Moravian  brethren,  or  Herrn- 
hutters,  was  bom  at  Dresden,  1700.  He  was 
educated  by  his  grandmother,  a  learned  and  pious 
lady,  and  in  1710  went  to  Halle,  where  he 
spent  six  years  under  the  special  care  of  Francke, 
the  philanthropist.  He  was  appointed  a  member 
of  the  Saxon  state  council,  but  political  life  was 
little  to  his  mind,  and  he  returned  to  his  country 
seat  in  upper  Lusatia.  While  residing  there  he 
accidentally  met  a  wandering  carpenter  named 
Christian  David,  a  member  of  the  old  sect  of 
Moravian  brethren,  who  described  the  persecu- 
tions to  which  the  sect  was  exposed ;  and  Zinzen- 
dorf  invited  him  and  his  friends  to  settle  on  his 
estate.  They  accepted  the  proposal,  and  the 
colony  received  the  name  of  "Hermhut." 
Zinzendorf  acted  with  great  liberality  to  the 
settlers,  and  their  success  attracted  much  atten- 
tion. In  1737,  at  the  request  of  King  Frederick 
William  I.  of  Prussia,  he  was  ordained  bishop  of 
the  Moravians.  In  the  same  year  he  went  to 
London,  where  he  was  received  with  much  con- 
sideration by  Wesley.  In  1741  he  went  to 
America  and  founded  the  celebrated  Moravian 
colony  at  Bethlehem,  Pa.  He  finally  settled  at 
Hermhut,  and  died,  1760.  He  was  the  author 
of  more  than  100  works  in  verse  and  prose. 

Zlska  {zls'-kd),  or  Zizka  (zhish'-kd),  J&n,  leader  of 
the  Hussites,  was  born  at  Trocznov,  Bohemia, 
about  1360.  He  served  in  the  English  army  in 
France,  and  afterward  joined  King  Ladislas,  of 
Poland,  with  a  body  of  Bohemian  and  Moravian 
auxiliaries,  and  greatly  distinguished  himself  in 
the  war  against  the  Teutonic  knights.  He  was 
an  adherent  of  the  Hussite  doctrine,  and  the 
cruelties  exercised   on  its  adherents  excited  in 


his  mind  the  liveliest  resentment.  Sigismund 
was  convinced  that  the  conquest  of  Bohemia 
was  impossible,  and  after  a  time  proposed  an 
arrangement  with  the  Hussites  by  wnich  full 
religious  liberty  was  allowed;  and  Ziska,  who 
had  an  interview  with  the  emperor  on  the  footing 
of  an  independent  chief,  was  to  be  appointed 
governor  of  Bohemia  and  her  dependencies.  But 
the  war-worn  old  chief  did  not  live  long  enough 
to  complete  the  treaty,  for,  while  bcsie^ng  the 
castle  of  Przibislav,  he  was  seized  with  the 
plague  and  died,  1424. 

Zola  (zd'-ld;  Ft.  zd'-ld'),  £mlle,  French  novelist, 
was  bora  at  Paris,  1840.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Lyc^  St.  Louis,  settled  in  Paris,  and  was  for 
a  time  in  the  employ  of  Messrs.  Hachette,  the 
well-known  publisning  firm.  His  first  impor- 
tant venture  in  fiction  was  Les  MysUrea  de 
Marseille,  and  in  this  and  in  Th^iae  Raquin 
he  at  once  displayed  his  remarkable  power  in 
the  critical  analysis  of  human  character.  Soon 
after  this  he  formed  with  P'laubert,  Daudet, 
and  the  Goncourta  the  naturalistic  school  of 
fiction  The  fruit  in  part  of  this  was  the 
series  known  as  Lea  Rougon-Macquart  Family, 
modeled  somewhat  after  Balzac's  La  Comtdis 
Humaine.  The  more  notable  subsequent  stories 
are:  L'Ataommoir;  Nana;  Pot-Bouille;  La 
Joie  de  Vivre;  Au  Bonheur  dea  Damea;  Germinal; 
La  Terre;  La  Bile  Humaine;  La  DSb&de;  Le 
Docteur  Pascal;  Le  Rive;  and  Lourdea.  The 
last  forms  one  of  a  trilogy,  which  he  called 
Lea  Troia  Villea  —  Lourdea,Rome,  and  Paris  — 
all  in  the  extreme  realistic  vein.  His  last 
work,  written  in  exile,  occasioned  by  his  cour- 
ageous advocacy  of  the  famous  Dreyfus  case, 
is  entitled  FicondiU.  He  was  a  knight  of  the 
French  legion  of  honor,  but  was  refused  ad- 
mittance to  a  seat  in  the  French  academy. 
He  died  in  1902. 

Zoroaster  (zd'-rd-4a'-tir).     Seepage  194. 

Zwlngll  (tsvin^-U),  Ulrich*  Swiss  reformer,  was 
bom  at  Wildhaus,  1484.  He  served  in  Italy  as 
a  soldier,  visited  Erasmus  at  Basel  in  1514,  and 
two  years  later  at  the  monastery  of  Einsiedeln 
began  to  preach  freely.  In  1 5 1 8  he  was  appointed 
to  the  cathedral  at  Zurich,  having  previously 
opposed  the  sale  of  indulgences  oy  Sansom. 
Attempts  were  made  to  prohibit  his  preaching, 
but  the  reformation  grew  at  Zurich.  In  15!^ 
Zwingli  met  Luther  and  Melanchthon  at  Mar- 
burg, but  two  years  later  he  fell  in  the  battle  of 
Kappel  in  the  war  with  Bern.     Died,  1531. 


14  DAY  USEh  bokko^^^ 


REC'D  LD 


^g,i\-iroH«° 


86 


■^'i^ 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  UBRARY 


Mi'ii'H'il!!  [!'    i  !(i    1    Hi  I 

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I  iPiPiPi'i  iP  iil'iP  P  P 

ill];  !  ijii  iil!!;  ;   ;  ;  11 

II  |i  1  i  !!  Ill  iiiiil!!i 


!Pi!iiiiii|!'!i!iiiiiR:'i 

Ml'  li  1  (     n  1  h'   '  I'lii'  i' 

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